Non uniform flow in channels

By
Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
 Dynamic Equation of GVF
 The basic differential equation for GVF

dy So  Sf

dx 1  Fr 2
 When dy/dx = 0, So = Sf and the water surface profile is
parallel to the channel bottom
 When dy/dx = +ve, water surface is rising and
 When dy/dx = -ve, water surface is falling
 Dynamic Equation of GVF in Wide
Rectangular Channel
 The differential equation for GVF in wide rectangular
channel
10/3
y 
1   n 
dy  y 
 So  3
, if Mannaing' s equation is used
dx  yc 
1   
 y 
3
 yn 
1   
dy y
 So   3 , if Chezy's equation is used
dx y 
1   c 
 y 
Classification of Flow Profiles
 Bed slope S0 is classified as
 Steep : yn < yc or so>sc
 Critical : yn = yc or so= sc
 Mild : yn > yc or so< sc
 Horizontal : S0 = 0
 Adverse : S0 < 0

 Initial depth is given a zone

 Zone 1 : y > yn
• The space above both critical and
normal depth
 Zone 2 : yn < y < yc
• The region lies between the normal
and critical depth
 Zone 3 : y < yc
• The lowest zone of space that lies
above the channel bed but below
both critical and normal depth lines
• 12 distinct configurations for surface profiles in
GVF.

• It should be noted that a continuous flow profile

usually occurs only in one zone

• Figure 16.4 shows various surface profiles which

can be classified as backwater curves and
drawdown curves depending on whether depth
of flow increases or decreases in the direction of
flow
• All the surface profiles with subscript 1 and 3 are
backwater or rising curves while those with
subscript 2 are drawdown or falling curves.
 MILD BACKWATER CURVES M1, M2 AND M3

Again the case of constant bed slope S is considered. Recall that

1/3
q2 q2  y  q2
2
Fr (y)  , Sf (y)  C f or Sf (y)  α r 2  

gy 3 gy 3  ks  gy 3

A bed slope is considered mild if yn > yc. This is the most common case in
alluvial rivers. There are three possible cases.

dy S o  S f ( y1 )  Depth increases downstream,

M1: y1 >yn > yc  
dx x1 1  Fr 2 ( y1 )  decreases upstream

dy S o  S f ( y1 )  Depth decreases downstream,

M2: yn > y1 > yc  
dx x1 1  Fr 2 ( y1 )  increases upstream

dy S o  S f ( y1 )  Depth increases downstream,

M3: yn > yc > y1  
dx x1
2
1  Fr ( y1 )  decreases upstream

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

M1 CURVE
 When y > yn > yc, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  y n on the upstream side

y   on the downstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y n on the upstream side, 0
dx
dy
and as y   on the downstream side,  So
dx
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 Remember to note that
dy
When  0, it indicates that the specified curves meet the NDL asymptotically
dx
dy
When  S o , it indicates that the specified curves tends to be horizontal
dx
dy
When  , it indicates that the specified curves meet the corresponding line normally
dx
dy
When  , it indicates that the specified curves meet the corresponding line normally
dx

Thus M1 curves meet the NDL asymptotically on the u/s and

it tends to be horizontal on the d/s. M1 curve becomes
horizontal as the depth becomes larger. An example of such
a flow is a river entering a lake or reservoir or Flow behind
an overflow weir

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 M2 CURVE
 When yn >y> yc, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  y n on the upstream side

y  y c on the downstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y n on the upstream side, 0
dx
dy
and as y  y c on the downstream side,  
dx
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 Remember to note that
Thus M2 curves meet the NDL asymptotically on the u/s and
it meet the CDL normally on the d/s. An example of such a
flow is over a free overfall. It is also obtained when a steep
slope is preceded by a mild slope or a mild slope by a milder
slope.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 M3 CURVE
 When yn > yc >y, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  yc on the downstream side

y  0 on the upstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y c on the downstream side,  
dx
dy dy
and as y  0 on the upstream side,   i.e. is undefined
dx dx
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 Remember to note that
Thus M3 curves meet the CDL and channel bottom line
normally. An example of such a flow is d/s of a sluice gate. It
is also obtained when the bottom slope changes from steep
to mild.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit
Pratap Singh
 S1 CURVE
 When y>yc > yn, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  y c on the upstream side

y   on the downstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y c on the upstream side, 
dx
dy
and as y   on the downstream side,  So
dx
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 Remember to note that
Thus S1 curves meet the CDL normally on the u/s and it
tends to be horizontal on the d/s. Example Flow behind an
overflow weir or profile formed behind a dam constructed on
a steep channel

