Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

FLUID MECHANICS

1 Basic Fluid Properties

Fluid mechanics is the study of the behaviour of fluids under the action of
applied forces. The challenge in fluid mechanics is that it is often very
difficult to predict the motion of fluids.

Fluid mechanics can be applied to various fields of engineering.

Aeronautical Engineering flow over wings and bodies

Civil Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Environmental Engineering
Other applications
river flows, wind effects on high buildings,
sedimentation, hydraulics, currents in
harbours and submerged structures
flow of coolants in power systems, flow of
fluid with electrical properties
turbomachinery, fluidic lubrication, gas flow
in exhausts
dispersion of pollutants in air and water,
storm surge and ocean currents
blood flow and weather prediction

1.1 Nature of Fluids

A fluid consists of discrete molecules possessing random motion. A fluid

may be a gas or a liquid. If there is a large change of pressure in a gas,
then there will be a change in gas density. The term compressible fluid is
used when circumstances are such that changes of density as a fraction of
the original density cannot be regarded as negligible. Liquids are usually
treated as incompressible.

A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when acted

on by a shear stress of any magnitude. A shear stress (force per unit area)
is created whenever a tangential force acts on a surface. When common
solids such as steel or metals are acted on by a shear stress, they will
initially deform, but they will not continuously deform.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

1.2 Properties of Fluids

1.2.1 Dimensions & Units

Engineering problems are solved to answer specific questions. Any valid

equation that relates physical quantities must be dimensionally
homogeneous; each term in the equation must have the same dimensions.

There are seven primary (basic) dimensions commonly used are:

Mass;
Length;
Time;
Temperature;
Electric Current;
Luminous intensity and
Amount of substances

There is more than one way of selecting the unit of measure for each
primary dimension. However in the rest of the course, only the SI units
will be used. SI, which is the official abbreviation in all languages for the
System International d’Unites, is an extension and refinement of the
traditional metric system.

In engineering fluid mechanics, the four primary SI units commonly used

are, mass in kilogram (kg); length in metre (m); time in second (s) and
temperature in Kelvin (K, formerly °K).

All other units which compose of more than one primary unit are called
secondary (derived) units.

Quantity Unit Symbol Equiv. combination of primary

units
Force Newton N kg m/s2
Pressure / stress pascal Pa N/m2 (≡ kg m-1 s-2)
Work / energy joule J N m (≡ kg m2 s-2)
Power watt W J/s
Plane angle radian rad

Some other units are also accepted for use with the SI.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

Name Quality Symbol Value in SI units

minute time min 1 min ≡ 60 s
hour time h 1 h ≡ 60 min ≡ 3600 s
litre volume L 1 L ≡ 10-3 m3 (or 1 m3 ≡ 1000 L)
tonne mass t 1 t ≡ 1000 kg

1.2.2 Prefixes

To avoid inconveniently large or small numbers, prefixes may be put in

front of the unit names.

Prefix Symbol Factor by which unit is

multiplied
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 10
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12

When a unit with a prefix is raised to a power, the exponent applies to the
whole multiple and not just to the original unit.
1 mm2 ≡ (10-3 m)2 ≡ 10-6 m2
not 1 m(m2) ≡ 10-3 m2

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

1.2.3 Mass

The mass of a fluid, designated by symbol m (kg), is the quantity of matter

in a body. It does not change with position, and is not affected by pressure,
temperature or motion. In fact, mass remains constant whatever happens to
the body.

1.2.4 Weight

The weight of a fluid, designated as w (N), is the gravitational attractive

force that the Earth exerts on a mass. Weight depends on the acceleration
due to gravity (g = 9.81 ms-2) and this varies with height and location on
the earth. Since weight is a force, weight and mass are related as

w = mg

1. 2. 5 Density

The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol ρ, is defined as its

mass per unit volume. Density is typically used to characterise the mass of
a fluid system. In the SI system, ρ has units of kg/m3.

mass m
ρ = =
Volume V

The value of density can vary widely between different fluids, but for
liquids, variations in pressure and temperature generally have only a small
effect on the values of ρ. The typical value of ρ for water at standard
pressure and temperature is 1000 kg/m3.

1.2.6 Specific Weight (Unit Weight)

The specific weight of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol γ, is

defined as its weight per unit volume. The unit in SI is N/m3.

w
γ =
V

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

Since w = mg, and ρ = m/V, therefore

mg
γ =
V
m
= ( )g
V
= ρg

Just as density is used to characterise the mass of a fluid system, the

specific weight is used to characterise the weight of the fluid system. The
typical value for water is 9.81 kN/m3.

1.2.7 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Many times a fluid is designated by its specific gravity, a dimensionless

number from which you can determine the density and specific weight of
the fluid. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a fluid to
the density of water at 4 °C. The reason to choose the density of water at 4
°C is that water has the maximum density at 4 °C.

ρsubs tan ce
S.G. =
ρH 2 O at 4 o C

The typical value for water is 1.0 and mercury 13.6.

For gases, the standard density is commonly referred to air rather than to
water.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

Worked examples:

1. A tank of seawater has a volume of 12 m3 and a weight of 123 kN.

Determine its density and specific weight in SI units.

