798 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 24, NO.
5 , SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1988
Parameters Affecting Neutral-To-Earth Voltage
Along Primary Distribution Circuits
Abstract-It is essential to identify the type of primary distribution
circuit and to have a thorough understanding of the sources of neutral-to-
earth voltage in order to achieve success when attempting to mitigate an
elevated on-farm neutral-to-earth voltage level originating from off the
farm. Neutral conductor grounding may play an important role, but the
most important grounding may not be at the farm location. Grounding
isolation or step-down transformer banks installed on a line may have an
effect upon the neutral-to-earth voltage of the line. Increasing primary
circuit voltage may lower levels of neutral-to-earth voltage. Balancing of
single-phase loads and power-factor correction can lower primary neutral
current on a line. The neutral-to-earth voltage may not be higher during
the evening than at other times, even on single-phase primary lines.
INTRODUCTION
N EUTRAL-TO-EARTH voltage is of concern to livestock
farmers, electric power suppliers, agricultural equipment
manufacturers, and service personnel. The term neutral-to-
earth voltage, sometimes referred to as stray voltage, de-
scribes the condition of a grounded electrical conductor being
at a voltage different from the adjacent earth. The primary
causes of this condition are voltage drop on the grounded
electrical conductor and ground faults. Either of these causes
may occur on the primary electrical supply system to the farm,
or on the wiring system of the farm. It is even possible for a
cause to be at an adjacent farm, using the primary grounded
conductor as a path. It may not be practical to reduce the
voltage drop on a grounded conductor to a level in a particular
area which will never cause a neutral-to-earth voltage of the
same magnitude. Under these conditions there are several
mitigation techniques that can be employed to prevent an on-
the-farm source from becoming a problem, and likewise the
electrical power supplier has several options to prevent an off-
the-farm source from being present on a farm.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the primary electrical
distribution system, describe the ways in which neutral-to-
earth voltage is produced by the various primary distribution
systems, and present the expected change in level of neutral-
to-earth voltage as a result of changes of various design
parameters of the primary distribution system. The conclu-
sions of this paper are based upon both field observations and
neutral-to-earth voltage computer simulations of the operation
of a primary electrical distribution system.
Paper GID 87-16, approved by the Rural Electric Power Committee of the
IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1987 Rural Electric
Power Committee Technical Conference, San Antonio, TX, May 3-5.
Manuscript released for publication February 4 , 1988.
The authors are with the Department of Agricultural Engineering, A.W.
Farrall Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1323.
IEEE Log Number 8821454.
0093-9994/88/0900-0798$01.00 0 1988 IEEE
PRIMARY
DISTRIBUTION
CIRCUIT
TYPES
The primary electrical distribution system in many areas is
in a state of gradual change because the electrical needs of the
customer is in a state of constant change. It is not uncommon,
therefore, to find that a particular substation circuit changes in
type at some point, and actually contains two or more
subcircuits. For example, a distribution circuit voltage may be
increased at the substation to supply the increased power needs
of customers. It may be impractical to change the entire circuit
over to the higher voltage, thus step-down transformers may
be installed so that sections of the circuit can continue to
function at the lower voltage until the line can be made ready
for the changeover to higher voltage. This is illustrated in Fig.
1. It is important that power supplier personnel determine the
exact makeup of a distribution circuit before attempting to
make changes to lower the level of neutral-to-earth voltage.
There are three common types of primary electrical
distribution circuits used by power suppliers to provide power
to customers. Individual needs and local conditions are factors
that result in a particular type of distribution system being used
in a particular area. A common system is the four-wire wye,
illustrated in Fig. 2. There are a number of voltages at which
this wye system may operate. Some typical voltages are
24 940114 400 V, 12 470/7200 V, 8320/4800 V and 4160/
2400 V. There may be small differences between these
voltages and the actual voltages in use by a particular power
supplier. Isolation transformers may be installed on the line to
step down the voltage as shown in Fig. 1.
The three-wire ungrounded delta distribution system has
three wires which are not solidly connected to the earth.
Capacitive coupling between the ungrounded wires and the
earth will result in a small current flow if one of the
ungrounded wires makes contact with the earth. A double-
bushing transformer is used to provide single-phase power to
customers. There is no grounded primary conductor: therefore
neutral-to-earth voltage will not be present due to load current
flow on the primary conductors. A typical ungrounded delta
primary circuit is illustrated in Fig. 3. The dashed lines
indicate the natural capacitive coupling of the line wires to the
earth.
The three-wire corner-grounded delta primary circuit is
used in some areas, particularly where loads are supplied
underground and the multigrounded wye system is not
available. With this type of system, .one of the primary
conductors is solidly connected to the earth. The corner-
grounded delta primary circuit is illustrated in Fig. 4.
It is common to find more than one type of primary system
 ,
SURBROOK ef a/.: PARAMETERS AFFECTING NEUTRAL-TO-EARTH VOLTAGE 799