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 S2 CURVE
 When yc >y> yn, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  y c on the upstream side

y  y n on the downstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y c on the upstream side, 
dx
dy
and as y  y n on the downstream side, 0
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
dx
 Remember to note that
Thus S2 curves meet the CDL normally on the u/s and it
meet the NDL asymptotically on the d/s. An example of such
a flow is over a free overfall. It is also obtained when a steep
slope is preceded by a mild slope or a mild slope by a milder
slope.
 S3 CURVE
 When yc > yn >y, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  yn on the downstream side

y  0 on the upstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y n on the downstream side, 0
dx
dy dy
and as y  0 on the upstream side,   i.e. is undefined
dx dx
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 Remember to note that
Thus S3 curves meets the channel bed normally and it is
asymptotic to the normal depth line NDL. An example of
such a flow is d/s of a sluice gate. It is also obtained when
the bottom slope changes from steep to mild.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 C1 CURVE
 When y > yn = yc, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  y c  y n on the upstream side

y   on the downstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y c on the upstream side,  So  Sc
dx
dy
and as y   on the downstream side,  So  Sc
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
dx
 Remember to note that
dy
When  So , it indicates that the specified curves tends to be horizontal
dx

Thus C1 curves will be more or less a horizontal line. For example flow
behind an overflow weir, flow behind a sluice gate.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 C3 CURVE
 When y < yc = yn, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  y c  y n on the downstream side

y  0 on the upstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y c on the downstream side,  So  Sc
dx
dy
and as y  0 on the upstream side,  So  Sc
dx
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 Remember to note that
dy
When  So , it indicates that the specified curves tends to be horizontal
dx
Thus C3 curves will be more or less a horizontal line. For
example back-water curve below a sluice gate provided in a
channel with a critical slope is typical example of C3 profile.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 H2 CURVE
 When yn (=∞)>y> yc, what will be the limiting value of
y??
y   on the upstream side
y  y c on the downstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y   on the upstream side, 0
dx
dy
and as y  y c on the downstream side,  
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
dx
 Remember to note that

Thus H2 curves meet the CDL normally at d/s end and at the
u/s end it tends to approach horizontal line tangentially

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 H3 CURVE
 When yn > yc >y, what will be the limiting value of y??

y  yc on the downstream side

y  0 on the upstream side
dy
Here we get   ve
dx
dy
and as y  y c on the downstream side,  
dx
dy dy
and as y  0 on the upstream side,   i.e. is undefined
dx dx
Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 Remember to note that

Thus H3 curves meet the CDL and channel bottom line

normally.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh
 An M1 profile occurs behind a dam or a sluice gate located on a mild
channel. The dam or a sluice gate piles up water behind it such that the
flow depth is greater than the normal depth. Far away from the dam or
sluice gate on the upstream side, the flow would be occurring under
uniform conditions and the flow depth would be normal.
 In a similar manner, S1 and C1 profiles occur on the upstream side of a
sluice gate located on a channel with steep and critical slopes,
respectively.
 An M2 profile occurs on the upstream side of a free over fall at the
downstream end of a mild channel since a critical depth occurs in the
vicinity of a free over fall.
 Similarly, a H2 profile occurs on the upstream side of a free over fall at
the downstream end of a horizontal channel.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 Critical flow conditions occur at the entrance to a steep
channel from a lake or a reservoir. However, flow should
tend towards uniform flow conditions far away from the
entrance if the channel is long. Therefore, a S2 profile occurs
in steep channels, on the downstream side of the entrance.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

