Composites Part B 136 (2018) 222–233

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Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Properties of natural fibre composites for structural engineering applications T

a,b,∗ a c d
Kin-tak Lau , Pui-yan Hung , Min-Hao Zhu , David Hui
a
Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology. Hawthorn, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia
b
Department of Creative Product Design, College of Creative Design, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
c
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, China
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Since the last two decades, many researchers have refocused on using natural fibres, as reinforcements for
Fabrics/textiles cementitious and polymer based structural materials. The use of natural fibres for structural applications is not
Fibre/matrix bond modern. Long before a century ago people in many small towns in China and Korea already mixed straws with
Mechanical properties mud to build walls in villages. However, at that time there was no systematic way to study the fundamental
Analytical modelling
mechanism and interpret how natural fibres strengthen structures and what processes should be adopted to
maximize the performance of natural materials. Currently, nevertheless natural fibre reinforced polymer (NFRP)
composites have been widely used in automotive and building industries, it is still a room to promote them to
high-level structural applications like primary structural components of aerospace and maritime structures. It is
difficult to evaluate the quality of natural fibres, which generally extracted from the nature, and thus it is
challenging to develop a generic formula to predict the structural and mechanical properties of NFRP compo-
sites. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of natural fibres and polymers, respectively, cause poor bonding
interaction at interface. Traditional shear-lag model was popularly used to study the stress transfer mechanism
between fibre and matrix of advanced composites. However, such model is not applicable to NFRP composites
due to the imperfect shape of nature fibres along their longitudinal direction and irregular shape of fibres' cross
section. In this paper, analysis on different aspects in related to the use of natural fibres for real life engineering
applications is given. Basic analytical models focusing on the stress transferability in composites are also dis-
cussed to provide an insight for researchers and engineers to understand the design and requirements of using
natural fibres for structural applications in the future.

1. Introduction ii) the structures made of advanced composites may be over-strength

Advanced composites, owing to their high specific strength –to-
weight and specific-stiffness-to-weight ratios, are very popular for dif-
ferent types of engineering applications. High strength fibres commonly
used in aircraft and aerospace engineering industries, are carbon, glass
and Kevlar. These fibres provide strong tensile strength to support
tensile and bending stiffness of composite structures. Polymer-based
matrix act as a cushioning material to protect these high strength and
brittle fibres against an impact. Besides, matrix is used to absorb vi-
bration energy to keep rigid structures safe under seismic attacks.
Despite the fact that advanced composites bring advantages to many
engineering applications, there are three major issues commonly criti-
cized by the public:
i) Advanced composites are hardly to be recycled, which may cause
serious environmental problems after disposal;
in particular using carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) com-
posites and
iii) there is relatively high materials cost of advanced composites for
domestic products.
Therefore, fibres extracted from the nature have emerged in the past
decades aiming at replacing traditional high strength synthetic fibres to
form a new class of natural fibre reinforced polymer (NFRP) composite.
The growing awareness of environmental concerns is also another
element to force the engineering sectors to develop new materials from
natural resources that are either reusable or renewable. Regarding this,
natural fibres and biodegradable polymers have become an attractive
topic recently.
In the last few decades, many research groups in the world have
developed promising materials, which are made of biodegradable fibres
and polymers to form new types of bio-composites (some articles have

∗
Corresponding author. Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia.
E-mail address: aklau@swin.edu.au (K.-t. Lau).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.10.038
Received 26 September 2017; Received in revised form 29 October 2017; Accepted 30 October 2017
Available online 05 November 2017
1359-8368/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K.-t. Lau et al. Composites Part B 136 (2018) 222–233

