WEL201A - Full Study Guide - 140814 PDF

WEL201A Managing the needs of diverse client groups
12082014v1
WEL201A
Managing the needs of diverse client groups
© All rights reserved. Provider: Think Colleges Pty Ltd t/a Jansen Newman Institute, ABN: 93 050 049 299,
CRICOS: 00246M, RTO: 02697
1
12082014v1
Contents
Contents ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3
About this unit............................................................................................................................ 4
Section 1: What is cultural diversity? ........................................................................................ 8
Section 2: Cultural diversity and identity ................................................................................ 21
Section 3: Dealing with diversity—prejudice and racism ....................................................... 42
Section 4: Social inequality—refugees and migrant groups .................................................... 60
Section 5: The cost of social inequality-Indigenous Australians............................................. 69
Section 6: Culturally competent practice: obstacles and challenges ....................................... 80
Section 7: Towards culturally competent practice in working with families and children ..... 96
Section 8: Culturally and ethnically diverse groups—skills and knowledge for practice ..... 113
Section 9: Applying cultural competence in practice ............................................................ 123
Section 10: Participatory decision-making and Indigenous Australians ............................... 138
Section 11: A framework for culturally and ethnically inclusive practice ............................ 147
Section 12: Revision .............................................................................................................. 160
2
12082014v1
Introduction
Welcome to WEL201A Managing the needs of diverse client groups. This unit will extend
your studies by introducing you to the concept of cultural diversity in an Australian context
and to how the concept has evolved since the early days of Australian colonisation.
Before you begin the unit, take a moment to familiarise yourself with the learning materials
available to you.
Your learning materials

The learning materials for this unit of study consist of:
 a study guide
 a prescribed textbook
 supplementary readings and materials
 online activities, including self-check questions.
You also have access to a wealth of other educational resources through the learning portal.
The study guide
The study guide functions as an instructional pathway through the unit of study. It contains
essential information about the unit and the topics it covers. In conjunction with your lecturer,
the study guide helps you achieve the same learning outcomes as if you were attending
lectures in a face-to-face academic environment. What is more, the study guide is geared to
flexible learning; at all times you will be given the opportunity to be proactive in your own
studies.
The textbook
The textbook prescribed for this unit is:
Diller, J.V. 2015. (5th ed.) Cultural Diversity: A primer for the human services, Cengage
Learning, USA.
3
12082014v1
The textbook is another important resource for your week-to-week studies. As you progress
through the unit, the study guide will direct you to read relevant sections. You are also
encouraged to explore the content and complete activities within the textbook at any time you
choose.
Supplementary readings and materials
In addition to the textbook, supplementary readings and materials will contextualise your
learning and introduce you to other perspectives on the topics under discussion. The study
guide might ask you to retrieve articles from databases such as ProQuest or the Gale library,
via the learning portal. The study guide might also direct you to watch videos, complete
practical exercises, make entries in a journal or view illustrations and diagrams—all
accessible online.
Online activities
Self-check questions
A good way to check your progress as you work through the unit is to complete the self-
check questions, provided for each week of study. The self-check questions are to be found in
the learning portal and are in the form of multiple-choice or true/false questions.
About this unit

This subject helps students develop an understanding of diversity in Australia and examines
the evolution of multiculturalism since colonisation. Students develop the skills for working
effectively with diverse client groups such as Indigenous Australians, people from culturally
and linguistically diverse backgrounds including migrants and refugees, and a variety of other
minority groups. Drawing on cases and experienced guest lecturers from the field, the subject
examines community welfare in practice, including how various government and non-
government agencies respond to issues of difference and social disadvantage through
community development interventions.
Learning outcomes
Once you successfully complete this unit, you should be able to:
 describe the historical, cultural and political contexts of ethnic diversity in Australia
4
12082014v1
 identify and analyse the social, health and economic costs of social inequality among
refugee and migrant groups
 demonstrate understanding of the knowledge and skills required for developing

culturally competent services and practice
 discuss the value of a culturally diverse society and the limitations of ethnocentric
policies and practices
 appraise and discuss the imperative of participator action by Indigenous Australians in

community development and services.
Structure
The unit consists of 12 sections, delivered over 12 weeks. The week-by-week course
structure is as follows:
1 What is cultural diversity?
2 Cultural diversity and identity
3 Dealing with diversity—prejudice and racism
4 Social inequality - refugees and migrant groups
5 The cost of social inequality-Indigenous Australians
6 Culturally competent practice: obstacles and challenges
7 Towards culturally competent practice in working with families and children
8 Mid-term break
9 Culturally and ethnically diverse groups—skills and knowledge for practice
10 Applying cultural competence in practice
11 Participatory decision-making and Indigenous Australians
12 A framework for culturally and ethnically inclusive practice
13 Revision
14 Examination week
5
12082014v1
Assessment
Your lecturer will advise you of the formal assessment procedure. You can also refer to the
unit outline.
6
12082014v1
Section 1
What is cultural diversity?
Section 1: What is cultural diversity? 7

12082014v1
Section 1: What is cultural diversity?

Section overview
In this section, we will look at some of the definitions and concepts that are important to an
understanding of cultural diversity. We will look at what it means to be culturally competent
and aware and the role of conceptual knowledge in understanding culture and cultural
diversity. We also examine why it is important to acknowledge the difference across people
and cultures.
Learning outcomes
Once you successfully complete this section, you should be able to:
define culture
explain the concept of cultural diversity
explain what it means to be culturally competent and why it is important in practice
explain the importance of cultural knowledge and the cultural mirror
demonstrate understanding of cultural difference and its importance
reflect on the importance of cultural awareness especially in work settings
reflect on your own experience of cultural diversity.
Textbook reading
The following chapter from your text provides an excellent introduction and rationale for the
skills involved in attaining cultural competence in the helping professions.
Diller, J.V. 2015. Cultural diversity: A primer for the human services, Cengage Learning,
USA, chapter 2.

12082014v1
Cultural diversity and cultural competence have been explored extensively from a theoretical
point of view. Much of this exploration has been based in cultural anthropology. Other
studies have been conducted from perspectives including psychology, social work, social
science, biological and business. Various concepts and theories will be explored during this
course. As you encounter new theories and concepts consider how they are or might be useful
in practice.
Culture
What is culture?
Culture encompasses common and shared behaviours, ideas, experiences and characteristics
within a group that help define and differentiate that group from other groups.
Aspects of a culture that are shared and help define that culture include the following:
 Customs
 Habits
 Beliefs
 Attitudes
 Practices
 Communication
 Ideology—religious and political
 World view
 Concepts of life, the universe, space and time
 Skills
 Arts
 Science and technology

12082014v1
According to Barker (cited in Thyer 2010, p. 6), such characteristics of culture are
represented ‘in a group of people in a specific time period’. Cultural geography refers to the
relationship between people and their physical environment (O’Hagan 2001, p. 36). In an
Australian context, the unique environment and geography of the continent, the cultural
contribution of both Indigenous Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and the various
waves of migration following British colonisation all influence the concept of culture. The
most important influences have most likely been those of the various multi-ethnic population
groups in Australia.
‘Culture’ as dynamic
From the ‘social construction’ perspective (Gergen, K.J. 2000), culture is ‘interpreted and
created daily through interactions between individuals and their social surroundings.’ (Berry,
J.W. 1999). Consequently, culture is not static; it shifts over time in response to new
discoveries, interactions and trends. In the modern, globalised world, cultures are changing
more rapidly as they interact, incorporate each other’s ideas and take on aspects of each
other’s cultural identities.
Activity 1.1
Identify some of your own behaviours that are specific to your culture. Identify a setting in
which these behaviours might interfere with or hinder effective communication with a person
from a culture very different from your own.
Cultural diversity
What is cultural diversity?
Australia is a diverse society that incorporates a wide range of cultural backgrounds, ethnic
groups and races, people with disabilities and differing sexual orientations and other cultural
groupings (Chenoweth & McAuliffe 2008, p. 229).

12082014v1
Cultural diversity essentially refers to this multiplicity within human society and to the
differences between individuals who exist within and across different cultures. Cultural
diversity is not just about obvious cultural differences, it also relates to how people interact
with their environments and to their shared values, notions of morality, belief systems and
other culturally influenced factors.
Reading 1.1
Read the following article, which is available via the learning portal.
Thyer, B.A. 2010. Cultural diversity and social work practice, Charles C. Thomas,
Springfield, pp. 3–25.
This reading defines some important terms and concepts regarding culture and group
behaviour. It also looks at how social-work practices are tied up with culture, and why
cultural sensitivity is especially important in a social-work setting.
Cultural competence
What is cultural competence?
Cultural competence refers to a person’s ability to interact effectively and respectfully with
people of different cultures. To be culturally competent, an individual needs to be aware both
of cultural differences and traits and of their responses to their own and other cultures.
What does it mean to be culturally competent in a community setting?
Cultural competence is essential in a community setting if you are to prove able to

communicate effectively with people from various cultural backgrounds, understand cultural
and social challenges and be proactive in supporting and creating health and community
settings that are sensitive to cultural needs.
The American National Association of Social Workers (NASW) outlines 10 standards of

cultural competence in social work. These include self-awareness, cross-cultural knowledge
and language diversity. You can download these standards from the NASW website at
http://www.naswdc.org/practice/standards/NASWculturalstandards.pdf.
12082014v1
In the weeks ahead you will look more closely at how to achieve cultural awareness and
cultural competence.
Activity 1.2
A cultural audit, according to ITAP International
http://www.itapintl.com/whatwedo/globalworkforcetraining/culturalaudits.html, examines a
workplace or other environment’s ‘current practices, programs and processes to identify how
culturally appropriate they may be for multicultural or global audiences’.
Name five areas you would explore in a cultural audit to evaluate cultural competence.
Cultural awareness
Cultural awareness involves an understanding of the impact of culture on a person’s identity,
values, behaviours, beliefs and perceptions. Culture plays an important role in people’s
experience of life. Cultural awareness is important in communicating and interacting with
others, especially when cultural differences impact on people’s behaviour and interpretations
of behaviour.
Cultural awareness is important when you interact with people from cultures different from
your own, as they may interpret and evaluate things differently from you. This is especially
important in a professional setting where effective communication supports effective
relationships with clients and colleagues as well as effective practice.
You can read about some key considerations regarding cultural awareness at
http://www.culturaldiversity.com.au/practice-guides/cultural-awareness. The Centre for
Cultural Diversity in Ageing website stresses the importance of understanding that culture
itself is a ‘fluid entity undergoing transformations as a result of globalisation, migration and
the diaspora influence’.
Achieving cultural competence in your interactions with others requires an awareness of

cultural influences and perceptions.
To be culturally aware is to understand:

12082014v1
 aspects of people’s culture and how culture influences their thoughts, values, identity
and behaviour and how they interact with others
 your own perceptions of and reactions to different cultures
 how cultural background has affected people’s place in society and others’ behaviour
towards them
 the individual within a culture.
An example of cultural awareness is disability and culture. Not every culture has the same
approaches to health and disability. Disability is one of the least-explored areas when it
comes to the cultural beliefs and values of consumers and service providers. Cultural
approaches to disability can determine how well or poorly people with disabilities are treated
in a culture. In some cultures disability is believed to be caused by karma, spirits, divine
punishment or supernatural intervention. In certain countries, disabled or ill individuals suffer
isolation and severe discrimination. However, in other cultures it is accepted practice to
provide care for a disabled family member; in fact, it is perceived as shameful to send a
disabled relative away for care or to an institution. There tends to be more discourse about
equal rights and treatment for people with illness and disabilities in Western countries. Be
that as it may, there is still much to do globally to support, empower and bring equality to
those with illness and disabilities.
Groce (2005, pp. 8–10) describes a range of examples of how disability is perceived in
different cultures, including the Mexican American belief that it is God’s will that disabled
children be born, and that God chooses parents who will be kind and protective of these
special children.
Activity 1.3
It helps to have an understanding of your own cultural awareness of Indigenous Australians.

The Creative spirits website provides a quiz to test your level of cultural awareness.
http://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/Aboriginal-Australia-Test.html Go to
Complete the cultural awareness quiz.
Were there any areas in which you could improve your cultural awareness of Indigenous
Australians?

12082014v1
What other questions would you have included in the quiz?
Cultural mirror
A cultural mirror provides a reflection of who we are. It can be anything in a culture that
reflects that culture, helps us to recognise the ideas and behaviours that are peculiar to us and
to understand ourselves and the world around us. Many aspects of society influence culture
and are influenced in turn by culture: science, psychology and the media are examples of
aspects of society that broaden our understanding of who we are.
Former psychology professor Jeffrey Fish, PhD, discusses the influence of race and culture
on our identity and behaviours in his blog ‘Looking in the cultural mirror’, available through
the Psychology Today website at www.psychologytoday.com/blog/looking-in-the-cultural-
mirror.
Activity 1.4
Think about your own cultural background and describe how it is reflected in television,
music and movies. How might your culture come across to someone of a different
background?
Cultural and individual differences

Why acknowledge differences across people and cultures?
Acknowledging differences across people and cultures is extremely important as both culture
and world views are essential to how people think, feel, behave and interact. Ranzijn,
McConnochie and Nolan (2009, p. 20) state that ‘[c]ulture is the medium through which
worldviews have their outward expression’.
As we have seen in the readings so far, culture is defined as the learned, shared and
transmitted values, beliefs, norms and life practices of a particular group of people, and can
be understood through their actions and behavioural and functional patterns. Since cultural
background fundamentally affects several aspects of people's lives, for example their beliefs,
language, religion, family structure and body image, culture must be considered when caring
for people from other cultures. Furthermore, developing an understanding of cultural
diversity and valuing that diversity, and the keys to countering racism. This is encapsulated

12082014v1
in the following statement by UNESCO (1999 in NSW Government Education &

Communities site, 2013):
“Understanding others makes possible a better knowledge of oneself: any form of identity is
complex, for individuals are defined in relation to other people - both individually and
collectively - and the various groups to which they owe allegiance, in a constantly shifting
pattern”.
Understanding difference
Being aware of the general differences that occur across cultures helps to minimise
misunderstanding and increases awareness of why people behave and interact in ways that
are different from one’s own culture.
Different ways of seeing the world influence how people behave and their understanding of
institutions such as health, community and work. Somovar, Porter and Jain (1981, cited in
Sotnick and Jezewski, 2005, p. 24) report on the three components of worldview:
Component Different views
Individual and nature Human life is more important than nature
Or
Humans are part of nature; nature cannot be modified
Science and technology Individuals can discover an explanation and solution to problems
by scientific methods
Or
Problems are predetermined by fate and cannot be solved by

human intervention
Materialism The acquisition of material goods is important
Or

12082014v1
Self-sacrifice is valued: tangible assets are not
Western cultures value individualistic pursuits and needs whereas many other cultures
prioritise community above individual needs. These differences in world view affect how
people behave, which explains the need in some cultural groups to defer to the group when
making decisions concerning health care. Cultural orientations regarding individualism vs.
collectivism have an impact on both character and behaviour (Sotnick & Jezewski 2005, p.
25).
Cultural Personal characteristics Behavioural indicators

orientation
Individualism Self-expression Communicating dissatisfaction with

services
Assertiveness
Holding a view of services different
Self-advocacy
from that of the family unit or
Self-realisation community
Focusing on the individual’s unique set

of talents and potential
Collectivism An individual’s existence is Individual may not accept

inseparable from the family and transportation and work outside their
community community
Self-interest is forgone in favour Support to achieve self-sufficiency is

of the interests of the family or not welcomed
larger group
Group activities predominate

12082014v1
Activity 1.5
Watch the following video on differences in gestures across cultures taken from the BBC
documentary The human animal—The language of the body (1994, Part 1).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pxoB6MhmbIg&feature=related
Information about the series can be found at:

http://www.gendernetwork.com/humananimal.html
Describe a situation you or someone you know has experienced in which gestures have been
misinterpreted.
What are common gestures you use that are specific to your culture?
Activity 1.6
Think of a cultural group that may be different from your own, for example Japanese
businessmen or American Christian missionaries.
What are some of the beliefs, concepts and moral precepts of the group you have chosen that
you find difficult to accept or agree with? Why do you find them difficult to accept or agree
with? In what ways does the concept of culture help to understand these differences?
Reading 1.2
Ranzijn, R., McConnochie, K. & Nolan, W. 2009. Psychology and Indigenous Australians:
Foundations of cultural competence, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, pp. 13–30.
This text looks at world views and culture, and discusses the importance of understanding
your own culture in relation to how it differs from others’.

12082014v1
Additional Resources
Barker, R. (ed) 2003, cited in Thyer, B.A. 2010. Cultural diversity and social work practice,
Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. 3–25.
Chenoweth, L. & McAuliffe, D. 2008. The road to social work and human service practice,
Cengage Learning.
USA.
Gergen, K.J. 1999. An invitation to social construction. Sage Publications Ltd, London.
O’Hagan, K. 2001. Cultural competence in the caring professions, Jessica Kingsley Pub.,
London.
Maidment, J. 2009. Cross-cultural practice. In Connolly, M. & Hamrs, L. (eds.). Social

Work:Contexts and Practices. South Melbourne:Oxford University Press, Chapter 11,
pp.149-162.
Quinn, M. 2009. ‘Towards anti-racist and culturally affirming practices’ in Allan, J., Pease,
B. & Briskman, L. (eds) 2009. Critical social work: theories and practices for a socially just
world, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
Foundations of cultural competence, Palgrave Macmillan, UK.
Additional online resources
The Centre for Cultural Diversity in Ageing is an organisation supporting the aged-care
industry by helping to provide culturally appropriate care.
http://www.culturaldiversity.com.au/
The Cultural Intelligence Center

12082014v1
http://www.culturalq.com/about.html
The Institute for Cultural Diversity is an NGO established to promote the value of cultural
diversity for a democratic, creative and productive Australia.
http://www.culturaldiversity.net.au/
Research on Australia’s immigration, available at:
http://www.immi.gov.au/media/research/
The Department of Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs: Disability

Employment and Advocacy Services on ‘Communicating in a culturally appropriate way’,
available at:
http://resources.fahcsia.gov.au/ConsumerTrainingSupportProducts/docs/external/cultural_co
mmunication.pdf
Now that you have completed this section, visit the learning portal to participate in the latest
discussion forum and complete the self-check questions.

12082014v1
Section 2
Cultural diversity and identity
Section 2: Cultural diversity and identity 20

12082014v1
Section 2: Cultural diversity and identity

Section overview
In this section we will examine the patterns of ethnic and cultural diversity to have arisen
through successive waves of immigration to Australia. This includes a consideration of
government policies and legislation which have been formative in developing Australia’s
multicultural identity. This section begins with a consideration of the notion of cultural
identity and how ethnic identity intersects with Social class, gender, sexuality, age and so
forth .
Learning outcomes
Once you have successfully completed this section, you should be able to:
 understand cultural identity
 identity patterns of ethnic and cultural diversity in Australia
 distinguish between intersectionality positionality and critical consciousness
 Outline how colonialism influenced the direction of Australian immigration
 explain multiculturalism and its importance in a diverse society
 understand policies of assimilation and the impact on Indigenous Australians.
Textbook reading
In the following chapter Diller explores cultural diversity, contextualising his discussion with
a series of practical examples and case studies.
USA, chapter 5.
Understanding cultural identity

12082014v1
To understand cultural differences, we must first understand what defines a culture. As we

saw in the previous section, culture is what shapes how we see the world, and influences all
our behaviours and interactions. Culture is constantly changing as communities and
individuals interact and respond to different environments and situations. In an Australian
context, for example, second-generation migrants might mix the culture of their parents with
Anglo-Australian culture, in the process creating their own, new cultural practices.
Cultural identity plays an important role in how people perceive who they are and their place
in the world. Cultural identity assumes a sense of belonging to a group that shares similar
traits and experiences. A strong identity is often associated with high self-esteem and a stable
sense of who you are and how you interact with others and operate in life. People who are
adopted often seek out their biological parents to help them understand their identity and
explain traits that differ from those of their adoptive parents. People who are adopted into
cultures different from their biological culture often seek a connection with their origins to
help them achieve a sense of belonging, understanding or resolution of who they are.
O’Hagan (2001, pp. 28–30) describes several aspects of identity:
 People can have many different cultural identities. For example, a woman may be
Cambodian, Buddhist, a mother and a teacher, each of which elements contributes to
her sense of who she is.
 Identity is dynamic and undergoes constant change as people take on new roles or
attain new understanding of who they are.
 Identity forms a polarity of sameness or belonging vs. difference. The sense of

belonging can be threatened by difference.
 Identity has become a prominent discourse across different disciplines exploring

identity within political and social contexts.
Self-awareness

12082014v1
Practising self-awareness of your own world view and of your perceptions of others in
relation to their cultures can enable you to become a more culturally competent practitioner.
According to Smith (2004, pp. 11-12) self-awareness involves an understanding of your:
 own world view, values, cultural heritage and how these influence your perceptions of
others
 stereotypes, biases and assumptions about different cultural groups
 communication style and its social impacts
 unearned privileges
 efficacy, confidence, anxiety and defensiveness with others
 actions taken to increase cultural competence.
Activity 2.1
The activity that follows is taken from Rothman, J. 2008. Cultural competence in process and
practice: Building Bridges, Pearson, NY, p. 17.
This activity is useful for considering your identity and can also be useful with clients. It
explores your uniqueness, but also the groups to which you belong.
Close your eyes.
Ask yourself, ‘When do I feel most like myself?’
Your initial response might be a stock reply such as, ‘outside looking at the stars’ or ‘when
I’m drawing or painting’.
Give the question some more thought. Where do you really feel your own uniqueness as an
individual? Can you draw a clear distinction between defining yourself and separating
yourself from the ‘other’. When you consider your uniqueness, do you feel connection to
others or difference from others?

12082014v1
Belonging to certain cultures may attribute members with a sense of power or powerlessness,
discrimination or acceptance and give access to or exclude from important institutions that
enable survival and participation in society.
When working with others it is important to be aware of these disparities and how we often
play roles without realising we are being influenced by our own inherent expectations and
cultural biases.
For example, mental health professionals need to be aware of the power of their role when
working with clients diagnosed with mental illness. The label of a mental illness can be
disempowering owing to stigma and behaviour being interpreted as part of mental illness.
The individual within a culture
Cultural awareness also calls for openness to individuality and refraining from presumptions
of cultural influence. Everyone has individual traits that differ from the next person within
and across cultures. For example, it might be easy to assume someone is powerless because
they are Aboriginal when, in fact, that individual might feel confident, empowered and
entirely comfortable with who they are and their place in the world.
It is also possible for someone not to feel that they fit into a culture and to prefer to take on
different cultural roles. For example, a person may have American parents but feel more
English because they were born in England and have always lived there. Those whose parents
and/or grandparents belong to a certain culture but who have grown up in another culture
tend to adopt elements from both cultures.
Culture and social structure

There is a dynamic interchange between cultural identity and that which sets an individual or
a group apart from others. Cultural diversity explores differences within and between groups.
Belonging to a group does not mean that every member is exactly the same. Within groups,
members have diverse traits and ways of being. Identifying and belonging to a group can,
however, differentiate a group member from other groups. To understand diversity is to

12082014v1
recognise that while members of cultural groups do share characteristics they also have
individual traits. To focus on stereotypes and bias is often to miss individual uniqueness.
A number of social theories explore the concept of cultural diversity. We will look at three
important theories:
 Intersectionality
 Positionality
 Critical consciousness
Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a sociological theory that explores how social and cultural categories
intertwine to form an individual’s experiences, including discrimination and oppression
(Knudsen 2006). The theory of intersectionality was developed by Crenshaw (1989) to create
awareness of the fact that feminist theory reflected predominantly white middle-class
women’s experience and not that of African American women, in other words race and
gender intersected in the experiences of discrimination and oppression. Fozdar et al. (2012,
p.215) point out that the goal of intersectionality is to look at ways ethnic identity is
influenced by intersections with factors such as social class and gender. The premise of the
theory is we have multiple identities, that an ethnic group is divided internally by class,
gender and other differentiating factors such as the length of migration, sexuality, religion,
age and disability status. Each of these factors is an important determinant of our life chances
and identity.
Reading 2.1
Knudsen, S. 2005. ‘Intersectionality—A theoretical inspiration in the analysis of minority

cultures and identities in textbooks’ in Bruillard, E, Aamotsbakken, B. Knudsen, S. V. &
Horsley, M. 2007 Caught in the web or lost in the textbook? International Association for
Research on Textbooks and Educational Media. Canada, pp. 61–76.

