Notes of Subject Personality Development

What is "Self"?

1. Self-esteem: Self-esteem refers to general feelings of self-worth or self value.

2. Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy is belief in one's capacity to succeed at tasks. General self-efficacy is belief in one's
general capacity to handle tasks. Specific self-efficacy refers to beliefs about one's ability to perform specific tasks
(e.g., driving, public speaking, studying, etc.)

3. Self-confidence: Self-confidence refers to belief in one's personal worth and likelihood of succeeding. Self-
confidence is a combination of self-esteem and general self-efficacy.

4. Self-concept: Self-concept is the nature and organization of beliefs about one's self. Self-concept is theorized to be
multi-dimensional. For example, people have different beliefs about physical, emotional, social and many other aspects
of themselves.

Historical conceptions of "Self" Character development, personal growth, and development of self-constructs are
commonly valued goals in Western society, and are largely taken for granted as desirable. However, this is a relatively
recent phenomenon: Between 700 and 1500, the concept of the "self" referred to only the weak, sinful, crude, "selfish"
nature of humans. The evil "self" was contrasted with the divinely perfect nature of a Christian soul. Joseph Campbell
believed the concept of an independent, self-directed "self" didn't start to develop until about 800 years ago. So, it is a
relatively new idea which has grown in importance. In medieval times, values and meaning were dictated by the
community ("do what you are told to do"). Today, modern "self" theory says each person is expected to decide what is
right (almost by magic and without much reliance on the accumulated wisdom of the culture) and to know him/her 5
well enough to determine what courses of action "feel right." In short, we must know ourselves, so we can set our life
goals and self-actualize. The cultures of 1200 and 2000 are two very different worlds. (Clayton E. Tucker-Ladd, 1996.)

"Self" in the 20th century Previous to the 20th century, social institutions, including schooling and psychology (which
barely existed) did not emphasize the development of positive beliefs about "self". There was greater emphasis, for
example, on developing relationship to divinities and organized systems of government. With the ousting of religion as
the dominant organizational culture in Western society, and the rise of capitalism with its emphasis, particularly in
North America, on expression and valuing of personal freedom, a 'cult of the self' has blossomed. Indeed, self-
constructs seem to be positively associated with other desirable qualities, such as better quality of life, higher academic
performance, and so on, but there is debate about whether improving self-esteem, self-concept, etc. causes improved
performance, or vice-versa. What's more, there is evidence that high self-esteem when combined with prejudice can
lead to increased aggression. Education and parenting in North America has been criticized for overemphasizing praise
and affirmation of children. Simply boosting self esteem without boosting personal skill, it has been argued, creates
vacuous self-belief which leads to more serious problems arising from the selfdeception. This area deserves further
research. Among other tasks, attention needs to be paid to distinguishing shallow self-esteem boosting methods from
well developed, effective approaches to personal and social development. As self-concept seems to play a significant
role in the growth and development of a person, some detailed information about its nature and its relation to other
important factors of personality will provide an objective and encouraging basis for the educators and counselors to
work on. Torrance (1954) vouches for the practical uses of knowledge of the self-concept in 6 counseling and guidance.
With such educational and counseling ends in mind, numerous studies have been undertaken on the subject in different
parts of the world. Indian studies on the subject have dealt with: factors contributing to changes in self-concept;
 implementation of self-concept in occupational choices; differences in self-concepts of achievers and no achievers in
school etc.

Self-concept: The self-concept as an organizer of behaviour is of great importance. Self concept refers to the
experience of one’s own being. It includes what people come to know about themselves through experience, reflection
and feedback from others. It is an organized cognitive structure comprised of a set of attitudes, beliefs, values, variety
of habits, abilities, out looks, ideas and feelings of a person. Consistency of behaviour and continuity of identity are two
of the chief properties of the self-concept. Wylie 1974, Brook over 1988 and Mishra 1989 indicates that self-concept is
positively related with their school achievement. Self-concept is a factor which helps to study the human behaviour and
personality. There are several different components of Self-concept:

 Physical,
 Academic,
 Social,
 Transpersonal.
 The physical aspect of self-concept relates to that which is concrete: what we look like, our sex, height,
weight, etc.; what kind of clothes we wear; what kind of car we drive; what kind of home we live in; and so forth.
 Our academic self-concept relates to how well we do in school or how well we learn. There are two levels: a general
academic self-concept of how good we are overall and a set of specific content-related self-concepts that describe how
good we are in math, science, language arts, social science, etc.
 The social self-concept describes how we relate ourselves to other people and
 The transpersonal self-concept describes how we relate to the supernatural or unknown.