Abstation PhaseA
Subcircuit
' Subcircuit

Main
Circuit

r
2 Isolation
or
Transformer
Step-down

Transformer
I

Substation
4
I

circuit.
1

Three-phase/
Single-phase
Customer

Phase A
&
1

Single-
Phase
Customer

Fig. 4. Three-wire comer-grounded delta primary electrical distribution

r1 Substation

Fig. 1. Electrical distribution circuit may contain isolation transformers or

step-down transformers which then subdivide the circuit into two or more
subcircuits. ix
Isolation
Transformer
Bank
Phase A

Phase B

Phase C
Substation Phase A

i, I Phase B

I-- Phase C
I Fig. 5. Isolation bank of transformers used to change form of four-wire wye
to three-wire delta primary distribution circuit.

system, and other portions of the circuit operating in the delta

mode. A single transformer or a bank of transformers will be
Three-phase/ Three-phase/ Single-
Single-phase Single-phase Phase used to interface the wye to the delta circuit. These transform-
Customer Customer Customer ers provide a change in voltage as well as isolation between the
Fig. 2. Four-wire wye, multigrounded electrical distribution system. two distribution circuits. This technique is illustrated in Fig. 5.
Another common practice is to use step-down transformer
Substation Phase A
banks to change from the higher voltages of the distribution
I
I
circuit leaving the substation to the lower voltages of the older
I

i Phase B
portions of the distribution system that are not ready for
conversion to the higher voltages. This may be accomplished
with an autotransformer using a common winding for the
I
I
higher and lower voltage circuits, or a two-winding trans-
II
.-L- former can be used. The common transformer connections are
,-I-.
, ,
wye-wye and delta-wye. A step-down autotransformer is
illustrated in Fig. 6.
I It is important to keep in mind that the transformer is the
.J
..- -- -1.
. . -J-.
-. -. .
source of the electrical circuit and that the primary line should
. _ _
Capacitive Three. phase / Single-phase
be examined from the transformer to the customer location. If
Earth Single-phase Customer an isolation transformer bank or a step-down voltage trans-
Coupling Customer
former bank is the source of power for a customer, it may still
Fig. 3. Three-wire ungrounded delta primary electrical circuit with natural
line-to-earth capacitance indicated by dashed lines.
be necessary to examine the circuit back to the original
substation if the neutrals of the primary circuits are bonded
together.
used on a distribution circuit. The national trend is to provide There are a variety of different ways in which power
electrical power to customers with a multigrounded wye suppliers make connections for step-up or step-down voltage
distribution system. Some primary lines originally constructed transformers and for isolation transformers. The types of
for operation as a three-wire delta are in the process of being transformer banks shown in these figures are for illustrative
reconstructed and changed over to a wye distribution system. purposes and should not be viewed as recommended practice
It is possible to find a portion of the circuit operating as a wye for a particular installation.
800 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 24, NO. 5 , SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1988

$1I
Substation
Substation
Phase A Resistance - to -earth

\ phase B I Higher Primary Voltage

E .-10 ohm

Phase C
>
0 ..
(( I

rqjj
Neutral
J /

Phase A

Primary
Voltage
Fig. 6 . Step-down autotransformer is sometimes used to change voltages on
primary distribution circuit. Substation

Fig. 9. Effect of substation resistance-to-earth upon neutral-to-earth voltage

along simulated single-phase 4.5-km primary distribution line (#4 AHO,
ACSR).