12082014v1
Activity 2.2
Apply the theory of intersectionality in the Australian context to identify three instances of
this type of cultural bias or oppression.
Positionality
Positionality is a concept in cultural anthropology that explores the implications of where a

person stands in relation to others. A person’s belonging, within a culture or outside of a
culture, influences who they are and their understanding of the world (Takacs, D., 2002).
Each person occupies one or more positionalities according to their culture and place in
society. These can shift, depending on changes in cultural identity and experience, and such
shifts can be intentional or unintentional.
Critical consciousness
Critical consciousness is a concept developed by Brazilian Paulo Freire that entails

encouraging heightened awareness of and critical thinking about what is occurring around us
socially, politically and economically and how such occurrences lead to oppression (Freire,
1997). Freire developed the theory of critical consciousness while teaching third-world
people to read and encouraging them to become aware of conditions in which they were
oppressed.
Freire introduced critical consciousness into the educational system to:
 encourage teachers to be more aware and critically analyse presumptions of

knowledge
 encourage students to critically analyse what they were taught
Freire also believed Western society’s support of individual over communal interests
discouraged or diminished opportunities to oppose oppressive practices.
Activity 2.3

12082014v1
Why is critical consciousness important in acknowledging racial, cultural and ethnic diversity
in practice?
Reading 2.2
Merriam, S.B., Johnson-Bailey, J., Lee, M-Y., Kee, Y., Ntseane, G. & Muhamad, M. 2001.
Power and positionality: negotiating insider–outsider status within and across cultures,
International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(5), September–October, pp. 405–16.
This article explores the impacts of being positioned inside or outside a culture.
Cultural and ethnic diversity in Australia
Ethnic communities
The word `ethnic’ literally means ‘relating to or peculiar to a population’ (Macquarie

Dictionary). Furthermore, again in a literal sense, ethnicity refers to ‘the origin, classification,
[and] characteristics of such groups’. Ethnicity, then, refers to the characteristics of a group
of people who share a common linguistic and cultural background. Thus it stands to reason
that all cultures have characteristics of ethnicity, and that we are all, in essence, of particular
ethnic backgrounds. However, the way the word ‘ethnic’ is used implies something else
altogether. Ethnicity is commonly confused with race; there can be different ethnic groups
within a race. There is also controversy over what defines ethnicity (Morning, 2005. U.N.
2003)
The Macquarie Dictionary (Butler, S. ed. 2009) describes an ethnic group as ‘a group of
people, racially or historically related, having a common and distinctive culture’. In
sociological terms, ethnicity relates to socially constructed groups based on common
heritage, customs, language or religion and other aspects of culture; it is also subjective, your
ethnicity is the group/s you self-identify with.

12082014v1
Immigration and cultural diversity
It is worth revisiting here some of the material covered in introductory sociology.

Immigration is one of the more dominant features of Australia’s sociological makeup.
Migration can be defined `as the movement of people over space’ (Van Krieken 2006, p265).
Notwithstanding the indigenous heritage of this country which spans at least 40,000 years the
colonial settlement of Australia is little over two hundred years old. It is with the start of
colonisation that migration began to shape Australian society, although many would also
argue that Australia’s first experience of migration occurred with the influx of the original
indigenous peoples so many millennia ago. In any case, it is the colonial settlement of
Australia that began to shape ‘white’ Australia’s sense of itself, and which has formed the
basis of our national identity since. Colonial settlement was also our first taste of the impact
of immigration on our sense of identity.
Changes to migration trends in the last two centuries have had considerable impact on the
formation of Australian society and national identity. While the majority of migrants to
Australia continue to be of Anglo Celtic origin, growing numbers of European and Asian
immigrants to Australia have influenced how we consider ourselves as a nation and how we
respond to others.
The table below illustrates the migration trends to Australia since 1954. Close examination
also reveals how migration trends have changed during this time.

12082014v1
Table Top 10 Countries of Birth, Australia 1954-2010
Country of origin 1954 1971 1996 2001 2006 2010

‘000 ‘000 ‘000 ‘000 ‘000 ‘000
United Kingdom 664.2 1 088.2 1 164.1 1 126.9 1 141.0 1 192.9
New Zealand 43.4 80.5 315.1 394.1 445.1 544.2
China (excludes SARS 10.3 17.6 121.2 157.0 259.2 379.8
and Taiwan)
India 12.0 29.2 84.8 103.6 180.1 340.6
Italy 119.9 289.5 259.1 238.5 227.3 216.3
Vietnam Na Na 164.2 169.5 185.5 210.8
Philippines 0.2 2.6 102.7 112.2 140.0 17.4
South Africa 6.0 12.7 61.8 87.0 120.3 155.7
Malaysia 2.3 14.9 83.0 87.2 107.1 135.6
Germany 65.4 110.8 120.8 117.5 124.4 128.6
Total overseas born 1286.5 2579.3 4258.6 4482.1 5090.1 5994.0
Australian-born 7700.1 10176.3 14052.1 14931.2 15607.8 16334.9
Total population 8986.5 12755.6 18310.7 19413.2 20697.9 22328.9

Source: Migration Australia (3412.0); data from ABS Census of Population and Housing
The above table demonstrates how almost a quarter of Australia’s current population is of
overseas origin. This is considerable, particularly when we bear in mind that these figures do
not take into account second and subsequent generation offspring (born in Australia) of
migrant descent. These figures alone reflect the enormous impact that immigration has had on
the formation of Australian society. Since the 1950s, the patterns of immigration to Australia
have changed and the diversity of the population has increased markedly. Despite shifts in
Asian migration, the United Kingdom continues to remain the largest source country
representing 20 per cent of all migrants in 2010, and despite having fallen from 27% in 1996.
In terms of trends, the ABS notes that,
“Some of the older migrant streams, such as people born in Italy, have been declining in
absolute numbers as their populations’ age and the number of deaths exceeds net gains from
more recent migration. The New Zealand-born population living in Australia was the second
largest overseas-born group making up 9 per cent of the overseas-born population in 2010

12082014v1
compared with 7 per cent in 1996. Some other migrant streams that have increased their
proportion over recent decades include those born in China, India, the Philippines, South
Africa and Malaysia. For example, the China-born population trebled from 121,200 people in
1996 to 379,800 people in 2010 (making up 6% of the overseas-born population). The India-
born population increased its share from 2% in 1996 (84,800 people) to 6% in 2010 (340,600
people)”.
According to Germov and Poole (2007) “over 6 million people have settled in Australia since
the end of World War II … and we are witnessing a continuing increase of ethnic diversity,
particularly since the end of the White Australia policy”. The authors go on to state, however,
that “this trend notwithstanding, there appears little possibility that this increasing ethnic
diversification will soon erode the dominance of the European-descended population…
[given that] 33.1 per cent of [overseas born Australian inhabitants] were born in North-West
Europe (primarily the United Kingdom and Ireland)” (p 270).
Language diversity
The 2011 Census (ABS, 2014) notes 81 percent of Australians spoke only English at home.
The next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin (1.7%), Italian (1.5%),
Arabic (1.4%), Cantonese (1.3%) and Greek (1.3%). Due to the process of acculturation, first
generation Australians had the highest proportion of people who spoke a language other than
English at home (53%). It was lower for second generation (20%) and third generation
(1.6%). The ABS (2014) notes “Just under a third (32.6%) of newly arrived migrants aged 5
years and over spoke only English at home. This was followed by Mandarin (10.8 %),
Punjabi (3.7%), Hindi (3.3%) and Arabic (3.0%)”.
Reading 2.3
Access the ABS (2014) website ‘Cultural Diversity in Australia’ based on the 2011 Census
data. The site comes from catalogue no.2071.0-Reflecting a Nation:Stories from the 2011
Census, 2012-2013. Read the summary of cultural diversity in Australia, taking note of the
indicators of cultural diversity- language, migration, religion and so forth, and the
intersectionality with gender. The site is accessed below:

12082014v1
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013
Activity 2.4
The ABS data on cultural diversity in reading 2.3 is measured through the following
questions. In your view, are these questions an adequate representation of cultural diversity?
- In which country was the person born?

- Was the person's father born in Australia or overseas?
- Was the person's mother born in Australia or overseas?
- If born overseas - In what year did the person first arrive in Australia to live here for
one year or more?
- What is the person's ancestry? (Provide up to two ancestries only).
- Is the person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin?
- Does the person speak a language other than English at home?
- How well does the person speak English?
- What is the person's religion?
Multiculturalism: Dealing with the cultural mix

Migration and multiculturalism
The concept of multiculturalism in Australia is one of cultural inclusiveness, which seeks to

support immigrants and promote tolerance and cultural diversity. Multiculturalism promotes
the notion that diverse cultures can exist harmoniously in the same country, with equal
opportunities and mutual acceptance.
Multiculturalism is considered an important building block of Australian society. The

Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC) describes multiculturalism as the
‘cultural and linguistic diversity of Australian society [as] cultural and linguistic diversity
was a feature of life for the first Australians, well before European settlement’. DIAC
supports the advantages to be derived from multiculturalism in terms of social, cultural and
business development.

12082014v1
Countries such as the UK, US, Canada and New Zealand have many similarities in their
approaches to cultural diversity awareness. The US does not have a specific government
program or directive that fosters the principles of multiculturalism though it does support its
diverse population with programs and research initiatives. Discussion has centred on the
experience of African Americans and the provision of services that will meet their needs.
The US, like Australia, follows a predominantly white European model of community
services. Issues of cultural competence have been explored, particularly in relation to African
Americans, including challenges that are the legacy of slavery and other discriminatory
practices. The Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s was responsible for the first
wave of reform in the treatment of African Americans. Cultural competence continues to be
sought in community service settings for all minority groups in the US, including health,
education and politics. Poverty remains a primary difficulty for many in minority groups.
Indigenous peoples of the US and Canada living in the aftermath of colonialism and
paternalism know firsthand the harmful repercussions of white perceptions of superiority and
have attempted in recent years to raise awareness and increase acceptance of indigenous
peoples in their countries. Canada has made a formal apology to its indigenous inhabitants for
past wrongs. New Zealand has been particularly active in recognising Maoris and their
central place and culture in New Zealand.
The UK has a large African, African Caribbean and Asian population, and there have been
calls recently for more culturally competent health care. Across Western countries culturally
competent community services have been actively considered only in the past twenty years
and have actually made it onto agendas only in the past decade owing to globalisation making
an imperative of such considerations.
In Asian cultures, attitudes to cultural competence vary widely. With regard to disability,
many Asian cultures are highly family-oriented and there is a strong sense of social
responsibility for caring for disabled and aged family members at home. Notions of disability
vary widely from belief in supernatural and karmic forces to acceptance of biological causes
and can affect how someone with a disability is treated.

12082014v1
A strong sense of community over individualism can contribute to a robust sense of identity,
which is a source of support for members of those communities. However, discrimination by
race, ethnicity, gender, class and other cultural differences remains a reality in most countries
and is not confined to predominantly white nations. In many cultures, for example China and
India, patriarchal beliefs and preference for males over females mean many women are
relegated to carer roles. There are few matriarchal systems in our society and women tend to
be the carers the world over.
Perceptions of practitioners, particularly in relation to health care, can vary across cultures.
Some cultures expect professionals to know everything and will answer any question put to
them with a polite yes. In other cultures, families that are used to an elevated position in a
hierarchy can look down on professionals, demand to consult the best-qualified practitioner
and generally make unreasonable demands by virtue of a system of hierarchy and privilege to
which their culture subscribes.
When people move across cultures as immigrants, the experiences can make them more
tradition-bound than their counterparts in their countries of origin.
Activity 2.5
View the video at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Btq4pBouo
The panel decides whether or not a commercial is racist and discusses people’s reactions to
the commercial. Do you think the advertisement is racist? Why or why not? How important is
cultural context in how we interpret portrayals of different cultures?

12082014v1
Asylum seekers
Globalisation has had a significant effect migration patterns, especially in recent years as
technological advances and improved transport networks enable people to move more easily
across borders and to distant countries.
The ABS (2008) states that more than 43 per cent of the Australian population was born
overseas or had one or more parents born overseas. In Australia, asylum seekers are a small
proportion of those who seek to live in Australia.
Moving to a new country can present a range of challenges for migrants and asylum seekers,
including:
 adapting to a new culture and language
 financial difficulties
 tension between traditional and new cultural systems of belief and practice (Groce in
Stone (ed.) 2005, p 4)
 displacement—loss of belongings, lack of personal emotional and physical

preparation and choice of destination
 fear of being sent back to their country of birth—political refugees or illegal aliens
fleeing a lack of services in their own countries
 difficulties accessing institutions and services
 adapting to perceptions of disability, race or culture
 coping with trauma for those who have moved to other countries to escape conflict
and disasters.
Australia applies tight border controls to asylum seekers, requiring them to be detained
indefinitely at detention centres until their applications are processed. A number of
humanitarian concerns have been raised with regard to detention centres, including a lack of
appropriate access to counselling and support and lack of a definite timeframe within which
asylum seekers can expect their applications to be processed.

12082014v1
Reading 2.4
Mares, P. 2010. ‘No easy fix for refugee policy’, ABC online, accessed 23 December.
http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/12/23/3100168.htm?site=thedrum
The article was written following the Christmas Island tragedy in which more than 50 asylum
seekers were killed when their boat disintegrated on the island’s cliff rocks and examines
refugee policy.
Indigenous Australians
Indigeneity is a term used to refer to people who have inhabited a space for thousands of
years, and people who have intimate relationship with the land. Henslin et al (2014, p.274)
explain that assimilation is the process by which a minority group is integrated into
mainstream culture. In forced assimilation, the dominant group refuses the minority to
practice culture, religion, language and so forth. Permissible assimilation in contrast, allows
minorities to integrate in it’s their own time with the host culture. This form of assimilation
more reflects the sort applied to European migrants to Australia during the post World War 2
periods. In Australia until the 1960s, Indigenous children were removed forcibly form their
families and sent to institutions and homes of white families where they could not practice
their own culture.
Colonialist policies meant Indigenous peoples in Australia were thought of as inferior, as

‘primitive’ and without recourse to the land. The country regarded as ‘terra nullius’ meant
Indigenous people were dispossessed of their land, this had serious consequences for the
livelihood of indigenous peoples. Traditional cultural knowledge including customs,
language and spiritual know ledges suppressed by European colonialists in favour of
European culture, nor did colonialist policies recognise legal, civil and political sovereignty
of indigenous communities Over time there have been attempts to assimilate indigenous
people into mainstream Australian society, this resulting in the so-called ‘Stolen Generation’
of children, many of both indigenous and European parentage, who were removed forcibly

12082014v1
from indigenous mothers to be brought up in white households. For much of Indigenous

history, the policies of forced removal of children were deliberate attempts at forced
assimilation of children of mixed descent, while ‘pure’ Aboriginal people were excluded
from mainstream society and put into reserves to live.
Despite gains in economic and political rights, Australia’s Indigenous peoples still lag behind
mainstream Australians in social indicators such as levels of education, health status and life
expectancy. Although there have been some positive changes from ‘Closing the gap’ policy,
reduced infant mortality for example, the inequality ‘gap’ between the Indigenous and non-
Indigenous community is still large. With growing awareness of civil rights during the 1960s,
challenges came from Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians to poor living conditions,
land rights and lack of equal treatment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (ATSI)
peoples.
In the 1970s the emphasis shifted to land, with some indigenous people focusing on native
title. In Canada, New Zealand and America significant amounts of land have been recognised
as belonging to indigenous peoples as a result of legal tests of historical treaties, but no such
treaties existed for Aboriginal Australians. In 1992, the High Court made judgment on the
Mabo case, and the transfer of land has occurred based on Indigenous peoples rights rather
than privilege, this over turning the notion of Australia as ‘terra nullius’ prior to European
settlement. From 1991 to 2001 the Australia Federal government sponsored reconciliation, a
way to find common ground between non-Indigenous and Indigenous groups, to
acknowledge wrongdoings of the past and to find solutions. Some see reconciliation as more
about symbolism than change, and the disadvantage experienced by Aboriginal Australians is
still a pressing issue. Indigenous Australians have also strongly adopted programs of self-
determination, meaning controlling their own lives; as we shall see later in this course there
are policies in community development of participatory decision-making by Indigenous
people in their own affairs.

12082014v1
Reading 2.5
Gray, M., Coates, J. & Bird, M. Y. 2008. Indigenous social work around the world, Ashgate,
UK, pp. 13–29; 83–93.
This reading focuses on social work, globalisation and the presumed universal core of the
social-work profession. It further discusses the importance of understanding culture in a
social-work discourse.
Legacy of colonialism
The legacy of colonialism continues to influence government decision making and the
operation of the main social institutions of education, health care and the media in countries
colonised by white Western races. The cultures of Indigenous groups in these colonies were
considered inferior and attempts were made to ‘assimilate’ the members of these groups into
white culture. The legacy of these policies still persists.
The Howard government’s policies were often criticised for assuming the values and
approaches of white models to be right. Approaches to health care and service delivery across
predominantly white cultures in countries colonised by white Western cultures assume that
the Western model is right.
Activity 2.6
What are the differences between multiculturalism and assimilation? Which do you think is
more culturally sensitive in practice?
Resources
Fozdar, F; Wilding, R. & Hawkins, H. 2012. Race and Ethnic Relations. South Melbourne,
Australia:Oxford University Press.

12082014v1
Fuller, Robert W. 2003. Somebodies and Nobodies: Overcoming the Abuse of Rank.
Gabriola Island, Canada: New Society Publishers.
world, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, pp. 91–104.
Foundations of cultural competence, Palgrave Macmillan, UK.
Robinson-Wood, T.L. 2013. The Convergence of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender:Multiple

Identities in Counselling (4th ed.), Pearson, U.S.
Online Resources
The Institute for Cultural Diversity is an NGO established to promote the value of cultural
diversity for a democratic, creative and productive Australia.
http://www.culturaldiversity.net.au/
Multicultural Disability Advocacy Association of NSW
www.mdaa.org.au/faqs/culture-mdaa.doc
Randi Gressgård’s ‘Mind the gap: Intersectionality, complexity and ‘the Event’ from the
Centre for Women’s and Gender Research (SKOK), Norway.
http://theoryandscience.icaap.org/content/vol10.1/Gressgard.html
The Department of Immigration website contains information for new migrants and refugees
to Australia, including links to the history of immigration policy.
http://www.immi.gov.au/Pages/Welcome.aspx

12082014v1
Resources
Crenshaw, K. W. 1991. Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and

Violence against Women of Colo., Stanford Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 6., pp. 1241–1299.
USA.
Freire, Paolo 1997 Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum Publishing.
O’Hagan, K. 2001. Cultural competence in the caring profession, Jessica Kingsley Pub.,
London.
Sotnick, P. & Jezewski, M.A. 2005. Culture and the disability services. In J. H. Stone (ed.),
Culture and disability: Providing culturally competent services, SAGE Publications,
Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 15–36.
Takacs, D. 2002, Positionality, epistemology, and social justice in the classroom, Social
Justice, Vol 29, pp. 168-81
Exploring the promises of intersectionality for advancing women's health research,

International Journal for Equity in Health, accessed at:
http://www.equityhealthj.com/content/9/1/5
The article looks at the health effects of sex and gender, and at inequities among women
caused by racism, ethnocentrism, heterosexism, and able-bodism.
Multicultural Disability Advocacy Association of NSW
www.mdaa.org.au/faqs/culture-mdaa.doc
Randi Gressgård’s ‘Mind the gap: Intersectionality, complexity and ‘the Event’ from the
Centre for Women’s and Gender Research (SKOK), Norway.

12082014v1
http://theoryandscience.icaap.org/content/vol10.1/Gressgard.html
discussion forum and check on your progress by completing the self-check questions.

12082014v1
Section 3
Dealing with diversity— prejudice and racism
Section 3: Dealing with diversity – prejudice and racism 41

12082014v1
Section 3: Dealing with diversity—prejudice and racism

Section overview
In this section we examine the issues of discrimination, prejudice and racism and some of the
possible causes of prejudice and racism including perceptions of difference. We also
examine the influence of dominant social groups on accepted social and cultural norms in
particular the dominance of Western white norms in a diverse society. The section concludes
with discussion of anti-racism initiatives at both the individual and institutional level, and
examines the legislation covering anti- racism and discrimination in Australia.
Learning outcomes
 examine the perception of difference and how this relates to prejudice and stereo-
typing in society
 understand the concepts of racism and discrimination including institutional

discrimination
 explain the psychological and sociological reasons for discrimination, racism and
prejudice in society
 critically examine ‘white’ privilege ethnicity and white western influence on accepted
cultural norms.
Identify anti-racism and discrimination initiatives at both the individual and institutional
levels
Textbook reading
Diller, D.V. 2015. Cultural diversity: A primer for the human services, Cengage Learning,
USA, chapter 4 (pp. 57 – 91).
This reading examines the impact of both cultural and institutional racism within the helping
context and discusses the notion of White privilege and the importance of human service
workers developing self-awareness in order to fight against oppressive attitudes and practices
in their work with culturally different clients.

12082014v1
Stereotyping and prejudice

Throughout time, difference has been singled out and used as the impetus for prejudice,
stereotyping, negative behaviour and presumptions about others. These negative perceptions
have tended to be formed of a range of cultural groupings distinguishable by race, gender,
sexuality, age groups and disabilities. Scott (2012, p.23) defines prejudice as “an opinion or
feeling based on assumptions about people because of a singular characteristics, such as sex,
race, or religion”. Prejudice tends to arise from the over categorisation, or tendency to make
assumptions about an individual based on an imagined characteristic of that group. Such
notions lead to stereotypes, which are biases about how race, ethnicity, age, gender, class,
sexual orientation, disability and so forth influence a person’s behaviour. Stereotypical
beliefs can be highly influential on collective and individual behaviours, yet stereotyping and
prejudicial behavioural are culturally conditioned and learned. Such behaviour can be learned
quickly and in any situation where others are perceived as ‘different’.
Common forms of prejudice
Racism Racism is when someone is subjected to negative behaviour and

discrimination because they are of a particular race.
Racism occurs across many cultures. Colonialism and paternalism

practised by white Western cultures of European descent against
Indigenous people such as Australian Aboriginals are examples of
racism.
Racism occurs in many ways: directly and also indirectly through

societal structures and systems that are ingrained with the beliefs, values
and behaviours of the dominant culture.
Sexism Sexism is when women, or men, are negatively perceived and

discriminated against because of their gender. Sexism has mostly been
associated with discrimination against women, influenced by patriarchal
societies. Feminism has played a strong role in Western countries in
supporting women’s rights to respect and equality. However, sexism

12082014v1
continues to be a serious problem in many cultures around the world.
Prejudice against People with disabilities experience a substantial amount of

people with discrimination personally and at the systemic level. Some people with
disabilities disabilities can be particularly vulnerable when their disabilities diminish
their capacity to have a voice and protect their rights. People with
disabilities continue to experience extensive discrimination at work,
financially, socially and in health and community service systems.
Prejudice against Class status is associated with discrimination through access to funds and
class status resources. Upper-class status affords privileges and wealth that support
access to better education and career opportunities. People of lower class
status have fewer financial means to access better and more diverse
services and education.
Homophobia Homophobia is hatred and discrimination against gay men and women
because of their sexuality. More recently, homosexuality has become
more acceptable in Western cultures. However, homophobia still occurs
in Western cultures and is still prevalent in many other cultures.
Ageism Prejudice against people because of their age is often influenced by

social perceptions of age groups. In some cultures older people are
revered and looked to for advice and education. For example, elders are
highly respected in Australian Indigenous communities. However, in
other cultures views prevail that older members of society no longer have
the capacity to make decisions effectively, work, be independent or be
heard. As baby boomers move into their retirement years in the next few
decades ageism is expected to prove contentious.