Answer
Weight of water, w = 123 kN
Volume of tank, V = 12 m3

∴ specific weight, γ = w/V

= 123/12 kN/m3
= 10.25 kN/m3

Since γ = ρg
by taking g = 9.81 m/s2

Density of water = 10.25/9.81*1000 kg/m3

= 1045 kg/m3

2. Gear oil has a specific gravity of 0.93. Determine its specific weight
and density.

Answer
ρsubs tan ce
S.G. =
ρH 2 O at 4 o C

ρoil = S.G. * ρwater

= 0.93 * 1000 kg/m3
= 930 kg/m3

γ = S.G. * γwater
= 0.93 * 9.81 kN/m3
= 9.12 kN/m3

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

1.2.8 Viscosity

The properties of density and specific weight are measures of the heaviness
of a fluid. The viscosity of a liquid is the measure of the thickness of a
fluid and it is related to the ability of a fluid to flow freely.

The following experiment is used to compare the viscosity of fluids.

Motor oil Corn syrup

The upper plate moves at constant velocity under the influence of a

constant applied weight, w. The depth of the liquid layer has been
exaggerated below.

Moving plate Moving plate

motor ∆y corn
∆y
oil syrup
∆v ∆v

Stationary plate Stationary plate

For both cases a number of parallel velocity vectors have been drawn
between the plate and the large surface. In both cases the velocity of the
liquid adjacent to the large surface is zero, and the velocity of the liquid
adjacent to the moving plate is identical to that of the moving plate (i.e. no
slip condition). The reason is that fluid molecules tend to adhere to a solid.
The intermediate velocities are in direct proportion to their location
between the two flat surfaces.

The velocity V of the fluid varies with distance y measured from some
fixed reference plane, as shown in above figure and is termed the velocity

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

dV
profile. The velocity gradient, shows the rate of change of velocity in
dy
y direction. For many fluids, the shear stress between two adjoining layers
of fluid times the velocity gradient is a constant. This constant is called the
dynamic viscosity µ, i.e.

µ = τ / (∆y/∆v)

or in differential form,

τ = µ dV
dy
In SI unit, shear stress will be in Pa or N/m2, velocity in m/s and depth in m.
Thus dynamic viscosity has units of N.s/m2 or Pa.s. The typical value for
water is 1.14 x 10-3 Ns/m2.

Many calculations in fluid mechanics involve the ratio of dynamic

viscosity to mass density. Since both variables are properties, their ratio is
also a property. This quantity is called kinematic viscosity ν in m2/s.

µ
ν =
ρ
Typical value for water is 1.14 x 10-6 m2/s.

If temperature and pressure are held constant, then the ratio of shear stress
to velocity gradient (called dynamic viscosity) will be constant. This is
true for a wide range of gases, water, water solutions and many petroleum
products. As a group, all those fluids for which the assumption holds true
are called Newtonian fluids. All other fluids are called non-Newtonian
fluids.

Shear stress, τ
Bingham
plastic
plastic

Newtonian
pseudo-
plastic
dilatant

Rate of shear, dV/dy

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

Worked example:

The diagram above shows two plates ∆y apart, the lower one fixed and the
upper one free to move under the action of a mass of 25 g. If the fluid
between the plates is castor oil (dynamic viscosity, µ = 650 x 10-3 Ns/m2)
and the area of contact of the upper plate with the oil is 0.75 m2, find the
velocity of the upper plate when the distance separating the plate is 1 cm.

Answer

dV
For Newtonian fluid, τ =µ and with a constant τ,
dy
∆V
or τ =µ for constant velocity profile
∆y

weight of the hanging mass = mg

= 25/1000 * 9.81 N

shear force
Viscous shear stress, τ =
area
25 / 1000 * 9.81 N
=
0.75 m2
= 0.327 N/m2

Thus ∆V = τ/µ * ∆y
0.327 * 0.01
= m/s
650 x 10 -3
= 5.03 x 10-3 m/s
= 5.03 mm/s

Noted that: at fixed plate, V = 0 because of the ‘no slip’ condition

at moving plate, V = 5.03 mm/s also because of the no
slip condition.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1 – Basic Fluid Properties

Tutorial: Properties of Fluids

Taking g = 9.81 m/s2 and density of water, ρw = 1000 kg/m3

1.A reservoir of glycerine has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952 m3.
Find the glycerine’s weight (W), mass density (ρ), specific weight (γ)
and specific gravity (S.G.).

2. The specific gravity of ethyl alcohol is 0.79. Calculate its specific

weight and mass density.

3. The volume of a rock is found to be 0.00015 m3. If the rock’s specific

gravity is 2.60, what is its weight?

4. A block weighing 100 N and having dimensions 200 mm on an edge is

allowed to slide down an incline on a film of oil having a thickness of 0.05
mm. If a linear velocity profile in the oil is assumed, what is the terminal
speed of the block? The viscosity of the oil is 7*10-2 Ns/m2.

