ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，1/17

Previous | Next | Contents

ESDEP WG 17

SEISMIC DESIGN

Lecture 17.4: Structural Analysis for

Seismic Actions
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE

To give an overview of the methods used for the analysis of structures under
seismic actions.

PREREQUISITES

Basic knowledge of structural analysis and structural dynamics

RELATED LECTURES

Lecture 17.2: Introduction to Seismic Design - Seismic Hazard and Seismic Risk

Lecture 17.3: The Cyclic Behaviour of Steel Elements and Connections

SUMMARY

The lecture briefly presents the methods stipulated by modern design codes for
the analysis of structures under seismic actions. Time-domain methods are
briefly described and the scope of their application is specified. Emphasis is
given to the response spectrum method as the standard procedure proposed
by, for example, Eurocode 8 [1]. In addition, a simplified response spectrum
method for regular buildings is presented. Finally inelastic behaviour and its role
in design under seismic actions is discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION
Several methods are available for the structural analysis of buildings and other
civil engineering works under seismic actions. The differences between the
methods lie (a) in the way they incorporate the seismic input and (b) in the
idealization of the structure. All methods of analysis must serve the current
design philosophy for seismic actions which requires that a structure must not
collapse and must retain its structural integrity under the so-called "strong"
earthquake. The structure also must be protected against damage and
limitations of use under the so-called "moderate" earthquake. To avoid collapse,
the structure is allowed to develop plastic zones in which seismic energy is
dissipated.

Details of the basic requirements of seismic behaviour of structures, and the

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，2/17

criteria needed for ensuring compliance with these requirements, can be found
in all modern seismic design codes, e.g. Eurocode 8 [1].

2. DIRECT METHODS OF DYNAMIC ANALYSIS (TIME

INTEGRATION)
Due to the dynamic nature of seismic excitation, the actual displacements and
stresses developed in a structure are time dependent, i.e. they are functions of
time (t). To analyze a structure under dynamic loads, efficient methods have
been developed that discretize and solve the model of the structure on the
basis of the Finite Element Method. Within this framework there exist methods
that can perform a linear or non-linear analysis, i.e. elastic, small deformation,
or inelastic, large deformation analysis for a given seismic excitation, expressed
in the form of an accelerogram a(t). The cost of such analysis is generally high,
while the results correspond to a particular excitation and, as such do not offer
a reliable basis for design. To increase the reliability of the method, a set of
artificial accelerograms that represent the seismicity of a particular region is
usually generated. This procedure, however, renders the method very
expensive.

Eurocode 8 [1] considers the use of time domain dynamic analysis, i.e. a direct
dynamic analysis performed by numerical integration of the differential
equations of motion. It stipulates conditions for the use of artificially generated
accelerograms and discusses the overall reliability of the method. The reliability
must be at least the same as that obtained by the standard procedure of the
Code which is the response spectrum method. Although the direct dynamic
methods can perform a close-to-reality analysis, this approach is justified and
can be employed effectively only for large and complex structures. It is used
where no previous experience of the structural behaviour exists, or for detailed
evaluation of the response of existing structures under specific earthquakes.

The cost of an analysis based on the finite element method can be kept
reasonable by using only line elements and by avoiding the use of surface
elements. The mass of the structure of buildings is mainly concentrated at the
floor levels. This distribution permits the treatment of all the masses of the
structure as lumped at the floor levels in dynamic analysis. The dynamic
degrees of freedom for which inertia forces are developed can then be reduced
to a reasonable number. All the remaining kinematical degrees of freedom
control the statics of the structure, and can then be expressed in terms of the
dynamic degrees of freedom. In this way the number of differential equations
that express the dynamic response of the system can be reduced to a small
number, leading to reasonable and acceptable solutions.

3. RESPONSE SPECTRUM METHOD OF ANALYSIS

The time dependent solutions discussed above express the dynamic response of
the structure due to a particular earthquake given in the form of an
accelerogram. They do not offer the required information for design however,
because one particular earthquake cannot be representative of the seismicity of

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，3/17

the area under consideration.