12082014v1
Internalised prejudice
One of the aspects of prejudice is that individuals who are targeted by prejudice can
internalise the beliefs associated with prejudice. Individuals targeted by prejudice may begin
to believe they are inferior in some way and devalue themselves or their group.
For example, women can be very critical of other women’s appearance. Woman may be
criticised for ‘not taking care of their appearance’ or, conversely, because they are perceived
as ‘more beautiful’ or ‘thinner’. Men and women alike tend to make assumptions that a
woman is unintelligent, shallow, selfish or a man-stealer based simply on her appearance,
which they perceive as a threat.
Activity 3.1
How do you understand the concept of diversity? How does it apply to your life, with
reference to language, stereotypes and power?
Have you ever been singled out because of a culture with which you identify? If so, how did
you cope with this?
Discrimination and racism

Discrimination involves favouring one group over another; it is part of the larger behaviours
of racism, which is the “systematic, oppressive treatment based on racial group membership
and the beliefs, behaviours, institutional organisation, or attitudes that favour one group over
another” (Scott 2012, p.29). As discussed in section 2 on intersectionality, prejudice can be
linked to social class status, with concerns about asylum seekers and refugees ‘invading’
Australia founded on perceptions of cultural characteristics such as aggression. The prejudice
prejudices racist behaviours and beliefs about a non-White group. IN the struggle for power,
racism can produce discrimination against the group in areas of employment housing, social
networks and so forth. Scott (2012, p.29) lists five types of discriminatory behaviours:
 Antilocution which is the use of verbal rejection, put downs and the like
 Avoidance which is refusal to interact with people of another group

12082014v1
 Active discrimination the exclusion of members of other groups from employment,

education, politics, housing, and so forth
 Physical attacks including use or threat of violence against other group members
 Extermination including pogroms, lynchings, genocide and so forth
Racial discrimination occurs at the micro or individual level and macro or institutional level.
Individual discrimination occurs when a person actively discriminates against another at the
individual level, such as refusing to rent a property to someone because they are coloured or
paying lower wages to members of a group. So discrimination is about behaviour, whereas
prejudice concerns our beliefs and attitudes. Discrimination is often connected with racism,
sexism, heterosexism, and so forth. These ‘isms’ reference discrimination that occurs when
equity and access have been denied to people through society’s institutions. For example,
ageism or age bias refers to discrimination based on a person’s age, young or old.
Discrimination is institutionalised if it supports white or male privilege. For example, a police

officer may make an offensive joke about a member of an ethnic minority group such as a
Pacific Islander, the joke reinforcing to listeners that Pacific Islanders are inferior to ‘white’
Australians. If the Pacific Islander makes the same joke about the white policeman, it doesn’t
support the status quo of white, male superiority nor superiority of the police force, nor does
it harm police as a group in the same way the joke harms Pacific Islanders as a group.
However, both jokes are considered forms of prejudice. So discrimination is often directed at
‘minority groups’, people with less power and can be targeted by the dominant group for
oppression. In this form of discrimination the dominant group experiences privileges denied
the minority group. For example racial profiling is the practice of assigning crime based on a
person’s race, or targeting an ethnic or racial group on the basis of supposed criminality. The
dominant occupational groups such as police and lawyers can use power to use racial
profiling to discriminate against ethnic minority groups. As you can imagine, institutional
discrimination can be extremely difficult to counter.
Reading 3.1

12082014v1
The following chapter introduces you to the concepts of difference, culture and diversity, and
defines terms such as ‘discrimination’, ‘prejudice’ and ‘oppression’. The reading also
explores ways to conceptualise difference.
Chenoweth, L. & McAuliffe, D. 2008. The road to social work and human service practice,
Cengage Learning, pp. 228–46.
Understanding racism and prejudice

What causes racism and prejudice?
Belonging to a group that reinforces your identity can be reassuring and empowering.
However, some find it difficult to understand or accept when others present a different
identity, at odds with their own. People often prefer to stick to their own kind, to what is
familiar and reinforces their world view. Negative perceptions of others who are different
may have their roots in fear, ignorance and perceptions of superiority.
Diller (2011, p. 35) suggests that prejudice is influenced by people’s tendency to categorise
their perceptions and, consequently, other people. These categories change over people’s life
spans, becoming more detailed or simplistic, more emotional or more factual, more accurate
or more misinformed. Categorising people by race or any other type of cultural trait tends to
lead to oversimplification of others’ characteristics as categorisation supports the assumption
that all people of a certain group are the same.

12082014v1
Psychological theories of prejudice
Diller (2011, pp. 39–41) summarises a number of psychological theories of prejudice.
Frustration– Individuals who do not always get what they want and need
aggression– displace and project their frustration onto accessible targets or
displacement those with perceived negative traits.
hypothesis
Authoritarian Individuals with ‘global bigoted personality type’ have low self-
personality esteem and fear anyone or anything different. They also tend to
experience alienation and are moralistic, authoritarian and need
order and structure.
Economic or social Prejudice grows and is perpetuated to promote specific economic

injustice and political objectives, such as slavery.
Perceptions of Individuals raise their own self-esteem by perceiving others as

superiority inferior.
Geographic social Individuals within a geographical community are socialised to

norms accept certain social norms that support prejudice against certain
groups.
Perceived differences in Individuals tend to dislike others who think differently from
belief systems them.
Somebodies and People are discriminated against based on power differences in

nobodies ranks or hierarchies and how they perceive themselves and others
in those ranks or hierarchies (Fuller 2003).
Sociological theory says we are not born with prejudice and racism, rather we learn it from
family, media, school, friends etc. Moreover we can learn prejudice and racism very quickly.
In a classic study in 1946 by psychologist Eugene Hartley, people were asked how they felt

12082014v1
about several racial and ethnic groups, including Wallonians, Pyreneans and Danireans-
names he had made up. Most people who expressed dislike for Jews and blacks also disliked
the fictitious groups. The study showed prejudice does not depend on having negative
experiences, or even on having met members of another group, instead an inclination towards
prejudice is already learned. Some people even learn to be prejudiced against their own
group, with some Indians for example seeing lighter skinned Brahmin Indians as superior.
Sociologists call this “the internalisation of the norms of the dominant groups” (Henslin et.al,
2014, p.266).
Sociologists stress the key to understanding prejudice is more found by looking at institutions
and the conditions around people, as well as the psychological contexts outlined in the
preceding table.
Some sociologists say that when we learn prejudice from each other, in creates in-group
solidarity. In a landmark study conducted in 1968, US school teacher Jane Elliott employed
in her primary school classroom an exercise to feel what it was like to be treated the way a
black person was treated in America, and segregated the class into two groups- the blue eyes
and brown eyes. She designated the blue eyes as the superior group, and gave them a form of
identification as a superior minority group. She offered them privileges such as five minutes
at recess, and sat them at front of the classroom. The blue eyed children were encouraged to
play only with other blue eyed children and ignore the brown eyes. Elliott observed that the
students' reaction to the discrimination exercise resulted in immediate changes in personality
and interactions, and concluded that racism and prejudice are easily taught. Elliott’s
experiment can be viewed online at:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/divided/etc/view.html.
Sociologists also see power as highly instrumental in prejudice and racism, one theory says
dominant elites keep lower classes divided by exploiting racial and ethnic divisions. For
example a split labour market occurs along racial and ethnic lines when capitalists employ
cheaper workers from different nationalities or countries, or are seen to take ‘Australian jobs’
off shore to India, Philippines and China. The exploitation is subtle; the capitalist makes the

12082014v1
foreign worker the scapegoat for fear and anxiety over loss of employment, when in fact it is
the capitalist forcing these divisions.
Sociologists also analyse how labels are learned, and how these affect our perception of
others. According to Henslin et.al (2014, p.270) “Labels cause selective perception; that is,
they lead us to see certain things while they blind us to others. If we apply a label to a group,
we tend to perceive its members as all alike”. We then discard evidence that doesn’t fit.
Racial and ethnic labels such as ‘chink’ and ‘Abo’ are shorthand for stereotype. These terms
are not neutral; they have strong emotive power causing us to see a person through a labeled,
ethnically grouped lens rather than as an individual.
Reading 3.2
Read the short article on the Cronulla Riots ‘Lessons from the Cronulla riots’ by Professor
Jock Collins from the learning portal. The article was published in Summer 2008, pp.30-31
for the 12th International Metropolis Conference. Professor Collins is a sociologist, in the
article he reflects on the riots as a form of cultural divide in Australian society, but also
suggests the riots should be seen in context of an extraordinary’ event in Australian society.
Activity 3.2
Read the article in reading 3.2, then consider Collin’s claim that ‘inter-ethnic relations in
Australian cities are surprisingly strong and that social cohesion is the norm in Sydney, with
the Cronulla riots the aberration’. Do you agree? What is your experience of ethnic conflict in
Sydney (or your city of origin)?
The concept of difference

The concept and perception of difference plays an important role in identity, the ways in
which cultural groups negotiate their place in society and how they perceive themselves and
others, as well as how others perceive them. Acceptance of difference enables societies to
grow, be innovative, acknowledge a variety of viewpoints and enrich the cultural landscape.

12082014v1
Difference is an important concept in the social-work setting, as it is essential to acknowledge

cultural differences and increase your awareness of your own cultural bias.
How is difference related to prejudice?
Difference can be threatening. People often develop their identities through their cultural
affiliation. When faced with difference such individuals may fear changes in their society and
how they fit into it. Difference can appear to involve a threat of change to the prevailing order
with which people are comfortable.
Perceptions of difference can also stem from ignorance. People may perceive differences in
others but not any similarities because they lack experience in connecting with others who
might look different, have different beliefs, language, food or ways of navigating life. All
cultures incorporate aspects of relationships, family, work and the need to survive and to
create that can connect cultures that might otherwise seem very different. Experiencing other
people’s culture through daily interactions at work, in the neighbourhood and through travel
can help people become more tolerant of difference and begin to recognise the value in
difference and the connections that exist across different cultures.
Activity 3.3
Using the internet, research one minority group, for example same-sex-attracted youth, and
answer the following questions:
 Are there any support or community groups or organisations concerned with serving
the group’s interests?
 If so, are there local chapters of support organisations, or listed telephone numbers,
such as a national helpline, to call?
 Is the group or organisation concerned with any advocacy issues, such as increasing
awareness or providing services specific to the interests of the minority group it
represents?

12082014v1
Whiteness and white privilege ethnicity

What is ‘white privilege ethnicity’?
In Australia the predominant social and systemic values, experiences and perceptions that are
portrayed on a daily basis in our workplaces, the media and through other social institutions
are those of white European origin. The white individual in this environment is automatically
privileged by familiarity and a sense of belonging, and benefitted when their world view is
reflected in the systems, values, norms and experiences around them. This privileged position
is often associated with power and higher status; members of the dominant group are afforded
protection from the exclusion that can be experienced by those who are not white (Quinn,
2009).
‘White’ privilege in the health and community professions
Community workers and other health and community professionals are trained and work
within a Westernised model of practice. Many professionals can unintentionally impose on
clients a belief system that supports specific, white, Westernised value systems and
approaches to care. The Western health model is often at odds with those of cultures that
choose to incorporate other elements of health care such as energy, spirits and divine
intervention.
Health workers who are culturally aware can experience conflict between Western values and
cultural practices they perceive to be harmful to their clients. For example, a woman who
belongs to a patriarchal culture may resist leaving her husband when he is abusive because to
do so would not only be against her cultural beliefs but could alienate her from her cultural
group.
Reading 3.3

12082014v1
This reading discusses race, racism and the concept of white privilege. It also looks at how to
negotiate various oppressive structures that can occur a social-work setting due to white
privilege.
Activity 3.4
Watch the video clip ‘Tim Wise: On white privilege’ at:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3Xe1kX7Wsc
Reflect on the idea of white privilege. How do you understand the concept? How does it
apply in the Australian context? Do you agree with the idea that racial identities are social
constructs?
Anti-Racism and Anti-Discrimination

If ethnocentrism, or seeing the world through the cultural lens of our own society, is a natural
part of socialisation, then perhaps racism is just a ‘normal’ part of society. Why change it?
On the other hand, universal human rights groups suggest that all people have a right to equal
treatment and opportunities, regardless of ethnic or cultural background. Indeed this
sentiment is echoed by global organisations such as the United Nations (UN). One thing is a
given is that racism produces negative consequences for people and society.
Anti-racist activities take several forms. Hollingsworth (2006 p.275 cited in Fozdar et al.
2012, p.258) categorises four main approaches:
 Cultural awareness training which informs us about different cultures in order to

generate knowledge, understanding and insights into other cultural norms.
 Racism awareness training which focuses on making white people aware of their
position of privilege. An example is Elliott’s ‘blue eyes/brown eyes’ experiment
discussed earlier in this section.
12082014v1
 Anti-racism strategies which tend to be aimed at large populations, which see

complex power relations and culture as the root of racism. See the racism no-way
website (listed in online resources below) for an example of this strategy.
 The social justice approach, which sees racism as one aspect of the intersection of sex,
gender, class, age, disability, which leads to advantage and disadvantage for
individuals depending on the intersection of their ethnic background with these other
factors. Social justice (see Section 4) interventions aim to reduce social, economic and
health inequalities by providing equity policies and access to resources.
The first two of these are aimed at the individual level, the last two at the broader, political or
institutional level. Let’s explore briefly how both groups can reduce racism, prejudice and
discrimination.
Individual level interventions
Recent research into racism in Australia (see National Anti-Racism Strategy, 2012, p.5) has
found that one in seven Australians have experienced discrimination based on colour in 2011,
and around one in five has experienced race-hate talk such as racial slurs and name calling.
Around 10 percent have experienced racism at work or socially, and one in 20 has been
physically abused because of race.
Psychologists suggest stereotyping and prejudice can be decreased through challenging false
beliefs, providing opportunities for communication cross-culturally and interaction, and
encouraging racial empathy. Experiments such as Elliott’s blue eyes/brown eyes is a way of
forcing empathy through having people from privileged minorities feel what it is like to be
victim of racism and prejudice, such experiments however are rarely undertaken. One of the
more controversial psychology theories is ‘contact theory’, which encourages interaction
between groups. For example, a program which brings together white background children to
play with Indigenous background children at regular summer camp is seen to reduce inter-
group hostility. Ignorance is seen as the basis of racism, social interaction with other groups
provides firsthand experience and knowledge which is designed to combat ignorance. Having
12082014v1
mixed schooling, workplaces, desecration are all examples of contact theory. Research
indicates that contact does reduce prejudice, however many see it is not, in itself, enough to
produce systemic change. There are limitations to contact theory notwithstanding the reality
that many members of minority groups hold racist and prejudicial views about their own
cultures.
Institutional level interventions
Some argue the best way to eliminate racism is through making structural changes such as
access to resources, legislating against discrimination and for special treatment for minority
groups. These strategies will reduce the level of institutional racism in society. Anti-racism
legislation involves making laws, or legislation which is designed to promote equity and
fairness before the law. Forcing people to change behaviours has been shown by
psychologists to produce attitude changes, over time a cultural shift occurs and this gets
taught to young people in each generation. To see how this work, review the history of
immigration and multiculturalism in Australian in section 2, identifying how each piece of
legislation brought with it significant cultural shifts in attitudes towards cultural diversity.
In Australia the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 was designed to prevent discriminatory
immigration and employment policies and other institutional practices. Religion is not
explicitly on the list of what is discriminatory, this being of concern to some people which
see Muslim as targets of racial discrimination. The Equal Employment Opportunity Act 1987
was designed to promote equal opportunity for women, Indigenous peoples, non-English
speaking background people, and the disabled; this has made huge inroads into employment
opportunities for minority group members, particularly in public service.
Racial vilification laws such as the Racial Hatred Act 1995 are designed to stop engagement
in acts likely to offend, insult, intimidate people based on their race, colour or ethnic
background; such acts include graffiti, verbal abuse in public, inciting racial hatred through
media and speeches, and so forth. There are many who criticise the racial vilification laws as
outlawing civil liberties, including freedom of speech. Because of these concerns Australian
law does not make racial vilification a criminal offence. The National Anti-Racism Strategy
(2012) focuses on creating public awareness, education and resources and youth engagement

12082014v1
to create public awareness of racism and its effects, to promote good practice to prevent or
reduce racism, and to empower communities and people to redress racism.
As well as legislation the federal government in 1986 established the Human Rights Equal
Opportunity Commission (HREOC), a watchdog charged with protecting human rights in
Australia, and to reduce prejudice and racism in society. Its role has been more public in
recent years with the ongoing and very heated human rights debate around asylum seeker
entry to Australia. HREOC holds public inquiries into human rights issues such as removal of
children from Indigenous families, rights of children in detention centres and so forth.
Affirmative action involves taking steps to increase the access of minorities to education,
work, health, and similar opportunities. This action discriminates in favour of minorities
allowing them opportunities to access to these areas which they have historically been
discriminated. This may involve choosing minorities for housing, jobs, payments, training,
and so forth. It may reduce prejudice by making people see that, given opportunities,
minorities can perform the same as other society members. It also allows minorities such as
Indigenous Australians to become powerful enough to start to determine their own future, to
be part of the process of structural and cultural change in their own communities.
Although we will not cover in detail here, it is also important to note interventions to reduce
racism exist at the linguistic level in media and advertising. These are powerful instruments
in society which influence cultural norms and beliefs; changing the nature of advertising and
media content has been seen to influence attitudes towards minority groups.
Reading 3.4
Read about anti-racism initiatives in Australia at the following websites:
National Anti-Racism Strategy 2012 at

https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/National%20Anti-
Racism%20Strategy.pdf
Racism No Way website which is an educational resource aimed at the young designed for
educational contexts, it contains information on human rights, anti-racism, reconciliation, and
migrant issues.

12082014v1
http://www.racismnoway.com.au/
Activity 3.5
Read through the material at these sites and list the key initiatives which you think will
reduce racism at the individual and institutional levels. Undertake some of the activities at the
Racism no way website.
Resources
USA.
Fozdar, F; Wilding, R. & Hawkins, H. 2012. Race and Ethnic Relations. South Melbourne,
Australia: Oxford University Press.
Fuller, Robert W. 2003. Somebodies and Nobodies: Overcoming the Abuse of Rank.
Gabriola Island, Canada: New Society Publishers.
Scott, M. 2012. Think Race and Ethnicity. New Jersey, US: Pearson Education.
The Australian Association of Social Workers web site has links to readings, articles and
websites on anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive practice with Indigenous and ethnic
minority groups.
http://www.aasw.asn.au/
‘What do people say about whiteness and privilege ... some quotes’, from Sue Shore’s
teaching resources website ‘Reflecting on privilege in teaching professions’.
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/privilege/What%20do%20people%20say%20about%20pri
vilege.htm

12082014v1
Robert Jensen’s ‘White privilege shapes the US’, which first appeared in the Baltimore Sun
of 19 July 1998.
http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~rjensen/freelance/whiteprivilege.htm
ACON’s definition of homophobia and heterosexism.
http://www.acon.org.au/youth/Homophobia/what-is-homophobia
Aged Care INsite article on ageism in Australia.
http://www.agedcareinsite.com.au/pages/section/article.php?s=Breaking+News&idArticle=1
4929
Centre for Cultural Diversity in Ageing which provides discussion on ageism and cultural
awareness of ageing
http://www.culturaldiversity.com.au/practice-guides/cultural-awareness
National Anti-Racism Strategy 2012 at

https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/National%20Anti-
Racism%20Strategy.pdf
Racism No Way website which is an educational resource aimed at the young designed for
educational contexts, it contains information on human rights, anti-racism, reconciliation, and
migrant issues.
http://www.racismnoway.com.au/

12082014v1
Section 4
Social inequality— Refugees and migrant groups
Section 4: Social inequality – Refugees and migrant groups 59

12082014v1
Section 4: Social inequality—refugees and migrant groups

Section overview
In this section we look at social inequality and its implications for ethnic communities, with
particular reference to the social, health, economic and political implications for the social
justice framework. We then look at social inequalities for refugee and migrant groups
including personal accounts from migrants to Australia. Finally, we look at the tenets of the
social justice framework, and how this is applied in working with culturally diverse groups.
Learning outcomes
 define social inequality
 explain the ways in which social inequality is manifested in Australian society
 identify sources of inequality for migrants, refugees and asylum seeker groups in
Australia.
Textbook reading
USA, Chapter 10, pp. 236-248.
Social inequality
What is social inequality?
Social inequality arises from disparity in the relative positions of socially defined groupings,
especially with regard to access to health care, education, employment, political
representation, property, freedoms and community participation. Social inequality can be the
result of a number of socially defined factors, such as race, gender, sexual orientation, age,
disability, religion or class.

12082014v1
How is social inequality manifested in Australian communities?
Ethnic communities
Historically, social inequality has been a feature of many ethnically diverse societies. Ethnic
minorities and communities may have unequal access to opportunities as a result of
discriminatory practices (discussed below). Such discrimination may be based on race,
religion or cultural differences. Exclusion, unequal pay and unequal work advancement
prospects are some of the possible manifestations of social inequality for ethnic communities.
Part of the work of social-justice-oriented social workers is to address the structural causes of
social inequality, and to work towards improvements in policy and community perceptions
regarding ethnic communities.
What is social disadvantage?
Social disadvantage refers to the relative difficulty experienced by certain individuals in

relation to others in society, stemming from factors such as economic difficulties,
impairment, disability or handicap. Such difficulties can hinder disadvantaged individuals in
seizing education and employment opportunities, and improving their quality of life.
The implications of social inequality
Social implications
Social inequality can have significant implications for the social status and social experience
of disadvantaged individuals and groups. Disparity in social status can have an adverse effect
on community participation levels. Discriminatory practices can entail mistreatment of
individuals who are perceived to hold an inferior social status, which can result in social
isolation and impaired emotional wellbeing.

12082014v1
Health implications
The consequences of social inequality for an individual’s health and general wellbeing can be
serious and ongoing. If access to health services is restricted, illnesses can be left untreated
and, in severe cases, health problems can become endemic. Financial and social problems
resulting from social inequality can trigger health problems such as lifestyle diseases,
depression and alcoholism.
Political implications
For disadvantaged groups within a society, political representation can be difficult to achieve,
particularly for ethnic minorities in a society with a dominant ethnic majority. This can mean
that many service users have little or no input in the policies that determine the provision of
social services. Policies that are developed by members of a dominant ethnic group are not
always relevant or helpful to ethnic minorities and disadvantaged groups.
Economic implications
Social inequality can have economic implications for individuals, their families and their
communities. One of the primary difficulties faced by socially disadvantaged individuals is
that of securing employment and fair working conditions. Failing to do so can result in
financial hardship and dependence. Financial difficulty can impair an individual’s quality of
life in material terms, and in terms of their self-perception and social status.
Reading 4.1
Some of the issues associated with social inequality for ethnic communities in Australia are
examined in this reading, with reference to migrants from countries in which English is not
the main language spoken.
Teicher, J., Shah, C. & Griffin, G. 2002. Australian immigration: the triumph of economics
over prejudice? International Journal of Manpower, 23(3), pp. 209–36.