20 ohm grounds
every 300m
6v

1
m

.f
substation
Distance
- ___------
h 20 ohm grounds
every 150 m

4.5 km

Fig. 7. Effect of changing resistance-to-earth along simulated single-phase

2v
1t
**..*e ...
t1.
.
t
Branch Branch End. of - line
4.5-km primary distribution line (#4 AHG, ACSR) upon neutral-to-earth Substation
2.0 mi. 1.5 mi 1.5 mi.
voltage along line.
Fig. 10. Neutral-to-earth rms voltage along 2.4-kV phase-to-earth multi-
grounded distribution line segment originating from a single-phase isolation
transformer with one ground rod at transformer.
a
P Resistance - to -earth
'.",c$~r~~~,"d'
-
f
5
r
Changed at this location

5 ohm ground
a
1 ohm ground

Distance 4.5 km
.f
Substation
Fig. 8. Effect upon neutral-to-earth voltage along simulated single-phase
4.5-km primary distribution line (#4 AWG, ACSR) of resistance-to-earth Distance 4.5 km

t+
change at one location.
Neutral Resistance Added

NEUTRAL-TO-EARTH
VOLTAGE
ON MULTI-GROUNDED
WYE
PRIMARY
LINE
Computer simulations have been quite useful to study the
neutral-to-earth voltage behavior of electrical distribution
lines. The main limitation of these simulations is that operating
parameters of each distribution line are quite different. Even
though a particular distribution line can only be simulated
when specific data is collected for the line, a generalized
simulation model can still provide indications of the general
behavior of distribution lines.
A number of models have been developed for simulation of
neutral-to-earth voltage of distribution lines. Fig. 7-1 1 are
derived from data presented by Kehrle [l]. A single-phase
7200-V distribution line with a total length of 4.5 km of AWG
Substation
Fig. 11. Effect upon neutral-to-earth voltage along simulated single-phase
4.5-km distribution line (#4 AWG, ACSR) of resistance in neutral near
substation.
#4, ACSR conductor, supplying a 1-A load every 300 m was
simulated using a general network-solving mainframe com-
puter program. The simulation is described by Reese and
Surbrook [2] in a paper presented at the National Stray Voltage
Symposium in Syracuse. The graphs depict rms voltage as
would be obtained by measuring from the neutral conductor to
a reference ground. Note that in all the graphs the neutral-to-
earth voltage decreases with distance away from the substation
until the voltage reaches zero. If the substation resistance-to-
SURBROOK et al.: PARAMETERS AFFECTING NEUTRAL-TO-EARTH VOLTAGE
earth were zero, then the curve would be zero at the substation
and increase with distance from the substation.
The multigrounded wye primary distribution system utilizes
the earth as a parallel conductor to the neutral. The resistance
to earth along the line will affect the amount of neutral current
that flows through the earth. Fig. 7 illustrates the distribution
of neutral-to-earth voltage along the single-phase line with two
levels of grounding of the primary neutral. The neutral-to-
earth voltage is lower for the line with more grounds, or with
reduced resistance to earth. When neutral-to-earth resistance
of the primary line is reduced, the neutral-to-earth voltage near
the substation is slightly increased because the current through
the earth is increased.
The effect of reducing the neutral resistance to earth at one
location along the line is illustrated in Fig. 8. The greatest
reduction in neutral-to-earth voltage is achieved at the location
where the resistance to earth is reduced. The data illustrated in
Fig. 8 is probably more dramatic than in the field because most
distribution lines in the Midwest have a lower resistance to
earth than 20 Q per ground rod every 300 m. Compare the
curve in Fig. 8 for the 5-0 ground at one location with the solid
line for the primary with a 2 0 4 ground resistance. Note that at
that one location the resistance to earth was reduced to one-
quarter the original resistance to earth. That is a major
resistance-to-earth reduction. The effect of reduction in
resistance to earth at a specific location results primarily in a
localized reduction in neutral-to-earth voltage. A small reduc-
tion in neutral-to-earth voltage will be experienced farther
away from the substation.
The resistance to earth at the substation, an isolation bank,
or at a step-down transformer bank can affect the level of
neutral-to-earth voltage in the area of the substation or
transformer bank. This effect is illustrated in Fig. 9. Note the
rise in neutral-to-earth voltage near the substation as the
resistance to earth of the substation is increased. Data on this
condition show that neutral-to-earth voltages near an isolation
bank can be high, but the voltages drop quickly as distance