Gradually Varied Flow
Gradually Varied Flow

 Typical OC system
involves several
sections of different
slopes, with transitions

 Overall surface profile is

made up of individual
profiles described on
previous slides
Steps to be followed to sketch the water
surface profiles
 Compute normal and critical depths for each reach of the channel
system based on specified flow rate, roughness coefficient, slope of
the reach, and the channel cross section.
 Plot the channel bed, the normal depth line (NDL) and the critical
depth line (CDL) for each reach in the system.
 By comparing normal depth and critical depth, determine
whether the channel slope is mild, critical, steep, adverse or
horizontal
 Mark the control sections i.e., identify the sections where (i) the
flow passes through a critical depth (ii) the flow is expected to
occur under uniform conditions, and (iii) there is a control
structures such as a weir, a sluice gate, and a spillway. A control
section is that at which for a given discharge the depth of flow is
known or it can be controlled to a required value

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 It may be noted that uniform flow conditions occur in long
prismatic channels, far away from control sections. Critical
depth occurs at (i) the free overfall, and (ii) the entrance to a
steep channel from a lake, when the water level in the lake is
above the elevation of the CDL at the entrance. Critical
depth also occurs when channel bed slope changes from mild
to steep.
 Knowing the normal depth and depth at the control section,
determine the surface profile

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 SURFACE WATER PROFILE
 In practice, often the length of the surface profile of the gradually
varied flow needs to be known
 From all the equations the derivations show the changes of water
depth (y) for some distances/lengths (x). By using the integration
method in those equations, we can know,

 Distances/lengths from one point to another point when both

depth are known. For example, if a weir is constructed across a
river having a mild slope then it may be required to estimate the
distance on the u/s side up to which the effect of resulting M1
profile exists.
 Starting from each control point, sketch the appropriate water surface
profile depending on the zone in which the depth at the control
section falls and the nature of the slope.
 Qualitatively locate the hydraulic jumps wherever the flow changes
from supercritical to sub critical.
 For example, if there is a sluice gate at the downstream end of a steep
channel, the flow is sub critical on the upstream side of the gate.
However, if the channel is long, flow is supercritical far away from the
gate on the upstream side. Therefore, a hydraulic jump occurs in such a
channel. Also, on the downstream side of a sluice gate on a long mild
channel, the flow is supercritical immediately downstream of the gate.
However, far away from the gate on the downstream side, flow is
subcritical.Therefore, a hydraulic jump occurs in such a case also.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

Real Life Cases of Water Surface
Profiles

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit
Pratap Singh
 There are several method to obtain surface water profile.
 They are
 Direct Integration
 Numerical Integration
 Direct Step Method
 Graphical Integration
 Numerical/Computer Methods
 Direct Step Method
 In general, a step method is characterized by dividing the channel
into short reaches and carrying the computation step by step from
one end of the reach to the other. The direct step method is a simple
step method applicable to prismatic channel.
 Equating the total head at the two end section 1 and 2, the following
may be written;
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ z1 + a 1 = + z2 + a 2 + hL Turbulent flow (  1)
g 2g g 2g z - measured from
horizontal datum
V12 V22
y1  So dx   y2   S f dx z1  z 2  S 0 dx
2g 2g
V12 V22
y1   So dx  y2   S f dx
2g 2g
 Short reach (dx) of the channel

velocity head V12 h f  S f dx

2g energy
V22
grade line
2g
hydraulic
grade line
water surface

So dx

dx
1 2
Where
E = specific energy at one point = y + v²/2g
E1  So dx  E2  S f dx

E2  E1
dx  solving for dx
S0  S f

Manning Chezy
n 2V 2 V2
S f  4/3 Sf  2
R C R
Direct Step Method prismatic (so that velocity
 Limitation: channel must be _________
is a function of depth only and not a function of x)
 Method
 Find yn and yc. Determine the type of slope.
 Identify type of profile (determines whether Dy is + or -)
 choose Dy and thus yn+1
 Compute the area of flow section A, wetted perimeter P, hydraulic
radius R and velocity at known value of depths of flow yn and yn+1
 Compute the mean velocity, the velocity head, the specfic energy E
and energy line slope Sf at the channel sections where the depth
flow is known i.e. at yn and yn+1
 calculate average friction slope
 calculate dx
Problem
 A wide rectangular channel conveys a discharge of 5 m3/s/m
width of channel with a bed slope of 1 in 3600. If at a section
in this channel the depth is 3.5 m, how far u/s or d/s from
the section the depth would be 5% of the normal depth. Take
Manning’s n = 0.02

