Psilocybin mushroom
“Magic Mushroom” redirects here. For other uses, see 1.1
Magic Mushroom (disambiguation).
Psilocybin mushrooms, also known as psychedelic
Psilocybe semilanceata
mushrooms, are mushrooms that contain the psychedelic
compounds psilocybin and psilocin. Common colloquial
terms include magic mushrooms and 'shrooms.[1] It
is used mainly as an entheogen and recreational drug
whose effects can include euphoria, altered thinking pro-
cesses, closed and open-eye visuals, synesthesia, an al-
tered sense of time and spiritual experiences. Bio-
logical genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include
Copelandia, Galerina, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Mycena,
Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Psilocybe. Over 100
species are classified in the genus Psilocybe.
Psilocybin mushrooms have likely been used since
prehistoric times and may have been depicted in rock art
and pre-Columbian historical materials in Mesoamerica.
Many cultures have used these mushrooms in religious
rites. In modern societies, they are used for spiritual
reasons, and recreationally for their mood lifting and The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Euro-
psychedelic effects.
1 History
Early
Archaeological evidence indicates the use of psilocybin-
containing mushrooms since ancient times. Sev-
eral mesolithic rock paintings from Tassili n'Ajjer (a
prehistoric North African site identified with the Capsian
culture) have been identified by author John S. Ashley as
possibly depicting the shamanic use of mushrooms, pos-
sibly Psilocybe.[2]
Hallucinogenic species of the psilocybe genus have a his-
tory of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for
religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-
Columbian times to the present day. Mushroom stones
and motifs have been found in Guatemala.[3] A statuette
dating from ca. 200 AD and depicting a mushroom
strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in a
west Mexican shaft and chamber tomb in the state of
Colima. A Psilocybe species was known to the Aztecs
as teonanácatl (literally “divine mushroom” - agglutina-
tive form of teó (god, sacred) and nanácatl (mushroom)
in Náhuatl) and were reportedly served at the corona-
tion of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs
and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as ge-
nius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous
mushrooms, when translated into English.[4] Bernardino
de Sahagún reported ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the
Aztecs, when he traveled to Central America after the
expedition of Hernán Cortés.[5]
After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries cam-
paigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs dis-
missing the Aztecs as idolaters; the use of hallucino-
genic plants and mushrooms, like other pre-Christian tra-
ditions, were quickly suppressed.[3] The Spanish believed
the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to commu-
nicate with devils. In converting people to Catholicism,
the Spanish pushed for a switch from teonanácatl to the
Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite this his-
tory, in some remote areas, the use of teonanácatl has
remained.[6]
pean medicinal literature appeared in the London Med-
ical and Physical Journal in 1799: a man had served
Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms that he had picked for
breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The doc-
tor who treated them later described how the youngest
child “was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor
could the threats of his father or mother refrain him.”[7]
1
2 2 OCCURRENCE
1.2 Modern
Psilocybe subaeruginascens
In 1955, Valentina and R. Gordon Wasson became the
first known Caucasians to actively participate in an in-
digenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much
to publicize their discovery, even publishing an arti-
cle on their experiences in Life in 1957.[8] In 1956
Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom that
the Wassons had brought back from Mexico as Psilo-
cybe,[9] and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified
psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these
mushrooms.[10][11]
Inspired by the Wassons’ Life article, Timothy Leary trav-
eled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms first-
hand. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard
Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promot-
ing psychological and religious study of psilocybin and
other psychedelic drugs. After Leary and Alpert were
dismissed by Harvard in 1963, they turned their atten-
tion toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the
nascent hippie counterculture.[12]
The popularization of entheogens by Wasson, Leary, au-
thors Terence McKenna and Robert Anton Wilson, and
others has led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin
mushrooms throughout the world. By the early 1970s,
many psilocybin mushroom species were described from
temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were
widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivat-
ing Psilocybe cubensis in large quantities were also pub-
lished. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from
wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most
widely used of the psychedelic drugs.
At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported
among some groups spanning from central Mexico to
Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe,
Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others.[6] An important figure
of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina.[13]
2 Occurrence
Non-Psilocybe species of psilocybin mushroom include
Pluteus salicinus (left), Gymnopilus luteoviridis (center),
and Panaeolus cinctulus, formerly called Panaeolus
subbalteatus (right).
Psilocybin is present in varying concentrations in about
200 species of Basidiomycota mushrooms. In a 2000
review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin
mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered
these to be distributed amongst the following genera:
Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus
(13), Copelandia (12), Hypholoma (6), Pluteus (6)
Inocybe (6), Conocybe (4), Panaeolina (4), Gerronema
(2), Agrocybe (1), Galerina (1) and Mycena (1).[14]
Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of
psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005
review.