100N
0.05mm

o
25

END

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2 FLUID PRESSURES
By definition, a fluid must deform continuously when a shear stress of any
magnitude is applied. Therefore when a fluid is either at rest or moving in
such a manner that there is no relative motion between adjacent particles,
there will be no shear forces acting and, therefore all forces exerted
between a fluid and a solid boundary must be normal (i.e. right angle to
the given surface).

2.1 Pressure at a Point

Pressure is used to indicate the normal force per unit area at a given point
acting on a given plane.

By considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element in the form of a

triangular prism in the fluid subject to a pressure px in x-direction, py in y-
direction and ps in normal to any plane inclined at an angle θ to the
horizontal.

δz ps

δs
px
δy
θ
δx
py

Fig. 1 Equality of pressure in all directions at a point

For simplicity, the forces in the z direction are not shown.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

The equation of motion in the x and y directions are respectively,

ΣFx = px δy δz - ps δz δs sinθ
ΣFy = py δx δz - ps δz δs cosθ - γ δxδyδz/2

By geometry, δx = δs cosθ; δy = δs sinθ

Since the fluid element is in equilibrium,

i.e. ΣFx = 0 &
ΣFy = 0

∴ px δy δz - ps δy δz = 0
⇒ px = ps

and py δx δz - ps δx δz -γ δxδyδz/2 = 0
⇒ py - ps = γ δy/2

As δy approaches to zero, pz = ps

Therefore, the pressure at a point in a fluid is the same in all direction -

Pascal’s Law.

Fig. 2 General Case of Direction of Force of Pressure

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2.2 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Depth

Considering an element of vertical column of constant cross-sectional area

A and totally surrounded by the same fluid of mass density ρ.

p+dp
Area, A
h+dh

Fluid
density ρ

p
Fig. 3 Vertical variation of pressure

Suppose Pressure at h =p
Pressure at h + δh = p + δp (h increases in upward direction)

Since the fluid is at rest, the element must be in equilibrium with no

shearing force and the summation of vertical force must be zero.

Force due to p on area A acting up = pA

Force due to p + δp on area A acting down = (p + δp)A
Force due to the weight of element = ρgA(δh)

pA - (p + δp)A - ρgA(δh) = 0
δp
= -ρg
δh
dp
or = -ρg
dh

Thus, in any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure decreases with

increase of height h.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2.3 Equality of Pressure at the Same Level in a Static Fluid

If P and Q are two points at the same level in a fluid at rest, a horizontal
prism of fluid of constant cross-sectional area A will be in equilibrium.
The forces acting on this element horizontally are P1A at P and P2A at Q.

Area A Fluid density ρ

p1 p2

mg
Fig. 4 Equality of pressure at the same level

Since the fluid is at rest, there will be no horizontal shear stresses on the
sides of the element. For static equilibrium the sum of the horizontal
forces must be zero.

p1A = p2A
p1 = p2

Thus the pressure at any two points at the same level in a body of fluid at
rest will be the same.

2.4 Pressure and Head

dp
In a fluid of constant density, = -ρg can be integrated immediately to
dh
give
p = -ρgh + constant

However in practice, the depth of liquid is usually measured from the top
free water surface downward, i.e. h = -h, the pressure will then be

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

Patm

Liquid
h Density ρ

Fig. 5 Pressure and head

p = ρgh + constant

and since the pressure at the free surface will normally be atmospheric
pressure patm (i.e. at h = 0, p = patm),

p = ρgh + patm

It is often convenient to take atmospheric pressure as a datum. Pressure

measured above atmospheric pressure are known as gauge pressure.
Pressure measured above perfect vacuum are called absolute pressure.

Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

A
Gauge pressure A
Atmospheric Pressure
Gauge pressure B
B Absolute
pressure A
Barometer
Absolute reading
pressure B

Vaccum

Fig. 6 Relationship between Pressures

The region of pressure below atmospheric pressure is generally referred to

as vacuum. If the pressure is at absolute zero, it is called perfect vacuum.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

If the pressure is between atmospheric pressure and absolute zero, it is

called partial vacuum.

By considering the gauge pressure only,

p = ρgh

which indicates that, if g is assumed constant, the pressure increases

linearly with depth.

The gauge pressure at a point can be defined by stating the vertical height h,
called the head, of a column of a given fluid of mass density ρ.
p
i.e. h= m
ρg

Note that when pressure is expressed as head, it is essential that the mass
density ρ is specified.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

Worked examples:

1. Calculate the pressure at a point on the sea bed 1 km deep. The

density of sea water is 1025 kg/m3.

Answer

ρ = 1025 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2
h = 1000 m (pressure head)

Since p = ρgh
= 1025 * 9.81 * 1000
= 10,055,000 N/m2
= 100.55 bar (1 bar = 105 N/m2)

2 The pressure at a point on the sea bed is 100.55 bar,

(a) express this pressure as a head of fresh water , and
(b) what is the pressure as a head of mercury of S.G. = 13.6?

Answer

(a) ρwater = 1000 kg/m3

Since p = ρgh
∴ 100.55 x 105 = 1000 * 9.81 * h
h = 1025 m, i.e. 1025 m head of water.

