ASSIGNMET

JANUARY 2018 SEMESTER

SUBJECT CODE : EMB603

SUBJECT TITLE : INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR IN

ORGANIZATION
LEVEL : MASTER'S LEVEL /EXECUTIVE MASTER

STUDENT’S NAME : AYE AYE KHINE

MATRIC NO. : M60401180004

PROGRAMME : ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

ACADEMIC : Mr. AUNG SOE LWIN

FACILITATOR

LEARNING CENTRE : M.I.E, YANGON MYANMAR

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1) This assignment comprises ONE PART and answer ALL QUESTION.

2) Plagiarism in all forms is forbidden. Students who submit plagiarised assignment will
be penalised.
3) This assignment carries a 60% weightage toward final grade.
4) The submission date for this assignment is BEFORE or ON _______2018.

THERE ARE 3 PAGES OF QUESTION, EXCLUDING THIS PAGE.

DECLARATION BY STUDENT

I certify that this assignment is my own work and is in my own words. All sources have been
acknowledged and the content has not been previously submitted for assessment to Asia e
University or elsewhere. I also confirm that I have kept a copy of this assignment.

Signed: _____________________________

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………… 4
2.0 PERSONALITY…………………………………………………………………… 4
2.1 BIG FIVE PERSONALITY………………………………………….......... 5
2.2 LOCUS OF CONTROL………………………………………………….... 5
2.3 SELF-ESTEEN…………………………………………………………..... 5
2.4 RISK TAKING……………………………………………………. ………5
2.5 TYPE A AND TYPE B PERSONALITY………………………………… 6
2.5.1 TYPE A …………………………………………………………… 6
2.5.2 TYPE B……………………………………………………………. 6
2.6 PERSONALITY JOB FIT THEORY……………………………………… 6
3.0 ABILITIES……………………………………………………………………… 6-7
3.1 INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES…………………………………………….. 7
3.2 PHYSICAL ABILITIES …………………………………………………... 7
3.3 SELF – AWARENESS ABILITIES ……………………………………… 7
4.0 GENDER………………………………………………………………………….. 7
5.0 RACE & CULTURE………………………………………………………………. 8
6.0 DECISION MAKING…………………………………………………………….. 8
6.1 PROGRAMMED DECISION…………………………………………….. 8
6.2 NON PROGRAMMED DECISION………………………………………. 8
6.3 INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING…………………………………….8-9
6.4 GROUP DECISION MAKING…………………………………………….9
6.5 ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING……………………………………….. 9
7.0 PERCEPTION & LEARNING……………………………………………………. 9
7.1 PERCEIVER…………………………………………………………….. 9-10
7.1.1 KELLY’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY……………………………. 10
7.2 LEARNING………………………………………………………………10-11
8.0 ATTITUDES & JOB SATISFACTION…………………………………………… 11
8.1 ATTITUDES………………………………………………………………..11
8.2 JOB SATISFACTION……………………………………………………11-12
8.2.1 DETERMINANTS OF JOB SATISFACTION…………………… 12
8.2.1.1 THE NATURE OF THE JOB…………………………………….. 12
8.2.1.2 PAY AND BENEFITS……………………………………………. 12

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TOPIC PAGE

8.2.1.3 OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROMOTIONS………………………12-13

8.2.1.4 SUPERVISORS AND MANAGERS…………………………… 13
8.2.1.5 CO-WORKERS AND OFFICE MATES………………………… 12
8.2.1.6 COMBINATION OF ALL FACTORS…………………………13-14
9.0 LEADERSHIP………………………………………………………………….. 14
9.1 TRAITS THEORY………………………………………………………14-15
9.1.1 PERSONAL CONCERNS……………………………………… 15
9.1.2 SUBORDINATE CONCERNS…………………………………… 15
9.1.3 CONCERN FOR THE SITUATION……………………………… 15
10.0 SUPERVISION……………………………………………………………………. 15
10.1 SUPERVISOR…………………………………………………………… 16
10.2 KEY PERSON …………………………………………………………… 16
11.0 COMMUNICATION ……………………………………………………………… 16
11.1 MOTIVATION……………………………………………………………………..16
11.2 PROVIDING INFORMATION………………………………………… 17
11.3 CONTROL AND INTERACTION…………………………………… 17
11.4 DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION………………………………… 17
11.5 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION……………………………… 17
11.6 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION……………………17-18
12.0 CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION ………………………………………………18
12.1 SOURCES OF CONFLICT……………………………………………… 18
12.2 EFFECTS OF CONFLICT………………………………………………… 18
12.3 CONFLICT PROCESS…………………………………………………… 18
12.4 NEGOTIATION…………………………………………………………… 18
12.4.1 DISTRIBUTIVE NEGOTIATION………………………………… 19
12.4.2 INTEGRATIVE NEGOTIATION………………………………….19
13.0 CONCLUSIONS ………………………………………………………………… 19
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………… 20