In order to define an envelope of different earthquakes and also to eliminate

the factor of time, the concept of the response spectrum was developed. The
response spectrum provides the required information for design purposes and,
at the same time, simplifies the analysis by reducing the problem to a static
problem of the estimated maximum responses. The response spectrum is
defined, on a single degree of freedom system of varying frequency excited by
a specific earthquake, as the maximum response of the system, ignoring the
particular time of its occurrence. If the response is the displacement of the
system then the displacement spectrum is formed. If the response is the
velocity or the acceleration, the velocity or acceleration spectra are developed.
The acceleration response spectrum is of primary interest in earthquake
engineering. More details about earthquake response spectra are given in
Lecture 17.2.

The response spectrum method of analysis is the standard design procedure of

modern seismic design codes, e.g. Eurocode 8. It aims to give directly the
maximum effects of the earthquake in the various elements of the structure.

The general method, called also the multi-modal method, consists of computing
the various modes of vibration of the structure and the magnitude of the
maximum response in each mode with reference to a response spectrum. A rule
is then used to combine the responses of the different modes. For this reason
the method is also known as the superposition of modal responses method,
although the same name is used for linear dynamic analysis where the mode
shapes are used to decouple the differential equations of motion and convert
the n-degree of freedom coupled system to n-single degree of freedom
systems. The combination rule will generally be a square root of the sum of
squares (SRSS) of the various modal responses. This combination rule must be
applied to all computed quantities, i.e. bending moments, shear forces, normal
forces and displacements. As a consequence, the resulting internal forces do
not represent an equilibrated set. Where the frequencies of a structure do not
differ by more than 10%, different combination rules need to be employed. In
Figure 1 the steps of such an analysis by means of the response spectrum are
briefly summarised.

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，4/17

The response spectrum method is valid only for linear behaviour of a structure,
i.e. only for an elastic analysis with small deformations. For this reason the
term elastic response spectrum is generally used. However an equivalent
method can be developed which results from comparative linear and non-linear
analyses. It uses a modified response spectrum such that the output internal

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，5/17

forces from a linear analysis will be correlated with the non-linear ones. This
modified spectrum is referred to as the design response spectrum. It is derived
from the elastic spectrum modified by factors that take into account the
influence of the non-linearity of the structural material, the soil and other
damping characteristics. In Figure 2 the design response spectra to be used in
the analysis of structures, as given in Eurocode 8 [1], are shown schematically.

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，6/17

The main advantage of using the design response spectrum is that the analysis
is linear while the results represent the non-linear response of the structure.

A more simplified procedure than the multi-modal method, is the so-called

equivalent static force analysis, sometimes also called, e.g. in Eurocode 8 [1],
the simplified dynamic analysis. This method is a particular application of the
design response spectrum method where one particular mode of vibration is
predominant as compared to others. This is the case for regular buildings
(regular stiffness and mass distribution over the height of the building
according to Eurocode rules, see Lecture 17.5). The system is accurately
modelled by a single degree of freedom system. In essence the design
spectrum method is reduced to one mode of vibration to express the dynamic
behaviour of the system. Usually the first flexural mode shape is considered as
a primary mode of vibration which can be simplified further into a simple line.
The equivalent static forces are computed as shown in Figure 3. A classical
static analysis can then be performed under the action of these equivalent
static forces. The only prerequisite of the method is the fundamental period of
vibration T of the structure. It needs to be calculated in order to find the
appropriate design spectrum value β(T), necessary to compute the base shear
V. Alternatively, if an accurate value of the period T is not available, the value
of the fundamental period can be calculated approximately by using one of the
recommended formulae.

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，7/17

The equivalent static force method is an approximate method which is adequate

for certain types of structures and for the preliminary design of other
structures. There may be cases where this method is not conservative because
the contribution from higher modes of vibration may be significant. For these
cases a complete dynamic response spectrum analysis is advisable for the final
design stage.

In Table 1 a summary of the possible methods of structural analysis under

seismic actions is presented. Moreover the following remarks can be made:

z The effects of earthquake on a structure depend upon its stiffness and

mass characteristics. The forces induced in flexible structures (high

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，8/17

fundamental period T) are generally lower than those in stiffer structures.

z The effects of earthquake on a structure depend upon the distribution of
the mass and the stiffness of the structure. Non-regular distribution
involves the influence of more vibration modes on the response.
z Simplified analysis methods, such as static equivalent force analysis,
generally can be applied to regular structures, but in some cases may give
unsafe results.
z Non-regular structures require more sophisticated analysis, such as the
response spectrum or modal superposition method.
z Large complex structures with special features of behaviour should be
analysed by more elaborate methods such as non-linear dynamic analysis.
z The designer should always keep in mind that in all the above-mentioned
methods of analysis, many uncertainties have been rationalized. The
control of the uncertainties requires compliance with the rules of "good
practice" mentioned in Lecture 17.5. The uncertainties relate to behaviour
of the structural material under cycling loading, discrepancy of the
earthquake characteristics, real damping factor, effects of soil-structure
interaction etc.