Many of these are found in Mexico (53 species), with the
remainder distributed in the US and Canada (22), Eu-
rope (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and asso-
ciated islands (19).[15] In general, psilocybin-containing
species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in
meadows and woods of the subtropics and tropics, usu-
ally in soils rich in humus and plant debris.[16] Psilocy-
bin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the major-
ity of species are found in subtropical humid forests.[14]
Psilocybe species commonly found in the tropics in-
clude P. cubensis and P. subcubensis. P. semilanceata—
considered by Guzmán to be the world’s most widely dis-
tributed psilocybin mushroom[17] —is found in Europe,
North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New
Zealand, but is entirely absent from Mexico.[15]
3.1 Sensory
3 Effects
See also: Psilocybin
Psilocybin
Psilocin
The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from
psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is
broken down to produce psilocin, which is responsible for
the psychedelic effects.[18] Psilocybin and psilocin create
short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it
difficult to abuse them because the more often they are
taken within a short period of time, the weaker the resul-
tant effects are.[19] Psilocybin mushrooms have not been
known to cause physical or psychological dependence
(addiction).[20]
Poisonous (sometimes lethal) wild-picked mushrooms
can be mistaken for psilocybin mushrooms. Poisonous
mushrooms can look very similar to certain psyilocybin
containing mushrooms, and extreme care is advised when
picking them outdoors.
As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of
psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary con-
siderably among individual users. The mind-altering ef-
fects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last
from three to eight hours depending on dosage, prepa-
ration method, and personal metabolism. The first 3–4
hours of the trip are typically referred to as the 'peak' in
which the user experiences more vivid visuals, and dis-
tortions in reality. However, the effects can seem to last
much longer to the user because of psilocybin’s ability to
alter time perception.[21]
In internet surveys, some psilocybin users have reported
symptoms of hallucinogen persisting perception disor-
der, although this is uncommon and a causal connec-
tion with psilocybin use is unclear.[20] There is a case re-
port of perceptual disturbances and panic disorder be-
ginning after using psilocybin mushrooms in frequent
cannabis users with a pre-existing history of derealization
and anxiety.[22]
Magic mushrooms were rated as causing some of the
3
Despite risks, mushrooms do much less damage in the UK than
other recreational drugs.
least damage in the UK compared to other recreational
drugs by experts in a study by the Independent Scientific
Committee on Drugs.[23] Other researchers have said that
psilocybin is “remarkably non-toxic to the body’s organ
systems”, explaining that the risks are indirect: higher
dosages are more likely to cause fear and may result in
dangerous behavior.[24]
One study found the most desirable results may come
from starting with very low doses first, and trying slightly
higher doses over months. The researchers explain the
peak experiences occur at quantities only slightly lower
than a sort of anxiety threshold. Although risks of experi-
encing fear and anxiety increased somewhat consistently
along with dosage and overall quality of experience, at
dosages exceeding the individual’s threshold, there was
suddenly greater increases in anxiety than before. In
other words, after finding the optimum dose, returns di-
minish for using more (since risks of anxiety now increase
at a greater rate).[24]
3.1 Sensory
Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile
senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an
hour after ingestion, although effects may take up to two
hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually
include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange
light phenomena (such as auras or “halos” around light
sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to
ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye
visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp,
morph, or change solid colours; a sense of melting into the
environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds
seem to be heard with increased clarity; music, for exam-
ple, can often take on a profound sense of cadence and
4 5 DOSAGE

depth. Some users experience synesthesia, wherein they

perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hear-
ing a particular sound.[25]

3.2 Emotional

As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience,

or “trip”, is strongly dependent upon set and setting.
A negative environment could contribute to a bad trip,
whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would
set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make
experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an
anxious state of mind, they will likely experience height-
ened anxiousness on their trip. Many users find it prefer- Psilocybe villarrealiae, which is only known to a small area of
able to ingest the mushrooms with friends, people with Mexico
whom they are familiar, or people who are familiar with
'tripping'.[26] Users have stated that you can enhance your
nobotany have been asking for medical investigation of
trip by being in an environment or setting where you are
the use of synthetic and mushroom-derived psilocybin for
unlikely to panic.