12082014v1
Inequalities in migrant and refugee groups in Australia
Refugees and asylum seekers
In Australia it is estimated about 10 percent of the 6 million people who have migrated here
since Second world war have migrated under humanitarian programs, with racially and
culturally diverse groups coming from countries with oppressive political regimes. Since the
early 2000s there has been a clear shift in focus on humanitarian intake from African
countries. Those from Middle East, Iraq and Afghanistan have gradually increased as well,
due to civil unrest in these regions.
The last 100 years or so have seen global refugee crisis. Nation states are at war, breaking
down; people are forced to flee their homelands such as Armenians fleeing Turkey, Sudanese
fleeing Sudan to be resettled in Egypt before coming to countries like Australia. Many
refugees live in government or NGO run camps, sometimes for generations, waiting for a
place of asylum in another country. Aid agencies provide emergency food, medical and
accommodation. The whole resettlement process can take many years; refugees come to
Australia in a position of immediate social and economic disadvantage. They have left behind
their homes, their jobs and often families; they are in immediate need of assistance and
support. Most refugees cannot return to their homeland for fear of persecution. However
many Australians do not understand the refugee experience and hold very negative attitudes
towards those seeking refuge, particularly those from countries of extreme ‘difference’.
Asylum seekers are those seeking refuge once they arrive in a country of potential asylum.
They may have travelled by legal or illegal means which has led to the phrase ‘illegal’ and
‘queue jumper’ applied to all asylum seekers. In fact the asylum seeker intake in Australia is
relatively small compared to poorer countries in Asia with fewer resources to house asylum
seekers. Asylum seekers are used for political ends, debates about temporary protection visas
and asylum seekers status, where to settle asylum seekers and now, in 2014, the move to
offshore processing centres as part of a ‘Pacific Solution’. Some of the inequalities for
asylum seekers and refugees relate to mental health impacts of torture and trauma, which are
exacerbated through temporary placement in detention. These have led to depression, suicide

12082014v1
and self-harming behaviours, hunger strikes, and so on. When and if settled in Australia,
these problems require treatment; refugees and asylum seekers are also disadvantaged in
terms of economic welfare, exclusion from the mainstream culture, education and so forth. In
time and with acquisition of English language, these groups have done well in Australia and
their children pursuing successful careers.
Reading 4.2
Read the document in the learning portal prepared by the NSW Refugee Health Service and
STARTTS (NSW Service for the Treatment and Rehabilitation of Trauma and Torture
Survivors). The document is titled ‘Working with refugees: A guide for Social Workers’.
Read section 4 ‘Skills for social workers working with refugees’.
Activity 4.1
After reading the document in reading 4.2, what are the particular skills which are important
to cultivate when working with traumatized individuals? Suppose you were case worker for a
young Sudanese mother aged 24 years, recently arrived from Sudan with her two children
and living in rented government supported accommodation in Western Sydney. What are the
considerations in working with this individual? How would you apply the skills in section 4
of the document to this woman’s case?
Personal accounts
The following stories represent the personal experiences of some Australians from different
cultural and ethnic backgrounds. You might find points of resonance and contrast between
their cultural experiences and your own. In the first story, Benjamin Law talks about some of
his experiences growing up in a Chinese Australian community:
When my parents split up, I was twelve years old and had just finished primary
school. Trips to theme parks became less frequent. Custody was split... The mood
became downbeat and glum. The separation also made our family the subject of
gossip amongst the local Chinese community, who were mildly scandalised by all the

12082014v1
drama. Elderly Chinese women who smelled like mothballs and grease would corner
my siblings and me in the shopping centre, literally pulling us to one side, shaking
their heads and tutting their tongues, lecturing us in Cantonese… None of these
concerned citizens ever visited my mother during this period. Mum was always a tiny
woman, but she began to lose weight quickly. Her low blood pressure got worse. She
became prone to intense dizziness that would render her immobile for days on end…
We saw Dad less and less…
The above excerpt is taken from Benjamin Law’s contribution to: Pung, A. (ed.), 2008.
Growing up Asian in Australia, Black Inc., Melbourne, pp.148–9. Law’s full story, as well as
others from this volume, is available at: http://books.google.com.au/
In the following excerpt, Rose Costandi Issa talks about her family’s experience as new
migrants from Egypt settling in Australia in 1970:
My parents attended many interviews only to be told that their qualifications were not
recognised. They had to find work in order to support three kids and be able to pay
rent. So, my father Sobhy, worked as a Tram conductor, a cheese maker at Kraft, and
finally for the Railways. I recall my father telling us stories about how he often
experienced being called names and told to go back where he came from, quickly
followed by an explanation why we should never speak to others in this way and to
always respect all people. In those days we all experienced a lot of racial
discrimination and vilification. Especially at school and it was very hard on three
children aged seven, ten and twelve that had to attend a place day after day where
there was constant anguish and anxiety.
The above excerpt is taken from Costandi Issa’s story as presented in the ‘Immigration Place’
project. Her full story, and others, can be accessed at:
http://www.immigrationbridge.com.au/read-all-stories/w4/i1001210/
The stories presented here might provide you with some insight into the range of cultural
experiences of different individuals and groups in Australia. You can access the links
provided to read these stories in full, and other personal stories of Australians from culturally
diverse backgrounds.

12082014v1
Activity 4.2
Source an example of a personal story from an Australian who comes from a different
cultural background from your own. Reflect on the ways that their cultural background has
shaped their experience living in Australia. Has discrimination been part of their experience?
The Ethnic Communities’ Council of NSW website provides examples of some ethnic
services in NSW. The Council is a non-government peak body working in the areas of
advocacy, education and community development.
http://www.eccnsw.org.au
The Federation of Ethnic Communities’ Councils of Australia’s website provides information

on ethnic services at a national level in Australia. The Federation is a non-government, not
for profit body working in the areas of advocacy, policy development and awareness rising
on behalf of multicultural and ethnic councils.
http://www.fecca.org.au
The Australian Human Rights Commission’s website provides information on current

policies regarding social justice for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as it relates
to matters of age, race, sex and disability discrimination and rights.
http://www.hreoc.gov.au
The Forum of Australian Services for Survivors of Torture and Trauma is a network of
rehabilitation agencies that work with people who have come to Australia and have
experienced torture and trauma.
http://www.fasstt.org.au
The Department of Immigration and Citizenship provides information on policy and

immigration in Australia.
www.immi.gov.au

12082014v1
The Refugee Council of Australia is the national umbrella council for organisations working
with refugees and asylum seekers.
http://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/
You should now have an adequate understanding of some of the definitions and working
models used in the social justice field. You will also have gained an appreciation of some of
the challenges faced by social-justice-oriented social workers and their clients. This
knowledge will be useful as you move on to examine cultural awareness in the next section.

12082014v1
Section 5
The cost of social inequality - Indigenous
Australians
Section 5: The cost of social inequality – Indigenous Australians 68

12082014v1
Section 5: The cost of social inequality - Indigenous

Australians
Section overview
In this section we examine directly the social, health and economic costs of social inequality
amongst Indigenous Australians. Central to this is a review of the Federal Government’s
‘Closing the Gap’ policy which involves strategies designed to reduce inequalities between
Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. This section also discusses discrimination
towards Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians and the struggle for human rights.
Learning outcomes
 understand the legacy of common experiences of oppression for Indigenous peoples
 understand the contexts for oppression of indigenous Australians and the struggle for
human rights
 understand how historical contexts for oppression have influenced social inequalities
between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians
 identify the link between discrimination, social inequalities and disadvantage for
 outline the nature of social and health inequalities between non-Indigenous and
 describe the outcomes from the Federal Government’s Closing the Gap policy for
reducing inequalities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.
Who are indigenous people?

Indigenous people worldwide are diverse, however many share a common experiences of
marginalisation, lost identity and cultural knowledge, dislocation of families and eradication
of ethnic boundary markers such as language, dress and so forth (Fozdar et al, 2012, p.110).

12082014v1
These experiences are linked to social and health inequalities including reduced life
expectancy, higher infant mortality, and high rates of imprisonment, alcohol and drug abuse,
and lower levels of education. In Australia for example, incomes of Indigenous peoples are
markedly lower than the national average, while unemployment is three times higher than the
national average (SCRGSP 2005, p 9). Many of these experiences relate directly to a history
of oppression and discrimination as a legacy of colonialism. The International Labour
Organisation (ILO) Convention in 1986 (in Fozdar et al. 2012, p.109) states that a person is
indigenous “either because they are descendants of those who lived in the area prior to
colonisation, or because they have maintained their own social, economic, cultural and
political institutions since colonisation and the establishment of new states”. Self-
identification as indigenous is important; based on this definition the global indigenous
population is estimated at around 350 million. In recognition of the plight of many
indigenous groups, the UN proclaimed in 1993 the Draft Declaration of the Rights of
Indigenous peoples and a commitment to improve the plight of indigenous groups worldwide.
The declaration was ratified in 2007, however notably Australia, New Zealand, the USA and
Canada refused to ratify the Declaration. All these countries have indigenous population,
New Zealand’s Maori comprise around 13 per cent of the population and in Australia,
Aborigines and Torres Straight Islanders comprise around 3 per cent of the population.
Indigenous Australians and the human rights struggle

To understand the history of oppression of indigenous people, we need to examine the
reasons that colonial states of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries dichotomised ‘civilised’
European peoples and ‘backward’ or ‘savage’ native peoples. With the emergence in the
1700’s of the modern state in Europe came ideas of ‘nation’ and ‘nationalism’ which related
to territory. Natural rights to territory were seen as vested in states and government,
Europeans did not see indigenous peoples as possessing states and nations, so their ‘rights’ to
land ignored unless they were seen to have a social and political system which distinguished
them as ‘civilised’ (Fozdar et al. 2012, p.114).
By the 1800sw the legitimacy of states to exercise authority over all people in their territory
was encapsulated in international law; this law replaced the law of natural rights so that
former treaties between native people and Europeans over land rights became defunct. As

12082014v1
such the assumption of ‘terra nullius’ or empty continent, provided the legal justification for
acquiring land from indigenous Australians, who were seen by international law as without
state. By the 1830s the expansion of farming by European settlers in Australia meant large-
scale dispossession of land for traditional owners. Several debates arose publicly about the
humanitarian contexts for this dispossession; however the colonial administration in Australia
proceeded on the assumption that Aboriginal peoples would become extinct. The reasons for
this assumption relate to nineteenth century theories of racial superiority and natural
selection, which supported a theory of black people as an inferior race.
Each Australian state had a Chief Protector and Protection Board of Aborigines; reserves
were established and managed by government officials or religious groups. However, by the
end of the nineteenth century it was clear that “not only were ‘traditional’ Aborigines not
dying out as quickly as had been thought, but a mixed race population was emerging, and
growing” (Van Krieken 1999, p301 in Fozdar et al. 2012, p.115). The mixed descent people
were labelled ‘half-castes’, which essentially classified Aboriginal people in racially and
biological terms - much like a breeding animal. Assimilationist policy promoted the
integration of ‘half-caste’ Aboriginal peoples into white communities through forced removal
of children from their Aboriginal mothers and placing them in institutions. According to the
notorious Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia, Mr Neville, forced removal
was necessary to free ‘half-caste’ children from ‘the retarding instincts of the blacks’
(Rowley 1972, p.14 in Fozdar et al. 2012, p.115). By the 1930s ‘full bloods’ were to be
confined to reserves where their movements were legally constrained, the 1939 Aboriginal
Preservation and Protection Act allowing for an Aboriginal person to be moved to another
reserve, or moved to a reserve from native land, without any legal interference. This law was
not repealed until 1965. The so called protection laws were really instruments for control and
surveillance of Aboriginal peoples, with ‘troublemakers’ able to be moved to other reserves.
White Australians interested in helping Aboriginals peoples to move from the reserve were
committing an illegal act.
The assimilationist policy of 1937 provided an attempt to merge black Australians with white
Australians, so long as Aboriginal Australians adopted white cultural and ethnic markers
including language, habitat and dress. The policy allowed for religious and welfare groups to
assist Aboriginal peoples in changing their culture, thus this ecological move further justified
12082014v1
the forced removal of children from black to white families as part of a process of cultural
integration. As explained by Fozdar et al.(2012, p.117) the behaviourist school of psychology
which emerged in the 1950’s provided a rationale for forced removal based on an assumption
that an Aboriginal child was being ‘deprived’ of early stimulus for ‘normal’ development and
intellectual growth. Intelligence was assumed to be that of normative, white culture; value-
laden assumptions of cultural notions of intelligence were not yet recognised.
Reading 5.1
Read the article by the Victorian Aboriginal Legal Service Co-operative Ltd. The Politics of
Difference-Construction of Race which is available at
http://vals.org.au/static/files/assets/326ff39f/Construction_of_Race.CL.280901.pdf and via
the learning portal.
In the article, the authors outline how historical constructions of race have influenced
perceptions and treatment of Indigenous Australians. The article critiques the policy of
assimilation and its underlying assumptions of the inferiority of Aboriginal peoples. The
article then turns to a critical consideration of contemporary policies of cultural diversity and
the implications for Aboriginal Australians.
Activity 5.2
Reflect on the issues presented in the reading in 5.1. What is the link between constructions
of difference between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians? What is the author
proposing is the problem with contemporary policies of cultural diversity? Do you agree
policies supporting cultural racism are still in place? Is the label ‘Aboriginal’ a useful
category?
Reading 5.2
In the following article Tjalaminu Mia, a member of the stolen generation, examines some of
the short- and long-term effects of the policy of removing Aboriginal children from their
families.

12082014v1
Mia, T., 1999. The stolen ones: at least a tenth of aboriginal children were forcibly removed
from their families from 1910 to 1970. Tjalaminu Mia, taken when she was ten, demands that
Australians treat these festering wounds, New Internationalist, p. 20.
Activity 5.2
Reflect on the issues presented in Reading 5.2. How have the experiences of the stolen
generation contributed to the gap in individual and community welfare between the
Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations in Australia? In a few paragraphs, record your
personal response to Tjalaminu Mia’s story.
Implications of discrimination
The implications of discriminatory practices are diverse and far-reaching. Discrimination can
affect not only a person’s ability to benefit from the opportunities enjoyed by others, but also
their self-perception, health and general wellbeing, and the status and welfare of families and
communities more broadly. The impact of severe or ongoing discrimination can in some
cases be seen in successive generations, where unresolved problems experienced by an older
generation resurface in the following generation, producing a cycle of disadvantage and
hardship. Breaking these cycles can present a significant challenge for social workers and the
individuals and communities affected.
There have been several significant individual and community responses to indigenous
discrimination in Australia, from individual law suits to broader social movements. In 1992
the culmination of a prolonged community campaign led by Eddie Koiki Mabo resulted in a
landmark High Court decision in favour of native title, which recognised the land rights of
Murray Islanders.
Despite native title legislation and moves towards self-determination Aboriginal peoples still
encounter institutional discrimination. Moreover, the devastating human rights history which
has personally affected many members of Indigenous communities, along with
disenfranchisement of native culture and identity, has seen the continuance of ‘problems’ in
Aboriginal communities particularly in remote areas.

12082014v1
Reading 5.3
The following reading examines different frameworks for understanding and addressing the
negative effects of discrimination experienced by Indigenous Australians. While completing
this reading, you could consider the social construction of the concept of ‘whiteness’,
colonialism, racism, human rights and citizenship with regard to Indigenous peoples in
Australia.
Briskman, L., 2007. Social work with indigenous communities, Federation Press, Sydney,
Chapter 2.
Social and health inequalities
Whilst there is disquiet over the way the ABS has measured life expectancy for Indigenous
peoples (see Russell & Wenham 2012, p. 3), figures consistently show a significant gap
between the life expectancy of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Leading risk
factors of mortality for Indigenous Australians are tobacco, obesity and lack of physical
activity, these accounting for an estimated 45 per cent of the health gap (Russell & Wenham
2012, p.3). Russell and Wenham (2012, p.3) further note:
“While smoking rates among Indigenous people have fallen from 52% in 1994 to
47% in 2008, rates of overweight and obesity have steadily increased for Indigenous
Australians in the last decade from 51 to 60%. Indigenous Australians are nearly
twice as likely to be obese as non-Indigenous Australians. Also, the proportion of
Indigenous Australians who reported being sedentary increased from 37% in 2001 to
47% in 2004-05”.
Russell and Wenham (20120 further outline social and health inequalities between
Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, these are summarised below.
Infant and child mortality from babies born to Indigenous women is higher than the national
average. Factors affecting child mortality are poor antenatal care, smoking and consuming at
risk alcohol levels in pregnancy, teenage pregnancy, poor nutrition and low birth rates
12082014v1
associated with these factors. The gap in 2008 was around 205 out of 100,000 Indigenous
children died before age of 5, compared to ‘100 non-Indigenous children, meaning
indigenous children are twice as likely to die before the age of five than non-Indigenous
children’ (2012, p.4).
Inequalities exist in educational outcomes, with around 60 percent of Indigenous children
enrolled in early childhood programs compared to around 70 percent of non-Indigenous
children. Moreover gaps in literacy and numeracy standards are large, with a gap of 29.4
percentage point for Year 5 reading in 2008 between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students
(63.4% for Indigenous Year 5 students compared to 92.6% non-Indigenous). This is
particularly so for students living in very remote areas. Gaps also exist in school retention
rates with only 47.4 per cent of Indigenous 20-24 year olds completing Year 12 in 2006,
compared to 83.8 per cent of non-Indigenous students. This varies by location, the percentage
dropping to less than 30 percent in remote areas.
There is also wide variation in employment rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous
Australians with 53.8 percent of Indigenous people employed in 2008 compared to 75 percent
non-Indigenous. The employment gap varies based on location of residence with 34
percentage points gap in the Northern Territory and only nine points in the Australian Capital
Territory (ACT). However, the employment gap is wide irrespective of rurality.
Reading 5.4
The following reading examines the ‘Housing for Health’ initiative, a program designed to
improve Indigenous housing conditions in Australia.
Lea, T. 2008. Housing for health in indigenous Australia: driving change when research and
policy are part of the problem, Human Organization, 67 (1), pp. 77–86.
Activity 5.3
Write a short review of Lea’s article on Indigenous social policy in Australia. Do you agree
with her conclusions? Identify some of the benefits of evidence-based programs for social
improvement.

12082014v1
‘Closing the Gap’

The primary purpose of anti-oppressive practice and its variants is to ‘close the gap’ between
the opportunities, status and quality of life experienced by various client groups. In Australia,
the most important example of this kind of gap is that between the experience of Indigenous
Australians and the dominant ‘white’ population. Recent government policies have focused
on closing the gap in areas such as mortality, education and employment.
The ‘Closing the Gap’ policy developed by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd in 2008 set forth six
goals:
 Closing the life expectancy gap within a generation;
 Halving the gap in mortality rates for Indigenous children under five within a decade;
 Ensuring all Indigenous four year olds in remote communities have access to early
childhood education within five years (by 2013);
 Halving the gap for Indigenous students in reading, writing and numeracy within a
decade (by 2018);
 At least halving the gap in Indigenous Year 12 attainment or equivalent attainment rates
by 2020; and
 Halving the gap in employment outcomes by 2018.
(source: http://www.apo.org.au/node/22283).
Russell and Wenham (2012) assessed the progress towards closing the gap during the decade
to 2010. The researchers found that by 2010, a steady decline had occurred in the gap in the
infant mortality rate. From over nine deaths per 1,000 live births in 1998 to less than five
deaths in 2008.
In 2009 the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) released figures showing an average life
expectancy gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians of 11 years. The
researchers claim issues in the ABS calculations of life expectancy which hinder
comparisons; nevertheless there is evidence of gap closure. The gap is still regarded as
unacceptably high by many health professionals, being largely attributed to cancer, diabetes,
circulatory disease, respiratory disease, injury and poisoning.

12082014v1
In terms of education and literacy, there has been a reduction in the gap for reading literacy
for students in Years 3, 5 and 7, however a slight increase for Year 9 students. There has been
some progress in Indigenous Year 12 retention rates, with a 6.4 percent increase from 2006 to
2008. Lastly, there has been a decline in the employment gap from 2002 to 2008 of two
percentage points.
Since the publication in 2012 of the Russell and Wenham report, Prime Minister Tony Abbott
released the 2013-2014 Closing the Gap report card. The progress report shows 88 percent of
Indigenous children enrolled in preschool in 2012 and the target to halve the gap in Year 12
achievement is on track to be met. Indigenous infant mortality gap is on track to achieve the
2018 target to halve mortality rates, however life expectancy is still around a decade gap and
there is little progress in literacy achievements. No progress has been made towards halving
the gap in employment outcomes; as such the Abbott government has set new benchmarks for
school attendance which, in turn, influences employment outcomes.
Reading 5.5
Read the article on ‘Closing the gap in Indigenous Disadvantage’ on the Council of
Australian Governments website at:
https://www.coag.gov.au/closing_the_gap_in_indigenous_disadvantage
Note the extent of the government and community agreements to close the gap of
disadvantage for indigenous communities.
This website looks at racism in Australia and the effects it can have on its victims.
http://www.racismnoway.com.au/library/understanding/index-What.html
The National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation website provides

information on the Close the Gap campaign, and a candid discussion of the policy
achievements to date.
http://www.naccho.org.au/aboriginal-health/close-the-gap-campaign/

12082014v1
The Australian Government Department of Social Services website provides up to date

information on the policy partnerships, links to key documents and outcomes of the Closing
the Gap policy.
http://www.dss.gov.au/our-responsibilities/indigenous-australians/programs-services/closing-
the-gap
The Australian Government Closing the Gap Clearinghouse provides important research and
evaluation evidence to support closing the gap programs and initiatives.
http://www.aihw.gov.au/closingthegap/
This website provides information on Australian government policies. The Australian

government report on ‘Closing the gap’ is reproduced on the site.
http://www.apo.org.au
This site provides information on ANTaR (Australians for Native Title and Reconciliation); a
non-Indigenous national advocacy organisation that aims to remedy the inequities
experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
http://www.antar.org.au/
Looking, as we have done, in more depth at underpinnings of social inequality and

disadvantage among Indigenous Australians, as well as current initiatives to lessen the
disadvantage through closing the gap, you are ready to think about the challenges raised by
cultural and ethnic diversity and how these can be overcome.

12082014v1
Section 6
Culturally competent practice: obstacles
and challenges
Section 6: Culturally competent practice—obstacles and challenges 79

12082014v1
Section 6: Culturally competent practice: obstacles and

challenges
Section overview
In previous sections we’ve discussed culture broadly and become more conversant with what
cultural diversity means in an interactive, globalised community. In this section we look at
how you can apply that knowledge and awareness to work across and within different
cultures, in other words become culturally competent in practice. We also examine the
obstacles and challenges to culturally competent practice.
Learning outcomes
 define culturally competent practice
 identify the obstacles and challenges to culturally competent practice
 explain how cultural differences pose challenges to culturally competent practice
 identify the mental health issues and challenges in working with culturally diverse
communities.
Textbook reading
USA, Chapter 9.
Chapter 9 discusses mental health issues in culturally diverse communities.

12082014v1
Culturally competent practice

What is culturally competent practice?
Rothman (2008, p. 7) refers to two dimensions of knowledge and skills that support culturally
competent practice:
1. The general knowledge and skills that support effective work across cultures.
2. Specific knowledge and skills relevant to working with a specific cultural group.
The broad knowledge and skills to work across cultures are those that support awareness of,
sensitivity to and respect for:
 the influences of culture on identity and behaviour
 individuality in culture
 appropriate responses to different cultures
 the specific challenges faced by non-dominant groups
 the need for tailored policies, services and systems that recognise and support
members of non-dominant cultures.
Culturally competent practice occurs at the individual level as well as the organisational and
systemic level. Practitioners can develop their skills and knowledge through training and by
experience—especially that gained from immersing themselves in other cultures to
understand their identities, differences, influences and challenges.
At the organisational and systemic level, practices are often deeply ingrained, with
entrenched theories and approaches based in the model of the dominant group. In health care
especially, the Western model is based on white, Western, male, scientific norms. These
norms determine educational and bureaucratic requirements for health care. Consequently,
practitioners need to be aware of their influences and how they can marginalise and
discriminate against those who do not meet or subscribe to their norms.

12082014v1
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) in the US, which sets standards for
cultural competence in social-work practice, describes five ways a system can become more
culturally competent (NASW 2001, p. 12). It can:
 value diversity
 develop the capacity for cultural self-assessment
 be conscious of the dynamics inherent in cultural interactions
 institutionalise cultural knowledge
 devise programs and services that reflect an understanding of cultural diversity.
Activity 6.1
Consider your education and your experience of health care.
What beliefs and approaches of the Western model are perceived differently by non-Western
approaches to health care?
Pick a particular cultural group in which you are interested. What aspects of Western health
care and your training may conflict with the beliefs, values and practices of this group?
Obstacles to culturally competent practice

What are the obstacles to culturally competent practice?
Ideally, all practice should be culturally competent. However, an awareness of the need for
cultural competence in practice is relatively new and certain individuals and groups in society
continue to encounter many obstacles to culturally competent practice.
The following factors will diminish cultural competence in practice:
 The power of the dominant culture.
 Vulnerabilities of non-dominant cultures.