(b) ρHg = 13.6 * 1000 kg/m3

∴ 100.55 x 105 = 13.6 * 1000 * 9.81 * h
h = 75.37 m of mercury.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2.5 Measurement of Pressure

Many instruments for pressure measurement use the fact that a pressure is
equivalent to a head of liquid.

2.5.1 Piezometer

If a transparent tube is inserted into some point of a liquid under pressure,

then the liquid will be seen to rise in the tube until its height balances the
pressure in the liquid. This is the simplest pressure-measuring instrument,
the piezometer.

open open open

open Pressure h Vaccum
h

p = γh vacuum = γh
or pressure = -γh

Fig. 7 Piezometers

This device is only suitable if the pressure in the container is greater than
atmospheric pressure, and the pressure to be measured must be relatively
small so the required height of column is reasonable.

2.5.2 U-Tube Manometer

If a heavier liquid is used to balance the pressure, the gauge will become
more compact. For example, 2 m of water is equivalent to only 147 mm of
mercury. However a different arrangement is necessary in order to prevent
the mixing of two liquids of different densities.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

open water
open 13.6h
h Level of
separation

Heavier Hg (S.G. = 13.6)

liquid

Fig. 8 Manometers

Pressure measuring instruments using the U-tube are called manometers.

In the design of a U-tube manometer, it is essential to provide sufficient of

the heavier liquid to ensure that it always occupies the bend of the tube.

Notice that it is only necessary to consider the equalizing of pressure due

to the liquids above the level of separation.

When equating pressures it is convenient to work in terms of pressure

heads, converting all heads to one specified liquid.

For a U-tube manometer shown below.

open

γ1

1
A
h2
h1
2 3
γ2

By starting at point A and work around to the open end.

pA = p1

(pressure at equal elevations in a continuous mass of fluid at rest must be

the same)

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

As we move from point (1) to point (2) the pressure will increase by γ1h1.

Also p2 = p3

At open end, pressure is zero. Therefore the pressure decreases by γ2h2.

∴ pA + γ1h1 - γ2h2 = 0

or pA = γ2h2 - γ1h1

A major advantage of the U-tube manometer lies in the fact that the gauge
fluid can be different from the fluid in the container in which the pressure
is to be determined.

2.5.3 Bourdon Pressure Gauge

High air pressures are more conveniently measured using a bourdon

pressure gauge.

Pointer

Flattened
tube

Fig. 9 Bourdon Pressure Gauge

The instrument consists of a hollow coil closed at one end and the other
end being connected to the pressure being measured. When the internal
pressure is greater than the outside pressure, the tube tends to straighten,
causing the pointer to move.

This gauge measures pressure relative to the pressure surrounding the tube,
and therefore gives values of gauge pressure.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

One disadvantage of Bourdon gauge is that it is limited to the measurement

of pressure that are static or only changing slowly. Because of the
relatively large mass of the Bourdon tube it cannot respond to rapid
changes in pressure.

Worked examples:

1 In the following figure, determine the pressure of the water flowing

in the pipeline at point A based on the manometer reading shown.
(S.G.Hg = 13.6)

Answer

60mm

D
40mm
B C

Hg

Let pressure at A be pA

pB = pA + (60+40)/1000*γw (+ means going down)

= pA + 0.1*γw

pC = pB (level of separation)
= pA + 0.1*γw

pD = pC – 0.04*γHg
= pA + 0.1*γw – 0.04*γHg (-ve means going upward)

Considering gauge pressure, pD = patm = 0

∴ pA + (9.81 * 0.1) + (13.6*9.81* -0.04) = 0

pA = 4.36 kN/m2 or 4.36 kPa

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2 Determine the difference in pressure between pipeline A and

pipeline B in the following figure.

Ethylene glycol
SG=1.1
B
10mm
A
Gasoline
SG=0.72
30mm

E
Hg
50mm
C D

Answer

Let pressure at A be pA

pC = pA + (30 + 50)/1000*γeg (+ means going down)

= pA + 0.08*γeg

pD = pC (level of separation)
= pA + 0.08*γeg

pE = pD – 0.05*γHg
= pA + 0.08*γeg – 0.05*γHg (-ve means going upward)

pB = pE – 0.04*γgas
= pA + 0.08*γeg – 0.05*γHg – 0.04*γgas

∴ pA + (1.1*9.81*0.08) - (13.6*9.81* 0.05) - (0.72*9.81*0.04) = pB

or pA - pB = 6.09 kPa

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

3 Water is flowing through a pipe device as shown below. The pressure

between the two pipes is measured by a mercury manometer .
Determine the pressure difference between point 1 and 2.

1 2

water

0.6m

A A0.12m

mercury

Answer

Let the pressure at point 1 be p1.

pA = p1 + (0.6-0.12)*γw + 0.12*γHg
= p1 + (0.6-0.12)*9.81 + 0.12*13.6*9.81
= p1 + 20.72 kPa

pA = p2 + 0.6*γw
= p2 + 0.6*9.81
= p2 + 5.89 kPa

Hence p1 + 20.72 = p2 + 5.89

p2 – p1 = 14.83 kPa

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

Tutorial: Fluid Statics - Pressure

1 For the inclined-tube manometer shown below, the pressure in pipe A

is 5kPa. The fluid in both pipes A and B is water and the gauge fluid
in the manometer has a S.G. of 2.6. What is the pressure in pipe B
corresponding to the differential reading shown?

water

B
water 75mm
200mm
A
75mm
30 S.G.=2.6

2 Vessels A and B contain water under pressure of 276 kPa and 138 kPa,
respectively. What is the deflection of the mercury, h in the
differential gauge?