increases away from the isolation transformer. Fig. 10 is an
rms neutral-to-earth voltage graph of a single-phase multi-
grounded distribution line originating at an ungrounded delta
to grounded neutral isolation transformer. Customers near the
transformers were those experiencing the problems, which
were solved by driving additional ground rods at the isolation
transformer. Grounding at the isolation transformers has an
effect on these voltages, and it can be worthwhile to drive
additional ground rods to lower this resistance. If there is an
isolation transformer in the primary circuit feeding a customer
with an elevated neutral-to-earth voltage level, lowering the
resistance to earth at the isolation transformer may be effective
than lowering resistance to earth at the customer location.
Branches to the distribution line may also result in a more
effective lowering of resistance to earth at the branches, and
therefore have a similar neutral-to-earth voltage reduction as
shown in Fig. 8.
Livestock farmers may experience neureal-to-earth voltage
problems near a substation or transformer bank in an area
where soil resistivity is high and resistance-to-earth of the
substation or isolation transformer is high. The customer who
80 1
is located far out on the line will not experience a significant
change in neutral-to-earth voltage when substation or trans-
former bank resistance is changed.
A factor that can have an effect on the neutral-to-earth
voltage of a distribution line is an abnormal resistrance in
series with the neutral conductor. The effect will be variable,
depending upon the resistance to earth along the line. Effects
of high resistance in series with the neutral conductor at two
locations are illustrated in Figs. 11 and 12. It is important to
keep in mind that the resistance to earth of the simulated
distribution line of this study is 20 Q every 300 m. If the
resistance to earth of the line is lowered, then the effect of a
resistance in series with the neutral will be less dramatic. Fig.
11 illustrates the effect of resistance in series with the neutral
near the substation. There is a significant increase in neutral-
to-earth voltage on the load side of the resistance, but there is
less of an effect farther out along the line.
When an abnormal resistance is placed in series with the
neutral at some distance out along the line from the substation,
there will be an increase in neutral-to-earth voltage on the load
side of the resistance and a decrease in the neutral-to-earth
voltage on the supply side. For the line of this simulation the
resistance between ground rods is approximately 0.5 Q . Note
from Fig. 12 that even when the resistance at one location is
increased by 0.5 Q , the change in neutral-to-earth voltage may
be small. Resistance in series with the neutral can have a more
pronounced effect in areas where soil resistivity is high.
Similar results with simulation models were obtained by
Gustafson and Cloud [ 3 ] using a network solving program.
When the substation resistance to earth is not zero, the neutral-
to-earth voltage decreases as the distance decreased from the
substation until a voltage phase shift is experienced, then the
neutral-to-earth voltage increases. Shull et al. [4], using an
analog direct-current simulator, observed a similar voltage
profile along the distribution line.
DISTRIBUTION
LINEPARAMETERS
THAT AFFECT
NEUTRAL-TO-EARTH
VOLTAGE
LEVELS
It is necessary to identify the various distribution-line
parameters that can affect neutral-to-earth voltage before steps
can be undertaken to lower the neutral-to-earth voltage at a
specific point along the distribution line. It is also important to
understand which of these parameters will have the greatest
effect upon neutral-to-earth voltage levels for a particular
situation. A reduction in neutral-to-earth voltage at a particular
location can be obtained by
1) reducing the current flowing on the primary neutral
conductor,
2) reducing the impedance of the primary distribution line,
and
3 ) elimination of any ground faults on the primary distribu-
tion line or at a neighboring secondary location.
A ground fault is an abnormal condition that should be
located, if present, and eliminated, regardless of the effect
upon the neutral-to-earth voltage at any specific location. The
real problem for a power supplier is the decision as to what
action should be taken when there does not seem to be a
specific problem with the distribution line. What changes to
802 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 24, NO. 5 , SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1988