the development of improved treatments of various neu-
rological disorders, including chronic cluster headaches,
following numerous anecdotal reports of benefits.[29]
3.3 Spiritual and well being
There are also studies which include reports of psilocy-
bin mushrooms sending both obsessive-compulsive dis-
In 2006, the United States government funded a random-
orders (OCD) and OCD-related clinical depression (both
ized and double-blinded study by Johns Hopkins Uni-
being widespread and debilitating mental health condi-
versity which studied the spiritual effects of the active
tions) into complete remission immediately and for up to
compound psilocybin.[27] The study involved 36 college-
months at a time, compared to current medications which
educated adults (average age of 46) who had never tried
often have both limited efficacy[30] and frequent undesir-
psilocybin nor had a history of drug use, and who had reli-
able side-effects.[31] Recent studies done at Imperial Col-
gious or spiritual interests. The participants were closely
lege London, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Psy-
observed for eight-hour intervals in a laboratory while un-
chiatric University Hospital Zurich conclude, when used
der the influence of psilocybin.[28]
properly, psilocybin acts as an antidepressant as suggested
One-third of the participants reported the experience was by fMRI brain scans.[32] [33] The active components of
the single most spiritually significant moment of their psilocybin mushrooms have also been found to treat al-
lives, and more than two-thirds reported it was among coholism and other addictions. The drugs potential as
the top five most spiritually significant experiences. Two treatment to alcoholism is also similar to results found in
months after the study, 79% of the participants reported relation to LSD in the 1950s and 60s. [34]
increased well-being or satisfaction; friends, relatives,
and associates confirmed this. They also reported anxiety
and depression symptoms to be decreased or completely
gone. Fourteen months after the study, 64% of partici-
5 Dosage
pants said they still experienced an increase in well-being
or life satisfaction. Dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on
the potency of the mushroom (the total psilocybin and
Despite highly controlled conditions to minimize adverse psilocin content of the mushrooms), which varies signifi-
effects, 22% of subjects (8 of 36) had notable experi- cantly both between species and within the same species,
ences of fear or paranoia. All subjects had never taken but is typically around 0.5–2.0% of the dried weight of
a hallucinogenic trip before. The authors, however, re- the mushroom. A typical dose of the common species
ported that all these instances were “readily managed with Psilocybe cubensis is about 1.0 to 2.5 g,[35] while about
reassurance.”[28] 2.5 to 5.0 g[35] dried mushroom material is considered a
strong dose. Above 5 g is often considered a heavy dose.
The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom com-
4 As medicine pounds varies not only from species to species, but also
from mushroom to mushroom inside a given species,
For more health related information on the main psycho- subspecies or variety. The same holds true even for
active ingredient, see psilocybin. different parts of the same mushroom. In the species
Advocates for advanced research in the field of eth- Psilocybe samuiensis, the dried cap of the mushroom con-

tains the most psilocybin at about 0.23%–0.90%. The
mycelium contains about 0.24%–0.32%.[36]
6 Legality
Main article: Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms
Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs un-
Psilocybe allenii
der the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic
Substances.[37] Schedule I drugs are deemed to have a
high potential for abuse and are not recognized for medi-
cal use. However, psilocybin mushrooms are not covered
by UN drug treaties.
Psilocybin mushrooms are regulated or prohibited in
many countries, often carrying severe legal penalties (for
example, the US Psychotropic Substances Act, the UK
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and Drugs Act 2005, and in
Canada the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act).
Magic mushrooms in their fresh form still remain legal in
some countries such as Austria. On November 29, 2008,
the Netherlands announced it would ban the cultivation
and use of psilocybin-containing fungi beginning Decem-
ber 1, 2008.[38] The UK ban on fresh mushrooms (dried
ones were illegal as they were considered a psilocybin-
containing preparation) introduced in 2005 came under
much criticism, but was rushed through at the end of the
2001-2005 Parliament; until then, magic mushrooms had
been sold in the UK.
New Mexico appeals court ruled on June 14, 2005, that
growing psilocybin mushrooms for personal consumption [10] Hofmann A, Frey A, Ott H, Petrzilka T, Troxler F. (1958).
could not be considered “manufacturing a controlled sub-
stance” under state law. However it still remains illegal [The composition and synthesis of psilocybin]. Cellular
under federal law.[39][40]
7 See also
• Ethnomycology
• List of psilocybin mushrooms
5
• Medicinal fungi
• Mushroom tea
• Mystical psychosis
• Psychedelic (disambiguation)
• Psychonautics
• Albert Hofmann
• Terence McKenna
• Gaston Guzman
• Paul Stamets
8 Notes
[1] Kuhn, Cynthia; Swartzwelder, Scott; Wilson, Wilkie
(2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used
and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. W.W. Norton
& Company. p. 83. ISBN 0-393-32493-1.
[2] Samorini, G. (1992). “The oldest representations of hallu-
cinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara Desert, 9000–
7000 B.P.)". Integration 2 (3): 69–78.
[3] Stamets (1996), p. 11.
[4] Stamets (1996), p. 7.
[5] Hofmann A. (1980). “The Mexican relatives of LSD”.
LSD: My Problem Child. New York, New York: McGraw-
Hill. pp. 49–71. ISBN 978-0-07-029325-0.