A 4.877m

h B 3.048m

3 For a gauge reading at A of -15 kPa, determine (a) the levels of the
liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F, and G and (b) the
deflection of the mercury in the U-tube gauge in the figure below.

E F G
A

12.5m Air

9.5m S.G. 0.7 h L N

M Q
6m Water
R
4m S.G. 1.6

2m D h1
C S.G. 13.6

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4 – Fluid Flow

4 FLUID FLOW
4.1 Introduction

Many civil engineering problems in fluid mechanics are concerned with fluids
in motion. The distribution of potable water, the collection of domestic sewage
and storm water, and the wave actions on offshore structures are common
examples.

The viscosity of water is small and therefore in most hydraulic problems

associated with civil engineering it is reasonable to ignore the effect of shear
forces.

4.2 Velocity of Flow

The definition of velocity in a fluid is much more complicated than in the case
of a rigid solid. Basically this follows from the fact that the individual particles
of a solid are bound together whereas the particles of a fluid can move
independently of each other.

The most common methods to identify velocity of flow are pathlines,

streaklines and streamlines.

Pathline - trace the position of a particle at successive intervals of time starting

from a given point.

Streakline -trace of all particles that have previously passed through a common
point.

Streamline -an imaginary curve that is tangential to the velocity vectors of a

connected series of fluid particles.

In unsteady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are all different, but

in steady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are identical.

The streamline is thus a line representing the direction of flow of the series of
particles at a given instant. Because the streamline is always tangential to the
flow, it follows that there is no flow across a streamline.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4 – Fluid Flow

4.3 Types of Flow

There are several types of flow that occur in practice: uniform and non-uniform
flow, steady and unsteady flow, laminar and turbulent flow. Some of them can
be explained by means of streamlines.

4.3.1 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow

In uniform flow the velocity (including its magnitude and direction) does not
change from one point to another along any of the streamlines in the flow field.

Uniform flow Non-uniform flow

This means that both the area and velocity of the flow must be the same at
every cross-section, and the streamlines must be straight and parallel. If the
streamlines are not straight, there will be a change in the direction of the flow.
If the streamlines are not parallel, there will be change in the magnitude of the
flow.

In non-uniform flow the velocity changes from point to point along

streamlines.

Mathematically, uniform and non-uniform flow can be defined as:

dV
=0 (uniform flow)
ds
dV
≠0 (non-uniform flow)
ds

where V = velocity of flow

s = position measuring along a streamline

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4 – Fluid Flow

4.3.2 Steady and Unsteady Flow

Steady flow means the velocity at any point in the flow field does not change
with respect to time. If the velocity at a point changes over time, then the flow
is unsteady.

Mathematically, steady flow and unsteady flow can be presented as follows:

dV
=0 (steady flow)
dt
dV
≠0 (unsteady flow)
dt

where V = velocity of flow

t = time of study

Discharge at a constant rate through a pipe is a common example at steady

flow. If the pipe is of a constant diameter, the flow is uniform and steady. In
fact, most of the civil engineering hydraulic problems are concerned with
steady flow. An example of non-uniform and unsteady flow occurring together
is the case of the flow from a nozzle when for some reason there is a change in
the discharge rate.

There are, therefore, four possible types of flow.

Steady uniform flow. Conditions do not change with position or time. The
velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream of fluid are the same at each
cross-section; e.g. flow of a liquid through a pipe of uniform bore running
completely full at constant velocity.

Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point but not with
time. The velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream may vary from cross-
section to cross-section, but, for each cross-section, they will not vary with
time; e.g. flow of a liquid at a constant rate through a tapering pipe running
completely full.

Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant of time the velocity at every point is
the same, but this velocity will change with time; e.g. accelerating flow of a

P.4-3
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4 – Fluid Flow

liquid through a pipe of uniform bore running full, such as would occur when a
pump is started up.

Unsteady non-uniform flow. The cross-sectional area and velocity vary from
point to point and also change with time; e.g. a wave travelling along a channel.

4.3.3 Real and Ideal Flow

When a real fluid flows past a boundary, the fluid immediately in contact with
the boundary will have the same velocity as the boundary. The velocity of
successive layers of fluid will increase as moving away from the boundary.

Boundary layer
V = 0.99Vf
Ideal Fluid
Free velocity
=Vf
V = 0.99Vf
Boundary layer

Real Fluid

The part of the flow adjoining the boundary in which this change of velocity
occurs is known as the boundary layer. In this region, shear stresses are
developed between layers of fluid moving with different velocities as a result of
viscosity.