stated as “green composites”), to replace conventional materials. In
many countries, newly established policies have also encouraged
business units to pay much attention to save energy and materials to
sustain the life of our planets [1]. Incentive in tax reduction is also
another way to motivate different commercial units to design and make
products with “Green” components. The cost of natural fibres is rela-
tively low as they are abundant and from renewable resources com-
pared with other synthetic fibres. Therefore, such remarkable ad-
vantages of NFRP composites enhance their commercial and research
potentials. Accordingly, natural fibres and biodegradable polymers
have become emerging materials in the composite community.
2. Types of natural fibre
Natural fibres can be classified into two types: animal-based fibres
and plant-based fibres. Cocoon silk, chicken feather, wool and spider
silks are commonly used as animal-based fibres, which mainly target to
biomedical applications such as implants. These bio-products are re-
quired to be either bio-resorbable (some articles name it as “bio-de-
gradable”), which means the ability to break down and assimilate back
into the body or biocompatible, to avoid being harmful to human body.
Lau et al. [2] have developed a new bone fixator by using cocoon silk
fibre-reinforced Polylactic acid (PLA) to form a fully bio-resorbable
polymer composite. The purpose of this fixator is to hold two pieces of
broken bone in place. Once the bone cells on the fracture surfaces start
growing, the fixator will be resorbed by the human body with time. The
rate of bio-resorbability is dependent on the amount of silk fibre used.
This bio-resorbable property could minimize the necessity of secondary
surgery to remove steel fixators in the traditional bone fixation process.
Plant-based fibres, including jute, hemp, sisal kenaf, coir, flax,
bamboo and banana, are commonly mixed with polymers to form NFRP
composites for making domestic products, of which cost and strength
are the most concerning factors. Such fibres are classified as renewable
sources and can be extracted from the nature without damaging en-
vironment, they could be a substitution of glass fibre diverse en-
gineering applications as the mechanical properties of the NFRP com-
posites are comparable to glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP)
composites (Table 1).
orientations, which give the strength to the fibre subject to different
loads [3]. Similar to other layer systems, the microfibrillar angle gov-
erns the tensile strength of nature fibres. Ramesh [4] has provided a
detail table to compare the properties of different plant-based natural
fibres with different microfibrillar orientations. The elongation at break
increases with microfibrillar angle. The relationship between the mi-
crofibrillar angle and the tensile modulus of different natural fibres is
shown in Fig. 2. It is noticeable that tensile modulus of NFRP compo-
sites would be higher when all microfibrils are aligned along the fibre's
direction, where tensile loading is applied.
Moreover, microfibrils are not identical as they are comprised of
crystalline and amorphous regions, in which the former one determines
the strength of fibre while latter one is relatively soft and formed by
irregular molecular chains (Fig. 1). The internal structure of natural
fibres is contingent upon the age and origin of the plants and climate
conditions. Ho et al. [3] have shown a clear chart on the family of
natural fibres commonly used in different engineering applications.
Recently, Bamboo fibre has attracted much attention compared with
other types of natural fibres (Fig. 3). Low density, low cost, high me-
chanical strength and high growth rate are its advantages. The most
excellent merit of this type of plant is that its ability of producing
oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide are approximately three times as
compared with other plants, which help stabilize the green house
problem in certain extent. Obviously, many tiny holes are seen on
bamboo (Fig. 3b). However, high porous nature, high moisture content,
difficulty of extracting fine and continuous fibre, and thermal de-
gradation during the manufacturing process are its disadvantages to
broad applications [5].
Literally, such problems may exist in other types of natural fibres,
which results in reducing the strength of resultant composites. Despite
the green message is straightforward, product manufacturers hesitate to
use these kinds of composites due to several aspects, such as geome-
trical and mechanical properties, consistent and stable supply chain of
natural fibres, bonding properties between the natural fibres and ma-
trix, and the durability of NFRP composites served in different harsh
environments [2]. These aspects become the reference for the users to
evaluate their usability and manufacturability.
4. Interfacial bonding properties of NFRP composites