[6] Guzmán G. (2008). “Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mex-
ico: An overview”. Economic Botany 62 (3): 404–412.
doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8.
[7] Brande E. (1799). “Mr. E. Brande, on a poisonous species
of Agaric”. The Medical and Physical Journal: Containing
the Earliest Information on Subjects of Medicine, Surgery,
Pharmacy, Chemistry and Natural History 3: 41–44.
[8] Wasson RG (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life
(May 13): 100–120. article reproduced online
[9] Heim R. (1957). “Notes préliminaires sur les agarics
hallucinogènes du Mexique” [Preliminary notes on the
hallucination-producing agarics of Mexico]. Revue de
Mycologie (in French) 22 (1): 58–79.
“Konstitutionsaufklärung und Synthese von Psilocybin”
and Molecular Life Sciences (in German) 14 (11): 397–
399. doi:10.1007/BF02160424.
[11] Hofmann A, Heim R, Brack A, Kobel H. (1958). “Psilo-
cybin, ein psychotroper Wirkstoff aus dem mexikanischen
Rauschpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim” [Psilocybin, a psy-
chotropic drug from the Mexican magic mushroom Psilo-
cybe mexicana Heim]. Experientia (in German) 14 (3):
107–109. doi:10.1007/BF02159243. PMID 13537892.
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[12] Lattin, Don (2010). The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How
Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew
Weil killed the fifties and ushered in a new age for Amer-
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[13] Monaghan, John D.; Cohen, Jeffrey H. (2000). “Thirty
years of Oaxacan ethnography”. In Monaghan, John; Ed-
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of Texas Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-292-70881-5.
[14] Guzmán, G.; Allen, J.W.; Gartz, J. (2000). “A worldwide
geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an
analysis and discussion” (PDF). Annali del Museo Civico
di Rovereto: Sezione Archeologia, Storia, Scienze Naturali
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[15] Guzmán, G. (2005). “Species diversity of the genus
Psilocybe (Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Strophari-
aceae) in the world mycobiota, with special attention
to hallucinogenic properties”. International Jour-
nal of Medicinal Mushrooms 7 (1–2): 305–331.
doi:10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v7.i12.
[16] Wurst et al. (2002), p. 5.
[17] Guzmán, G. (1983). The Genus Psilocybe: A System-
atic Revision of the Known Species Including the History,
Distribution, and Chemistry of the Hallucinogenic Species.
Beihefte Zur Nova Hedwigia 74. Vaduz, Liechtenstein: J.
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[18] Passie, T.; Seifert, J.; Schneider, U.; Emrich,
H.M. (2002). “The pharmacology of psilo-
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doi:10.1080/1355621021000005937. PMID 14578010.
[19] “Psilocybin Fast Facts”. National Drug Intelligence Cen-
ter. Retrieved 2007-04-04.
[20] van Amsterdam, J.; Opperhuizen, A.; van den Brink,
W. (2011). “Harm potential of magic mushroom use:
A review”. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 59
(3): 423–429. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006. PMID
21256914.
[21] Wittmann, M.; Carter, O.; Hasler, F.; Cahn, B.R.; Grim-
berg, U.; Spring, P.; Hell, D.; Flohr, H.; Vollenwei-
der, F.X. (2007). “Effects of psilocybin on time per-
ception and temporal control of behaviour in humans”.
Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford) 21 (1): 50–64.
doi:10.1177/0269881106065859. PMID 16714323.
[22] Espiard, M.L.; Lecardeur, L.; Abadie, P.; Halbecq,
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[23] Sponsored by (2010-11-02). “Drugs that Cause the Most
Harm, in The Economist”. Economist.com. Retrieved
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[24] “Johns Hopkins probes “Sacred” Mushroom Chemical”.
Newswise.com. 2011-06-13. Retrieved 2012-02-25.
[25] Ballesteros et al. (2006), p. 175.
[26] Stamets (1996)
[27] Stafford, P.J. (1992). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Berke-
ley, California: Ronin Publishing. ISBN 0-914171-51-8.
[28] “Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences hav-
ing substantial and sustained personal meaning and
spiritual significance” (PDF). Psychopharmacology 187
(3): 268–283. 2006. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5.
PMID 16826400.
[29] Sun-Edelstein, C.; Mauskop, A. (2011). “Alterna-
tive headache treatments: Nutraceuticals, behavioral and
physical treatments”. Headache: The Journal of Head
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4610.2011.01846.x. PMID 21352222.