12082014v1
 Lack of education on the part of practitioners.
 Ingrained beliefs and lack of awareness on the part of practitioners.
 Stigma, bias, prejudice and stereotypes.
 Differences in communication styles.
Activity 6.2
What obstacles have you encountered owing to your belonging to a certain cultural group?
Vulnerability
There are a number of factors that can make members of a specific culture vulnerable.
 Minority status
 Membership of a group that is devalued
 Poverty
 Immigrant status
 Speaking English poorly or not at all
 Physical, mental or intellectual restrictions imposed by disability
Vulnerability can also have a psychological aspect, created by self-perceptions and social
perceptions of a person’s value in terms of their culture. This is often exacerbated by
experiences of discrimination, judgement, misinterpretation and restrictions on opportunity.
Being different from others can often make a person vulnerable as people use group
affiliations to enhance their sense of identity and their perception of themselves as superior to
others. Scapegoating is an example of how groups can marginalise individuals based on
difference.
Power

12082014v1
Power and vulnerability are two sides of the same human experience. Members of the
dominant culture tend naturally to perceive themselves as holding the power. Individuals with
minority status can feel powerless and vulnerable in the face of the dominant system.
Society is set up to perpetuate power structures as those with power tend to receive financial
and social support, and access to the best services and opportunities.
What factors in society give people power?
 Professional status, for example a health professional having the authority to provide
or deny services, make diagnoses and assign labels
 Organisational authority, for example a manager
 Nationality
 Race or skin colour
 Ability vs. disability
 Social or economic class
 Gender & sexuality
 Wealth
 Ancestry.
Historically, caring professionals have been shown to have played a significant role in
cultural genocide. The ‘Bringing them home’ report (Commonwealth of Australia, 1997)
documents the role of social workers, health professionals and police officers in removing
young Aboriginals from their parents and placing them in white care (O’Hagan 2001, p. 99).
In 2006, the Federal government took an authoritative stance on going into Aboriginal
communities and enforcing health care and protective services based on reports of child
abuse and other community welfare issues within Aboriginal communities. The government’s
action provoked fear and brought back memories of the forced removal of children from
Aboriginal families many years before. Nevertheless, the Federal government ‘intervention’
is still implemented as a means of minimising alcohol and child sexual abuse within
Indigenous households.

12082014v1
Entitlement
A sense of entitlement is the belief that you must be respected, acknowledged, protected and
rewarded (Rosenblum &/and Travis 2003).
A person’s status in society can give them a sense of entitlement, for example the white
race’s long-standing perception that it was entitled to more than other races.
Master status is the social status that is perceived to shape a person’s identity, their position
in society and their goals and opportunities most (Hughes, 1945). This master status is the
key element of status that tends to overshadow other statuses that together define an
individual. For example, a person may be female, single, an employee and a student, but her
gender may be the status that predominantly influences her experiences and behaviour.
Master status largely determines how a person perceives themselves, how others perceive
them and the ease with which they take on certain roles.
Marked and unmarked status
Rosenblum and Travis (2003) suggest that privileged groups not only assume entitlement but
also ‘marks’.
A person with unmarked status is someone who is automatically assumed to be part of a

group. For example, Lee the IT programmer is automatically assumed to be male without
having to be described as male. The male IT programmer has unmarked status. His gender
does not need to be pointed out as there is a widely held assumption that IT programmers are
male.
However, if Lee the IT programmer happens to be female, she is more likely to be referred to
as a female IT programmer. The additional description as female means she has marked
status. The mark differentiates her from males, who are automatically assumed to be in that
particular group.
Unmarked and marked status is a product of our expectations and presumptions about
different roles and status in society, especially roles with historical reinforcement of such
marks.

12082014v1
Rothman (2008, p. 27) states that ‘when a word is used without a mark, the underlying
assumption is that the person referred to has a right to that classification’.
Some common examples of marked status are:
Race Black prime minister
Gender Male carer
Disability Blind person
Job role Disabled manager
Rothman (2008, p.28) goes on to explain that marks are greater with more stigmatised
illnesses where contracting the condition is perceived to be due to personal mismanagement,
error or fault such as mental illness or AIDS.
Activity 6.3
Think about the groups you belong to. Is there an automatic assumption among the broader
community that you belong to those groups, in other words do you have unmarked or marked
status within those groups?
Cross-cultural communication
Language
Being able to communicate effectively and assertively is empowering. If you have ever been
to a country where you did not speak the language, you will have noticed how difficult it is to
communicate and make your needs felt. If you were in such a place in the long term you
might gradually learn the language and become more empowered. However, it can often be
difficult to pick up and become conversant in the finer nuances, sayings, terms and analogies
that people use to express themselves and tell their stories.
English speakers often work on the assumption that others will speak English even when
travelling in a country in which English is not an official language. For immigrants settling in
a new country in which they cannot speak the official language it can be difficult, frustrating

12082014v1
and lonely not being able to communicate. Without fluency in the dominant language it is
very difficult to access services or to seek the help you need.
Difficulties occasioned by language barriers include (O’Hagan 2001, pp. 157–9):
 misunderstanding
 lack of use of interpreters or ineffective communication using interpreters
 lower quality service
 difficulties and frustrations for professionals, impairing their ability to be effective
 misjudgement and blame
Interpreters
Many services provide inadequate interpreters or poorly translated documentation for clients.
Interpreters and translation can be costly so there can be a reluctance to put money into such
services. Information can be lost or misinterpreted even when using interpreters. It can be
difficult to develop rapport, trust and understanding through interpreters and can be
frustrating for both the practitioner and the client. Interpreting can result in the parties
missing the common cues that are exchanged through verbal and non-verbal communication.
This can distort or confuse messages and information.
When emergency care is needed and it is difficult to get an interpreter risks can be taken with
people’s health and wellbeing if the appropriate services are not delivered. In health care this
is a common scenario. It is impracticable to have interpreters on standby in hospitals
whenever nurses or doctors administer care. Practitioners often use family members as
interpreters. While this can be convenient, family members can misunderstand what is being
said, relay the wrong information or have their own vested interests in how the patient’s care
is managed. Issues of confidentiality consistently arise with interpreting and can make it
difficult to gain the necessary clarity on sensitive matters that is needed for better support,
care and decision making.

12082014v1
Activity 6.4
View the video at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a2i5-eTPWGg&feature=related
What are some of the issues concerning the treatment of this patient which relate to cross-
cultural competence?
Reading 6.1
The reading looks at ways of communicating with clients with diverse cultural backgrounds
and at potential barriers to effective communication.
Hogan, M. 2007. Four skills of cultural diversity competence, Thomson, USA, Chapters 3
and 4.
Religion
Cultural differences can often lead to conflict, intentionally and unintentionally. When people
with different values, world views and ways of behaving interact it can lead to friction. For
example, Western societies abide by a strong social norm to be strictly punctual, while other
cultures may not be as bound by constraints of time.
Culture and religion can often be intertwined. Although spiritual faith and prayer are not an
accepted part of Western mainstream health-care practice, they can be central to many
cultural approaches to illness. Although there are holistic health care nurses and a growing
acknowledgement of the role of prayer and meditation in positive health, the Australian
health-care system operates predominantly on a scientific biomedical model.
Activity 6.5
Religion in a health-care or social-work context can be contentious and is certainly a complex

issue in practice. What are your views on religion and health care and/or community
development?

12082014v1
Do you think medical scientific evidence should be observed as more valid than religious
beliefs? Explain your views.
Mental Health Issues

Mental health issues among migrants and refugees
Both forced migrants such as refugees and voluntary migrants choosing to migrate for work,
study, lifestyle or family face different risk factors for alcohol and other drug use. Australian
research has found that, in general, migrant background Australians from NESNB
communities have lower level of alcohol and other drug use than non-NESB Australians.
However, alcohol and drug use varies across ethnic groups, and is contingent on
intersectionality issues such as gender. For example, DAMEC research found that
Vietnamese and Chinese speaking background women had very low prevalence of smoking,
alcohol or drug use compared to men from those backgrounds; Pacific Island background
people are more likely to have high rates of at risk alcohol consumption even though they do
not necessarily drink on a daily basis. Acculturation has been shown to affect alcohol and
drug use among CALD communities. This is the process of acclimatising to the Australian
cultural norms, with Australian drinking norms being well tolerated the more acculturated
individuals will be seen to increase alcohol consumption- even people from Arabic speaking
backgrounds and other communities that have cultural or religious rules against alcohol
consumption. The issue for many alcohol and drug users from CALD background is access to
services, many services are tailored to a Western health mode, with therapeutic interventions,
group therapy and the like which may alienate some CALD people.
Migrants and refugees have been found to experience mental health impacts from the
experience of dislocation; these impacts are more severe for migrants from cultures with non-
English speaking background. The migration experience causes high levels of stress and
anxiety; this is particularly pronounced amongst refugees who have experienced torture and
trauma. One Australian study (Steel et al 2004) found that refugees and those seeking claim
for asylum experience post-traumatic stress syndrome (PTSD) at high levels and that this is
not easily detected by immigration workers. Many asylum seekers have exhibited detached
presentation which is likely to be dissociation, an extreme stress reaction; however the
12082014v1
apparent look of calmness is not recognised as a sign of mental distress. Nevertheless, there is
a comprehensive body of knowledge worldwide showing high rates of mental illness, mainly
PTSD and depression, among those populations who have experienced conflict.
For immigrants in Australian detention centres, suicide is the leading cause of premature
death, with five confirmed suicide deaths in detention in the 18 months to December 2012.
There have also been found to be associations between length of time in detention and
increased self-harm. The history of torture and trauma for many detainees further inflames
the detention experience, as does concern for family and feelings of social isolation, despair
and entrapment.
Reading 6.2
Lyall, J. 2006. The struggle for 'cultural competence', The Guardian, 12 April at:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2006/apr/12/publicfinances.politics6
Activity 6.6
What are some of the issues identified in this article in relation to mental health care for
people from black and minority cultures?
Comment on the argument made in the article for greater focus on individual needs rather
than cultural competence training. Do you agree or disagree?
Racism as cause of psychological distress
The Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (2012) has found documented links between
poorer physical health and mental health and experiences of racism. People who experience
bullying and other forms of intimidation, verbal abuse and so forth due to their race are at
greater risk of developing mental health issues such as depression than people who do not
have these experiences. As such injury and psychological distress can be caused by overt
racism such as verbal abuse, but so too can covert racism in forms of workplace and social
discrimination, exclusion and so forth. In particular a number of studies of Indigenous

12082014v1
Australians have found that racism is a clear determinant of ill health, both mental and
physical and that racism has clear emotional impacts on Aboriginal Australians.
Discrimination is seen to affect mental health as it results in people gaining a negative view
of themselves, so developing low self-esteem. This may include fear and anxiety; some
people try to manage stress through unhealthy behaviours such as smoking and drug misuse.
Reading 6.3
Read the following article, ‘Mental health impacts of racism in Victorian Aboriginal
communities’, 2012 by the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation, which is available at the
following online link:
http://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/~/media/ResourceCentre/PublicationsandResources/Discrim
ination/Mental%20health%20impacts_racial%20discrim_Indigenous.ashx
What are the mental health impacts of racism? Read the survey results in the article. Does it
surprise you that higher educated Aboriginal Australians experienced more racism than less
educated? What does this tell you? How can community interventions reduce this kind of
racism?
Resources
USA.
Hogan, M. 2007. (3rd ed.) The four skills of cultural diversity competence: A process for
understanding and practice, Australia: Thomson Publishing.
Hughes, E. C. 1945. ‘Dilemmas and Contradictions of Status’. American Journal of

Sociology 50: 353-359
Rothman, J. 2008. Cultural competence in process and practice: Building bridges, Pearson,
NY, chapter 2.

12082014v1
Sotnick, P. & Jezewski, M.A. 2005. Culture and the disability services. In J.H. Stone (ed.)
Culture and disability: Providing culturally competent services, Sage Publications, California.
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. 1997. Bringing them home: report of the
national inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from
their families. Commonwealth of Australia
Rosenblum, K. E., & Travis, T.-M. C. 2006 (4th ed.). The meaning of difference: American
constructions of race, sex and gender, social class, and sexual orientation. Boston: McGraw-
Hill.
Australian Association of Social Workers (AASW) 2013 Practice Standards, accessed at:
http://www.aasw.asn.au/document/item/4551
The Australian Human Rights Commission provides information on human rights and issues
of discrimination.
http://www.hreoc.gov.au
The Diversity Health Clearinghouse is an online resource of the NSW Health Department
that provides support for health professionals working with culturally diverse communities
across NSW. The site provides an access point for information on Australian multicultural
health and wellbeing.
http://203.32.142.106/clearinghouse/
Mental Health in Multicultural Australia website is a project funded by the Australian

Government to provide advice to governments and service providers on mental health and
suicide prevention for people from CALD backgrounds.
http://www.mhima.org.au/

12082014v1
The United Nations is an international organisation that presides over international bodies
supporting peace and security, human rights, development, humanitarian affairs, and
international law and explores such issues as discrimination.
http://www.un.org/
Victorian Health Department, Embracing diversity for health site. This site provides links to
reports detailing the association between racism and mental health and discusses the impact
of discrimination on health outcomes for cultural minorities.
http://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/discrimattitudes/
http://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/~/media/ResourceCentre/PublicationsandResources/Discrim
ination/MoreThanTolerance/DCASv2%204%20%20FINAL%20060907.ashx
This website provides information on the programs offered by the Centre for Culture,
Ethnicity and Health, an agency that provides information on, training in and support with
cultural diversity.
http://www.ceh.org.au/
The website of the NSW Transcultural Mental Health Centre (TMHC) provides information
on the wide range of mental health services and support offered to mental health services,
carers and community to ‘improve the mental health of people from culturally and
linguistically diverse communities living in NSW’.
http://www.dhi.health.nsw.gov.au/Transcultural-Mental-Health-Centre/About-Us/About-
Us/default.aspx
This site provides information on ARAFMI (the Association of Relatives and Friends of the
Mentally Ill), a non-government organisation that provides support services to families and
carers of people with a mental illness from diverse backgrounds.
http://www.arafmi.org/

12082014v1
The Drug and Alcohol Multicultural Education Centre (DAMEC) is a statewide, NSW Health
funded non-government organization which provides information and support on alcohol and
other drug (AOD) use in CALD communities. The centre publishes a directory of alcohol and
other drug agencies which provides support for non-English speaking background people
experiencing alcohol and other drug problems; they also undertake research and policy into
AOD use in ethnic communities. The directory is aimed at multicultural health workers and
the agency goal is to bridge the gap between multicultural and AOD sectors. The full range of
services and publications can be accessed at: http://www.damec.org.au/.
The Refugee Council of Australia is an umbrella organization for refugee and asylum seekers
services and individuals in Australia. The website links to a wide range of local and nation-
wide refugee and asylum seekers services: https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/a/who.php.

12082014v1
Section 7
Towards culturally competent practice in working
with families and children
Section 7: Towards culturally competent practice in working with families 95

and children
12082014v1
Section 7: Towards culturally competent practice in

working with families and children
Section overview
In this section we apply principles of cultural competence and awareness to working with
CALD and Indigenous families and children. We commence with a review of family
diversity in Australia including the impact of British colonisation on family formation. The
section concludes with a detailed overview of the legacy of the Stolen Generation including
excerpts from the Bringing them Home report which informed the Senate Inquiry into the
Stolen Generation.
Learning outcomes
- describe the subjective nature of ‘family’
- outline the impact on family formation in Australia from British colonialist policies
- describe the system of kinship in traditional Australian Aboriginal families
- describe issue for newly arrived migrant families in Australia
- detail the legacy from the Stolen Generation on Indigenous Australian families and
children.
Textbook Reading
USA, chapters 6 and 7. These chapters outline social work practice in working with CALD
families and children.
What is family?
Family can be thought of in terms of the commitments made by people to one another, with
people related by kin or emotional bonds. An important t idea underpinning family is the

and children
12082014v1
genetic relationship, generations of people who are genetically related. The attraction here is
that biology endures; your biological parents are always related to you. However, some social
scientists contend that the biological bond of family is not a necessary condition for defining
a family.
Family then can also be defined as a place of nurture, a site where people are raised and
socialised according to developmental theories which are, ofcourse, culturally bound. In
Western culture, the current notion is towards emotional development of children, with both
parents involved in emotional child-rearing activity.
Family is also seen as an economic unit, a group of people who work together to provide for
the necessities of everyday living. Before the modern capitalist state an extended family was
the norm, primarily this family form provided economically for the family with children
contributing as equally as adults. This communicative approach though requires an attitude
towards ownership of land and resources, even towards children, which places communal
needs over the individual. When the means for earning a living is moved away, when
corporations or government appropriate land then people cannot work on that land. For many
families these days, at least one adult must work and earn enough to support the family. For
some families this means moving away from home, even to another country for work, from
where they send back money to the family. Infact many migrants to Australia are doing
exactly that, earning money and sending it back to family members including wife and
children. The income of the family is affected then by social class, this is a major factor in the
operation of families.
Another influential idea of family assumes families are bound together by affection or
emotional bonds. This assumption underlies ideas of romantic love as the ideal that this leads
to the ideal marriage and, later children. This Western model is not however, universally
fashionable. In fact it is not affection which binds many families in other cultures, in some
cultures choice of life partner is pre-arranged. Some research suggests this can be a
successful way to find a partner, with others making a more ‘logical’ decision for a suitable
partner. Children are not universally loved either. In some countries a baby girl may be
treated poorly in favour of a boy, because the boy is of more value. The point here is that the

and children
12082014v1
normative Western idea of family and love is not universal, that we should be aware of the
different cultural meanings of ‘family’.
For sociologists few social settings influence us as profoundly as the family. Sociologists
argue that through a process of socialisation, it is through families that most of us learn
cultural notions of right and wrong, learn how to behave in a manner deemed acceptable, and
learn which aspects of our personality will be valued and which will be derided.
Activity 7.1
What are four values that underpin what happens in your family?
What differences does your culture make to how you maintain family connections?
British colonisation and family formation in Australia

With British colonisation came ideas about family and children that emerged from England.
Britain at the time was in a period of industrialisation, the economy was moving from
subsistence, family based economy to industrialised, urban economy. This saw a change in
household organisation and families, notwithstanding the separation of home and work with
families supported by wages. As industrial capitalism took hold, so did the idea of marrying
for love and sexual attraction; also the expanding middle class brought new ideals about
family including the role of women as mother and wife. Women in poor, working class
families continued to work as did many children, but there was a clear separation between
social classes in the gender order. The final legacy of industrialism is that childhood came to
be seen as a separate time of life, so by the end of the nineteenth century children were being
forced to go to school rather than work in factories and the home.
With the Western model of family and household relation firmly entrenched, the British
colonisers had little regard for Aboriginal family life, with its systems of ‘kinship’. The
convict men outnumbered women almost three to one in early colonial settlement;
administrators saw marriage as a way of promoting stability. However cohabitation was
widespread, as were sexual relations between convict and free settler males and Aboriginal

and children
12082014v1
women. This led to a burgeoning mixed race group which became known as ‘half-castes’,
the fate of these children was, under colonial segregationist policies to remove these children
to be brought up in white families and institutions. The forced removal of Aboriginal children
from their mothers is detailed further in this section.
By the 1820s, free settlers outnumbered convicts in Australia, and land grants to assisted
immigrants became common. Migration began to determine family formation in the colonies,
some migrants such as Scottish Highlanders came in large kinship groups; some came alone
and sent later for family. Often the wider kin group were in Britain, so family life became
quite insular and private and strong community networks not well established in isolated bush
settlements. Rural pioneer families were common, by the late nineteenth century though a
number of changes such as compulsory education and decline in households gave way to the
shaping of the modern nuclear family. A mantra that has shaped Australian economic and
social policy formation since 1901 is ‘populate or perish’. This political mantra was
associated with building a white Australia, with the white family unit seen as central to the
viability of the nation. Social welfare for white families was introduced early on, for example
a national maternity leave allowance was in place by 1912. This was designed to encourage
women to have children, as fertility rates had been in decline. Today, Australian women have
fewer children than a century ago, and have their first child at a later age with the peak
fertility age in 2010 at 30-34 years. There are also a relatively high number of women not
having children at all (Henslin et al 2014, p.440).
Family diversity in Australia

The rapid change in family forms have been linked to three periods of major change: move
from a family based economy in pre-Industrial Europe; second, changing status of women;
third, the move to modernity and the impacts of globalisation. It is worth reviewing here the
topic of family diversity covered in introductory sociology. Where once the only culturally-
accepted concept of family in Australia was that of married heterosexual parents and their
direct off-spring, today we are much more tolerant of a complex array of family ‘types’. The
diversity of family forms reflects a number of factors, including if a family has children, or is
in post-child or pre-child phase. Lone-parent families, same sex parents, childless families,

and children
12082014v1
“reconstituted” blended families with step-children and step-parents, and extended families
are all present and increasingly accepted. This is not to say, however, that the nuclear family
has lost its status in Australian society. In Australia, as in other western countries, the cultural
authority accorded the nuclear family remains strong.
The concept of family that we adhere to today owes its origins to the norms of England and
Western Europe. Australia modelled itself on its British heritage, and despite the penal nature
of the first settlers, colonial administrators held to the belief that marriage and the creation of
families would bring stability to the new colonies.
The concept of family that we adhere to today owes its origins to the norms of England and
Western Europe. Australia modelled itself on its British heritage, and despite the penal nature
of the first settlers, colonial administrators held to the belief that marriage and the creation of
families would bring stability to the new colonies.
Household size in Australia has generally remained small since the mid twentieth century,
and Australian family forms have changed rapidly since the 1970’s. This change was largely
precipitated by the introduction of the Commonwealth government’s Family Law Act of
1975 which allowed access to no-fault divorce, and cohabitation was no longer considered
taboo. Today, ‘marriage rates are low and have been declining since 1970’, although
‘marriage remains popular… with the majority (52 per cent) of the population over the age of
15 being married’ (Germov and Poole, 2007, p 139).
Based on data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Census of Population and
Housing, the Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIF) (2013) highlight the marked
changes in family forms in Australia from 1976 to 2011:
Family type 1976 (%) 2011 (%)
One parent family with dependent 6.5 10.6

children

and children
12082014v1
Couple only 28.0 37.8
Couple with dependent children 48.4 36.7
Couple with non-dependent children 11.1 7.9
Other families 5.9 7.0
Source: Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2014
The data demonstrate relative decline in the proportion of traditional nuclear family forms in
Australia, and the increase in couple only and lone parent families. Declining fertility and
increased life expectancy has resulted in more couple families without children in the
household. Increased life expectancy also increases the proportion of people living alone, and
increased divorce and remarriage has led to more step-and blended families. Despite the rapid
change in family formation, couple families are still the main and most prevalent family type.
So whilst social attitudes have shifted to accommodate childlessness, lone parent families, the
couple family is still a dominant model in Australia. This model is supported by government
and religious institutions, whose normative understandings of family underscore debates
around same sex marriage.
Activity 7.2
Activity: Watch vignettes from Making Modern Australia at the following website. What are
some of the common themes arising from stories of newly arrived migrants to Australia?
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/makingaustralia/educationextras/episode-one/
Migrant families and children

The social life of a migrant family will reflect not just their culture but their social class. The
more recent the immigration, the more closely their family life reflects that of their country of
origin. As such cultural difference can be a large issue for recently arrived migrants, the

and children
12082014v1
cultural shock of a new country and language can be disarming, especially for older family
members. By way of example, Henslin et al (2014, p.441) show how Chinese families differ
to European and Indigenous Australian families. Asian American families have been found to
adopt nuclear family structure over time, but retained Confucian values including humanism,
collectivism, self-discipline, hierarchy, respect for elderly, obligation and moderation, so
each family member owes respect to other members and is not to shame the family. Pressures
are put on children of Chinese families to succeed, so they bring honour to the family. Shame
and guilt may be used by Asian parents to manage their children; other cultures may lean
towards physical punishment. Management of control varies then between cultures, we
should not assume migrant groups have an understanding of the Western family model.
Reading 7.1
Read the guide (Marymead Child and Family Centre, 2000) for people working with parents
of other cultures Parenting between Cultures: A program for parents from CALD
communities. The guide is linked to the following website:
http://www.aifs.gov.au/cfca/webresources/caldfamilies.html#a1
What are some recommended strategies for working with CALD parents in a childcare
context?
Indigenous families and children