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 DE
 Dx
SO  S f

 Let the sections 1-1 , 2-2 and 3-3 where depths are 3.5m,
3.289m and 3.077m

Sect y v=q/y v2/2g E S= N2v2/ y4/3 S’f

1-1 3.5 1.429 0.104 3.604 1.53709X10-4 1.7132255X10-4 2986.13

2-2 3.289 1.520 0.118 3.407 1.88942X10-4

3-3 3.077 1.625 0.135 3.212 2.360098X10- 2.124759 1850.59

4

Length of the backwater curve = 4836.72m

 A very wide rectangular channel conveys a discharge of 3.50
m3/s per metre width at a depth of 2.50 m. The bed slope is
1 in 5000. Due to a weir placed across the channel the water
level is raised by 1.50 m just on the upstream of it. Find at
what distance upstream of the weir the depth of water will be
3 m. Take C = 51. Use step method and take two steps. Also
classify the type of water surface profile.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

Example
 A wide rectangular channel carries water at 10 m3/s with channel
width = 8m, bed slope = 0.001 and n= 0.025.
 Find the length of back water which is formed due to a dam and
obtained the 2 m water depth at the dam’s back.

 Find yn and yc.

yn
1.093703
yn > yc Mild slope channel

yc
PROFILE M1 TYPE
0.542064
1. y = water depth (m)
2. R = A/P = hydraulic radius or y for very wide rectangular
3. v = q/y = flow velocity
4. v²/2g = kinetic energy
5. y + v²/2g = E = specific energy
6. E2 - E1 = ∆E = energy loss
7. sf = slope energy grade line = n2v2 = v2
R4/3 C2R
8. (sf1 + sf2)/2 = EGL slope average
9. (so - sf ) = slope difference
10. dx = reach = ∆E / (so - sf )
11. L = length of surface water profile which is to be calculated from dam
1. Find yo and yc
2. Fill in the table

1+4 n2v2
A/P q/y (y+v2/2g) E2 -E1 /R4/3 6/9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Sf S0  S f
y A R v v2/2g E ∆E Sf ∆x

- - - -
Solution for example  The calculation must be from the dam to upstream until
the water surface is 1% higher than the normal depth.
(See EXCEL FILE)

1+5
(y+v2/2 n2v2
A/P q/y g) E2 -E1 /R4/3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

y A R v v2/2g E ∆E Sf Sfbar S0-Sfbar dx

2 16 1.33333 0.625 0.01991 2.01991 0.00017
0.12714 0.00018 0.000815746 155.8520063
1.87 14.96 1.27428 0.66845 0.02277 1.89277 0.0002
0.12647 0.00023 0.000774196 163.3564655
1.74 13.92 1.21254 0.71839 0.0263 1.7663 0.00025
0.12558 0.00028 0.00071855 174.7695148
1.61 12.88 1.14795 0.7764 0.03072 1.64072 0.00031
0.12437 0.00036 0.000642175 193.6630303
1.48 11.84 1.08029 0.84459 0.03636 1.51636 0.0004
0.12266 0.00047 0.000534278 229.5819527
1.35 10.8 1.00935 0.92593 0.0437 1.3937 0.00053
0.12019 0.00062 0.000376502 319.231189
1.22 9.76 0.93487 1.02459 0.05351 1.27351 0.00072

S(dx) 1236.454159
 Hydraulic Jump
• A hydraulic jump occurs when flow changes from a supercritical flow
(unstable) to a sub-critical flow (stable).
• There is a sudden rise in water level at the point where the hydraulic
jump occurs.
• Rollers (eddies) of turbulent water form at this point. These rollers cause
dissipation of energy.
•A hydraulic jump occurs in practice at the toe of a dam or below a sluice gate
where the velocity is very high.