[30] “Effects of Psilocybin in Obsessive-Compulsive Disor-
der”.:"In spite of the established efficacy of potent 5-HT
reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of OCD ... the length
of time required for improvement of patients undergo-
ing treatment with 5-HT reuptake inhibitors appears to be
quite long ... and the percentage of patients having satis-
factory responses may only approach 50 percent, and most
patients that do improve only have a 30 to 50% decrease
in symptoms (Goodman et al., 1990)"
[31] Moreno, Fransisco A.; Wiegland, Christopher B.; Tai-
tano, E. Keolani; Delgado, Pedro L. (2006). “Safety, Tol-
erability, and Efficacy of Psilocybin in 9 Patients With
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder” (PDF). The Journal of
Clinical Psychiatry 67 (11): 1735–1740.
[32] Mason, Stuart. “Your brain on 'shrooms: fMRI elucidates
neural correlates of psilocybin psychedelic state.” Medical
Xpress. 29 02 2012:
[33] Kraehenmann, Rainer. “Psilocybin-Induced Decrease
in Amygdala Reactivity Correlates with Enhanced Posi-
tive Mood in Healthy Volunteers”. Biological Psychiatry.
doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.04.010.
[34] O'neil, Stephanie. “Psychedelic Science: Psilocybin
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[35] Erowid (2006). “Dosage Chart for Psychedelic Mush-
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[36] Gartz J, Allen JW, Merlin MD. (2004). “Ethnomycol-
ogy, biochemistry, and cultivation of Psilocybe samuiensis
Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, a new psychoactive fungus
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PMID 7967658.
[37] “List of psychotropic substances under international con-
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gust 2003. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
[38] “RTÉ News: 'Shrooms to become illegal in Holland”.
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[39] “FindLaw | Cases and Codes”. caselaw.lp.findlaw.com.
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[40] “Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault : Legal Status”.
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9610798-0-0.
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10 External links
• The Vaults of Erowid - Psilocybin Mushrooms
• International Legal Status of Psilocybin Mushrooms
Ananda Schouten, Erowid, 2004
8 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
• Psilocybin mushroom Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom?oldid=681818295 Contributors: Damian Yerrick,
Paul Barlow, Mahjongg, Liftarn, Menchi, GTBacchus, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Darkwind,
Александър, Julesd, Jimregan, Ehn, Rednblu, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Aenar, Robbot, Goethean, Merovingian, Aaron Pannell, Academic
Challenger, Hadal, Mushroom, Dave6, Exploding Boy, ShaneCavanaugh, BenFrantzDale, Ich, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, Curps,
Jfdwolff, Ofus, Mboverload, Solipsist, Tagishsimon, Gyrofrog, Gadfium, Fudo, Antandrus, Sharavanabhava, Ukexpat, Trevor MacInnis,
SYSS Mouse, Mike Rosoft, Hansjorg, D6, Jayjg, Eyrian, CALR, Haiduc, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, NrDg, FT2, Cacycle,
Inkypaws, Smyth, Bishonen, LeeHunter, Martpol, Paul August, Kbh3rd, Soulresin, Aranel, Pjrich, Sourcecode, Mwanner, Kross, Sietse
Snel, Triona, Xed, Alxndr, Diamonddavej, Bobo192, Mike Schwartz, Smalljim, Mochi~enwiki, Flxmghvgvk, Viriditas, Johnteslade, Nicke
Lilltroll~enwiki, Of~enwiki, Mr2001, Forteanajones, TheProject, Anno, Pearle, Chicago god, Solid Reign, Nsaa, Danski14, Alansohn, An-
thony Appleyard, Riana, AzaToth, Thoric, Kz9dsr0t387346, InShaneee, Muugokszhiion, Pappa, Rockin, Mikeo, Bsadowski1, Scott Gall,
Gene Nygaard, Ceyockey, Natalya, Feezo, Stemonitis, Firsfron, Alvis, Woohookitty, GVOLTT, Davidkazuhiro, Pol098, Urod, WadeSim-
Miser, Jeff3000, Southwest, Mandarax, Sin-man, Liquid Engineer, Irishrichy, RichardWeiss, Graham87, Justin Bailey, Qwertyus, David
Levy, Kbdank71, CoderGnome, Edison, Josh Parris, Crzrussian, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Erebus555, Vary, JHMM13, Tangotango, TheRingess,