Henslin et al, (2014, p.440) point out there is no such thing as the ‘Indigenous family’ as
much as there is no such thing as the ‘Western family’. There are, however two major
distinctions between Indigenous and non-Indigenous families, one being difference organised
around culture and the difference around social class. Indigenous Australians are significantly
over-represented in measures of disadvantage, poverty and inequalities of health and
education. Many of those considered socially disadvantaged live in rural and remote parts of
Australia and lack access to basic resources available in other parts of the country. Many
remote Indigenous families are dependent on welfare and are virtually excluded from the
labour market. Income support payments from Centrelink are often shared with an extended
family, so sharing resources and ‘stretching kinship’ become survival tactics. Expectations to
support kin including parents, grandparents, cousins and so forth can be culturally enriching,
and children
12082014v1
but have detrimental effects on family life through overcrowded housing and poverty. Other
causes of poverty or family vulnerabilities are having children at a younger age including
teenage pregnancies, larger families and high levels of imprisonment of men. The history of
oppression by colonial governments and racism also make many Indigenous people angry
and distrustful of state intervention into family life. The long history of exclusion, poverty
and discrimination has meant violence is a problem in Indigenous communities; this is linked
to alcohol abuse. At the same time there are Indigenous families very much modelled on the
Western family, many in urban areas particularly have a very middle class outlook on family
life.
In general Indigenous parents avoid physical punishment and are fairly tolerant and
permissive. Elders play an active role in families, more so than in non-Indigenous families,
through child care, teaching and disciplining children. This system of kinship with
grandparent care is a cultural norm; it is also a response to economic disadvantage. Perhaps
the biggest issue is the tension between Western dominant cultural models and traditional
values. The recent Northern Territory Intervention (NTI) in Indigenous communities
illustrates this tension. The intervention was in response to reports of child sexual abuse
being ‘endemic’ in Indigenous communities in remote areas; the issue was not aided by a
long history of drug and alcohol abuse, poor health and unemployment. In 2007 the Northern
Territory introduced a National Emergency Response Bill which sought to restrict alcohol
through introducing ‘dry’ communities, manage welfare payments to stop them being spent
on alcohol and to improve housing. There was, however allegedly a lack of consultation with
Indigenous communities, with an acknowledgement that Indigenous people know the
community problems but are resistant to being ‘mainstreamed’. The lack of consultation was
especially difficult for men who felt shamed by the stereotyping of them as sexual deviants.
Much of the problems ion Indigenous communities emerge from the impacts of the ‘Stolen
Generation’ to which we now turn.
Reading 7.2
Yolanda Walker was a Researcher for the Secretariat for National Aboriginal and Islander
Child Care (SNAICC). The following article by Walker on Aboriginal family issues was

and children
12082014v1
published in 1993 in Family Matters, vol. 35, August 1993, pp. 51-53. Read the article at the
link below and, in light of the findings of the Inquiry into the removal of Indigenous children
from families, consider Walker’s argument that self-determination is the way forward for
Aboriginal people.
Article at: http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/fm1/fm35yw.html
Legacy of the ‘Stolen Generation’ on Indigenous Australian families

and children
The Senate Inquiry into the Stolen Generation was “established in November 1999 to
examine the adequacy of the Federal Government's response to the Human Rights and Equal
Opportunity Commission's Bringing them Home report”.
It is widely acknowledged that the qualities of an individual’s future social relations are
significantly affected by childhood experiences. Separation from a primary carer, especially
when a child is placed in an institution, is shown to be connected to a number of psychiatric
disorders in adulthood. According to the Australian Human Rights Commission (2010, p.1)
attachment to a primary carer has been shown to be important to mental, emotional and social
development of a child, helping them to:
 achieve full intellectual potential

 develop a cultural identity
 sort out perceptions
 appreciate and value the importance of family
 think logically
 develop a conscience
 become self-reliant
 cope with stress and frustration
 handle fear and worry
 develop future relationships.
Evidence submitted to the Inquiry showed that many Indigenous children were removed from
their families before the age of ten years; over one half were taken in infancy. The vast
and children
12082014v1
majority of these were removed to homes, missions or stations, these institutions had a small
number of staff and could not provide the individual care required for a healthy child
development. This was an unstable existence for many children, who were moved between
institutions, foster homes then back to institutions. This instability prevented new attachments
being formed, so children were removed from bonds with primary carer to poor quality child
care.
These experiences affected many Indigenous people in adulthood, some long-term effects
being mental health problems, alcohol and drug use from continued trauma, and problems
establishing close relationships.
There's still a lot of unresolved issues within me. One of the biggest ones is that I
cannot really love anyone no more. I'm sick of being hurt. Every time I used to get
close to anyone they were just taken away from me. The other fact is, if I did meet
someone, I don't want to have children, cos I'm frightened the welfare system would
come back and take my children.
(Confidential evidence 528 to the Inquiry).
Delinquency, mental health and behavioural issues
For many Indigenous children, an effect of being forcibly removed from family and relocated
to institutions was delinquency. This was in the form of crime and domestic violence.
Research conducted in 1982 found that over 90 percent of Indigenous Legal Aid Clients in
NSW and Victoria had been in foster placement or institutions. There is evidently a strong
link between the removal of Indigenous children from their families and prison statistics. As
shown in this quote, this has also produced a degree of comfortability with the prison
institution.
And every time you come back in it doesn't bother you because you're used to it and
you see the same faces. It's like you never left, you know, in the end.
(Confidential evidence 204 Inquiry, Australian Human Rights Commission, 2010 p.3)

and children
12082014v1
Mental and physical wellbeing of Aboriginal people removed as children from their families
has been profound, with a clear link between experiences of forcible removal and
institutionalisation and high levels of suffering from psychological distress than other
Indigenous people. Self-destructive behaviour, addictions to alcohol and drugs, depression,
heart disease and diabetes, and other psychological problems prevailed into adulthood. The
Sydney Aboriginal Mental Health Unit reported (in Australian Human Rights Commission
report, 2010 p.2):
This tragic experience, across several generations, has resulted in incalculable

trauma, depression and major mental health problems for Aboriginals.
This was elevated for people who experienced sexual abuse. The Australian Human Rights
Commission report (2010, p.2) notes that “The duration of separation and constant
relocations caused an 'emotional numbing'. Where abuse occurs regularly over a significant
period of time, children learn to blunt their emotions and stop outwardly responding to abuse.
Often that develops into a pattern in adult life that is difficult to overcome and affects
relationships with others”.
Effects on parenting skills
Another major long-term effect of the forced removal and years of fostering and institutions
is difficulties in raising their own children. People institutionalized as children have not had
the role models for parenting, so face problems raising their own children. Long-term effects
have become generational. During the period of removals, many Indigenous women were
having children quote young. These children were removed in turn from their mothers, the
cycle of removal self-perpetuating. By the time welfare laws were instituted which required a
child to be in a state of ‘neglect’, a neglectful environment had arisen due to the undermining
of parenting skills in the first place. The Australian Human Rights Commission (2910, p.3)
also discuss how many parents feared their own children being taken away and this would
prevent them seeking medical treatment or schooling for their children. The Commission also
shows how the removal experience strengthened parenting skills by encouraging removed
parents to protect their own children from mistreatment and abuse. As shown in this quote, a
permissive parenting style may result.

and children
12082014v1
I have a problem with smacking kids. I won't smack them. I won't control them. I'm
just scared of everything about myself. I just don't know how to be a proper parent
sometimes. I can never say no, because I think they're going to hate me. I remember
hating [my foster mother] so I never want the kids to hate me. I try to be perfect.
(Confidential evidence 529 to the Inquiry)
Broken families and communities
Evidence to the inquiry showed the effects of forced removal not just on individual families
but on whole communities, who experienced deep grief and suffering. Psychological research
on child adoption presented to the Inquiry showing traumatic effects similar to those where
the child has died. Because parenting role, socialization and nurturing are shared in
traditional kinship families in Indigenous communities, relatives have nurturing roles and
emotional ties with children, so forced removal impacted the roles of extended family
members. The Commission notes that (2010, p.6) “Often, communities would not just lose
children, but also entire families. Some Indigenous families would exile themselves, leaving
their community, out of a fear that their children would be taken away if they stayed”.
Furthermore, in discussing the impact on Indigenous men the Commission report (2010, p.6)
notes that, “Indigenous men lost their purpose in relation to their families and communities.
Often their individual responses to that loss took them away from their families: on drinking
binges, ending up in hospitals following accidents or assaults, in a gaol or lock-up or
prematurely dead”. A personal account to the Inquiry shows the effects of removal on an
Indigenous male.
The interesting thing was that he was such a great provider … He was a great
provider and had a great name and a great reputation. Now, when this intrusion
occurred it had a devastating impact upon him and upon all those values that he
believed in and that he put in place in his life which included us, and so therefore I
think the effect upon Dad was so devastating. And when that destruction occurred,
which was the destruction of his own personal private family which included us; it

and children
12082014v1
had a very strong devastating effect on him, so much so that he never ever recovered
from the trauma that occurred …
(Confidential evidence 265 to the Inquiry)
Lastly it is important to note that the forced removal experiences led to a loss of cultural
heritage such as language and religion, that this heritage is difficult to get back for many
Indigenous groups. Also the underlying experience of racism and assumptions about
inferiority of the Aboriginal race which underpinned removal policies, have deeply affected
Indigenous people. Some have ended up ashamed of their Indigenous heritage, expressing
negativity about their Indigenous origins. This is expressed in the following account to the
Inquiry.
I didn't know any Aboriginal people at all – none at all. I was placed in a white family
and I was just – I was white. I never knew, I never accepted myself to being a black
person until – I don't know – I don't know if you ever really do accept yourself as
being … How can you be proud of being Aboriginal after all the humiliation and the
anger and the hatred you have? It's unbelievable how much you can hold inside.
(Confidential evidence 152 to the Inquiry, Victoria)
Reading 7.3
Planning and delivering services to Indigenous children and families can be complex for
social workers and community development agencies. This is due to the social problems
arising from the forced removal of children, as well as other community issues. Nor are
Indigenous people a homogenous group. The following article discusses the complexities of
working with Indigenous families and children, and provides some advice for working with
strength and resilience in the communities and the provision of achieving culturally
competent practice.
The article is title ‘Working with Indigenous children, families, and communities: Lessons
from practice’ by Rhys-Price-Roberts & Myfanwy McDonald (in partnership with Peter
Lewis & Muriel Bamblett of the Victorian Aboriginal Child Care Agency).

and children
12082014v1
Published by the Australian Institute of Family Studies, March 2011, 7 pp. [ISBN 978-1-
921414-36-7]. The article is accessed from:
http://www.aifs.gov.au/cafca/pubs/sheets/ps/ps6.html
Activity 7.3
When you have read the article in Reading 7.3 consider the following questions:
 how can a service become culturally competent in working with Indigenous families
and children?
 What are some of the strengths and resilience found in Indigenous communities?
 What are some of the barriers to inhibit successful service delivery?
 What are the long term advantages of cultivating networks and relationships with
Indigenous communities? How could these networks be cultivated in practice?
minority groups.
SNAICC 2013 report ‘Whose Voice Counts’ is available at the Australian Association of
Social Workers website: http://www.aasw.asn.au/document/item/5130
The Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) is the government’s key research body into
issues of family health and wellbeing. The website has links to publications, facts and figures
on migrant and Indigenous families in Australia.
http://www.aifs.gov.au/cfca/pubs/index.html

and children
12082014v1
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) - immigration, asylum seekers
and refugees
The HREOC website includes a factsheet on the impact of bridging visas restrictions on
asylum seekers, a section of questions and answers on immigration detention and human
rights, and on asylum seekers, refugees and human rights. Links are also available to the
range of HREOC work related to immigration, asylum seekers and refugees.
http://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/asylum-seekers-and-refugees
Face the Facts:

Some Questions and Answers about Indigenous Peoples, Migrants and Refugees and Asylum
Seekers (2008)
Australian Human Rights Commission's contribution to informed factual public debate about
race, Indigenous peoples and cultural diversity in Australia. Publication provides information
about Indigenous peoples, migrants, refugees and asylum seekers.
http://www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/2012-face-facts
Families in Cultural Transition (FICT)
Program under STARTTS, the NSW Service for the Treatment and Rehabilitation of Torture
and Trauma Survivors. STARTTS undertakes research and provides training in related issues.
http://www.startts.org.au/resources/resources-for-sale/families-in-cultural-transition-fict-kit/
ABCD Parenting Young Adolescents
Offers parent resources in Arabic, Macedonian, Spanish, Turkish and Vietnamese.
http://www.abcdparenting.org/
Parenting Between Cultures: The Primary School Years – manual (PDF 2.9 MB)

and children
12082014v1
A program for parents from culturally and linguistically diverse communities produced by the
Marymead Child and Family Centre.
Parenting in a new culture: the preschool years (PDF 638 KB)
Produced by the Northern Migrant Resource Centre
http://www.mhcs.health.nsw.gov.au/publicationsandresources/pdf/publication-pdfs/7825/ahs-
7825-eng.pdf

and children
12082014v1
Section 8
Culturally and ethnically diverse groups—skills and
knowledge for practice
Section 8: Culturally and ethnically diverse groups—skills and 112

12082014v1
Section 8: Culturally and ethnically diverse groups—skills

and knowledge for practice
Section overview
In this section we discuss some skills for practice with culturally and ethnically diverse
groups. Understanding cultural diversity is an important part of social-work practice. Anti-
discriminatory practice and ethnic-sensitive practice combine different approaches to cultural
diversity, which may provide useful frameworks for understanding and addressing the
different needs of culturally diverse clients.
Learning outcomes
Once you have completed this section successfully, you should be able to:
 identify tools for managing cultural diversity and difference
 identify anti-oppressive and critical practice
 assess culturally competent systems of care
 understand anti-discriminatory practice
 understand ethnic-sensitive practice.
Textbook reading
The following chapter describes a range of processes and tools for working effectively in a
culturally diverse context.
USA, Chapter 3.

12082014v1
Social justice
What is social justice?
Social justice refers to the equitable application of human rights principles across the
spectrum of society, and the closing of gaps between different social groups in terms of
power, status and quality of life. Reading 4.2 by Donna Baines looks at various social-justice-
oriented approaches to social work, in theory and in practice. In conjunction with their goals
of immediate and short-term solutions, social-justice-oriented social workers seek to address
underlying structural causes of social problems, which can include political, economic, social
and cultural factors.
Anti-oppressive practice
Anti-oppressive practice encompasses a range of social-justice-oriented approaches. Various

theories and trends in social-justice-oriented social work can be classified as anti-oppressive
practice. Some of these are examined in Reading 4.2. Anti-oppressive practice seeks to
recognise and challenge oppression and inequality through anti-oppressive social work.
Activity 8.1
Identify the types of oppression that anti-oppressive practice addresses. Can you think of
examples of these forms of oppression that are being practised?
Critical practice
Critical practice involves applying critical thinking and critical action in social-work practice.
One of the key elements of critical practice is its reflective approach. This reflective (and
reflexive) process allows for the constant re-evaluation of social-work practice. In order
adequately to address current and changing realities, social workers need to re-examine social
work theory and practice continuously.

12082014v1
Activity 8.2
In a few short paragraphs, identify some of the benefits of critical practice in social work.
Reread your response to this activity. Can you find examples of ‘value words’ in your
response? What kinds of hidden assumptions can value words reflect?
Managing cultural diversity and difference

A culturally diverse society calls for policies and services that recognise and address the
diverse needs of its population. Because cultural diversity encompasses differences of gender,
ethnicity, age and physical ability, among others, it is necessary to have a variety of tools for
managing cultural diversity in social-work practice. A client may require more than one type
of service to address their individual needs. For instance, a client may be facing problems
relating to both age and ethnicity, or gender and ethnicity. Cultural sensitivity, and an
understanding of an individual’s specific cultural needs, can significantly improve the
effectiveness of social-work practice.
Activity 8.3
Read the case study in Exercise 7.1 on pages 104–105 of Reading 8.3. Provide short answers
to questions 1 to 3 of this exercise. Consider the need for sensitivity in recognising and
addressing the needs of different clients.
Skills for practice
Taking a culturally sensitive approach to addressing clients’ needs can help to encourage and
enable them to engage with service providers and participate in the process of finding
solutions. This might involve overcoming linguistic barriers, explaining confidentiality or
providing reassurance that clients’ views and feelings will meet with a non-judgmental
response. Skills for initiating and facilitating constructive interaction with clients are
discussed in Reading 8.1. These include creating the right physical environment for a client
interview, establishing an empathetic rapport and being able to read clients’ non-verbal

12082014v1
behaviour. Cleak and Egan point out the importance of using open rather than closed
questions when interviewing clients in order to elicit more useful information and gain a
better understanding of their needs. In the case of ‘Nan’, the case study Cleak and Egan use
to demonstrate these skills in practice, the authors emphasise the importance of encouraging
Nan to tell her own story, for instance by replacing the question ‘How long have you been
here?’ with ‘What’s been happening to you since you arrived in hospital?’.
Activity 8.4
Consider the differences between open and closed questions and the types of responses they
elicit. Can you give examples of situations in which a closed question would be appropriate?
In what contexts would an open question be more helpful?
Culturally competent systems of care
Social services can be more effective when tailored to the particular needs of clients or client
groups. Culturally competent systems of care take into consideration the cultural backgrounds
and needs of clients and seek to address these needs through culturally sensitive practice.
Such a process can overcome potential obstacles to an individual’s accessing and benefitting
from social services, such as the perceived social stigma attached to certain mental health
conditions in some cultures, as discussed in Reading 8.4 to follow.
Multicultural services in Australia
The various multicultural services operating in Australia provide essential assistance to their
clients in areas such as linguistic support, legal advice, education, and culturally appropriate
welfare services. At an institutional level, government policy can have a significant impact on
the development of multicultural programs. The Galbally report of 1978 (available at
http://www.multiculturalaustralia.edu.au/history/timeline/period/Multiculturalism-in-
Practice/screen/2.The-Galbally-Strategy-for-migrant-settlement) addressed the issues of
multiculturalism and settlement in Australia, making a number of recommendations. Some of

12082014v1
the findings of this report and a policy analysis of the development of multicultural services
in Australia to 2001 are available at
http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/settle/_pdf/chap01web.pdf. Since the Galbally
report was published, changes have been made to the number and variety of multicultural
services available in Australia which continues to be a focus area of governments. A model
for ensuring access and equity in service delivery to multicultural groups was issued by the
Office of Multicultural Affairs in 1994, available at
http://www.multiculturalaustralia.edu.au/doc/multoff_6.pdf. This document, which relates to
access to government services, emphasises the importance of community participation,
provision of language services, client awareness of available services, and training of staff in
service delivery to culturally diverse groups. In 2011 the Australian Government Department
of Human Services reviewed the access and equity service delivery model for multicultural
services. The 2011 Access and equity for a multicultural Australia report can be accessed at
http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/a-multicultural-australia/government-
approach/government-services/AandEreport.pdf. The report specifies the CALD target
groups for access and equity as follows (Sec 2.4, p.28):
 “migrants with low levels of English proficiency
 Refugees and humanitarian entrants
 Visibly different migrants
 Newly arrived communities and individuals without knowledge of the Australian

system, and
 Other migrants experiencing difficulties in accessing services based on age, gender,

disability, youth or coming from collectivist cultures.”
This strategy has resulted in the publication of the Multicultural Servicing Strategy 2013-
2015. The policy aims to improve the responsiveness of all government services to CALD
communities and requires government departments to develop and implement a multicultural
plan every two years.

12082014v1
The strategy outlines the service commitment to multicultural service delivery including
language services, employee support tools and community and customer engagement
strategies. The strategy also considers the key challenges and opportunities in service
delivery including the challenges of meeting the complex needs of humanitarian and refugee
arrivals, service delivery for an ageing CALD population, the increasing move of refugees
and migrants to rural Australia, effectively working with the non-government organization
(NGO) sector and tailoring service delivery around new technologies. The Multicultural
Servicing Strategy 2013-2015 can be accessed at the following link:
http://www.humanservices.gov.au/corporate/publications-and-resources/part-a-multicultural-
servicing-strategy-2013-2015. Read through the strategy and familiarize yourself with the
2013-2015 CALD service delivery provisions and priorities.
While significant progress has been made in providing relevant facilities and social support to
disadvantaged or marginalised groups, disparities continue to exist between the experiences
and relative statuses of different groups in Australia. This can partly be attributed to
inequalities at a structural level, which can provide additional challenges for both government
and non-government social service agencies. Without significant structural change, many of
these agencies are unable to provide more than short-term solutions to the problems
experienced by clients.
Activity 8.5
With reference to Reading 8.4, assess the benefits of evidence-based mental health programs
for culturally diverse groups. How can outreach programs assist these groups in accessing
services?
Anti-discriminatory practice
Who benefits from discriminatory practices?
Discriminatory practice refers to the different treatment of an individual or group based on

factors such as race, religion, gender, disability or age. A number of both covert and overt
discriminatory practices may serve the interests of certain individuals and groups, who may
gain real or perceived benefits from the discriminatory treatment of other individuals or

12082014v1
groups. Discriminatory practices can have cultural and economic determinants. For example,
a company, perceiving the economic benefits of hiring cheap migrant labour, might apply
discriminatory practices in hiring workers who are not in a position to turn down a minimum-
wage arrangement.
Activity 8.6
Using Reading 8.5 as a reference point, identify some of the ways in which discrimination
might serve the interests of individuals or groups in the non-Indigenous population in
Australia.
Anti-discriminatory practice refers to practice geared to opposing all forms of social

discrimination, particularly at a structural level. It seeks to combat the inequality and injustice
that can result from discriminatory practices. This kind of approach will be examined in
greater detail in later sections.
Activity 8.7
Look at Figure 13.1 on page 278 of Reading 8.6. Can you identify examples of relationships
and behaviours that characterise levels P, C and S? Can you think of any relationships or
behaviours that do not fit within this model?
Ethnic-sensitive practice
An important element in managing cultural diversity is ethnic-sensitive practice. Ethnic-
sensitive practice emphasises the importance of understanding the various and particular
experiences of ethnic groups within different societies. This approach is designed to filter
through all aspects of social-work practice. Advocates of this approach believe there is a need
to recognise and respond to the culturally specific needs of clients and client groups. This
approach can be problematic, however, as defining culture and culturally specific needs can
lead to inaccurate assumptions about common experiences and goals.
Activity 8.8

12082014v1
Why is it important to ask a client about their culturally specific requirements, rather than
acting on assumed knowledge of cultural conventions? Explain your view in a few
paragraphs. Try to provide examples.
Multicultural Health Communication NSW provides information about health and NSW
health services for people who speak languages other than English. The agency manages a
multilingual website with publications in a range of languages and manages quality
translations for the health sector. The agency also provides research and evaluation services
to the CALD sector.
http://www.mhcs.health.nsw.gov.au/
The Australian Government Department of Human Services is responsible for service

delivery policy in Australia’s social, health and human services. The department has
published a comprehensive Multicultural Servicing Strategy 2013-2015 which is discussed in
this section. The department’s publications and resources including the strategy can be
accessed at the following link.
http://www.humanservices.gov.au/corporate/publications-and-resources/
The Diversity Council Australia provides advice on diversity to businesses in Australia in

order to improve diversity management and diversity programs.
http://www.dca.org.au/
The Australian Multicultural Foundation’s website provides information on cultural diversity

in Australia and on various diversity programs, including a training program for managing
cultural diversity.
http://amf.net.au/

12082014v1
The Australian Association of Social Workers’ (AASW) provides information on social-work

issues relating to CALD and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, including AASW
responses to specific government policies.
You should now have a firm grasp of the concepts of cultural diversity and ethnic-sensitive
practice, and an awareness of the need for a variety of approaches to addressing culturally
specific needs. In the next two sections, you will be able to apply this knowledge to
completing the suggested research tasks.