3. Structure of natural fibres

The mechanical properties of NFRP composites are directly gov-
erned by their interfacial bonding properties between the natural fibre
Natural fibres have complicated structures in microscopic view. As
and its surrounding matrix. Many different types of micro mechanical
showed in Fig. 1, by grinding a kenaf bark fibre, a core of lumen is
tests such as single fibre fragmentation test, single fibre pull out test,
wrapped by different layers of cell wall with different microfibril
the micro-bond test and the single fibre compression tests are com-
monly used to examine the interfacial bonding properties of fibre re-
Table 1
Basic properties of natural fibre and glass fibre [1].
inforced composites.
Beckermann and Pickering [6] have studied the bonding property of
Density Tensile strength Elastic Elongation at hemp fibres treated with a surface coupling agent, maleic anhydride
(g/cm3) (MPa) Modulus Break modified polypropylene (MAPP), which enhances the bonding between
(GPa) (%)
the fibres and matrix. The fragmentation test was conducted to find out
Jute 13–1.5 200–770 20–55 2.0–3.0 the critical length (Lc) of the fibre, in which the stress can be fully
Sisal 1.5 100–800 9–22 3.0–7.0 transferred from the matrix to the fibre if an embedded length (L) is
Kenaf 1.4–1.5 930 53 1.6 equal or great than LC once a composite is loaded. The fragments appear
Coir 1.2 180 4–6 30.0
in different lengths from Fig. 4. Different surface morphology of hemp
Flax 1.5 350–1040 28–70 2.0–4.0
Hemp 1.5 690 30–70 1.5–4.0 fibres could be found with various surface treatments (Fig. 5) [7].
Bamboo 0.6–1.1 140–230 11–17 4.0–7.0 Liotier et al. [8] have studied the fibre/matrix interface in NFRP
Carbon 1.4 4000 230–240 1.4–1.8 composites. Wettability of resin on the surface of fibre was studied by
Aramid 1.4 3000–3150 63–67 3.3–3.7 taking the surface energy of a solid (γs) and the surface tension of a
E-glass 2.5 1200–1500 70 2.5
Epoxy (Thermoset) 1.10–1.40 41–90 3.0–6.0 1–6
liquid (γL) into account. The results showed that treated natural fibres
Polyester (PE) 1.04–1.46 35–100 2.1–4.4 1–3 would have a better bonding performance as compared with untreated
(Thermoset) fibres due to large contact angle (θA).
Hemp/Epoxy – 75 3.33 –
Vf = 40%
4.1. Fibre pull-out model
Jute/Epoxy – 58 4.0 –
Vf = 40%
Traditionally, the performance of fibre/matrix interface can be

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Fig. 1. SEM of a kenaf bark fibre, and schematic representations of

macro-fibril and micro-fibril of natural plant [3].

Fig. 2. The relationship between micro-fibrillar angle and tensile

modulus of different natural fibres.

Fig. 3. Bamboo culm (a); Cross section of bamboo culm (b) and Vascular bundle (c).