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 INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANIZATIONS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Human behavior is complex, every individuals has different personality, role, interest and
come from different background of socio, culture and economic condition. This is a major
challenge for modern organization. Moreover as the markets are more volatile, organization
are trying to be more competitive. Some organizations try to be flattening structure and
minimize structure, some organizations are trying to integrate service by acquisition or
merging becomes more bureaucratic. This will involve diversified work force from different
location of the world. It is essential to study the individual of the following to get synergic
workforce and support optimum output to the company. This will need to focus the following
behavior of individuals to support strategic planning of the company. (Bauer, T & Erdogan,B.
(December 29, 2012))
- Individuals in organizations
- Work groups
- How organizations behave
An individual’s personality constitutes the most important and most noticeable parts of an
individual’s psychosomatic life. Our personalities determine how we act and react, as well as
how we interact with and respond to the organization. An individual ethics that is also
important for organization because ethical behavior always involves an individual action.
(Bauer, T & Erdogan,B. (December 29, 2012))

2.0 PERSONALITY
Personality is the combination of the emotional, attitudinal and behavioral response patterns
of an individual. It is the sum of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with each
other. Personality refers to individual differences in character, patterns of thinking, feeling
and behavior, study of personality focuses on two broad areas; one area focuses on
understanding individual differences in particular personality characteristics such as
sociability or irritability. The other area focuses on understanding how the various parts of a
person come together as a whole. When we talk of personality, we don’t mean a person has
charm, a positive attitude toward life, or a constantly smiling face. When psychologists talk
of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a
person’s whole psychological system. (Robbins,S.P & Judge, T.A(2013))

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2.1 BIG FIVE PERSONALITY
The Big Five personality traits are five broad domains or dimensions of personality
that are used to describe human personality. The theory based on the Big Five factors
is called the Five Factor Model. The Big Five factors are openness, conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Neuroticism and agreeableness. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))

2.2 LOCUS OF CONTROL

An internal locus of control that individual believes is guided by personal decisions
and efforts. External locus of control of individual believes that one’s behavior is
guided by fate, luck, or other external circumstances. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))

2.3 SELF-ESTEEN
Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect at person’s overall emotional
evaluation of one’s own worth. It is a judgment of oneself as well as an attitude
toward the self. Self-esteem is all about how much a person feel valued, loved,
accepted, and thought well of by others and also about how much the person value,
love and accept ourselves. Positive things you know about yourself must outweigh the
negative things to result in the presence of self-esteem. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A &
Zani, R.M(2014))

2.4 RISK TAKING

Risk-taking refers to the tendency to engage in behaviors that have the potential to be
harmful or dangerous, yet at the same time provide the opportunity for some kind of
outcome that can be perceived as positive. In organization, the suitability of a
person’s risk-taking or risk-averse behavior depends on the duties and responsibilities
of his job. For example, the job of a foreign currency trader requires individuals with
high risk-taking propensity, whereas the job of a clerk or that of a typist requires
individuals with low risk-taking propensity. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))

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 2.5 TYPE A AND TYPE B PERSONALITY
2.5.1 Type A
Enjoy achievement of goals with greater enjoyment in achieving of more
difficult to goals and stop, even when goals have been achieved. It feels the
pressure of time, thus constantly working flat out. It is highly competitive and
well, if necessary create competition. Type A person hate failure and will
work hard to avoid it. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))
2.5.2 Type B
Type B person work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming
stressed when they are not achieved. When faced with competition, they do
not mind losing and either enjoy the game or back down. That person creative
and enjoys exploring ideas and concepts. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))