54
 General Expression for Hydraulic Jump:
In the analysis of hydraulic jumps, the following assumptions are made:
(1) The length of hydraulic jump is small. Consequently, the loss of head
due to friction is negligible.
(2) The flow is uniform and pressure distribution is due to hydrostatic
before and after the jump.
(3) The slope of the bed of the channel is very small, so that the
component of the weight of the fluid in the direction of the flow is
neglected.

55
 Location of hydraulic jump

Generally, a hydraulic jump occurs when the flow changes from

supercritical to subcritical flow.

The most typical cases for the location of hydraulic jump are:
1. Jump below a sluice gate.
2. Jump at the toe of a spillway.
3. Jump at a glacis.
(glacis is the name given to sloping floors provided in hydraulic structures.)

56
MOMENTUM EQATION
 Steady Flow
 Momentum is a vector quantity. The momentum equation
commonly used in most of the open channel flow problems is the
linear-momentum equation. This equation states that the
algebraic sum of all external forces acting in a given
direction on a fluid mass equals the time rate of change
of linear-momentum of the fluid mass in that direction.
In a steady flow the rate of change of momentum in a
given direction will be equal to the net flux of
momentum in that direction.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit

Pratap Singh
 Figure shows a control volume (a volume fixed in space) bounded by
sections 1 and 2, the boundary and a surface lying above the free
surface.

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit Pratap Singh

 The various forces acting on the control volume in the longitudinal
direction are:
 (i) Pressure forces acting on the control surfaces, F1 and F2
 (ii) Tangential force on the bed, F3 ,
 (iii) Body force, i.e. the component of the weight of the fluid in the
longitudinal direction, F4.
 By the linear-momentum equation in the longitudinal direction for a
steady-flow discharge of Q ,

F  F F 1 2  F3  F4  M 2  M 1

Non-uniform flow in Open Channel by Dr. Ajit

Pratap Singh
 Momentum of the flow passing a channel section per unit
time = M  w QV
g

 Rate of change of momentum in the body of water flowing in

a channel is equal to the resultant of all the forces that are
acting on the body
w Q(V2  V1 )
 P1  P2  WSinθ  Ff
g
 Where Ff total external force of frictional resistance acting in
the direction opposite to the flow along the surface of contact
between water and channel, W is the weight of water
enclosed between the section, θ is angle of incination
•The net force in the direction of flow = the rate of change of moment in that direction
wQ
 ( V1  V2 )
g
The net force in the direction of the flow, neglecting frictional resistance and the
component of weight of water in the direction of flow,
R = P1 - P2 .
Therefore, the impulse-moment yields
wQ
P2  P1  (V1  V2 )
g
Where P1 and P2 are the pressure forces at section 1 and 2, respectively.
wQ
wA2 z 2  wA1 z 1  (V1  V2 )
g
wQ2 1 1 Q2 Q2
wA2 z 2  wA1 z 1  (  )  A1 z 1   A2 z 2
g A1 A2 gA 1 gA 2

61
z = the distance from the water surface to the centroid of the flow area
 Q2 Q2
 A1 z 1   A2 z 2
gA 1 gA 2

Comments:
• This is the general equation governing the hydraulic jump for any shape
of channel.
• The sum of two terms is called specific force (F). So, the equation can
be written as:
M1 = M2

This equation shows that the specific force before the hydraulic jump is
equal to that after the jump.