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K.-t. Lau et al.
Fig. 4. Optical micrograph of a failure sample fragmentation test [6].
expressed by a fibre-pull out model [9–11]. A perfect bonding between
the fibre and matrix is always assumed. The interfacial bonding stress in
the fibre pull-out model is influenced by several parameters:
• Fibre embedded length (l);
• Moduli of fibre (E ) and matrix (E );
f m
• Thickness of an adhesive layer (t ) and a the accuracy of results:
• the diameter (D ) of the fibre, which represents the total bonding
f
area on the fibre surface.
Later on two cylinder and three cylinder models appeared to study
the interface bonding properties with considering effects of adhesive
layer and fibre coating, respectively [12–15]. Besides, thermal induced
stress and strain are also crucial to further introduce an additional
clamping force onto the surface of fibre [16]. All these models are based
on a perfect circular fibre embedded in a cylindrical matrix.
In reality, developing a theoretical model to predict and analyse the
interfacial bonding properties of NFRP composites is challenging since
their surface morphology is entirely different from traditional synthetic
fibres, for instance carbon, glass and aramid. The diameter of synthesis
fibres can be controlled precisely during their manufacturing process.
Fig. 5. SEM micrograph of the untreated and treated hemp fibres [7].
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In Fig. 6, the cross shape of different natural fibres is shown [17].
However, natural fibres are generally irregular and vary in diameter
along its longitudinal direction and covered by a layer of surface
coating, which reduce the bonding strength between the fibre and
surrounding matrix [2]. A knob appears on the fibre surface and the
roughness of the fibre is high as compared with other synthetic fibres
(Fig. 7) [8]. Besides, localized mechanical and materials properties of
natural fibres may vary due to their porous structures. Consequently,
the fibre pull-out model is only able to provide a rough prediction as the
mechanical interlocking between the fibre and matrix is not taken into
account in this model (Fig. 8).
4.2. Micro-droplet test
Another test for assessing the bonding strength between fibre and
matrix in a composite system is a single fibre micro-droplet test (Fig. 9)
[8]. The test analyses the interfacial behaviour of a fibre bonded inside
a micro-dropt of resin. The sample preparation requires deposit of a
50 μL dropt of resin on the fibre. The embedded length should be be-
tween 100 and 300 μm [18]. This method, unlike other fibre pull out
models, average shear stress can be obtained once the fibre is debonded
by a force (Fd).
In a natural fibre, peeling off its sub-layers during the pull-out
process may not truly reflect the bonding strength between the fibre
and matrix, this observation varies with different fibres used for the test
(Fig. 9b). Also, there are two concerns of micro-droplet test that alter
(i) large scattering data obtained due to inconsistent dimension of fi-
bres and
(ii) ignorance of the stress concentration at bond end regions.
Fig. 10 clearly demonstrates that the conditions at the bond end
region in a cylinder fibre pull-out model determine the maximum in-
terfacial shear stress at bonded interface, where shear cracks may be
initiated even under an insignificant load applied to the composite [19].
The stress concentration at the bond end cannot be calculated precisely
in micro-droplet test, as a sharp angled end cannot be not ideally made,
shown as Case A. That explains the existence of large scatterings data in
extensive previous experimental works. In the meantime, Case B and C
reflect the real condition of bond end. Maximum shear stress at bond
end regions could be several times higher than that of the average shear
K.-t. Lau et al.
Fig. 6. SEM images of different natural fibres [17].
Fig. 7. A knob on the surface of fibre [8].
stress measured by the droplet test. The condition at the bond end is
crucial in fibre pull-out model, of which results cannot be compared
with theoretical and numerical analyses precisely.
5. Mechanical properties of NFRP composites
5.1. Models for NFRP composites
Many attempts have been used to interpret the mechanical prop-
erties of NFRP composites in past few years. One of the commonly-used
theories for laminate composite is the “Rule of Mixture”, in which the
mechanical properties of a composite can be determined by purely
summating the properties of fibre and matrix with considering their
volume fractions.
Ec = Ef Vf + Em Vm
Munde and Ingle [20] have summarized and compared different
theoretical models, including Hirsch's model, Halpin-Tsai equation,
Composites Part B 136 (2018) 222–233
Modified Halpin-Tsai equation and Bowyer Bader's model, to quantify
the mechanical properties of NFRP composites.
In these models, fibre orientation is an essential element to the
properties of composites. In reality, randomly-oriented fibre composites
are the main flow for injection moulding process. Only Bowyer Bader's
model does consider the fibre length by introducing the fibre length
factor (K2) into their equation. Eqs (2) and (3) are formed based on the
similar principle of Eq. (1) by additionally including two factors, fibre
orientation and fibre length. However, these two factors are difficult to
measure accurately.
Mc = Mf K1 K2 Vf + Mm Vm (2)
Tc = Tf K1 K2 Vf + Tm Vm (3)
where K1 and K2 are fibre orientation and fibre length factors, respec-
tively. Mc and Tc are the modulus and tensile strength of a NFRP
composite. V is the volume fraction. Subscripts c, f and m denote
composite, fibre and matrix, respectively. Fig. 11 summarizes several
key parameters that may affect the properties of composites.
5.2. Manufacturing process
Similar to synthetic fibre composites, the properties of NFRP com-
posites are also affected by their manufacturing processes. The selection
criteria of manufacturing processes of NFRP composites are dependent
on their volume of production, complexity of final products, the di-
mensional tolerance and production time. Naidu et al. [21] and
McGregor et al. [22] have listed out common manufacturing techniques
for NFRP composites:
• Hand layup
• Spray layup
• Compression moulding
• Filament winding
• Injection moulding
(1) • Pre-impregnated NF/polymer tape
A specific manufacturing technique is chosen based on the types of
fibres. Most of short natural fibre composites are fabricated by spray
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Fig. 8. Interfacial bonding stress: Stress is influ-

enced by the embedded length (L) (left) and by
the shape and orientation of fibre (right).

Fig. 9. A micro-droplet test of a fibre after de-

bonding (left) and peel-off of sub-layer of the
fibre [8].

Fig. 10. Maximum shear stress at bond end.