m
-
e
>
0
Neutral
Neutral Resistance
Resistance Added
Added Neutral, 5 A.
I Phase C, 2 A.

r
e
_.._........... Phase E. 5 A.
* 0.5 ohm added
0
e
-
e
I Phase A, 7 A.
2
z

I
\

Distance 4.5 km Phase C. 16 A

4
Substation

Fig. 12. Effect upon neutral-to-earth voltage along simulated single-ohase

4.5-km distribution line (#4 AHG, ACSR) of resistance in neutral
conductor at one location.

Fig. 14. Phase and neutral current vector diagram for four-wire wye
primary distribution line at two levels of line loading.
Phase Wire 20 A.
With the higher level of loading in the evening, as depicted
~
with the right-side diagram, the neutral current is only 2.5 A.
Fig. 13. Phase and neutral current vector diagram for single-phase primary This illustrates the benefit that can be achieved from balancing
distribution line. an unbalanced line.
The level of primary neutral current on a line with two or
the distribution line will yield the most significant results at more phase wires generally cannot be controlled any more
lowering the neutral-to-earth voltage along a line? Long than the customer loads can be controlled. In cases where the
distribution lines may have a high neutral impedance from a customer load pattern is somewhat predictable, it may be
distant location to the source transformer bank, and current possible to shift farm loading during milking to a primary
flow on the line will result in neutral-to-earth voltage along the phase, which brings the line somewhat into balance during
line. The most significant results in lowering neutral-to-earth milking. Keep in mind that this assumes that the time cows will
voltage along the line can therefore be achieved by lowering be most affected by neutral-to-earth voltage is during milking.
the current flow on the line. This may not be true in some cases. Fig. 15 illustrates an open-
The current on the neutral of a three-phase circuit can be wye primary distribution line where most of the load on the
determined graphically with vectors, the length of which are in line from customers other than the farm are on phase A, as
amperes, and the direction of each phase wire vector is 120" depicted by the left-side diagram. The farm load is on phase B.
apart. The current flowing on the neutral will be the length of a The right-side diagram shows the condition with full farm
vector, from the tip of the last phase vector to the origin of the load. Note that the current on the neutral is not changed. This
graph. Fig. 13 illustrates the current on a single-phase two- can explain why during testing for neutral-to-earth voltage an
wire primary line. Note that the vectors for the phase current increase in voltage is not observed when significant farm
and neutral current are equal in magnitude, but 180" out of motor load is added. Earlier in the day this may not be true,
phase. As the phase current increases, the neutral current will such as when farm load is added at a time when there is little
increase. With a multigrounded neutral, all of this neutral current from other customers on phase A. It is important to
current does not flow on the neutral wire, but some will flow know what kind of primary system is used to supply a farm
through the earth. customer when making a neutral-to-earth voltage investiga-
The neutral-to-earth voltage on a single-phase distribution tion, and when taking steps to mitigate a high neutral-to-earth
line is frequently higher in the evening than at other times of voltage level.
the day. Experience taking neutral-to-earth voltage measure- It is important to check primary line load balancing, but the
ments on many farms in the Midwest, however, has shown benefit achieved from balancing the line for one part of the day
that this is not always the case. The neutral-to-earth voltage in may be offset by creating a neutral-to-earth voltage problem at
the evening can be lower than at some other times of the day. another time of the day. The milking time is not necessarily the
In the case of a primary line with two or more phase wires, it is critical time of the day as far as neutral-to-earth voltage is
difficult to predict the level of neutral-to-earth voltage in the concerned. Each situation must be treated separately, and a
evening as compared to other times of the day. Fig. 14 generalized approach is not always possible.
illustrates a primary four-wire distribution line at two levels of The extension of more three-phase distribution lines into
line loading. The left vector diagram may depict the line rural areas may at first seem to be a method of reducing neutral
loading in the afternoon. Note that the neutral current is 5 A. current and therefore neutral-to-earth voltage. The previous
SURBROOK et ai.: PARAMETERS AFFECTING NEUTRAL-TO-EARTH VOLTAGE 803

Neutral 10.5 A.

L I Phase A, 12 A
Phase B. 4 A.

I Neutral 10.5 A.

L I Phase A, 12 A.
Phase B, 8 A.

Fig. 15. Phase and neutral current for open-wye primary distribution line
with two levels of loading on phase B.