2.6 PERSONALITY JOB FIT THEORY

Holland’s theory is centered on the notion that most people fit into one of six
personality types. Personality traits are realistic, investigative, artistic, social, and
enterprising and conventional. It is essential to fit gear wheel in right position inside a
clock to get the right timing of the clock. Some people they are happy to work alone
may not fit in customer service position. Some people are creative and finding new
things shall be not fit in the position of routine production line. Some people more
comfortable to work with people and making good relation shall be suitable for
marketing position. Personality combines a set of physical and mental characteristics
that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels. In case of right person on right
job will be beneficial for both employee and company. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A &
Zani, R.M(2014))
3.0 ABILITIES
Most people are to the left or the right of the median on some normally distributed ability
curve. For example, regardless of how motivated you are, it’s unlikely you can act as well as
Scarlett Johansson, play basketball as well as LeBron James, write as well as J.K.Rowling or
play the guitar as well as Pat Metheny. Of course, just because we aren’t all equal in abilities
does not imply that some individuals are inherently inferior. Everyone has strengths and
weaknesses that make him or her relatively superior or inferior to others in performing certain
tasks or activities. From management’s standpoint, the issue is not whether people differ in

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terms of their abilities. They clearly do. The issue is using the knowledge that people differ to
increase the likelihood an employee will perform his or her job well. Ability is an
individual’s current capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. (Robbins,S.P & Judge,
T.A(2013))
Abilities are the traits a person learns from the environment around as well as the traits a
person is gifted with by birth. An individual self-awareness of his own abilities determines
how he feels about the task, while the manager perception of his abilities determines the kind
of task he assigns to the individual. These traits are broadly classified as

3.1 INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES

It personifies a person’s intelligence, verbal and analytical reasoning abilities,
memory as well as verbal comprehension. (Robbins,S.P & Judge, T.A(2013))
3.2 PHYSICAL ABILITIES
It personifies a person’s physical strength, stamina, body coordination as well as
motor skills. (Robbins,S.P & Judge, T.A(2013))

3.3 SELF – AWARENESS ABILITIES

It symbolizes how a person feels about the task, while a manager’s perception of his
abilities decides the kind of work that needs to be allotted to an individual.
In order to understand how these affect a person’s behavior, we need to know what these
abilities are intellectual abilities. Thus the psychological, physical, self-assurance traits
owned by a person defines the behavior of a person in social and personal life. (Robbins,S.P
& Judge, T.A(2013))

4.0 GENDER
Research proves that men and women both stand equal in terms of job performance and
mental abilities however; society still emphasizes differences between the two genders.
Absenteeism is one area in an organization where differences are found as women are
considered to be the primary caregiver for children. A factor that might influence work
allocation and evaluation in an organization is the manager’s perception and personal values.
For example − an organization encourages both genders to work efficiently towards the
company’s goal and no special promotion or demotion is given or tolerated for any specific
gender.(Gupta A (2010))

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5.0 RACE & CULTURE
Race is a group of people sharing similar physical features. It is used to define types of
persons according to perceived traits. For example - Indian, African on the other hand,
culture can be defined as the traits, ideas, customs and traditions one follows either as a
person or in a group. For example − Celebrating a festival. Race & culture have always
exerted an important influence both at the workplace as well as in the society. The common
mistakes such as attributing behavior and stereotyping according to individual’s race &
culture basically influences an individual’s behavior. In today’s diverse work culture, the
management as well as staff should learn and accept different cultures, values, and common
protocols to create more comfortable corporate culture. For example a company invites
candidates for a job post and hires one on the basis of eligibility criteria and not on the basis
of the country a person belongs to or the customs one follows.
(Gibson,J.L.,Ivancevich,J.M., Donnelly,J.H. & Konopaske J.R(202))

6.0 DECISION MAKING

Decision making occurs as a response to a problem. It happens when individuals or
groups are making choices among one or more alternatives to solve the problem with
an intention to get the best outcome. Every decision requires us to interpret and
evaluate information. We typically receive data from multiple sources and need to
screen, process, and interpret them. Decisions can be classified as programmed and
non-programmed. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

6.1 PROGRAMMED DECISION

Programmed decisions are repetitive and routine, which have been outlined by rules,
policies and procedures. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

6.2 NON PROGRAMMED DECISION

Non programmed decisions are unique decisions which occur under unexpected
situations thus require serious evaluations of alternatives. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A &
Zani, R.M(2014))

6.3 INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING

Individual decision-making becomes an important element in organizational behavior.