BNJT, Heah, Mo-Al, Guinness2702, Krash, The wub, Wareq, Lor772, Nova Cygni, Darcagn, Rangek, FlaBot, EvanSeeds, RobertG,
Twipley, Avalyn, Gurch, Tijuana Brass, Vayne, Wowbobwow12, Alphachimp, Diza, Procrastinator~enwiki, WriterHound, Vmenkov, The
Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Peter G Werner, RussBot, Backburner001, ChadVersace, Anonymous editor, Mh12579,
Splash, Lexi Marie, SpuriousQ, Chaser, RadioFan, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, NawlinWiki, CrazyTeen~enwiki, Wiki alf,
GodSka, Daunrealist, Grafen, Chick Bowen, Joel7687, RazorICE, Dureo, Tokachu, Dogcow, Lexicon, Irishguy, Darkmeerkat, King-
pomba, Raven4x4x, Moe Epsilon, RUL3R, JamesHamilton, Bucketsofg, Gertie, Todfox, Nethgirb, Amphis, Erasurehead, Rurounigoku78,
Lucky number 49, Nick123, Wknight94, E tac, Light current, Ballchef, Closedmouth, Jwissick, Willirennen, Emc2, Höyhens, Jimbudarz,
Curpsbot-unicodify, Kubra, Ybbor, EtherealPurple, Mejor Los Indios, Groyolo, Flamma, InsayneWrapper, Ewkerr, SmackBot, Lightning-
Man, Dreamer.redeemer, 1dragon, CarbonCopy, Impaciente, Pgk, C.Fred, Feyer, Nineteen84, Delldot, Geoff B, Edgar181, Malusmorien-
dumest, Ralphybaby, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi , Cool3, Gilliam, Portillo, BenAveling, Mperezrosas, Bluebot, Ciacchi, Kurykh, Persian Poet
Gal, SeanQuixote, RayAYang, Deli nk, Uthbrian, Zachorious, John Reaves, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Justinemery, Onorem, Matchups,
Delivery:435, VMS Mosaic, Jmlk17, MartinRobinson, Khukri, Stiles, Joshuaxls, Iridescence, Glover, Adrigon, Hammer1980, DMacks,
Sigma 7, Bdushaw, Keyesc, Ceoil, Nareek, U-571, Dbtfz, Euchiasmus, Scientizzle, Heimstern, Loodog, Drummer070, Minna Sora no Shita,
Deadflagblues, Mr. Vernon, Shamrox, Stwalkerster, Sequoyah, SQGibbon, Meco, Dicdoc, Joey Q. McCartney, Csjoiner, Dr.K., Sasata,
Xionbox, DouglasCalvert, HisSpaceResearch, Iridescent, TwistOfCain, Charmston, Nhinchey, J Di, Saturday, Beve, Beno1000, Civil En-
gineer III, Courcelles, Pablosecca, Tawkerbot2, IronChris, Ianji, Fvasconcellos, The Haunted Angel, Switchercat, Devourer09, Infinium,
SkyWalker, J Milburn, JForget, CmdrObot, Sir Vicious, Prosallus, Bartmc, CryoTox, Jzefran, FlyingToaster, TheTito, Neelix, MrFish,
Qrc2006, CmdrB, MC10, Gogo Dodo, AtTheAbyss, Jeremy68, Sloth monkey, Dancter, Tawkerbot4, UberMan5000, DumbBOT, Phy-
dend, Optimist on the run, Makwy2, FrancoGG, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Daniel Newman, RSIferd, Tsmartman123, Chitomcgee, Mojo Hand,
Afitillidie13, Marek69, Tapir Terrific, A3RO, BauerPower, Oppugno, Girltwist, HÄI, Makeety Makondo, Big Bird, Sean William, No-
clevername, Oreo Priest, Mentifisto, Ju66l3r, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, Mr Bungle, Majorly, Aprogressivist, Mjshroomer, ReverendG,
Prolog, Jj137, Jcrock, Croton, Cgram@adelphia.net, Gdo01, Neur0X, Canadian-Bacon, MikeLynch, JackSparrow Ninja, Gatemansgc,
Soukei, Husond, MER-C, CosineKitty, Txomin, Ericoides, Instinct, Mujokan, Leedub614, Jesse beckler, Geniac, Bencherlite, PsicO-
nAUtA, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, MartinDK, AuburnPilot, Transcendence, Dekimasu, Yandman, SuperMozart, Abstract Idiot, Palus-
Somni, Roast beef, Mark PEA, Twsx, Than217, Catgut, Animum, Timothynolan, Cathalwoods, Styrofoam1994, Tins128, Schumi555,
Cpl Syx, DerHexer, JaGa, Markus451, Coffeepusher, Charitwo, Rickard Vogelberg, Cocytus, Stephenchou0722, MartinBot, Sagabot, Ar-
jun01, Poeloq, Jimipuppet, Rettetast, CommonsDelinker, Siliconov, Wiki Raja, LedgendGamer, J.delanoy, MoiraMoira, Trusilver, Uncle
Dick, Malkuth1~enwiki, It Is Me Here, McSly, Garret Beaumain, AntiSpamBot, Brownrd, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Sumodi-
vebomb, Ramhead, Winkyfrog64, Soczyczi, Woodgrain, Ljgua124, Angular, Sunderland06, Bob, The slave to reality, Evb-wiki, Tig-
gerjay, Beyond the classroom, Jamesontai, WarFox, Neekap, Mrbrazil, Bonadea, Pdcook, Useight, CardinalDan, RJASE1, Funandtrvl,
Christopher Mann McKay, 4l4n, Pterodactyl katya, VolkovBot, Thedjatclubrock, DSRH, Jeff G., Philip Trueman, Mschuster60, TXiKi-