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K.-t. Lau et al.
Fig. 11. Key factors that affect the mechanical properties of natural fibre composites.
layup and injection moulding, in which the fibre volume fraction is
limited, while hand layup, injection and compression moulding are
generally used for woven fabric fibres. Choking of fibre at an orifice (or
nozzle) of an injector may affect the mixture flow speed and cause an
insufficient resin fill-up inside the mould.
Well control of pressure and temperature in manufacturing process
are influential to the avoid degradation of fibre and to guarantee the
quality of NFRP composites. A preform is first placed inside a mould
before applying resin in injection and compression mouldings. In such
cases, applying high pressure ensures a desirable fibre volume fraction
in the composites. Fig. 12 show the degradation temperature of con-
stituents in typical natural fibres. Generally, the processing temperature
of most polymeric resin is in the range of 200–500 °C, which may da-
mage the fibres during the production process of composites. Extra care
in controlling processing temperature is required to avoid over-tem-
perature at some local regions [1]. However, if the temperature is too
low, the viscosity of the resin may not reach to a desirable level
(viscosity), which would affect the wettability of fibre and uniformity of
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Composites Part B 136 (2018) 222–233
resin inside the composites.
5.3. Fibre orientation
As most of the NFRP composites are made of short fibre, fibre or-
ientation is essential to govern their mechanical properties. Fibre or-
ientation is highly affected by the resin flowing pattern (Fig. 13),
viscosity of resin and shape of products (moulding cavity design). In-
jection moulding process keeps changing the fibre orientation, and thus
cause uneven strength distribution of final NFRP products. Fire or-
ientation is also influenced by the surface tension and roughness inside
a barrel, which makes the fibre aligning close toward the wall rather
than the centre of the barrel (Fig. 13). The surface roughness of an inner
wall of barrel is crucial factor as the resin flow velocity would increase
from the wall toward the centre. The velocity profile can be estimated
through the traditional thermodynamic equations. Even though some
articles have proved that the resultant properties of composites are
partially affected by the fibre length affect, due to the swelling effect,
there is a limitation of increasing fibre volume fraction of natural fibre
in a composite because of its hydrophilicity and the length of fibre in
injection moulding process [23].
Facca et al. [24] have claimed that aspect ratio (L/D), where L and
D is the length of fibre and diameter of fibre (D), is an appropriate
parameter to determine the properties of NFRP composites. It reflects
the total surface area used to bond with the matrix, and thus enhance
the interfacial bonding strength. However, the fact that failure of the
NFRP composites is highly sensitive to the size of fibre and the cross
section of a natural fibre is not uniform along its fibre length may cause
inaccuracy of measurement.
5.4. Moisture absorption
Moisture absorption is another adverse factor that degrade the fi-
bres in a composite. This can be reduced by their pre-processed equi-
librium moisture content at elevated temperatures during composite
manufacturing [24]. The moisture content of nature fibre can be cal-
culated as follows:
Fig. 12. Thermal decomposition ranges for NFPC
constituents and subsequent effects on the char-
acteristics of the composite constituent.
K.-t. Lau et al.
Mw − Mo ⎞
MC (%) = 100 ⎛
⎜ ⎟
⎝ Mo ⎠
where Mo and Mw refer to the oven dry and “wet” masses of fibres
respectively. In fact, it is difficult to get a close form equation to ac-
curately determine the mechanical properties of NFRP composites due
to their naturally-inherent properties.
5.5. Chemical constituents
Fig. 14 shows that the mechanical properties of the NFRP compo-
sites is highly dependent on chemical constituents of fibre, including
crystalline cellulose, non-crystalline cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
[3], which directly affect the parameters Mf and Tf in Eqs. (2) and (3).
Fibres tend to degrade with a high portion of hemicellulose. On the
other hand, increasing the crystalline cellulose helps enhance the
strength of fibre.
6. Flammability
Although using natural fibres could subsequently reduce the overall
product cost due to the reduction in raw material and synthesis process
costs, their flammability still restricts its applications for many struc-
tural components, particularly for those structures that are required to
Fig. 14. The properties of natural fibre are influenced by its chemical constituents.
Composites Part B 136 (2018) 222–233
Fig. 13. Influence of flow on short fibre orienta-
tion inside a barrel.
bear lives of human. Even for the traditional carbon fibre reinforced
polymer composites, with the presence of carbon fibre, which is a high
(4)
thermal conductive material would accelerate the ignition rate of a
composite. This carbon fibre, would facilitate the transmission of heat,
to general “candlewick” effect [25]. In this regard, flame retardant is
recommended for all polymer-based composites to prolong the ignition
process. In order to meet strict fire safety requirements of demanding