The major influence of individual decision-making is their perceptions. Perception is
a process where individuals organize and interpret what they see and feel and give
meaning to it. How individuals make perceptions is influenced by various factors such

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 as their background, attitudes, experience, time and many more. That is why
individual have different interpretation of what they see and fee.
(Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

6.4 GROUP DECISION MAKING

Group decision making has become a common practice as it gives better solution to a
problem as group members share ideas and opinions. Some of the techniques used by
groups to make decisions together are brainstorming, nominal group technique,
Delphi technique and electronic meeting. This section elaborates the techniques used
by groups in making decisions as well as the advantages and disadvantages of group
decision-making. Group decision making is a situation where two or more people are
involved in making decisions in organizations. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))

6.5 ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING

Managers are involved in many kinds of decision making in their job. Such as hiring
and firing employees, dealing with customers and suppliers, setting salary and
bonuses, giving promotion which are all subject to ethical influences. Managers
should carefully and deliberately consider the ethical context of their decision and
ensure that the decisions are for the best interest of the organization, not for personal
interest. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

7.0 PERCEPTION & LEARNING

Perception is a process of classifying; interpreting and giving meaning to what is
happening and what we see around us. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

7.1 PERCEIVER
A perceiver is someone who makes a perception. Each individual has their
differences, which leads to different interpretations and meanings towards the same
thing. Perception causes different reactions and actions. For instance, let’s say the
CEO of an organization sends out a memo requesting for all department heads to
submit the overtime expenses incurred for the last six months. They are also required
to submit the expected overtime expenses for the next six months to him within two
days. The sudden and unusual request has created chaos among the employees in the
organization. Perception is how we interpret our environment. It is a major influence

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over our behavior, but many systematic biases color our perception and lead to
misunderstandings. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))
Head of marketing assumes that the organization is now facing financial problems and
is now finding ways to minimize overhead expenses. He or she then mentions the fear
to his or her assistant and the assistant in turn spreads the news among his or her
friends. Consequently, rumors surface saying that the organization is going bankrupt.
Perception avoid if someone has a high level of awareness, seeks information from
various sources, practices empathy, helps to rectify incorrect perceptions and avoids
using shortcuts in making decisions and meaning. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))
Meanwhile, head of operations assumes that the CEO is now trying to study the
workflow wish to understand the problems which have resulted in overtime claims
form the department. Head of human resources assumes that the CEO is trying to
understand the reason for the overtime claims and that the CEO is now the midst of
deciding whether the company should hire extra employees, or if the reason for the
overtime claims is actually due to insufficient knowledge resulting in employees
having to redo the work. And also Manager or Supervisor need to understand and
must be able to manage the handle of the perception process. They are also need to
avoid the decision making based on perceptions only. It would lead to biased and
unfair decisions which would lead to dissatisfaction among employees.
(Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

7.1.1 KELLY’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Kelly’s Attribution Theory is a theory which explains why people tend to
make judgments on and assign reasons to other people’s behavior. People tend
to observe other people and later tend to give reasons and presume the cause
of the observed behavior, whether it is internally caused or externally caused.
There are three factors which determine whether it is internal or externally
caused. The factors are distinctiveness, consensus and consistency.
(Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

7.2 LEARNING
According to Stephen Robbins, learning may be defined as any relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience called Learning. There are
clarifications of learning; Learning involves change,

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 - The change must be relatively
-The change must be relatively permanent
-Learning involves change in behavior
Learning is a behavior which happens all the time. It is a relatively permanent change
in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. There are three theories which
explain the process by which we develop regular forms of behavior. We will review
some of the most important theories of learning which are classical conditioning,
operant conditioning and social conditioning.
(Gibson,J.L.,Ivancevich,J.M.,Donnelly,J.H. & Konopaske J.R(202))