BoT, Onehitwonder11, Mercurywoodrose, Alan Rockefeller, Rakasan, Rei-bot, Bigpimpinhoes, Anonymous Dissident, Woodsstock, Ay-
matth2, Qxz, Enzo32ferrari, Sintaku, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Ham Man 101, Noformation, Pfflyer56, Rhino Face, Steve3849, RadiantRay,
Kreten, Madandnaked, Nix123, Malick78, Enigmaman, Flavoredsoda, Falcon8765, Freeet, Burntsauce, Mallerd, Brianga, Monty845, Doc
James, Lepraconog, Runewiki777, Valce, Cosprings, CrayZsaaron, Juanmantoya, SMC89, Scarian, Euryalus, Springbok26, Puffrogyz,
Entourage145, Dawn Bard, Yintan, Sinsom~enwiki, Gravitan, Jonsimon, Keilana, Flyer22, Tiptoety, Exert, Ireas, Oda Mari, Elcobbola,
Bob98133, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, KoshVorlon, Senor Cuete, Priyatanuroy, Angielaj, Correogsk, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Benny
the wayfarer, Cyfal, Mygerardromance, TR231, Geoff Plourde, Williamscoolyeah, Tomdobb, Explicit, TheCatalyst31, ImageRemoval-
Bot, Invertzoo, Kinkyturnip, Tanvir Ahmmed, ClueBot, Hotwheelracer, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, My-
cologyauthor, Supertouch, Wysprgr2005, Arakunem, Drmies, Dogsdontknowimnotbacon, Uncle Milty, Headsmasher Electricteeth, Jed
Bartlet, Blanchardb, LizardJr8, Irishborn, Overclock22, Neverquick, Puchiko, Mysteryxmike, LloydT, DragonBot, Azop~enwiki, Explod-
ing amoeba, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy, PixelBot, Photochico, Panoramix303, Tyler, NuclearWarfare, Terra Xin, Nickrocks100, Razor-
flame, Amando92, Aussiebowhunter, BOTarate, Thehelpfulone, Kst447, Tmarosa, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, Practical321, Burner0718,
ClanCC, DumZiBoT, BarretB, XLinkBot, John W. Allen, Fastily, Vanished 45kd09la13, Feinoha, Little Mountain 5, Wordwebber,
Beach drifter, Gamebeater2711, Vianello, ColtM4, Jadtnr1, Nyytj7, Addbot, Xp54321, Proofreader77, TeenaBeenax3x3x3x3x3, Willk-
ing1979, Some jerk on the Internet, Giftiger wunsch, Jotry, Uruk2008, DOI bot, Wsvlqc, Tcncv, Mina4653, TutterMouse, Dnnisrdz,
Fieldday-sunday, Vishnava, Fluffernutter, Thedougking, Ka Faraq Gatri, Zdubs007, Download, Recluse23, Chamal N, Crackcocane,
PranksterTurtle, Glane23, Ld100, Azzi korn, Favonian, 5 albert square, Filk-tastic, Huffyslayer, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Anxietycello, Teles,
Thebeyondwithin, Genius101, Aaronclem, Sitecrasher69, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Kirk-
Cliff2, KamikazeBot, Worksafe, Ratofratza, Eduen, Fleshgrinder, Dmarquard, Tlmussel, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz,
1exec1, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, WikiwikiyeahG, Kingpin13, ChuckyNorris69, Stinkypie, Francsois, Materialscientist,
Bakeness8633, Citation bot, Linesofcreation, Crimsonmargarine, Damian666666, Skate4money, Esente, Xqbot, Gigemag76, Thehon-
esthorse, Tad Lincoln, KrisBogdanov, Tardmaster, Harbinary, Frosted14, YoungFogram, RibotBOT, IShadowed, IcedNut, Musicman789,
Ogel6000, Griffinofwales, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Jatlas, Pepper, Mcstivi, Boomsticky2, Alxeedo, Qazsedcftgbhujmkolp, Aleister Wilson,
Filipão, Rkay06, Hardtheslam, Edlemons, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Abductive, Jonesey95, Calmer Waters, A8UDI, Aisforabstract,
RedBot, SpaceFlight89, Piandcompany, Meaghan, Woona, Jatlas2, Wawawemn, Abc518, Nothin7, Tova Hella, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator,
11.2 Images 9

MrX, Julio90987, Jessie Luciano, Weedwhacker128, Brogue Trader, Ajiajayi, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, Bobmath, Reach Out to the
Truth, Roobydooby, Smitty7789, Sideways713, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Becerra987, Lynnnguyen1, RjwilmsiBot, Salvio giuliano, Tesser-
act2, Deagle AP, DASHBot, John of Reading, Racerx11, Mashaunix, Ebe123, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, DudeCar, Hive001, ZéroBot,
Susfele, Fæ, Akerans, Wieralee, NicatronTg, Ftgfloors, Bamyers99, GZ-Bot, ROBert4512xXx, H3llBot, Cymru.lass, Curenado, Mcmat-
ter, Arman Cagle, Quantumor, Donner60, Ve690, Damirgraffiti, ChuispastonBot, IDLTribble, TYelliot, Danielfc.mx, Wikimaster0213,