The thickness of the boundary layer is defined as the distance from the
boundary at which the velocity becomes equal to 99% of the free stream
velocity. Outside this boundary layer, the effect of the shear stresses due to the
boundary can be ignored and the fluid can be treated as if it were an ideal fluid.

If the fluid velocity is high and its viscosity low, the boundary layer is
comparatively thin, and the assumption that a real fluid can be treated as an
ideal fluid greatly simplifies the analysis of the flow and still leads to useful
results.

4.3.4 One, Two and Three Dimensional Flow

P.4-4
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4 – Fluid Flow

When there is no obstruction or channelling, fluid flow can be thought of as

three-dimensional flow.

In situations where the velocity of flow in one co-ordinate direction has no

changes, the flow can be described as two-dimensional. The flow between two
parallel plates is an example.

If the velocity of flow is constant across each section but changes in only one
direction, it can be described as one-dimensional. The average flow in a duct
can be considered as one-dimensional.

4.4 Flow Rate and Mean Velocity

The quantity of fluid flowing per unit time across any section is called the flow
rate or the discharge. It may be expressed in terms of volume flow rate, m3/s;
weight flow rate, kN/s or mass flow rate, kg/s. In dealing with incompressible
fluids, volume flow rate is commonly used, whereas weight flow rate or mass
flow rate is more convenient with compressible fluids.

In a real fluid, the velocity adjacent to a solid boundary will be zero. For a
pipe, the velocity profile would be as shown in fig (a) below for laminar flow
and fig (b) for turbulent flow.

dr
u u
r r

(a) Laminar flow (b) Turbulent flow

Flow rate is the volume rate of flow passing a given section of the flow stream.
It is also called discharged. Mathematically, flow rate can be defined as
follows:

Q = ∫A V.dA

where Q = flow rate, m3/s

P.4-5
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4 – Fluid Flow

V = velocity of flow, m/s

dA = area normal to the direction of velocity, m2

If v is constant, Q = V.A

In many practical problems, such as the flow of water through a pipe, the
diameter of the pipe, and the discharge are given, and the velocity of the flow is
the determined from,

Q
V=
A

The velocity so obtained is called the average velocity or mean velocity. By

definition, it is simply the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area.

P.4-6
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

5 ENERGY EQUATION OF FLUID MOTION

5.1 Eulerian Approach & Control Volume

In order to develop the equations that describe a flow, it is assumed that

fluids are subject to certain fundamental laws of physics. The pertinent
laws are:

1. Conservation of mass;
2. Conservation of energy;
3. Conservation of momentum.

These principles were initially developed for the case of a solid body and
the application of these laws to a solid body is relatively straightforward
since the body will be of measurable size and mass. However, it is not for
a flowing fluid.

To describe the displacement, velocity and acceleration of a fluid, control

volume approach (Eulerian approach) is commonly used.

A control volume is a purely imaginary region within a body of flowing

fluid. The region is usually at a fixed location and of fixed size. Inside the
region, all of the dynamic forces cancel each other. Attention may
therefore be focused on the forces acting externally on the control volume.
The control volume may be of any shape. Therefore, a shape may be
selected which is most convenient for any particular application.

5.2 Continuity Equation

The principle of conservation of mass can be applied to a flowing fluid.

Considering any fixed region in the flow constituting a control volume,

Mass of fluid Mass of fluid Increase of mass of

entering per = leaving per + fluid in the control
unit time unit time volume per unit time

P.5-1
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

mass of fluid mass of fluid

entering Control Volume leaving

Continuity of Flow

For steady flow, the mass of fluid in the control volume remains constant
and the relation reduces to

Mass of fluid entering = Mass of fluid leaving

per unit time per unit time

Apply this principle to steady flow in a streamtube as shown below,

2
1 Area = dA 2
Velocity = V 2
Area = dA 1 Pressure = p 2
Velocity =V 1
Pressure = p 1

Continuous flow through a streamtube

If there is no flow being evacuated from the stream tube except at the
outlet section 2, then
Q = ρV1A1 = ρV2A2
∴ Q = V1A1 = V2A2

where V1, V2 are the mean velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively.

The continuity equation for liquids many be generally expressed in the

form

Q = V*A = constant

P.5-2
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

where V and A are velocity of flow and the cross-sectional area normal to
the flow respectively at any section of the liquid stream.

The continuity equation can also be applied to determine the relation

between the flows into and out of a junction. For steady condition,

Total inflow to junction = total outflow from junction

A2
V2
Q2

A1
V1
Q1
A3
V3
Q3

ρ1Q1 = ρ2Q2 + ρ3Q3

For an incompressible flow, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ3, then

Q1 = Q 2 + Q3

or A1 V 1 = A2 V2 + A3 V3

In general, if we consider flow towards the junction as positive and flow

away for the junction as negative, then for steady flow at any junction the
algebraic sum of all the mass flows must be zero:

Σ ρQ =0

P.5-3
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

Worked example:

Water flows through a pipe AB of diameter d1 = 50 mm, which is in series

with a pipe BC of diameter d2 = 75 mm in which the mean velocity V2 = 2
m/s. At C the pipe forks and one branch CD is of diameter d3 such that the
mean velocity V3 is 1.5 m/s. The other branch CE is of diameter d4 = 30
mm and conditions are such that the discharges Q2 from BC divides so that
Q4 = ½ Q3. Calculate the values of Q1, V1, Q2, Q3, d3, Q4 and V4.