Self-concept may be defined as the totality of perceptions that each person has of themselves, and this self-identity plays an
important role in the psychological functioning of everyone. By self, we generally mean the conscious reflection of one's
own being or identity, as an object separate from other or from the environment. There are a variety of ways to think about
the self. Two of the most widely used terms are self-concept and self-esteem. Self-concept is the cognitive or thinking
aspect of self (related to one's self-image) and generally refers to "The totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic
system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal
existence" (Purkey, 1988). Self-esteem is the affective or emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel
about or how we value ourselves or one's self-worth. Self concept can also refer to the general idea we have of ourselves and
Self Esteem can refer to particular measures about components of self-concept. Some authors even use the two terms
interchangeably.

Key difference between self-concept and self-esteem: The key difference between self-concept and self-
esteem is due to the addition of feelings. Self-concept is simply the informational side of things, where you know
facts about what you are like. Self-esteem is how you feel 12 about those things you know, like whether you enjoy
the fact that you are talkative at parties (high self-esteem) or you think that you are annoying and need to learn to
shut up sometimes (low self-esteem).

Similarities between self-concept and self-esteem: Self-concept and self-esteem also have a lot in common
though, mostly that they are reflective processes. They can be influenced not only by observing one's own self and
behaviour objectively, but also by observing the reactions that other people have to you and your behaviour, or
imagining what other people might think of you, or what you would think of yourself if you see yourself from
outside.

What is self-esteem?
Self-esteem is the belief we have about ourselves. Healthy self-esteem exists when we believe we are valued, competent,
worthy, loved, and accepted. Unhealthy self-esteem exists when we believe ourselves to be incompetent, rejected, unworthy,
unloved, and lacking in value to others.

High self-esteem comes from:

• Acceptance, respect, love • Being listened to, being taken seriously

• A feeling of connectedness, and belonging • Honesty [with tact and sensitivity], integrity

• Honoring uniqueness • Authentic expression of feelings

• Encouragement, support, appreciation • Being trustworthy, trusting others

• Safety, security • High and attainable expectations

• A sense of personal power; having choices • Personal and social responsibility

• Forgiveness; allowing and learning from mistakes

Low self-esteem comes from:

• Rejection • Conditional love or no love at all

• Lack of attention, being ignored • Not being listened to or taken seriously

• Emotional abuse such as ridicule, criticism, blaming, humiliation

• Prejudice • Comparison, perfectionism

• Expectations that are too high or too low

• Focusing on externals (appearances, behavior, performance)

• Guilt, shame, resentment • Physical and sexual abuse or exploitation

Characteristics of healthy self-esteem:

• Likes oneself, makes positive comments about self • Feels valuable

• Does not feel he/she has to be good at everything • Does not compare self to others

• Gives genuine compliments easily • Accepting of others

• Accepts challenges and takes calculated risks • Cares how others feel

• Tolerates frustration well and is flexible

The Ten ways to enhance your self-esteem:

1. Put your past in perspective: We cannot undo the past, however we can look back and draw strength from our
past victories and obstacles that we were able to overcome. Making good use of the present is an effective way to
prepare for a successful future.
2. Energize yourself with positive self-talk :You are what you think you are. Our bodies will respond with more
energy and strength when our thoughts and actions are positive.

3. Surround yourself with positive people Just as "misery loves company" so does productivity: Positive
and productive people gain energy and motivation from each other. When you are around positive people, you will
become more positive and good things will just naturally happen.

4. Identify and assert your strengths: Take stock of your strong points. These are the special traits that your
foundation of success must be built on.

5. Identify and eliminate weakness: Make note of your weak points. Make a commitment to work on improving
these areas. Tackle them one at a time by setting goals and implementing an action plan for their improvement.

6. Vitalize your vision: Take time to ask yourself, "What do I really want?" As you get a clear vision of what you
want in any area of your life, you will also become more aware of the resources and opportunities available to help
you turn your vision into reality.

7. Set realistic goals: Aim high and be realistic. Set short and long-term goals.

8. Take action: In order to achieve your goals, you must move towards them. You must take action. Taking action
also means taking risk. However, if you don't risk anything, you won't gain anything.

9. Be persistent and consistent: We may not always get what we want when we want it, but it does not mean we
cannot get it. When we fall short of our goal, re-think it. Then set a new time-frame and keep moving towards it.

10. Keep rejection in perspective: Rejections are a part of life. Everyone gets rejected in life. If you take
rejection too personally you may avoid taking the risks necessary for your growth

Self confidence: The belief that you can achieve success and competence. In other words – believing yourself to
be capable. Self-confidence might be in reference to specific tasks or a more wide ranging attitude you hold about
your abilities in life.

Confidence is a feeling of trust in someone or something.

The flowing twelve simple steps you can take to increase your confidence today.

1. Get to know what’s great about you. Start by making a list of your strengths (we’re all good
at something, so make sure you know what you’re good at!)