Petrb, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Jopug, Issyisaac, Sporeman88, Kesteruin, Braincricket, O.Koslowski, Vinny715, Widr, Corio, Anthony,
Gillycheesedog, MerlIwBot, Ilveon, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Cool1guy, Firerat700, P1tchbl4ckx, Levdr1lostpassword, Lowercase
sigmabot, BG19bot, Hodeken, Masser'Shake, Katiefran2371, Userwhosit4, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Weblars, Pssyjuic3123, Mark Ar-
sten, Rm1271, OldSquiffyBat, B-man13, TheBaur, Coulter.argue123, Mush zombie, Tanilraif, GoShow, Saedon, EuroCarGT, Dmcl404,
Billyshiverstick, Failla07, Bmillson, Mogism, Dr Robert 1966, Lugia2453, Marijuana.and.shrooms, Little green rosetta, DeclanEd, Go-
rillacoman1, Superduperwavydavy, FrigidNinja, Jamie LaDawn, Eyesnore, MeatyManMike, My name is not dave, Mastermycology,
Sam Sailor, Mushmountain, Accinfo, Thewikiguru1, Kinglycitrus, ChadPSimmers, JaconaFrere, Second Skin, Monkbot, Tomdaboy, Fat-
slappy, Christianamato389, Mangokeylime, Donthaveone1234, Finnfeneley, Sharpy2233, Tfitz49, Jakob667, Heyaandrei, Georgiamonster,
Idon7930, Stametsresearch, Venesvanderstoep, Romdwolf, Thatguytestw, Jader222, Deunanknute, Ryanburcham, Universallyknown, Ahi-
roy, CabbagePotato, Getoffthiscomputer6, Kurousagi, Fmingastakepingas, Lolmemes and Anonymous: 1673

11.2 Images
• File:Gymnopilus_luteoviridis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/34/Gymnopilus_luteoviridis.jpg License: CC-
BY-3.0 Contributors:
Shroomery and Mushroom Observer
Original artist:
Copyright ©2008 implee, and J. Williams
• File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: “Scoring drugs”, The Economist, data from “Drug harms in the UK: a multi-criteria decision analy-
sis”, by David Nutt, Leslie King and Lawrence Phillips, on behalf of the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs. The Lancet. 2010
Nov 6;376(9752):1558-65. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6 PMID:21036393 Original artist: User:Tesseract2
• File:Karl_Johanssvamp,_Iduns_kokbok.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%
2C_Iduns_kokbok.png License: Public domain Contributors: Iduns kokbok, scanned by Project Runeberg; transparency added by Ilmari
Karonen Original artist: Elisabeth Östman (1869–1933)
• File:Panaeolus.subbalteatus.3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Panaeolus.subbalteatus.3.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: The Shroomery Original artist: Ian Williams
• File:Pluteus_salcinus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Pluteus_salcinus.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: http://www.mushroomobserver.org/image/show_image/19951?obs=10547&seq_key=709998 Original artist: Dan Molter
• File:Psilocin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Psilocin.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Harbin
• File:Psilocybe.subaeruginascens.1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Psilocybe.subaeruginascens.1.
jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Curecat
• File:Psilocybe.villarrealiae.9.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Psilocybe.villarrealiae.9.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alan Rockefeller
• File:Psilocybe_allenii_62599.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Psilocybe_allenii_62599.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This image is Image Number 62599 at Mushroom Observer, a source for mycological images.
Original artist: This image was created by user (Alan Rockefeller) at Mushroom Observer, a source for mycological images.

• File:Psilocybe_semilanceata_6514.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Psilocybe_semilanceata_6514.

jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This image is Image Number 6514 at Mushroom Observer, a source for mycological images.
Original artist: Arp
• File:Psilocybn.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Psilocybn.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Own work in kdrawchem and tweaked with Inkscape Original artist: en:User:Cburnett

11.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0