V3= 1.5 m/s

D
A B C
Q 3=2Q 4
d 1=50 mm d 2=75 mm
V2 =2 m/s E
d4 =30 mm

Answer

Since pipes AB and BC are in series and water is incompressible, the

volume flow rate will be the same in each pipe, Q1 = Q2. But

Q2 = A2 * V2 = (π/4)*d22*V2
Q1 = Q2
= (π/4)*(0.075)2*2
= 8.836*10-3 m3/s

Q1
V1 = Q1/A1 =
(π / 4) * d1
2

8.836 * 10 −3
=
(π / 4) * 0.05 2
= 4.5 m/s

Considering pipes BC, CD and DE, the discharge from BC must be equal
to the sum of the discharges through CE and CE. Therefore

Q2 = Q3 + Q4
And since

Q4 = ½ Q3

P.5-4
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

⇒ Q2 = 1.5 Q3

Hence Q3 = Q2 / 1.5
= 8.836*10-3/1.5
= 5.891*10-3 m3/s

& Q4 = ½ Q3
= 2.945*10-3 m3/s

Also, since Q3 = (π/4)*d32*v3

4Q 3
Hence d3 =
πV3
4 * 5.891 * 10 −3
=
π * 1. 5
= 0.071 m

Q4
V4 =
(π / 4) * d 4
2

2.945 * 10 −3
=
(π / 4) * 0.032
= 4.17 m/s

P.5-5
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

Figure below shows a small streamtube element of cylindrical section with

uniform cross-sectional area. The fluid accelerates in the direction of the
flow. Taking this to be a control volume at an instant in the time,

ds
p'

(p+dp).A

z p.A mg

α
p'

Forces acting on the element in the s direction include:

(i) Pressure forces expressed as:

upstream end p.∆A
∂p
downstream end -(p + ∆s)∆A
∂s
(pressure may vary with respect to space, s and time, t, therefore the
partial derivative is used).

(ii) Gravity force ∆W.sinα where ∆W = γ.∆s.∆A

∆z ∂z
(iii) sinα = , then as ∆s approaches zero, then sinα =
∆s ∂s

By applying Newton’s second law in the s direction, the following

equation is reached.

ΣFs = M*as

where M = mass of the cylindrical element (ρ.∆s.∆A)

as = acceleration in the s direction

P.5-6
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

Therefore, we arrive at the following equation by substituting the above

expression into the above equation.
∂
− ( p + γz) = ρ.a s - Euler’s equation
∂s

By rewriting the acceleration term in a general form as follows:

dVs
as =
dt
∂Vs ∂Vs ds
= +
∂t ∂s dt

∂Vs
For steady flow, =0
∂t
∂Vs
Then a s = Vs
∂s

By substituting the above expression into Euler’s equation we obtain the

following

∂ ∂V
− (p + γz) = ρ.v s s
∂s ∂s

Assuming the density of the fluid remains unchanged,

∂p ∂z ρ ∂
+γ +
2
(Vs ) = 0
∂s ∂s 2 ∂s

By integrating the above equation with respect to s we have,

ρ
p + γz + Vs2 = constant
2

p V2
or +z+ = constant
γ 2g

The subscript s is usually omitted and v is used to represent the velocity in

the direction of fluid flow.

P.5-7
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

The term p/γ - pressure head

z - potential head (elevation head)
V2/2g - velocity head

The constant at the right hand side of the equation is the total head (total
energy per unit weight) of the flow field. The equation is applicable when
the flow is steady, non-viscous, and incompressible with the constant
density. Under these conditions the total head at any point along a
streamline of the flow field is the same.

Bernoulli’s equation is an expression of the principle of conservation of

energy.

In most applications, Bernoulli’s equation is applied at two points in the

flow field with z1 and z2 are referred to the same datum.

2 2
p1 V p V
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g

P.5-8
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

Worked examples:

1. Determine the velocity of the water flowing at point 1 and 2 of the

pipe shown below, with the following data. Neglect all losses in
heads.
p1 = 120 kPa, p2 = 200 kPa, d1 = 0.4 m and d2 = 0.6 m

1 2

Answer

Apply Continuity equation to point 1 and 2

V1A1 = V2A2
π(0.4) 2 2 π(0.6) 2 2
Since A1 = m, A2 = m
4 4
(0.6) 2
∴ V1 = V2 *
(0.4) 2
= 2.25 V2

Apply Bernoulli’s equation along the central streamline to points 1

and 2
2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g

p1 = 120 kPa, p2 = 200 kPa

V1 = 2.25 V2
& z1 = z2 (same level)

2
120 ( 2.25V2 ) 2 200 V2
Hence + = +
9.81 2 * 9.81 9.81 2 * 9.81
⇒ V2 = 6.3 m/s

and V1 = 2.25 v2
= 14.2 m/s

P.5-9
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

2. For a 50 mm diameter siphon drawing oil (S.G. = 0.82) from the oil
reservoir as shown below, the head loss from point 1 to point 2 is 1.5
m and from point 2 to point 3 is 2.40 m. Find the discharge of oil
from the siphon and the oil pressure at point 2.