sectors, such as electronic, automotive, maritime and aircraft in-
dustries, the flame retardant properties of NFRP composites have to be
improved.
Szolnoki et al. [26] have studied using phosphorus to reduce the
flammability of hemp fibre reinforced polymer composites [26]. The
fire retardant was applied onto the surface of fabrics by immersing pre-
heated dry fabric into a cold phosphoric acid solution. It was pointed
out that mechanical properties of the composites were slightly affected
by adding flame retardant into polymer matrix.
Elsabbagh et al. [27] have addressed that the melting temperature
and thermal stability are two main hindrances of using NFRP compo-
sites in electronic industries. Thus, flame retardant was used to meet
such requirements. Jute, flax and kenaf were mixed with Polyamide 6
(PA6). in a pellet form in this study (Fig. 15). Fig. 16 shows that the
heat release rate of natural fibres decreased with increasing portion of
flame retardant substantially. For a composite with 22.5% flax fibre and
20 wt % flame retardants, the heat release rate is dropped by 50%.
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K.-t. Lau et al.
However, it has been reported that increasing the fibre content results
in the decrease of the degradation temperature.
Bhattacharyya et al. [28] have compared the results obtained from
UL-94 (The Standard for Safety of Flammability of Plastic Materials) for
pure polypropylene (PP), PP + kenaf, and PP + kenaf + APP (Am-
monium Polyphosphate). It was found that high lignin content of kenaf
led to a delay in dripping time considerably and the presence of APP
further improved the fire retardance ability by delay dripping (Fig. 17).
The average sample dripping times were 15, 52 and 110 s respectively
[29]. The mechanisms involved in the thermal decomposition of
polymer-based composites is shown in Fig. 18. When sufficient large
heat flux radiated from a fire, the polymer matrix and fibres will
thermally decompose to yield volatile gasses, solid carbonaceous char,
and airborne soot particles. These gases are consisted of both flammable
and non-flammable types. This method is basically used to examine the
composition of these gases coming out from the composites during a
fire condition, to further estimate their harmfulness to the human [29].
Fei et al. [30] used nanotubes as fire retardant in bamboo fibre-
reinforced high-density Polyethylene composites. It revealed that flame
retardance ability of composites was enhanced with low content of
nanotubes. The mechanical properties of the composites were greatly
affected due to agglomeration of excessive nanotubes. Nanotubes in
composites could also absorb abundant decomposition products, such
as some combustible gas and intermediate products containing free
radicals.
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Composites Part B 136 (2018) 222–233
Fig. 15. Pellitised extrudates of PA6 + 10%
kenaf +20% FR (left) and PA6 + 22.5% kenaf
and 20% FR (right) [27].
Huang and Netravali [31] studied the use of nanoclay to strengthen
flax reinforced soy protein resin based fully-bio-degradable composites.
It was found that the inter-laminar shear strength increased with the
use of nanoclay as nano-reinforcement. Carbon nanotube, nanoclay,
carbon nanofibre, SiO2 and Fe2O3 nano-particle are common types of
nano-structural materials used to strengthen the properties of NFRP
composites [32].
Generally, the functions of using flame retardant are to [28]:
• dilute the amount of combustion organic material;
• reduce the temperature of composites and act as a heat sink;
• reduce the temperature that decompose endothermically to yield
water or other non-combustible products with a high specific heat
capacity;
• reduce the heat release rate (HRR) by using polymers that decom-
pose via endothermic reaction, and
• increase the aromaticity of the polymer matrix to decompose it into
an insulating surface layer of carbonaceous char that slows heat
conduction into the composites and reduces flammable gas emis-
sion.
7. Applications of NFRP composites
Using natural fibres in engineering applications is challenging due
to extensive issues addressed in previous sections. High degree of
Fig. 16. HRR of PA 6 reinforced by different
natural fibre and FR [27].
K.-t. Lau et al.
Fig. 18. Mechanisms involved in the thermal composition of polymer composites [29].
moisture absorption (5–10%), flammability, consistency of raw mate-
rials and their properties, and bonding characteristics between the
natural fibres and polymeric matrix are the major issues that resist the
popularity of using NFRP composites in real life.
Locality, weather condition during the growing period, the part of
plant that are harvested, and the maturity of the plant are the factors
influencing the properties of NF. Such factors raise higher degree of
uncertainties toward the properties of natural fibres for product de-
velopment [33–37].
7.1. Aerospace industries
In the aerospace engineering industry, the reliability of using new
materials for structural components is a main concern. Low tempera-
ture, low pressure, high intensity of UV exposure and high stress en-
vironments may accelerate the degradation of NFRP composites.
“Defect-free” approach is aimed in the design of aerospace structures. It
implies that replacing synthetic fibres by natural fibres on structural
components is a difficult access. The presence of moisture inside the