8.0 ATTITUDES & JOB SATISFACTION

Managers also consider attitudes to be important because attitudes always relate to
major causes of individual behavior such as how an employee’s poor work
performance can be linked to a bad attitude about work. Positive attitude lead to
productive efforts and negative attitudes often produce poor work habits. This means
that attitude play an important part in determining performance based behavior in an
organization. There are three basic components of attitudes; Cognitive, affective and
behavioral. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

8.1 ATTITUDES
Attitudes are a person’s feelings about objects, events or other people. The feelings
can be either positive or negative. It can be learned through a period of time or it may
change. An attitude is an expression of some degree of favorableness or un-
favorableness toward the particular situation or object at hand. e.g − A person who
has worked with different companies might develop an attitude of indifference
towards organizational citizenship. Now we have a clear idea about what are the
factors responsible for the way we behave. We never think about these elements and
how they affect our daily life but we can’t ignore the fact that they are responsible for
the way we walk, talk, socialize, etc. (Robbins,S.P & Judge, T.A(2013))

8.2 JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction is a positive feeling on the job based on the evaluation of the person
itself. Job satisfaction has been linked to productivity, motivation, absenteeism or
tardiness, accidents, mental/physical health, and general life satisfaction. Job
Satisfaction occurs when a job meets the expectations, values and standards of an
individual and will influence their commitment and performance. Apart from that,

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Mullins (2002) defines job satisfaction as in internal state that can be associated with
personal feelings of an achievement, either quantitative or qualitative. (Robbins,S.P &
Judge, T.A(2013))
8.2.1 DETERMINANTS OF JOB SATISFACTION
Organizational leaders and employers have invested on many ways to ensure
that employees are happy at work. Among the factors affecting employee job
satisfaction is;
- The nature of the job
- Pay and benefits
- Opportunities for promotions
- Supervisors and managers
- Co-workers and office mates
- Combination of all factors (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

8.2.1.1 THE NATURE OF THE JOB

Employers also need to create opportunities for their employees to show
their abilities in performing their jobs. For example, let’s say a fresh
graduate who is very jovial and loves meeting people accepts a job as a
store operations assistant in one of the manufacturing companies in
town. Being desperate for a job, she accepted the job without
considering the job description and needs. After three months of
counting and balancing stocks in the store room, she feels unhappy and
starts to play truant at work. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))

8.2.1.2 PAY AND BENEFITS

Pay in terms of monetary value is usually most important factor
determining whether an employee feels satisfied or otherwise with a
job. However, this is usually only true for new employees to the
organization and for new comers to the working world.
(Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

8.2.1.3 OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROMOTIONS

Different organizations practice different ways in promoting their
employees, promotion is basically a way to encourage and motivate an
employee to work hard and stay competitive in the organization.

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 However, if the promotion process is very rigid and not employee-
friendly then this would make an employee feel dissatisfied and
unhappy. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

8.2.1.4 SUPERVISORS AND MANAGERS

Supervisors and managers need to remember that with a competitive
work force, they need to be professional in their work. Employees look
up to their supervisors and manager for instruction and guidance in
completing tasks or assignments. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))

8.2.1.5 CO-WORKERS AND OFFICE MATES

Employees spent a minimum of 8hours a day in the office. And that is
one a six-day-a-week basis. During these hour spent, employees work
as a team and tap on each other skills and knowledge to get things done.
Therefore having co-workers and office mates who understand and
respect each other would foster a positive and productive work culture,
particularly in workplace which rely heavily on effective team work.
(Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014)).