discussion points out that this may not be the case, but shows
that it depends upon loading pattern of the customer. It is
known from experience in the field that large three-phase
customer loads on open-wye distribution lines can result in
high primary neutral currents. It is recommended for areas
where resistance to earth of ground rods is high that large
three-phase rural customers on the same line as livestock
customers (where practical) be supplied with four-wire wye
distribution lines rather than open-wye lines. This will prevent
high neutral currents as a result of large three-phase customer
loads.
Lowering of resistance to earth at one location, or along the
primary line, can lower the neutral current, but the results of
this technique have been variable. Sometimes a significant
reduction of neutral-to-earth voltage has been achieved, and
sometimes the results have been insignificant. Lowering the
resistance to earth at a farm will generally yield minimal
results when the neutral-to-earth voltage is the result of load
from other customers on the primary line.
An isolation transformer bank or a step-down transformer
bank applied a large load at a point on a primary line. The
resistance to earth at the transformer bank may be significant
in some situations. Under these conditions it may be necessary
to lower the resistance to earth to lower the neutral-to-earth
voltage on the line close to the isolation transformer. If the
supply and load circuit neutrals are bonded together at the
transformer bank, then resistance to earth most likely is not
causing a neutral-to-earth voltage problem.
Power-factor correction has been used on some primary
lines to lower the neutral current. This is a technique that can
be of benefit only when a primary line is operating with a
lower power factor. A fixed amount of power factor correction
may not yield satisfactory results for a line where the power
factor and line loading is highly variable. The best approach in
cases where there is a variable-power-factor problem on a line
is to place the power-factor correction at the customer
location.
Line impedance is another factor that can affect the level of
neutral-to-earth voltage of the primary line. If it appears that
there is an abnormal amount of line impedance at one or more
locations, then additional grounding should be added to the
primary at these locations. The effect of line point impedance
is generally local, and does not generally cause an increase in
neutral-to-earth voltage along the entire line. Wire types and
sizes that become too small for the load should be changed, but
the end result may not be an adequate reduction of neutral-to-
earth voltage to solve a problem at a farm.
CONCLUSION
The primary distribution line parameters that result in a
lowering of the neutral current have generally resulted in the
most consistent lowering of neutral-to-earth voltage based
upon experience in the Midwest. This can be accomplished by
balancing three-phase load, converting open-wye distribution
lines to three-phase wye, and in some cases, by increasing the
line voltage. The growth of the area and costs of conversion
are factors that must be considered along with other methods
of mitigating neutral-to-earth voltage problems.
It is important to examine and understand the type of
primary distribution line, including main and subcircuits,
before taking steps to reduce off-the-farm produced neutral-to-
earth voltage.
REFERENCES
A. C. H. Kehrle, “Neutral-to-earth voltage-analysis of a single-phase
primary eletrical distribution system,” Master’s thesis, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, MI 48824, 1984.
N. D. Reese and T. C. Surbrook, “Modelling primary and secondary
electrical systems,” in Proc. National Stray Voltage Symp., held in
Syracuse, NY, published by the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659, 1984.
R. J. Gustafson and H. A. Cloud, “Modeling the primary distribution
system,” in Proc. National Stray Voltage Symp., Syracuse, NY,
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI 49085-
9659, 1984.
H. Shull, L. E. Stetson, and G. R. Bodman, “An analog model of
neutral-to-earth voltages in a single-phase distribution system,” pre-
sented at the IEEE-IAS, 1983, Rural Electric Power Conference,
Industry Application Society, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N Y .
Truman C. Surbrook (AM’83) received the B.S.,
M.S., and Ph.D., degrees in agricultural engineer-
ing from Michigan State University, East Lansing,
in 1965, 1969, and 1977, respectively.
He has worked in the area of electrical power as
applied to agriculture for 22 years. Presently, he
holds the position of Professor, with responsibilities
in teaching and research. His areas of research
involve neutral-to-earth voltage, electrical wiring
for agriculture, and robotics as applied to agricul-
tural machinery.
Dr. Surbrook is a Licensed Master Electrician and serves as an alternate
8 04 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 24, NO. 5 , SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1988
member of the National Electrical Code Making Panel 19. He is a Registered
Professional Engineer in the State of Michigan.
Norman D. Reese received the B.E.E. degree from
Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, in
1961.
He worked 23 years in the electrical utility
industry, both for power companies directly and as
a Consultant. He has been in the Agricultural
Engineering Department at Michigan State Univer-
sity since 1981, teaching courses in electrical
technology. His work experience includes design of
protection systems for EHV transmission lines and
large plants as well as distribution system design.
His foreign assignments have-taken him to Brazil, Saudi Arabia,-and Pakistan,
and he has done work for clients in Turkey, Bolivia, and Iran.
Mr. Reese is a Licensed Master Electrician. He is a Registered Professional
Engineer in the State of Michigan.
Jonathan R. Althouse received the B.S. degree in
1985 and is currently working on the M.S. degree in
agricultural engineering technology at Michigan
State University, East Lansing.
He has worked as an Electrician since 1982.
Presently he holds the position of Instructor at
Michigan State University. His responsibilities in-
clude teaching courses in electrical technology and
neutral-to-earth voltage research.
Mr. Althouse is a Licensed Journey Electrician.