It is clear from the above discussion that the design of an earthquake resistant
structure is a complex task which requires engineering judgement. It must be
performed by experienced engineers. The blind use of computer software as
blackboxes may result in inadequate design.

4. INELASTIC BEHAVIOUR AND ITS ROLE IN DESIGN

The elastic design of an earthquake resistant structure leads to very expensive
structures. Moreover it is not consistent with the current design philosophy
which seeks to establish controlled dissipative zones in the structure where
seismic energy can be dissipated by means of ductile hysteretic behaviour. The
principal dissipative zones in steel structures are plastic hinges (in bending),
sheared web panels and members under plastic tension (Figure 4).

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，9/17

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，10/17

In Figure 5 the difference in energy dissipation between the elastic and inelastic
concept is presented. The energy input Ei of an earthquake is counterbalanced
inside the structure by the following sum of terms:

Ei = Ee + Ed + Eye + Ekin

where

Ee is the energy of elastic strain

Ed is the energy dissipated in a viscoelastic way

Eye is the energy dissipated by yielding

Ekin is the kinetic energy.

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，11/17

To obtain a stable earthquake resistant structure, either the energy input is

minimized by means of special techniques, such as base isolation of the
building, or the dissipative terms in the right hand side of the equation are
increased. The term Eye must be increased as much as possible. It should be
noted that by taking into account elastoplastic energy dissipation, a

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，12/17

considerable weight reduction of the structure is achieved. In Figure 6 the

moment rotation diagram of two equivalent beam elements is considered from
the point of view of energy dissipation. The resisting moment M1 required to
resist an earthquake elastically, is 3 times greater than the resisting moment
M2 of the elastoplastic element with a ductility of 2. Expressed in terms of
weight, beam 2 is only equivalent to 0,6 of beam 1. Thus the ductile behaviour
allows for substantial economy in the size of the elements of a structure. This
economy is even more substantial since the local ductility can be higher than 2.
In steel structures the value of local ductility can be as high as 10.

In order to design structures with dissipative behaviour by employing an elastic

analysis which is easy for the design office, certain rules have to be followed.

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，13/17

They assure the safe formation of as many as possible local dissipative zones,
avoiding local failure mechanisms.

To approximate the results of a non-linear dynamic analysis by performing an

elastic analysis, the conventional response spectrum method is modified by
reducing the spectrum in some way to account for the inelastic energy
dissipation of the real structure under the earthquake action.

This reduction is accomplished by using the structural behaviour factor q. It can

generally be defined as the ratio between the maximum accelerogram that a
structure can withstand without failure and the accelerogram for which yielding
appears somewhere in the structure. The definition is general and can be
applied to different quantities of interest. In steel structures, one way to
establish the correlation between a conventional elastic analysis and the real
inelastic behaviour is as follows:

For a given structure under a specific earthquake action a(t), a series of

computations of the non-linear dynamic response is performed by applying
actions λ(t), where λ is a multiplier. By increasing the value of λ the following
successive situations emerge (Figure 7) [2, 3]:

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，14/17

z λ values are such that all sections of the structure remain elastic. In these
cases, if d is a displacement that characterizes the deformation of the
structure, e.g. storey drift, then d will be proportional to λ.

z The particular value of λ which corresponds to the phase where yield stress

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，15/17

is reached in one section of the structure is called λe.

z In the next phase, the λ values are such that the real d's are smaller than
the d's calculated by the elastic analysis, i.e. supposing unlimited elastic
behaviour, because of the energy dissipation by yielding.
z By increasing the λ values further, a λmax value is computed which
corresponds to the same elastic and inelastic displacement. This
coincidence is due to the increasing role of P-Δ effects, which increase the
displacements.