12082014v1
Section 9
Applying cultural competence in practice
Section 9: Applying cultural competence in practice 122

12082014v1
Section 9: Applying cultural competence in practice

Section overview
In this section we examine the perspectives from both individuals and professionals in the
field. This section commences with an exploration of the personal accounts of members of
culturally and ethnically diverse groups in Australia, including Indigenous Australians,
migrants and refugees. The case studies contain important insights into some of the issues
that affect individual people from culturally diverse backgrounds.
The section then turns to professionals working in culturally diverse services and agencies. A
number of agencies provide services to address the specific needs of clients from culturally
diverse backgrounds. This section concludes with a discussion of the need for applying
socially inclusive approaches in working with culturally diverse clients, focussing on a
strengths-based approach. There are a number of different ways in which discrimination can
be addressed; this section overviews individual and community responses that have proved
effective.
Learning outcomes
 identify some of the personal issues faced by Australians from culturally diverse
backgrounds
 understand the role of social inclusion in addressing the needs of clients from
culturally diverse backgrounds
 identify various multicultural community services and the role that these agencies
perform
 identify culturally sensitive language and approaches of community sector workers.
Determining client needs in practice

Developing cultural competence in practice involves having, within a system or agency,
minimum standards for community based professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural

12082014v1
contexts. This includes having a congruent set of behaviours, knowledge and approaches in
working with clients.
Operationally defined, cultural competence in health services is the “integration and

transformation of knowledge about individuals and groups of people into specific standards,
policies, practices, and attitudes used in appropriate cultural settings to increase the quality of
services; thereby producing better outcomes” (Davis, 1997).
Establishing the needs and cultural knowledge of clients is of primary importance in applying
culturally sensitive social-work practice. In a culturally diverse society such as Australia,
there is a broad spectrum of groups and individuals with a range of different needs.
Understanding these needs requires close engagement with clients, and a collaborative
working relationship. In other words, assisting disadvantaged and marginalised people entail
appreciating their cultural background and experiences.
Activity 9.1
Reflect on your personal cultural experiences. Do you identify with more than one culture?
Are there values or customs that you feel are culturally significant for you? How do you think
your cultural background might have affected your social experience?
Personal accounts of Australians from culturally diverse

backgrounds
The personal accounts in this sub-section offer insights into the cultural knowledge and
cultural norms from representatives of migrant, refugee and Indigenous communities in
Australia. Through hearing the stories of people from culturally diverse backgrounds, we
develop an awareness of multicultural identities and practices.
Migrant and refugee stories
The following stories represent the personal experiences of some Australians from different
cultural and ethnic backgrounds. You might find points of resonance and contrast between
their cultural experiences and your own. In the first story, Najeeba Wazefadost, an Afghan
refugee living in Australia talks about her country of birth:

12082014v1
Hazaras have been persecuted ever since the ‘Hazara Wars’ of 1891–1893. There is
no one single cause, reasons are both ethnic and sectarian, but Hazaras still face
massacres by officials and warlords in Afghanistan. We came to Australia to find a
home where we would be safe. We also wanted to belong—to stop being an asylum
seeker or a refugee and once again have the value and rights of a citizen. Asylum
seekers carry sorrow and distress and depend on human sympathy. An asylum seeker
is a kneeling person; kneeling in front of the captain of the ship to ask for a reduced
escape price; kneeling in front of the aid agency asking to be saved. They get on a
boat, on a piece of wood, not knowing where its taking them; their safety and security
limited to that piece of wood, risking starving or drowning at sea.
The above excerpt is part of an Amnesty International case study that can be read in full at:
http://www.amnesty.org.au/refugees/comments/23976/
The following excerpt is taken from an interview with Hermann Androga Awola, a Sudanese
migrant living in Australia:
The town [in Uganda] was very bad, soldiers were looting … We had to run with only
the clothes on our bodies … Everywhere they were shooting … Someone was shot
dead for a radio … Survival became a problem, food became a problem … we found
cassava roots to eat. Where to sleep was a problem… We lost everything—parents,
relatives, children; the situation is painful. I was a project manager … educating
teachers, supplying materials to schools … capacity building. Coming to Sydney
wrecked my job opportunities.
The above excerpt is taken from an interview conducted by Shar Jones on behalf of
Blacktown City Council Museum. The full interview is available as an audio file at:
http://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibition/sudanesestories/hermann-androga-
awola.
In the excerpt that follows, Maha Abdo, President of the Australia Muslim Women’s
Association, talks about her experiences as a Muslim woman dealing with the Australian
media.

12082014v1
I only accepted interview invitations from media programs which I knew were live
because I was worried about being misrepresented or that my answers would be
distorted if the interviews were recorded. But they still found ways of perpetuating the
stereotype. On one morning TV show, they ran file footage of the Gulf War violence
as I was speaking about Muslim women in Australia. I couldn't see it as I was
speaking, of course, and we all know that TV pictures have more impact than words.
There was another time when I was invited to talk about the Association's National
Conference—it seems ironic that it was called Bridging the Gap—and, as I was
talking to the host who was reacting very positively to what I was saying, they were
running years-old footage from violent protests in Sydney when one of the first
Sydney mosques was being built.
The above extract is taken from the case study ‘An Australian Muslim’s experience of the
media’. The full case study can be accessed at:
http://www.humanrights.gov.au/racial_discrimination/media_guide/csintr.html#anchor50105
94
Activity 9.2
Using the weblinks above, research other personal accounts from people from culturally
diverse backgrounds living in Australia. Take some brief notes of the types of concerns that
are discussed. Use the material to compile a series of 10 to 15 survey questions exploring
cultural experiences. You might like to ask friends or co-workers from diverse cultural
backgrounds to respond to your ‘survey’. When formulating your questions, be aware of your
use of culturally sensitive terms and content.
Indigenous Australian stories
In the following excerpt from the 1997 ‘Bringing them home -Stolen Children report’, ‘Evie’
talks about some of her experiences of being a mother in an Australian Aboriginal
community:
In 1977 I had three children... All those kids were taken off me. The reason behind
that was, well, I'd asked my girl-friend and so-called sister-in-law if she could look
after my kids. She wouldn't look after my daughter because my daughter's black. So,

12082014v1
she said she'd take the two boys and that was fine… I was in hospital for three
months—that's the only reason I asked them to take 'em... I couldn't get my kids back
when I came out of hospital. And I fought the welfare system for ten years and still
couldn't get 'em. I gave up after ten years… [My daughter] blames me for everything
that went wrong. She's got this hate about her—doesn't want to know. The two boys
know where I am but turned around and said to us, 'You're not our mother—we know
who our real mother is'.
Evie’s full story is available at:

http://www.hreoc.gov.au/social_justice/bth_report/about/personal_stories.html
The stories presented in this sub-section might provide you with some insight into the range
of cultural experiences of different individuals and groups in Australia. You can access the
links provided to read these stories in full, and other personal stories of Australians from
culturally diverse backgrounds.
Reading 9.1
Read more stories from the 1997 ‘Bringing them home- Stolen Generation report’ at the
Australian Human Rights Commission website at:
https://www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/stories-report
and the Immigration Place website at:
http://www.immigrationplace.com.au/read-all-stories/w4/i1001210/
Compare the common themes which characterise these stories.
The case studies reproduced above offer different perspectives on the experience of people
from diverse cultural backgrounds living in Australia. For many migrants, their
circumstances in their countries of origin affect their ability to adjust to living in Australia
and, in some cases, increase their need for culturally-specific social services.

12082014v1
Social inclusion and exclusion

Social inclusion is about participation in social life, employment, voluntary work and
activities, community engagement, family and caring, participating in education, and having
a voice to influence decisions. Social exclusion by default is when people do not have access
to these inclusive practices. Social exclusion is associated with disadvantage which extends
beyond financial problems; it is located in language and other cultural barriers. The
Australian Institute of Family Studies (2011) at:
http://www.aifs.gov.au/afrc/pubs/briefing/b019/b019.pdf report the most vulnerable groups
for social exclusion are older people, public housing tenants, one-parent families, Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander (Indigenous) peoples, and people from non-English speaking
backgrounds.
For a service provider, a social inclusion framework needs to consider the immediate needs
of clients and the services required to meet those needs. This includes assisting clients to
access formal complaint and advocacy services, equal opportunity and rights bodies, and; to
help clients strengthen informal support networks and to promote community participation.
From a service level, cultural respect and cultural appropriateness are important for providing
socially inclusive practice. If cultural respect is not present, strategies for inclusion may be
seen as assimilationist. It is important to promote cultural inclusiveness through, where
possible applying cross-cultural communication skills including interpreters and language
translation tools, as well as linking people to those who speak the same language. Some
examples of social inclusion projects are now examined.
Based on the social exclusion stories of African Australians in 2007 the former Race
Commission launched the ‘African Australians Human Rights and Social Inclusion project’.
The project explored issues faced by the more than 250,000 African born Australians. The
AFRC website describes the project outcomes in more detail:
http://www.aifs.gov.au/afrc/pubs/briefing/b019/b019.pdf :
Other inclusion projects include the ‘Aboriginal Cultural Inclusion Framework 2011-
2015’which provides accountability for the delivery of services and programs to older
Aboriginal people, Aboriginal persons living with disability, their carers and families. The
strategy is accessed at:
12082014v1
http://www.adhc.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/file/0005/239837/Aboriginal_Cultural_Inclusion_
Framework_2011-2015.pdf.
Reading 9.2
The following reading looks at ‘strengths-based’ approaches to cross-cultural social-work

practice. The author examines methods for conducting effective assessment interviews with
clients.
Briggs, L. 2009. Collaborative assessment from a cross-cultural perspective. In: J. Maidment

& R. Egan (eds), Practice skills in social work & welfare, Allen & Unwin, NSW, chapter 11.
Multicultural services and agencies

Ethnic specific services
There are a number of agencies that provide services tailored to the needs of clients from
culturally diverse backgrounds. Many of these agencies are geared to the needs of such
groups as migrants, Indigenous Australians and women and young people from multicultural
backgrounds. These agencies provide advocacy services and run community projects,
working with their clients to ensure that individual and collective needs are met. For many,
such agencies provide vital support in gaining employment, establishing social connections
and accessing welfare services. An example of such a service is the Adult Migrant English
program which provides 510 free hours of English language tuition for new migrants and
refugees.
The Centre for Multicultural Youth, based in Melbourne, provides young people from
refugee and migrant backgrounds with support in gaining access to education, finding
employment and achieving fair working conditions. Case workers at the centre provide
counselling and personal development programs for the centre’s clients, and assist in
addressing problems with service delivery. These services can play an important part in

12082014v1
improving the opportunities available to young people from culturally diverse backgrounds.
More information on the centre is available at: http://www.cmy.net.au/Home
Examples of other ethnic service providers in Australia are the Horn of Africa Communities’
Network (HACN), which provides settlement support for migrants from Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Somalia and Sudan (see http://www.culturaldiversity.net.au/); the Centre for African-
Australian Women’s Issues (CAAWI), which assists new, female migrants from Africa with
settlement and provides health-care sessions and training programs
(http://www.caawi.org.au/); and local organisations such as the Granville Multicultural
Community Centre, which provides emergency aid, family and youth services and financial
counselling (http://www.gmcc.org.au/).
The Macarthur Diversity Services Initiative addresses the needs of a diverse client base. The
aim of this centre is to provide aid to disadvantaged and marginalised people. The centre
offers legal, counselling, and language services, with programs tailored to the needs of
families, young people and seniors from culturally diverse backgrounds. Clients’ needs are
addressed specifically and individually in order to meet their unique requirements. The full
range of services offered by the centre can be viewed at: http://www.mdsi.org.au/
The Drug and Alcohol Multicultural Education Centre (DAMEC) is a statewide, NSW Health
funded non-government organization which provides information and support on alcohol and
other drug (AOD) use in CALD communities. The centre publishes a directory of alcohol and
other drug agencies which provides support for non-English speaking background people
experiencing alcohol and other drug problems; they also undertake research and policy into
AOD use in ethnic communities. The directory is aimed at multicultural health workers and
the agency goal is to bridge the gap between multicultural and AOD sectors. The full range of
services and publications can be accessed at: http://www.damec.org.au/.
It is important for such services to collaborate with service users so the services are tailored
to specific client needs.

12082014v1
Services and agencies for assisting newly arrived migrants and refugees in
Australia
Services for assisting refugees and asylum seekers are provided through government and non-
government agencies. A service such as STARTTS at: http://www.startts.org.au/ provides
free trauma and torture counselling for refugees and asylum seekers. The Department of
Immigration website provides links to migrant and refugee services in ‘Beginning a Life’
https://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/settle-in-australia/beginning-life/.
Migrant Resources Centres (MRC) in NSW such as the Fairfield Migrant Resource Centre
provides services to assist clients with the process of settlement. Many migrants experience
problems finding housing and jobs and accessing services. The centres offer new migrants
financial, counselling and advocacy services, language assistance and short-term emergency
aid programs. Further information on the work of MRCs is available at:
http://www.sydneymcs.org.au/resources/useful-links/nsw-migrant-resource-centres/. The
Refugee Council of Australia is an umbrella organization for refugee and asylum seekers
services and individuals in Australia. The website links to a wide range of local and nation-
wide refugee and asylum seekers services: https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/a/who.php.
The above are but a few examples of the organisations operating in Australia to meet the
needs of a culturally diverse population. Visit the links provided in this section to acquaint
you with the programs being run by these organisations.
Activity 9.3
Use the links in this sub-section to research a cultural diversity service. Which community
group does this agency service? What approaches are used to service the needs of a specific
ethnic group? How does this service apply a socially inclusive framework?
Professional experiences of community workers and volunteers

Multicultural services often rely on the work of volunteers as well as professional social
workers and case workers. Amnesty International is an international human rights agency
which provides advocacy and lobbying on behalf of refugee and asylum seeker groups. You
can read about the experience of a volunteer refugee Amnesty International case worker,
Vanna at the following website-http://www.amnesty.org.au/refugees/comments/31134/

12082014v1
“I've always wanted to work with refugees because I am a refugee baby myself.My
parents fled Pol Pot's regime in Cambodia. They were persecuted and forced to work
in a labour camp. When my mother became pregnant with me, my parents fled by foot
to Thai border. There they were lucky enough to find a legitimate refugee camp
amongst the Khmer Rouge death camps executing those they caught fleeing.”
I was born into that refugee camp on the Thai-Cambodia border - so I know what it's
like to struggle, to see my parents struggle, and to not have any identity documents or
birth certificate to prove who I am or what country I'm from. I have a deep
understanding and sympathy for the struggle that refugees endure.”(Vanna)
Activity 9.4
Develop an informal questionnaire which investigates the work performed by a multicultural

community worker or volunteer. You might find some of the skill sets examined in Reading
9.3 useful in formulating questions about culturally competent practice. Use your questions to
interview a community worker or volunteer.
Reading 9.3
The reading provides an in-depth study of different models for culturally competent practice.
Laird, S. 2008. Anti-oppressive social work: a guide for developing cultural competence,
Sage Publications, UK, Chapter 3.
Social work ’clients’ and ‘providers’

Social workers work in a range of organisational structures, such as community development,
multicultural agencies and services, government bureaucracies, health services including
hospitals and clinics, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), private companies and as self-
employed professionals. To practice social work in Australia means being accredited through
qualifications recognised by the Australian Association of Social Workers. Social work
practice is constantly changing; new models of participatory practice now underlie work with

12082014v1
culturally diverse communities. With changes in practice come changes in the terms and
language used to refer to users of services and the organisation that provide the services.
In general a ‘consumer’ is a person actively obtaining a good or service, through payment for
that good or service or otherwise. In an attempt to empower health service users, the term
consumer stated to be used in health treatment contexts to denote a person obtaining health
treatment. A ‘service user’ by definition is a person utilising the services of an agency. In
recent times the term ‘client’ has been used interchangeably with service user and ‘patient’.
There is much debate over the more appropriate term, however the term ‘client’ is seen to
have more empowering meaning for the service user in that is confers rights and
responsibilities. Even in agencies and services, a term like ‘consultant’ is popular, being used
to define a person engaged by the organisation to provide their services. Some social workers
work as consultants to government to undertake research, implement programs or be engaged
for short-term case management projects. A consultant will generally have their own business
number and be responsible for their insurances.
Reading 9.4
Read the following article by Hugh McLaughlin 2007. ‘What’s in a name: ‘Client’, ‘Patient’,
‘Customer’, ‘Consumer’, ‘Expert by experience’, ‘Service User’- What’s next?’ , British
Journal of Social Work , vol. 39, 6, pp. 1101-1117.
http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/content/39/6/1101.full
The article challenges the use of these terms in service delivery, arguing the term service user
is problematic in defining the service-recipient relationship.
Activity 9.5
Read McLaughlin’s article above then put forward a case in agreement or disagreement with
the critique of the term ‘service user’. What would be the most appropriate term to use in
dealing with culturally diverse people? Why?
Additional resources
Gaita, R. (1998). Romulus, my father. Melbourne: Text Publishing.

12082014v1
Humphreys, M. (1996). Empty Cradles. London: Doubleday.

Irizarry, C. & Kleanthi, E. (Eds) (2004). Five stories remembering childhood removal from
homeland by former British child migrants. Adelaide: Australian Centre for Community
Services Research, Flinders University Press.
Pung, A. (ed) (2008). Growing up Asian in Australia. Melbourne: Black Inc.
This website provides information and advice on culturally competent practice and how it can
be applied in schools, institutions and agencies.
http://cecp.air.org/cultural/default.htmThe Making Multicultural Australia website brings

together useful research, articles and documents relating to cultural diversity in Australia.
http://www.multiculturalaustralia.edu.au/
The Centre for Cultural Competence Australia is an organisation that focuses on training
organisations in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural competence in order to
contribute to closing the gap between members of these communities and others in Australia
through education and cultural knowledge.
http://www.ccca.com.au/
This website provides information on the Settlement Council of Australia, which represents
migrant and refugee settlement agencies nationally. The goal of the Council is to form
collaborative working relationships between settlement agencies in Australia.
http://www.scoa.org.au/
The Australian Human Rights Commission provides information on human rights and issues
of discrimination, including links to personal stories from the Stolen Children report.
http://www.humanrights.gov.au/

12082014v1
The Australian Public Service Social Inclusion policy design and delivery toolkit. A six-step
social inclusion method of policy design and delivery which Commonwealth agencies will be
required to follow.
www.socialinclusion.gov.au/Resources/Pages/Resources.aspx
The Toolkit for Indigenous Service Provision, was developed by the Department of Families,
Housing Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, to assist service providers to develop
and evaluate more inclusive strategies in relation to Indigenous clients.
www.fahcsia.gov.au/sa/indigenous/pubs/healing/toolkit_service_provider/Pages/default.aspx
This website provides information on the programs offered by the Centre for Culture,
Ethnicity and Health, an agency that provides information on, training in and support with
cultural diversity.
http://www.ceh.org.au/
The website of the NSW Transcultural Mental Health Centre (TMHC) provides information
on the wide range of mental health services and support offered to mental health services,
carers and community to ‘improve the mental health of people from culturally and
linguistically diverse communities living in NSW’.
http://www.dhi.health.nsw.gov.au/Transcultural-Mental-Health-Centre/About-Us/About-
Us/default.aspx
This site provides information on ARAFMI (the Association of Relatives and Friends of the
Mentally Ill), a non-government organisation that provides support services to families and
carers of people with a mental illness from diverse backgrounds.
http://www.arafmi.org/

12082014v1
The Multicultural Disability Advocacy Association of NSW is an advocacy service

exclusively for people with disabilities from non-English-speaking backgrounds, and their
families and carers.
http://www.mdaa.org.au/
You will now have a sound understanding of how some multicultural agencies operate in
Australia, and the services they provide for people from culturally diverse backgrounds. In
the following section we look at different frameworks for anti-oppressive practice.

12082014v1
Section 10
Participatory decision-making and Indigenous
Australians
Section 10: Participatory decision-making and Indigenous 137

Australians
12082014v1
Section 10: Participatory decision-making and Indigenous

Australians
Section overview
In previous sections we have looked at aspects of anti-oppressive social-work practice. In this
section, we will examine elements of participatory action among oppressed groups, with a
focus on Indigenous Australians. We will focus on participatory action in community
development contexts, highlighting Indigenous participation and decision-making in child
protection practices. The concepts of anti-racist and anti-oppressive practice will be discussed
in depth, with a focus on non-discriminatory practice in working with Aboriginal Australians.
Lastly, we will look at the application of cultural knowledge in Indigenous community
development.
Learning outcomes
 discuss participatory decision-making in community development contexts
 identify contexts for Indigenous participatory decision-making in community

development
 identify ways of reversing discriminatory and oppressive practice
 explain elements of Indigenous cultural knowledge
 understand applications of non-discriminatory practice with Indigenous Australians
Anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive practice in social work

Anti-discrimination focused social workers recognise that many different people suffer a
variety of effects of discriminatory practice. Discrimination can be based on a number of
different factors, such as a person’s perceived ethnicity and culture, sexual preference,
gender, age or disability. The effects of discrimination can be seen in such diverse areas as

Australians
12082014v1
self-perception, access to work opportunities and services, political representation and social
status.
The objective of anti-discriminatory social-work practice is to identify and remedy

discriminatory policies and practice. This goal can be pursued at a personal, institutional or
structural level. One key aspect of anti-discriminatory practice is in understanding the needs
of particular individuals and groups. When addressing issues related to cultural diversity, it is
important to gain a thorough understanding of the specific cultural identity and needs of
clients.
Strongly related to anti-discriminatory practice is anti-oppressive practice. Anti-oppressive

practice can play an important role in achieving equity goals for improvement.Anti-
oppressive practice in social work does not encapsulate an established mode of practice;
rather it is innovative and evolving. The practice acknowledges oppression of certain groups
in society, this based on ethnicity, class, gender, disability, sexuality, age, wealth and so
forth. In short, anti-oppressive practice is ‘about a process of change which leads (service
users) from feeling powerless to powerful’ (Dalrymple and Burke, 1995). Anti-oppressive
practice acknowledges the influence on the lives of disadvantaged people of relations of
ruling in society; in this discourse, even social work practice can work inadvertently to
perpetuate the situation of oppressed people. To this end, service providers are actually in a
position of considerable power, particularly regarding decisions about service delivery and
interventions in people’s lives. A primary focus of anti-oppressive practice is to empower
oppressed people, particularly those from marginalized groups, to take action to improve their
situation. This means working with representatives of these groups to engage them in solving
local problems. This section will consider participatory decision-making as a form of anti-
oppressive practice and how this has been applied with Australian Indigenous communities.
When social workers engage with a community different to their own, it is important to
understand cultural knowledge of that community. The next section discusses cultural
knowledge and its application in Indigenous communities of Australia.
Reading 10.1

Australians
12082014v1
Dominelli, L. 2002. Anti-oppressive practice in context. In: A. Adams, L. Dominelli & M.

Payne (eds), Social work: themes, issues and debates, Palgrave, UK, Chapter 1.
Cultural knowledge of Indigenous Australians

Cultural knowledge can encompass meanings, values, customs, and aspects of spirituality,
relationships, philosophy and practical life knowledge. Acquiring cultural knowledge can be
a crucial aspect of effectively addressing clients’ needs. We will revisit the use and
importance of cultural knowledge, as discussed in Reading 3.3, in which Quinn emphasises
that the risks of working with inadequate cultural knowledge are ‘cross-cultural collisions’
and a breakdown of constructive working relationships. It is possible for cultural knowledge
to be incorrectly or inadequately understood when approached from an outside, or abstract,
perspective. For this reason it is important to allow members of different cultures to define
and explain aspects of their cultures themselves, and not risk appropriating or interpreting
them from the perspective of a different, or dominant, culture.
Aboriginal Australians have a rich culture with customs, values, norms and a spiritual
connection. Cultural knowledge relates strongly to obligation and responsibility to the land,
intimate knowledge of natural resources and ecosystems, developed through sustained local
contact. In short, Aboriginal cultural knowledge can be defined as:
“…accumulated knowledge which encompasses spiritual relationships, relationships with the

natural environment and the sustainable use of natural resources, and relationships between
people, which are reflected in language, narratives, social organization, values, beliefs, and
cultural laws and customs…”(Andrew 2006 et al. 2006).
Aboriginal cultural knowledge is best understood as the ways in which Aboriginal people act
out a relationship with lands, environments, people and ancestors. Like any culture,
Aboriginal cultural knowledge is changing as new information is adapted. Traditionally the
knowledge has been imparted to others orally through song, stories, art, words and dance;
cultural sites which house these stories may be seen as a sacred place.