8.2.1.6 COMBINATION OF ALL FACTORS

The combination of all the previous factors above would definitely
complicate things and that would have an impact on job satisfaction
levels. For instance, low salaries, bossy superiors; unsupportive co-
workers along with unchallenging, routine work would have a bigger
aggregate impact on satisfaction levels compared to each factor’s
individual effect. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))
When people speaks of employee attitudes, job satisfaction, which describes a positive
feeling about a job, resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. A person with a high
level of job satisfaction holds positive feelings about his or her job, while a person with a low
level holds negative feelings. Work attitudes are our feelings toward our company and job.
Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are related to many outcomes of interest,
such as absenteeism, performance, and turnover. Therefore, companies track feelings toward
work and must be try to create more positive attitudes. The main behaviors that contribute to
organizational effectiveness are job performance, citizenship behaviors, absenteeism, and

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turnover. These behaviors are affected by a complex blend of personality and situational
factors. (Gibson,J.L.,Ivancevich,J.M.,Donnelly,J.H. & Konopaske J.R(202))

9.0 LEADERSHIP
A leader is a person who holds a dominant or superior position within its field, and is able to
exercise a high degree of control or influence over others. Leadership is a means of directing.
Leadership may be defined as the act of influencing others to work toward a goal. Leaders
exist at all levels of an organization. Some leaders hold a position of authority and may
utilize the power that comes from their position, as well as their personal power to influence
others. They are called formal leaders. In contrast, informal leaders are without a formal
position of authority within the organization but demonstrate leadership by influencing others
through personal forms of power. (Appleby,R.C.,(2017))
One caveat is important here: Leaders do not rely on the use of force to influence people.
Instead, people willingly adopt the leader’s goal as their own goal. If a person is relying on
force and punishment, the person is a dictator, not a leader. (Appleby,R.C.,(2017))
Leadership is a means of directing. A leader’s actions are devoted to helping a group to attain
its objectives. Leadership is the ability of management to induce subordinates to work toward
group goals with confidence and keenness. Leadership also implies that the leader accepts
responsibility for the achievement of the group objective and it is essential for trust and co-
operation from both sides to be in evidence all the time. (Appleby,R.C.,(2017))

9.1 TRAITS THEORY

A trait is a physical or psychological characteristic that accounts for the behavior of a
person. Trait theories grew out the qualities found in great or well-known natural
leaders, whom it was thought were born with leadership qualities.
(Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))
It was considered that if traits of natural leaders were identified it would be possible
for others to acquire them though learning and experience. Social psychologists were
interested in leadership as an aspect of behavior in the workplace and not just in
personal characteristics. Two studies on leadership, which are important, occurred at
the Universities of Ohio and Michigan in the USA. These studies were led by R
Stogdill and R Likert and both concluded that there were two principal aspects of
leader behavior. (Appleby,R.C.,(2017))
-a concern for people
-a concern for production

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 R Tannenbaum and W Schmidt found that managers were often uncertain how to
handle specific types of problem. In particular, how to distinguish between the types
of problem they should handle themselves and those that should be resolved with their
subordinates. They concluded in making an appropriate choice of how autocratic or
democratic to be, a manager needed to consider three sets of issues;

9.1.1 PERSONAL CONCERNS

Managers had to consider their own values, their inclinations towards
leadership, and the level of confidence they had in their subordinates.
(Appleby,R.C.,(2017))

9.1.2 SUBORDINATE CONCERNS

Managers had to consider their subordinates needs for responsibility and
independence, their knowledge and interest of the problem, and the amount
they desired to be involved in solving problems. (Appleby,R.C.,(2017))

9.13 CONCERN FOR THE SITUATION

This included concern for the nature of the problem, the competence of the
group in handling the problem, the time available and the type and history of
the organization. (Appleby,R.C.,(2017))
They suggested a continuum of possible leadership behavior which is available to a manager,
along which may be placed various styles of leadership. At one extreme, leadership was boss-
centered and at the other extreme, leadership was subordinate-centered. The continuum
therefore, represents a range of action which relates to the degree of authority used by a
manager and the area of freedom available to subordinate in arriving at decision.
(Appleby,R.C.,(2017))
There is a relationship, therefore, to McGregor’s Theory X and Y. Boss-centered leadership
relates towards Theory X and subordinate-centered leadership, towards Theory Y.
(Appleby,R.C.,(2017))

10.0 SUPERVISION
A Supervisor is the first level manager in charge of entry-level and other departmental
employees. Supervision is the activity carried out by supervisors to oversee the product
productivity and progress of employees who report directly to the supervisors.
(Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