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Composites Part B 136 (2018) 222–233
Fig. 17. UL-94-V standard test results: (a) pure
PP; (b) PP + kenaf and (c) PP + kenaf + APP
[28].
composites (laminar level) and at the bonding interface would greatly
vary interfacial adhesion properties, thereby affecting their mechanical
properties. UV radiation can dissociate the molecule bonds in the
polymeric matrix, and thus it results in accelerating the degradation
process [33].
In the aircraft engineering industry, most structural components are
capable of withstanding foreign object impacts, including bird strikes
and hail damage as an inherent damage may induce a catastrophic
failure of structures. Lightning strike is another kind of damage that
aircraft fuselages have to be electrically conductive. There is a lack of
comprehensive studies to date focusing on development of high elec-
trical conductive NFRP composites. Currently, adding carbon-based
particles into the matrix to improve the electrical conductivity of NFRP
composites is a feasible approach.
7.2. Automotive industries
In the automotive industry, NFRP composites are eligible to side and
front panels of vehicles as they are not primary structural components.
Cost and weight of vehicles could be partially reduced when NFRP
composites replaces traditional glass fibre composites and aluminium in
these components.
7.3. Civil engineering industries
Cementitous based materials is recognised as tension -weak mate-
rials, in which micro-cracks easily form on the surface or at the inter-
face between cement phase and aggregate after the hydration process.
Even though tension load can be taken by embedded reinforced steel
bars, shrinkage and the reduction of water content are the reasons of
micro-cracks during hydration process. For concrete structures, cement
is fundamental substance to bond all aggregates (sand, fine and small
large stones) together to form structures with high compressive
strength. Dispersion is an indispensable issue in in-house or on-site
condition. If large amount of fibres agglomerates together, it would
substantially affect the strength of the concrete structures. Therefore,
many works have studied using short natural fibres to enhance the
tensile strength in the cement phase to minimize any crack formation.
In some previous studies, it have been proofed that by conducting a
K.-t. Lau et al.
surface treatment on re surface of natural fibres with NaOH or AlCl3,
H2SO4 or Ca(OH)2, It would help diminish the degradation due to harsh
environments, such as high humidity and temperature [38–42].
Therefore, natural fibre-cement composites for residential housing
has been limited to exterior applications, such as siding and roofing.
Additional of a protecting coating material on these structures are de-
manded to avoid weathering attack.
8. Conclusion
Natural fibres can be obtained in the nature, making them to be new
materials for reinforced polymer composites for different engineering
applications [43–48]. These fibres are renewable, lightweight and low
cost with moderate strength, which make them become promising
materials beyond glass fibre for secondary structural components.
However, as they are not synthetized through precise manufacturing
process, the mechanical and material properties are the issues. The
shortcomings of natural fibres are (i) high moisture content; (ii) in-
consistence on their properties; (iii) poor bonding properties with
polymeric resin (hydrophilic fibre and hydrophobic resin); (iv)
flammability; (v) uneven dispersion in products, particular short fibre
and (v) swelling effect that may affect the quality of resultant compo-
sites [49–52].
Mathematical and numerical models used to predict the mechanical
properties of NFRP composites are limited due to the difficulty of
having accurate input data. Modelling of a fibre is tough by using a
traditional cylinder or shear-lag model because of varying diameter of
the fibre along its length. Bonding interaction between the fibre and
matrix consist of chemical bonding and mechanical interlocking.
Since the last decade, the use of natural fibre, as reinforcement for
different engineering structural components have shown up. Using
nanoparticles in NFRP composites to alter the UV-absorbability and gas
permeability has also been studied in detail [33]. Regarding the in-
creasing usage of NFRP composites, many researches have started
working on developing non-destructive evaluation techniques, such as
acoustic emission [53], digital imaging [54] and confocal Raman
imaging [55] to examine the quality of NFRP composites to ensure their
health status during service condition.
Regardless of the fact that many factors affect the use of natural
fibres as reinforcement in polymer-based composites, renewability and
cost competitiveness of natural fibres are still attractive to all business
sectors to explore opportunities to replace traditional materials by
natural fibres [56–69]. The value of research along this direction is
huge as many problems have not yet been solved. There is no doubt that
designing NFRP composites and choosing their manufacturing process
appropriately will help them to be one of the dominated structural
materials in engineering industries in the future.
Acknowledgement
This project is supported by a Research Grants from the Swinburne
University of Technology and Asia University.
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