62
 Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

z1 
y1 y2
A1  B y1 A2  B y2 z2 
2 2
Q2 Q2 Q2 y1 Q2 y2
 A1 z 1   A2 z 2  (By1 )( )   (By2 )( )
gA 1 gA2 gBy1 2 gBy2 2
Q q 2  y2  y1  y22  y12
using q  
B g  y1 y2  2

2q 2
 y1 y2 (y2  y1 )
g
we get

2q 2
2 q2
y2 y  y y1 
2 2
0  y1 y2 (y1  y2 )
63
1 2
g g
 This is a quadratic equation, the solution of which may be written as:

y2 1  
2
y1  y1   2q 
2
8 q2
y2           1  1 3 
2 2
   1 g y y1 2  g y1 


y1 1  
2
y2 y
 2  2q 2
 8 q2
y1          1  1 3 
2  2   g y2  y2 2  g y2 

where y1 is the initial depth and y2 is called the conjugate depth. Both are called
conjugate depths.
These equations can be used to get the various characteristics of hydraulic jump.

64
 2
q
But for rectangular channels, we have yc3 
g
  3
y 1
Therefore, 2    1 
 yc  
1  8  
y1 2 y
 1  

  3
y1 1   yc  
 1  1  8 
y2 2   y2  

These equations can also be written in terms of Froude’s number as:

y2 1

y1 2
1  ( 1  8 Fr12 ) F1 
V1
g y1

V2
y1 1
 1 
y2 2
( 1  8 Fr 2
2
) F2 
g y2
65
 Head Loss in a hydraulic jump (HL):

Due to the turbulent flow in hydraulic jump, a dissipation (loss) of energy

occurs:
DE  E 1  E 2
q2
Where, E = specific energy Es  y 
For rectangular channels: 2g y 2

 q2   q2  q2 y22  y12
hence, DE   y1  2 
  y2  3 
  (y2  y1 )
 2g y1   2g y2  2g ( y1 y2 )2

( y 2  y 1 )3
After simplifying, we obtain DE 
4 y1y2
66
 Height of hydraulic jump (hj):
The difference of depths before and after the jump is known as the
height of the jump,

h j  y2  y1

Length of hydraulic jump (Lj):

The distance between the front face of the jump to a point on the
downstream where the rollers (eddies) terminate and the flow becomes
uniform is known as the length of the hydraulic jump. The length of the
jump varies from 5 to 7 times its height. An average value is usually
taken:

Lj  6 hj
67
Dam at Hiram Falls on the Saco River near Hiram, Maine, USA
 A spillway is designed to discharge 5m3/sec/m length.
After flowing over the spillway, water flows on to a
horizontal concrete apron (Manning’s rugosity
coefficient as 0.015). The velocity of flow at toe is
observed to be 15 m/sec and tail water depth is limited
to 3.0 m. Calculate the minimum length of apron to
contain the jump on the apron and consequent energy
lost.
Surges in Open Channel
 A surge or surge wave is a moving wave front which brings
about an abrupt change in depth of flow
 It is also referred to as moving hydraulic jump and is caused
by sudden increase or decrease of depth of flow, such as that
caused by sudden opening or closing of a gate fixed in the
channel.
 Positive surges: which results in an increase in depth of flow
 Negative surges: causes a decrease in depth of flow
 Positive Surge: Type A which is Advancing D/S and Vw =
C+V1
 Positive Surge: Type B which is Advancing U/S and Vw = C-
V1
 Negative Surge: Type C which is retreating D/S and Vw =
C+V1
 Negative Surge: Type D which is retreating U/S and Vw =
C-V1
 Where C is the celerity of the wave which is defined as the
velocity of wave relative the velocity of flow and Vw is the
absolute velocity of the wave
 Applying continuity equation to the control volume of fig., if
ρ = density of water; A2 = flow area behind the wave and A1 =
flow area ahead of the wave. Since ρ is a constant
 Applying momentum equation to the control volume of fig., if ρ
= density of water; A2 = flow area behind the wave and A1 = flow area
ahead of the wave. Since ρ is a constant

 The channel is prismatic, horizontal and frictionless. Therefore,

the only force acting on the control volume is pressure force.
Pressure force acts in the positive x - direction at the inlet section
and in the negative x - direction at the outlet section. Above
Equation can be written as
 For Rectangular channels
Problem
 A wide rectangular channel is carrying a flow of 3 m3/sec
per meter width of channel at a flow depth of 1.5m. What
should be the increase in discharge at the upstream end to
cause a surge of 0.5m? What is the corresponding surge
velocity?