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 10.1 SUPERVISOR
The activity carried out by supervisors to oversee the productivity and progress of
employees who report directly to the supervisors. In most organizations, a supervisor
is the first-line manager or the person between the manager and the workers. A
supervisor’s main job is to supervise. This supervision plays a vital role in ensuring
the organization operates smoothly. Supervisors have roles to play are communicator,
motivator, empower, role model, liaison, coach and mentor. Supervisors do not have
any power to make decisions as most of the decisions are made by top management.
Their job is only to relay the instruction. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

10.2 KEY PERSON

A supervisor is the key person in ensuring smooth communication between top
management and the workers. Without supervisors, there is no one to motivate and
supervise the workers. Being a key person, supervisors are important in transmitting
information from top management to thee workers. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani,
R.M(2014))
A supervisor becomes an important person in ensuring smooth communication
between top management and the workers. The top management sees the supervisor
as someone to relay the information to the workers and the workers see the supervisor
as someone to relay their feedback and suggestions to the top. Any discrepancies on
the part of the supervisor will result in a miscommunication and misunderstanding
between these two parts. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))
The viewpoint of supervisors being ordinary workers shows that a supervisor is only a normal
worker. Supervisors do not have any power to make decisions, as most of the decisions are
made by top management. (Gupta, A (2010))

11.0 COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process of conveying information through the exchange of
thoughts messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior
and the information is being shared between two or more people. There are four
functions of communication that motivation, providing information, control and
interaction. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

11.1 MOTIVATION
Manager and organization leaders would use communication to motivate workers to
achieve and produce peak performance.(Appleby,R.C.(2017))

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11.2 PROVIDING INFORMATION
Information can either be from the managers or organization leaders to the employees
versa. Insufficient information would hinder the group in completing a job or
achieving task. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

11.3 CONTROL AND INTERACTION

The policies and procedures, standard operation procedures and the dos and don’ts
would be the guide for employees to do their job well. The message from the
documents helps to control the situation and work flow. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A &
Zani, R.M(2014))

11.4 DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION

The direction of communication flows are downward communication and upward
communication or lateral communication. Downward communication happens when a
managers instructs delegates and share information with employees who are a level
lower than the sender. Upward communication happens when employees at a lower
level send messages to managers at a higher level than where the employee is reports,
suggestions for improvements. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

11.5 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The three basic communication methods are written, oral and non-verbal
communications Oral communication refers to verbal communication. It includes
speeches, formal one to one and group discussions, as well as rumors from the
grapevine. This would lead to different interpretations of the message. Written
communication includes any form of interaction uses written words such as memos,
reports bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals and electronic mails. Non-
verbal communications is the transmission of messages without words such as via
body gestures, facial expressions, the use of space, handshakes, etc.
(Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

11.6 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Some messages which are being sent out are not being understood. This is because
there are barriers which distract the receiver from understanding the message.
Common barriers include selective perception, filtering of information, language
differences, information overload, emotions and poor listening skills and distractions.

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 One of the best ways of removing conflict is by good communications. For example,
a change to a computer system from a manual one should be explained clearly to
employees, well before the implementation. If this is delayed and rumors go round,
the issue may be distorted. Good communications can help to minimize conflicts and
prevent unnecessary misunderstandings. (Ahmad,S.S.,Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M(2014))

12.0 CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

Conflicts are defined as relational disputes between two or more parties, in which those
involved perceive a threat to their interests coming from those on the other side of the
disagreement. (Luthans, F(2011))

12.1 SOURCES OF CONFLICT

Conflict arises from many sources. There are three major sources of conflict;
- Differentiation
- Tasks Relationships
- Scarcity of Resources

12.2 EFFECTS OF CONFLICT

Conflicts can have positive or negative effects for the organization, depending upon
the environment created by the manager as she or he manages and regulates the
conflict situation. Positive effects of conflicts are diffusion of more serious conflicts,
stimulation of a search for new facts or resolutions, increase in group cohesion and
performance and assessment of power or ability. Negative effects of conflicts are
barriers to smooth working, weakening output, hindrances in the decision making
process and formation of competing affiliations within the organization.
(Gibson, J.L.,Ivancevich, J.M., Donnelly,J.H. & Konopaske J.R (2012))