2m dia = 50 mm
1

oil
5m
3

Answer

Apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 3.

2 2
p1 V1 p V
+ + z1 = 3 + 3 + z 3 + loss1-3
γ 2g γ 2g

p1 = p3 = 0 (patm = 0)
V1 = 0
(Assume the oil vessel is very large, the rate of the oil level drop is
negligible)
z3 = 0, z1 = 5 m
loss1-3 = loss1-2 + loss2-3
= 1.5 + 2.4 m
= 3.9 m

∴ 0 + 0 + 5 = 0 + V32/(2*9.81) + 0 + 3.9
V3 = 4.646 m/s

Q = A 3 * V3
= [π(0.05)2/4]*4.646
= 0.00912 m3/s

P.5-10
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

Again, apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z 2 + loss1-2
γ 2g γ 2g

z2 = 7 m
V2 = V3 (same pipe diameter)
= 4.646 m
loss1-2 = 1.5 m

∴ 0 + 0 + 5 = p2/γ + (4.646)2/(2*9.81) + 7 + 1.5

p2/γ = - 4.6 m
p2 = - 4.6 * 9.81 * 0.82 kPa
= - 36.9 kPa

P.5-11
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

5.4 Flow Measurement

The three parameters most often involved in flow measurement are

pressure, velocity and discharge of flow. The relationships between these
parameters have already been defined through the Continuity and
Bernoulli’s equation. In this section, the principles and applications of
common flow measurement devices are discussed.

5.4.1 Stagnation Tube and Pitot Tube

When an L shaped tube is placed in a flow field, it can be used to measure

the velocity of flow.

z flow
vA,pA vB,pB
A B

(a) (b)

Since the flow is brought to a standstill at the front end of the tube, this
simple device is called a stagnation tube (fig. a). The velocity of flow
measured by the stagnation tube is expressed as

V = 2gh - Torricelli’s formula

where V = velocity of flow

h = the level of fluid in the tube above the free surface.

This expression can be derived by applying Bernoulli’s equation to the

stagnation point and any other point upstream of it. For simplicity, choose
a point (point A) at the same level as the stagnation point (point B, i.e. the
velocity of fluid flow at this point is zero).

P.5-12
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

From Bernoulli’s equation,

2 2
p A VA p V
+ + zA = B + B + zB
γ 2g γ 2g

Since zA = zB, and VB = 0 (stagnation point), therefore

2
VA p p
= B- A
2g γ γ

which can be applied to flow in closed or open conduits.

Since also pA = γz and pB = γ(z + h), then

VA = 2gh ,

where VA = the velocity of flow which is measured by the stagnation

tube

Since the application of the stagnation tube is limited by the pressure of the
flow, pitot tubes are often used in pressure pipes.

P.5-13
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

Worked examples:

1. Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in figure below. For
the given 0.2 m difference in manometer level, determine the flow rate
when the diameter of the small pipe, D is 0.05m.

0.2 m
h1
h2
water
0.1 m D
(1) Q (2)

Answer

Again, apply Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 & 2

2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g

V1 = 0 (stagnation point)
z1 = z2 = 0 (same level)
2
p1 p 2 V2
∴ +0+0= + +0
γ γ 2g
(p − p 2 )
V 2 = 2g 1
γ

but p1 = γh1 and p2 = γh2

∴ p1 – p2 = γ(h1 – h2)
= 0.2 γ

0. 2 γ
Thus V2 = 2g * = 2g * 0.2 m/s
γ
= 1.98 m/s

Q = A2 * V2
= [π(0.05)2/4]*1.98
= 3.888*10-3 m3/s
= 3.888 L/s

P.5-14
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5 – Energy Equation

Worked examples:

1. The flow of kerosene is measure using a venturi meter. The diameter

of the pipe and the throat are 50 mm and 25 mm respectively. A
differential manometer shows a deflection, h’ of 55 mm of mercury.
The coefficient of discharge is 0.96. Determine the flow rate of
kerosene. Take the S.G. of kerosene as 0.82.

Answer

1 2

y
ρ h'
A B

ρm

Area of cross-section of the pipe, A1 = π * 0.052/4 = 0.00196 m2

Area of cross-section of the throat, A2 = π * 0.0252/4 = 0.00049 m2

A1 0.00196
By continuity equation, V2 = ( )*V1 =( )*V1 = 4 V1
A2 0.00049
By Bernoulli’s equation, z1 = z2
p1 = p2 + h’*(γm - γk)
S .G.m
(p1 - p2)/ γk = h’*( - 1)
S .G.k
13.6
= 0.055*( -1) m = 0.857 m
0.82
2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V1 (4V1 ) 2
0.857 + =
2g 2g
V1 = 1.059 m/s
or V2 = 4*1.059 = 4.235 m/s

Qactual = 0.96 * 4.235 * 0.00049 = 0.00199 m3/s = 1.99 L/s

P.5-22