Australians
12082014v1
Activity 10.1
Consider the benefits of an ‘emic’ approach to understanding cultural meanings (as described
in Reading 3.3). Can you identify some specific, practical ways in which such an approach
could be adopted? What is participatory decision-making?
Participatory decision-making is seen as a crucial part of the process of undoing racism. It

involves including the community of interest, the target group in developing community
based interventions and initiatives. This allows the community to have a real voice in the way
initiatives and interventions are implemented in community development. Adopting a
community participatory plan of action can often increase the chance of an intervention from
a one off project to a fully-fledged community program to succeed. Simply, a participatory
approach is one where every stakeholder has a voice, or a say in the roll out of the
intervention. Typically, the community representatives will comprise members of the target
group, organizational staff, agency and government representatives and representatives from
other community groups. The process should not be dominated by the agenda of a particular
group; rather each group should respect the other group’s perspective. To this end, the word
‘participatory’ implies that each participant becomes equally important to the planning
process.
Of course the process is not without its tensions, one must expect challenges and it is not
uncommon for arguments to emerge as the participants decide on the best strategy to pursue.
The important point is to respect everyone’s point of view, and not to defer to participants
with higher education or more authoritative positions of power. The other flaw in the
participatory process is the tendency of some government, community workers and higher
education officers to treat low income, ethnic minority participants with ‘reverse
condescension’; that is, treating everything said by minority group members as true and
profound. A truly participatory process involves everyone considering all ideas with equal
merit, and discussing all ideas with veracity. For members of minority groups with less status
and education, this process can be daunting. Often minority group members need extra
support, or to be guided through the process of participatory decision-making.

Australians
12082014v1
Reading10.2
Read about the advantages and disadvantages of community development planning at the
‘Community Toolbox’ weblink: http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/analyze/where-to-
start/participatory-approaches/main.
Activity 10.2
Using the link in reading 10.2 consider the advantages and disadvantages of using a
participatory decision-making approach in developing a community intervention to reduce
the risk of harm from alcohol abuse in a remote Indigenous community.
Indigenous participation in child protection decision-making: a

case study
Australian law and policy now recognizes Indigenous participation in decision-making at all
levels of policy. The ‘National Indigenous Reform Agreement’ (NIRA) commits Australian
governments to addressing disadvantage in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
communities. This agreement includes a commitment to the principle of Indigenous
engagement sand empowerment in the design and delivery of services. The National
Framework for Protecting Australia’s Children 2009-2020 (see SNAICC report, 2013 p.15)
requires that children from Indigenous families are ‘supported and safe in their families and
communities’ and that to achieve this, requires participatory strategies which involve
Indigenous people in decision-making around out of home care and placement of Indigenous
children.
The 2013 SNAICC report ‘Whose Voice Counts’ reviews the levels of engagement and
empowerment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in participatory decision-
making in child protection. For organizations like SNAICC the participation of Indigenous
people in child protection is seen as critical to ensuring child protection measures represent
‘an alternative cultural lens that reflects the importance of family, culture and community to
the well-being of children’ (p.3) As we have seen earlier in this section, the consequences of
European intervention in Indigenous child protection have been devastating; these forced

Australians
12082014v1
interventions have neglected to involve Aboriginal people in decisions to remove children

from families, infact, European policies have ostensibly contributed to the abuse problems in
some Aboriginal families. The SNAICC report claims that child protection systems need to
empower Aboriginal people to participate in decision-making around child protection, these
decisions must be driven by advocacy of Indigenous peoples and underpinned by human
rights laws. To aid this endeavour, cultural advice and support services have been set up to
involve independent Indigenous community run organizations in child protection.
Reading 10.3
Read the SNAICC 2013 report ‘Whose Voice Counts’, which is available at the Australian
Association of Social Workers website: http://www.aasw.asn.au/document/item/5130.
SNAICC reports that participation-focused cultural advice services are providing

opportunities for direct family participation in child protection processes, are providing
support for ‘cultural translation’ between families and government services and are enabling
more understanding of the ‘cultural strengths, needs and risks of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander children and families’ (p.3). However SNAICC also found an absence of final
decision-making authority for Indigenous peoples and a lack of transparency in government
services as to how Indigenous advice and support is actually used. The report concludes that
‘at their worst, these services present as a tokenistic aside; an optional extra for decision-
makers that choose to use them, with low capacity to do so and an absence of the shared
process and responsibility that could make them work’ (p.3).
Activity 10.3
Read the SNAICC report then consider the strengths and limitations of the participatory
decision-making in child protection model for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families.
What do you conclude about the impacts of participatory intervention on Indigenous peoples?
Are there alternative approaches, or should participatory action be pursued?

Australians
12082014v1
minority groups.
SNAICC 2013 report ‘Whose Voice Counts’ is available at the Australian Association of
Social Workers website: http://www.aasw.asn.au/document/item/5130
This website looks at racism in Australia and the effects it can have on its victims.
http://www.racismnoway.com.au
This site provides information on ANTaR (Australians for Native Title and Reconciliation); a
non-Indigenous national advocacy organisation that aims to remedy the inequities
experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
http://www.antar.org.au/
Additional resources
Andrews G, Daylight C, Hunt J. et al 2006, Aboriginal cultural heritage landscape mapping

of coastal NSW, prepared for the Comprehensive Coastal Assessment by the NSW
Department of Natural Resources, Sydney, NSW.

Australians
12082014v1
Looking as we have done at participatory decision-making in Indigenous community

development context will help to understand how to apply a framework for culturally and
ethnically inclusive practice in social work. The final chapter provides a way forward for
anti-oppressive and inclusive social work practice for working with culturally and ethnically
diverse communities.

Australians
12082014v1
Section 11
A framework for culturally and ethnically inclusive

practice
Section 11: A framework for culturally and ethnically inclusive 146

practice
12082014v1
Section 11:
A framework for culturally and ethnically inclusive practice
Section overview
In this section we develop a vision for culturally appropriate and anti-discriminatory practice.
We examine the criteria for culturally appropriate services and programs. We look at cultural
mindfulness and what this means in practice and cultural competence at an individual and
systemic level. We identify potential areas in which cultural competency can be improved
and what individuals and organisations can do to apply cultural competency in practice.
Learning outcomes
 identify culturally appropriate services and programs
 understand cultural mindfulness
 assess culturally competent practice
 identify potential areas and methods for change and growth.
Textbook reading
USA, Chapter 18.
This final chapter of your text provides a helpful summary of cultural competence and lists
suggestions for furthering skills and knowledge in the area of cross-cultural work.

practice
12082014v1
Reversing racist practices

Racist practices can be remediated in a number of ways, and at a number of different levels.
Anti-racist social-work practice is focused on challenging racist policies and practice in all
aspects of social work. Some practical methods for reversing racist practices are explored in
Reading 10.1. Dominelli advocates a focus on justice and ‘equalising action’ in campaigning
for the reversal of racist practices. One of the first steps in addressing racist practices is
recognising the extent to which racism is institutionalised in order to challenge the systems
within which anti-racist social workers operate. It is important to have constructive
interaction with clients who are affected by racist practices, so that an understanding of
clients’ experiences and needs can inform the process of reversing racist practices.
Reading 11.1
Dominelli, L. 1997. Anti-racist social work, Palgrave, UK, Chapter 6.
Activity 11.1
Compile a list of five questions an anti-racist social-work advocate could ask themselves to
determine the validity of their approach to anti-racist practice (for example, questions about
motivations and cultural assumptions).
Framework for practice

There are a number of theoretical approaches to anti-racist, anti-discriminatory and anti-
oppressive practice. These theories can be useful guides for developing practical frameworks
for implementing anti-oppressive strategies. Some of these approaches are discussed in
Dominelli examines the role of anti-oppressive practice within the broader ‘emancipatory’
approach to social work, an approach that focuses on social justice and empowerment. One of
the ways in which anti-oppressive practice differs from other approaches to social work is in

practice
12082014v1
its commitment to changing, rather than just managing, the structural and institutional
inequities faced by clients.
Activity 11.2
Identify a particular issue related to anti-racist social-work practice and design a community
action campaign plan on anti-racist principles. Include suggestions for policies or services
that might be targeted for change, and individuals, organisations or media vehicles that might
be approached for support.
A vision for a multicultural and diverse society in practice

Cultural competence in practice has increased in importance as our society has become more
multicultural and diverse. Building a harmonious society and supporting equality and
diversity require further understanding, research and a commitment to continuing to think
about and act to support the changes that occur in society and cultures, and in how cultures
interrelate and mingle.
What are culturally appropriate services and programs?
From the variety of readings we have studied during this unit, we can identify criteria for
assessing culturally appropriate services and programs. Some of the most important criteria
include:
 services that operate in collaboration with service users to address their specific needs
 programs that are developed with an understanding of diverse and particular cultural
requirements
 multifaceted programs that acknowledge and address overlapping or conflicting

aspects of identity and culture.
Developing and assessing culturally appropriate services and programs is an ongoing process
that requires continuous revision and improvement. Establishing some basic criteria can assist

practice
12082014v1
with this process, while responding to changes in cultural understanding can ensure that
services and programs continue to meet current needs.
Reading 11.2
The following newspaper article examines the results of a roundtable discussion between UK
health and social-care professionals regarding the future of health and social services.
Carlisle, D. 2010. The Guardian roundtable in association with Turning Point: a call for a
‘new conversation’, The Guardian, 1 Dec., p. 7.
Activity 11.3
Identify some of the problems that health and social care workers in the UK anticipate
encountering in the future. List some of the solutions that they propose for addressing these
difficulties.
Cultural mindfulness
One way of ensuring that services and programs are culturally appropriate is through cultural
mindfulness. Cultural mindfulness entails awareness and understanding of the different
cultural experiences and needs of clients, and the application of this knowledge in all aspects
of social work—in establishing programs and in interacting with clients. Cultural mindfulness
requires you to be aware of your own knowledge and skill levels, as well as your reactions to
cultural experiences and other people’s cultures.
Making cultural sensitivity a priority in working with clients reduces the potential for
misunderstandings and ineffective collaboration.
Cultural mindfulness is essentially being aware of:

practice
12082014v1
 differences and similarities between cultures
 how culture influences thoughts, feelings and behaviours
 the details, nuances and subtleties that culture implies
 what it is like to be in the other’s shoes or framework—where do you connect?
 language, communication and meaning in communication when interacting with

people from different cultural backgrounds
 the range of different perspectives on situations, experiences and behaviours
 the impact of your own cultural background
 how your own cultural values, experiences and behaviour impact on others
 your experiences when interacting with others
 stereotypes, biases and prejudice at individual and systemic levels
 the uniqueness of each individual.

Awareness also means:
 being open to unfamiliar situations and cultural phenomena without evaluation or

judgement
 being curious and receptive to learning about others’ cultures and ways of living in
the world
 valuing cultural experiences and encounters and appreciating what you can learn from
them.
Activity 11.4
Various terms and definitions relating to cultural diversity have been discussed in the
foregoing sections. In a few short paragraphs, explain the importance of language in
culturally sensitive theory and practice.

practice
12082014v1
Cultural competence revisited

Essentially, working with diverse client groups requires cultural competence at an individual
and systemic level. Cultural competence incorporates not only cultural awareness of culture
and of self, but also an understanding of the oppression and discrimination that occur at a
social and cultural level and a preparedness to take active steps for change and towards more
effective service provision.
Cultural competence can be supported and enhanced at an individual level through Mistry et
al, 2009):
 ongoing training and education
 self-awareness of your own cultural influences, including values, beliefs and

behaviours
 self-awareness of your own biases and stereotypes
 understanding general cultural differences such as individualism vs. collectivism, and

different world views.
Cultural competence can be enhanced and supported at a systemic level through:
 awareness of cultural issues in services and delivery
 flexibility in service and delivery
 active steps to support cultural differences and needs
 understanding the cultural perceptions of professionals and practitioners
 policies and advocacy for change at government and organisational levels.
Reading 11.3

practice
12082014v1
O’Hagan, K. 2001. Cultural competence in the caring profession. Jessica Kingsley Pub.,
London, Chapter 8.
Activity 11.5
O’Hagan re-evaluates anti-racist and anti-discriminatory practice (ARADP) and challenges

some of the assumptions and terms relating to ARADP (The prescribed reading for this week
from your textbook). Do you agree with O’Hagan’s conclusions? Give reasons for your view.
What’s possible?
How can members of a multicultural and diverse society work together fairly
and equitably?
Research into cultural aspects of service delivery is relatively recent. However, more needs to
be done to identify aspects of service that remain as barriers to cultural competence and to
work towards a fairer and more equitable society. A well functioning, stable multicultural
society will be one without ethnic tensions, discrimination and marginalisation. While
differences might always result in some form of conflict, it is within our power in society to
introduce policies and rules that support fairness and equity and enable those who might
otherwise not have access to opportunities because they do not belong to the dominant social
group.
Activity 11.6
Do you think that a completely harmonious multicultural society is at all possible? Why or
why not?
Supporting diversity: a vision?
A vision for supporting diversity and multicultural practice would incorporate fairness and
equity for people of all cultures and identities. Such a vision would celebrate both the aspects
of culture that support cohesive communities and the differences that make for a richer and
more diverse society.

practice
12082014v1
Understanding and acceptance of the complexities that underpin culture for each individual
and group need to be transformed into fair and equitable systems, institutions and services
that help support quality of life and daily living.
Carpenter-Song et al. (2007) provide guidelines for cultural competence in psychiatric service
delivery. In their view cultural competence means:
 understanding that culture is a dynamic, ongoing process and an emergent product of

human interaction
 avoiding oversimplification of the concept of culture and understanding that it applies

to more than race or ethnicity
 competence models and programs that are geared to diversity and the changeable
nature of culture and self-identity
 being careful not to blame the patient’s culture for miscommunication, non-
compliance with clinical recommendations and other challenges to effective treatment
 being aware of the bias inherent in Western models of health and community care,
including diagnosis and service delivery
 training and practical experience that incorporates how practitioners can contend
meaningfully with the social and cultural worlds of clients to provide them with the
most effective service
 moving away from understanding culture in terms of patterns of action and customs to
seeing it as a dynamic process of shared meanings, located in and emerging from
interactions between individuals
 being aware that the danger of a behaviour- or trait-based understanding of culture is

its potential to lead to stereotyping of minority populations; in contrast, a process-
oriented approach emphasises dynamism and flexibility as key dimensions of culture.
Activity 11.7
If you could change one attitude in practice, what would it be?
Reading 11.4

practice
12082014v1
Devore, W. 2002. Ethnic sensitivity: a theoretical framework for social work practice. In: L.
Dominelli (ed.), Beyond racial divides: ethnicities in social work, Palgrave, UK, Chapter 2.
Cultural competence: from theory to action

Wu & Martinez (2006) point out the need to take cultural competency from theory to action
and, based on their own experience of advocacy, connection, interviews and analysis, suggest
six key principles to support a successful cultural-competency initiative:
1. Community representation and feedback.
2. Integrating cultural competency into all existing systems in a health-care organisation.
3. Making manageable, measurable and sustainable changes.
4. Supporting long–term sustainability by making a business case for cultural

competency initiatives.
5. Commitment from leadership.
6. Ongoing staff training.
They go on to recommend that organisations:
 learn about concerns and recommendations from leaders of community groups
 integrate cultural competency into disease management, quality improvement, patient

safety, customer service, and patient–provider interaction
 evaluate and quantify positive outcomes of cultural-competency endeavours
 determine the business case for cultural-competency initiatives i.e. social, benefits,
improved market share, and decreased liability
 recruit a racially and ethnically diverse workforce and leadership who are committed
to equality
 support staff training initiatives through reasonable time and resources.
Reading 11.5

practice
12082014v1
The following reading looks at the findings of a series of interviews with social-work
practitioners in Canada regarding their work with Muslim clients.
Graham, J., Bradshaw, C. & Trew, J. 2010. Cultural considerations for social service
agencies working with Muslim clients, Social work, 55 (4), pp. 337–47.
Activity 11.8
With reference to the study described in Reading 11.4, list five needs that Muslim clients
expressed with regard to social-service agencies. Imagine you are advising a social-service
agency on culturally sensitive practice. What advice would you give for addressing these
needs?
Resources
Carpenter-Song, E. A., Schwallie, M. N., Longhofer, M.A. & Longhofer, J. 2007. Cultural
competence re-examined: critique and directions for the future, Psychiatric Service, October,
58, pp. 1362–5.
USA.
Mistry, J., Jacobs, F. & Jacobs, L. 2009. Cultural relevance as program to community
alignment, Journal of Community Psychology, 37, 4, pp. 487–504.
O’Hagan, K. 2001. Cultural competence in the caring profession. Jessica Kingsley Pub.,
London, chapter 8.
Wu, E., Martinez, M. 2006. Taking cultural competency from theory to action. The
Commonwealth Fund. Vol 38 sighted at
http://www.commonwealthfund.org/Content/Publications/Fund-Reports/2006/Oct/Taking-
Cultural-Competency-from-Theory-to-Action.aspx

practice
12082014v1
The Australian Association of Social Workers’ (AASW) provides information on social-work

issues relating to CALD and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, including AASW
responses to specific government policies.
The Australian Multicultural Foundation provides a range of information and training on

multicultural issues and culturally competent practice.
http://amf.net.au/
The Ethnic Communities Council of Queensland provides a range of information applicable

to cultural competence in service delivery.
http://www.eccq.com.au/
The Health Issues Centre provides information and links to a range of information on cultural
competence in health care.
http://www.healthissuescentre.org.au
The Multicultural Disability Advocacy Association encourages and provides advice on

culturally competent disability service delivery.
www.mdaa.org.au
The World Health Organisation directs and coordinates authority for health within the United
Nations System. It provides information on global health, standards, policies and other issues
related to delivering effective health care.
http://www.who.int/en/
Looking, as we have done, in more depth at the theoretical and practical approaches to anti-
oppressive practice will inform your thinking about possible frameworks for practice. This

practice
12082014v1
will help you when you come to assess the possibilities for culturally competent social-work
practice in the following section.
discussion forum and check your progress by completing the self-check questions.

practice
12082014v1
Section 12
Revision
Section 12: Revision 159

12082014v1
Section 12: Revision

Section overview
In this section, we review the role of theories, key concepts, goals, techniques and other
materials studied in the last eleven weeks. You will receive further direction and further
materials from your lecturer on the revision topics. The activities below will act as a revision
aid and will provide you with a broad overview of the theories learnt in the last eleven weeks.
Textbook Reading
Your textbook for this unit is:
 Diller, J.V. (2015) Cultural Diversity: A primer for the human services, (5th ed.)
Cengage Learning, USA.
Activity 12.1 
Please read Diller’s (2015, p.20) summary in Table 2-2 Continuum of cultural competence in
agencies. This provides a broad overview of the typical characteristics of various levels of
cultural competence.
Cultural competence in agencies

The summary table shows a developmental continuum of levels of cultural competence from
cultural incompetence to cultural pre-competence. Review your notes from weeks 1 to 11.
Consider what is required to move a community service or agency to a level of cultural pre-
competence.
Activity 12.2 
Please read Diller’s (2015, p.18) summary of what constitutes a culturally competent care
system. The summary provides assumptions underpinning a cross-cultural model of care.

12082014v1
Take an agency or service you have studies in this subject. Assess how this agency meets the
assumptions underpinning a cross-cultural model of care.
Activity 12.3 
Please read Dillon’s (2015, p.113) summary in Chapter 5 Understanding Culture and Cultural
Differences. Note the eight dimensions along which cultures can vary, and the culture-bound
nature of cross-cultural service models.
Developing models of cross-cultural care
Read page 112 of Dillon (2015). Note how generic care models are being adapted to
contemporary cultural needs and the evolution of culturally sensitive care models.
Activity 12.4 
Please read Dillon’s (2015, p.48) Table 3-3 in Chapter 3 Working with Culturally Diverse
Clients. This discusses the formation of cultural identity of an individual and the relationship
between individual and clinician.
Cultural identity
What leads to the formation of a cultural identity? How can this be respected in therapeutic
contexts?
Activity 12.5 
Please read Dillon’s (2015, p.90) summary in Chapter 4 Understanding Racism, Prejudice,
and White Privilege in conjunction with the psychological and social theories of racism in
section 3 of the subject guide.
Theories of Racism
Distinguish between ‘cultural’ and ‘institutional’ racism. Consider examples of both these
forms of racism in practice. Next, consider what is meant by ‘white privilege’. What does

12082014v1
Dillon mean by white privilege is ‘invisible’? What are some examples of white privilege in
Australian society?
Activity 12.6 
Please read Dillon’s (2015, p.214-215) summary in Chapter 9 Mental Health Issues. This
provides a summary of the mental health issues confronting ethnic group members.
Mental health issues amongst immigrants and refugees
Consider how levels of acculturation and assimilation among Australian immigrant and
refugee populations can influence appropriate mental health interventions.
Activity 12.7 
Please read Dillon’s (2015, pp.136-138) summary in Chapter 6 Working with Culturally
Diverse Parents and Families. This provides a comment on the unique contexts of working
with bi-cultural families, and strategies for resisting racism.
Working with culturally diverse families and children
Understanding cultural differences are crucial to successful care work with diverse families
and children. Read activity 2 on page 137. Select one scenario listed in this activity and work
through the scenario.
Activity 12.8 
Review section 10 of the subject guide Participatory decision-making and Indigenous
Australians. This section discusses the links between identity and Indigenous participatory
decision-making models of practice.
Indigenous participatory decision-making models
In what way do such models seek to reverse discriminatory and oppressive practice in
working with Indigenous communities?

WEL201A - Full Study Guide - 140814 PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

WEL201A - Full Study Guide - 140814 PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

WEL201A Managing the needs of diverse client groups

About this unit............................................................................................................................ 4

Section 1: What is cultural diversity? ........................................................................................ 8

Section 2: Cultural diversity and identity ................................................................................ 21

Section 3: Dealing with diversity—prejudice and racism ....................................................... 42

Section 4: Social inequality—refugees and migrant groups .................................................... 60

Section 5: The cost of social inequality-Indigenous Australians............................................. 69

Section 6: Culturally competent practice: obstacles and challenges ....................................... 80

Section 9: Applying cultural competence in practice ............................................................ 123

Section 10: Participatory decision-making and Indigenous Australians ............................... 138

Section 12: Revision .............................................................................................................. 160

Your learning materials

 supplementary readings and materials

 online activities, including self-check questions.

The study guide

The textbook prescribed for this unit is:

Supplementary readings and materials

About this unit

 demonstrate understanding of the knowledge and skills required for developing

 appraise and discuss the imperative of participator action by Indigenous Australians in

1 What is cultural diversity?

2 Cultural diversity and identity

3 Dealing with diversity—prejudice and racism

4 Social inequality - refugees and migrant groups

5 The cost of social inequality-Indigenous Australians

6 Culturally competent practice: obstacles and challenges

7 Towards culturally competent practice in working with families and children

9 Culturally and ethnically diverse groups—skills and knowledge for practice

10 Applying cultural competence in practice

11 Participatory decision-making and Indigenous Australians

12 A framework for culturally and ethnically inclusive practice

Section 1: What is cultural diversity? 7

Section 1: What is cultural diversity?

explain the concept of cultural diversity

explain what it means to be culturally competent and why it is important in practice

explain the importance of cultural knowledge and the cultural mirror

demonstrate understanding of cultural difference and its importance

reflect on the importance of cultural awareness especially in work settings

reflect on your own experience of cultural diversity.

Section 1: What is cultural diversity? 8

 Ideology—religious and political

 Concepts of life, the universe, space and time

 Science and technology

Section 1: What is cultural diversity? 9

Section 1: What is cultural diversity? 10

What does it mean to be culturally competent in a community setting?

Cultural competence is essential in a community setting if you are to prove able to

The American National Association of Social Workers (NASW) outlines 10 standards of

A cultural audit, according to ITAP International

Achieving cultural competence in your interactions with others requires an awareness of

To be culturally aware is to understand:

Section 1: What is cultural diversity? 12

 your own perceptions of and reactions to different cultures

 the individual within a culture.

It helps to have an understanding of your own cultural awareness of Indigenous Australians.

Section 1: What is cultural diversity? 13

What other questions would you have included in the quiz?

Cultural and individual differences

Section 1: What is cultural diversity? 14

in the following statement by UNESCO (1999 in NSW Government Education &

Component Different views

Individual and nature Human life is more important than nature

Humans are part of nature; nature cannot be modified