The behaviour factor q, is then defined as:

q = λmax /λe

Thus the existence of a meeting point between the two forms of behaviour,
allows a direct link between the linear and non-linear computations. The
equivalence states that, for a given accelerogram a(t) and a known value of q,
the usual linear analysis under the action a(t)/q and the usual checks on
stresses, give the same safety level as the dynamic non-linear calculations
under the action of a(t). This equivalent is due to the counteraction of the
yielding effect which reduces the displacements, and the P-Δ effect on the
structure which increases the displacements.

The real displacements of the structure ds are given as q times the elastic
displacements de calculated by using the reduced forces, i.e.

ds = q de

The values of the factor q for various types of steel buildings are given in
Lecture 17.5. All recent design codes use a similar approach with slightly
different values for the q factor. These discrepancies are justified by the fact
that q factors are not only functions of the shape of the structure, but they
depend also on the accelerograms a(t) considered. The accelerograms differ
from one part of the world to the other. Other points of difference may be due
to the selected parameter characterizing the behaviour, which may be the equal
energy dissipation rather than the displacements, and due to the safety factors
used for the elastic analysis, which usually are higher than those used for the
inelastic analysis. Thus the appropriate q factors involve a theoretical approach
but also an engineering judgement.

It should be noted also that the analysis using a q reduction factor for an
earthquake action is conventional. Safety in the various structural elements is
assured by requiring the computed comparison stresses to be less than or equal
to the yield stress. For the design of connections, under a real earthquake, the
real comparison stresses are equal to fy in dissipative zones. It is for this reason
that connections close to dissipative zones must be designed to transmit the
plastic design resistance of elements and not the elastic internal forces
computed on the basis of an elastic analysis using a q reduction factor.

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，16/17

5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
z The design philosophy for structures to resist seismic actions requires
that the structure must not collapse and must retain its structural
integrity under a "strong" earthquake. The structure must also not be
damaged or limited in use under a "moderate" earthquake. To avoid
collapse, the structure is allowed to develop plastic zones in which
seismic energy is dissipated.
z Methods given by modern design codes for the analysis of structures
under seismic actions assess their behaviour against these
performance requirements.
z Time-domain methods are used but their application is expensive.
z The response spectrum method is the standard procedure of modern
seismic design codes, e.g. Eurocode 8. A simplified response
spectrum method for regular buildings is available.
z The elastic design of an earthquake resistant structure leads to very
expensive structures. Consequently the current design philosophy
uses controlled dissipative zones in the structure where seismic
energy can be dissipated by means of ductile hysteretic behaviour.

6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 8: "Structures in Seismic Regions - Design", CEN, (in
preparation).

[2] Ballio, G. (1985) ECCS Approach for the Design of Steel Structures to Resist
Earthquakes. Symposium on Steel in Buildings, Luxembourg. IASE-AIPC-IVBH
Report Volume 48 pp 313-380.

[3] Ballio, G. (1990) European Approach to Design of Steel Structures. 1990,

Proc of Hong Kong Fourth World Congress - Tall Buildings: 2000 and Beyond,
pp 935-946.

Table 1: Methods of analysis for structures under seismic actions

Data needed Type of analysis Use - Design Codes

DIRECT DYNAMIC
ANALYSIS
(Time domain)
⋅ Accelerogram a(t)
(real or artificial)
⋅ Characteristics of the
structure, elastic & inelastic
(e.g. M-θ curves for
⋅ Linear or non-linear ⋅ procedure permitted
by Codes but not for
⋅ Direct Integration design
⋅ Use only for large
and complex
structures
⋅ Use for evaluation of
response of existing
structures under a
specific earthquake

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27
ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG17] 页码，17/17

connections)
RESPONSE SPECTRUM ⋅ Modal analysis (linear) ⋅ Standard design
ANALYSIS procedure in Seismic
⋅ Mode shape Codes
⋅ Design Response Spectrum superposition
⋅ No limitations of use
⋅ Characteristics of the
structure, elastic only
EQUIVALENT STATIC ⋅ Static analysis ⋅ Procedure permitted
FORCE ANALYSIS by Codes for buildings
⋅ First vibration mode is with specific
⋅ Design Response Spectrum predominant limitations of
regularity
⋅ Characteristics of the
structure, elastic only

Previous | Next | Contents

http://www.haiyangshiyou.com/esdep/master/wg17/l0400.htm 2009-10-27