12.3 CONFLICT PROCESS

The conflict process has five stages and they are latent conflict, perceived conflict,
felt conflict, manifest conflict and conflict aftermath.
(Gibson, J.L.,Ivancevich, J.M., Donnelly,J.H. & Konopaske J.R (2012))
12.4 NEGOTIATION
Negotiation is a process in which groups with conflicting interests meet together to
make offers, counteroffers, and concessions to each other in an effort to resolve their
differences. There are two type of negotiation that distributive negotiation and
integrative negotiation. (Appleby,R.C.(2017)

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 12.4.1 DISTRIBUTIVE NEGOTIATION
The main directions of distributive negotiation are hard distributive
negotiation leads to win-lose situation and soft distributive negotiation is a
strategy where one party tries to find ways to meet the other’s desires.
(Appleby,R.C.(2017)

12.4.2 INTEGRATIVE NEGOTIATION

Integrative negotiation is also sometimes called interest-based negotiation.
Using this approach, participants would ask “How can the resource best be
used?” This approach is much less confrontational, and it permits a broader
range of alternatives to be considered in the process. There is much more of a
win-win situation. (Appleby,R.C.(2017)
Most of the conflict in organization occurs from poor communication, a lack of
openness and cannot trust each other, not clear the duty and responsibility. The types
of conflict which are possible in organizations are within an individual, between
individual, between individuals and groups; between groups in the same organization,
between organizations. We will study potential root causes of conflict arising within a
workplace and the positive and negative outcomes of this conflict. We have study
multiple ways on how to resolve organizational conflict and the most common styles
people have for handling conflict. (Appleby,R.C.(2017)

13.0 CONCLUSIONS
The concept of organizational behavior might be used to address issues related to the way
people behave at work. In addition, we should now be familiar with the large number of
factors, both within an individual and within the environment that may influence a person’s
behaviors and attitudes. But Individuals do not work in isolation. They come in contact and
cooperate with other related colleague. The way an individual behaves and behavior as a
group have two perspectives-internal and external environments. In any organization have
talented employees is very important to be above its competitors. (Daft,R.L.,Ph.D., (2015))
In conclusion it is essential to study carefully the behavior of individuals inside the
organization. Organization may need to assemble the individual to be a good chemistry of
individual with every individual, groups of different interest and environments. Which may
need to protect deviation from mission and vision of the organization in time and which shall
be solid synergy of individual with every individual, also the groups of people and different
interface levels of organization? (Anil, S. (2011))

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REFERENCES

Ahmad, S.S., Zakaria, A & Zani, R.M (2014). Organizational Behavior, Kamaluddin N &
Hussein R.M (Oxford University press)

Appleby, R.C. (2017). Modern Business Administration (Sixth Edition).(PP.191, 205)

This edition of modern business administration 6th edition is published by
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Anil, S. (2011) Individual Behavior: Retrieved Jan 10, 2018 from:

https://www.slideshare.net/sandhyaanil/ob-individual-behaviour

Bauer, T & Erdogan, B. (December 29, 2012). An introduction-to-organizational Behavior-

v1,1 (PP.17, 47, 101, 150)

Daft,R.L.,Ph.D., (2015).Organization Theory & Design (Twelve Edition) (PP 400)

Greer,L.L., Bunderen V.L & Yu S.(2018). Organizational Behavior: Retrieved Jan 21, 2018
from: https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/faculty-research/publications/dysfunctions-
power-teams-review-emergent-conflict-perspective

Gupta, A (2010) Individual Behavior in organization: Retrieved Jan 8, 2018 from

http://practical-management.com/Organization-Development/Individual-Behavior-in-
Organization.html/pdf

Gibson, J.L.,Ivancevich, J.M., Donnelly,J.H. & Konopaske J.R (2012) Organizations

Behaviour, Structure, Processes (Fourteenth Edition). Published by McGraw-Hill

Luthans, F (2011). Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach.

(Twelfth Edition) Published by McGraw-Hill/Irwin,

Robbins, S.P & Judge, T.A (2013).Organizational Behavior (Fifteenth Edition).336, 133, 452
Published by Prentice Hall.

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