2. Don’t listen to the naysayers . Next time someone judges you, choose not to listen (it’s just
their opinion after-all)

3. Don’t sweat the small stuff! Next time you feel like something is going to upset you, decide to
rise above it and not let it bother you

4. Say yes to praise . Start to accept compliments from others with grace (it’s OK to say thank you)

5. Exercise. For me I find that exercise gives me so much more energy and enthusiasm, which
relates to feelings of confidence. When we feel fi t and healthy, we feel more in control of our lives
and this builds confidence .
6. Hold your head high. Use your posture to your advantage – lift your head up high, pull your
shoulders back and walk with purpose!

7. Think positive . Negative thoughts only decrease our confidence. When we are positive on the
inside it shines through on the outside

8. Speak with confidence . Have you ever noticed how leaders always speak slowly and aren’t
afraid to pause in-between sentences. This is the key to confident speaki ng. Make an effort to slow
down when you next speak to someone.

9. Don’t brag. If we have to tell people how great we are, then the chances are we don’t really
believe it ourselves. Quiet confidence will beat overbearing arrogance any day of the week. If w e
truly believe we are great then we don’t ‘need’ to brag about it to others. Let your actions speak for
themselves .

10. Learn something new. When we learn a new skill we immediately feel more confident.
Choose to learn something that you’ve always wanted to learn but not got around to yet.

11. Kill negativity. There’ nothing that screams low self -worth more than negative talk and
thoughts about others. When we spend too much time judging others it’s a reflection of how we feel
about ourselves. It’s a way to strengthen the ego – by judging others we make ourselves feel better.
Instead of wasting time picking faults in other people, its much more beneficial to work on your own
strengths .

12. Take control. We only get one life and this is it. So live yours knowing that you have control
and no one else!

What is Personality ?

The word personality is derived from Greek word ‘Persona.’ At first this word was used for the mask worn by the
actors in Roman and Greek drama. Personality is the total quality of an individual’s behavior as it shown on his
habits of thinking, in his attitude, interests, his manner of acting and his personal philosophy of life. Personality is
more than the sum total of an individual’s traits and characteristics. When psychologists define personality, they
tend to refer to qualities within a person, characteristics of a person’s behavior, or both. In a now famous definition,
psychologist Gorden Allport (1937) mentioned both inner qualities. “Personality is the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.” In a more
recent definition, psychologist Walter Mischel (1976) mentioned both inner processes and behavior but emphasized
behavior. Personality, he wrote, consists of; “The distinctive patterns of behavior that characterize each individual’s
adaptation to the situations of his or life.” According to Allport “Personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychological system that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.” It is reasonably
assumed that personality functions as a basis for all types of behavior. The person may or not be co-operative, may
have more or less competitiveness, possesses positive or negative leadership qualities or may be emotionally stable
or anxious. It all depends upon his personal make-up, Singer (1972) had also opined similarly, since personality
determined by genetic factors but modified by environmental experience, a strong possibility exists that personality
influences activity preferences as well as gets modified by activity experiences. . Man’s personality is the total
picture of behavior, which is made up of many components, some of which are objective and therefore, easily
studied and measured. And some are subjective and cannot be measured easily. These objective components are
physique, speed, strength and movement. The subjective components include motives, feeling, ideas, attitudes,
character, will power etc. Personality according to Eysenck (1968). - 9 - “It’s a stable and enduring organization of
person’s character, temperaments, intellect and physique, which explains about the physiological differences
between introverts and extroverts in the light of concept of weak and strong nervous system.” According to Funder,
D. C. (1997) “Personality refers to individual’s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion and behaviour, together
with the psychological mechanisms hidden or not-behind those patterns. According to him human personality
includes : (a) External appearance and behavior or social stimulus value. (b) Inner awareness of self as permanent
organizing force. (c) The particular pattern or organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer.

Features or Ideas Relating to Personality

• Personality represents the whole person’ concept. It includes perception, learning, motivation and more.
Personality seems to be a case when the whole is greater than the sum of parts. Personality always creates the
synergistic effect.

• Personality emphasizes the person-situation interaction.

• Personality is a very diverse and complete psychological concept.

• Personality often implies social or interpersonal skills.

• Even though it is a stable pattern of characteristics and behaviours, personality is constantly developing and
changing. • The personality is a major influence on tendencies to behave. It helps to explain why specific behavior
occurs.

• Personality is an organized whole, otherwise the individual would have no meaning.

• Personality appears to be organized into patterns. These are top some degree observable and measurable.

• Although there is a biological basis to personality, the specific development is a product of social and cultural
environments.

• Personality has superficial aspects, such as attitudes towards being a team leader and a deeper core. Such as
sentiments about authority or the protestant work ethic.

• Personality involves both common and unique characteristics. Every person is different from every other person is
some respects. While being similar in other respects.

• Personality is possessed, by every person.

• Personality is partially inborn and partially acquired.

• Personality is influenced by internal, external adjustment processes. It is dynamic rather than static.

• Personality can be described by characteristic behavior traits or constellations of related traits.

• Personality predisposes an individual to certain behavioral patterns.

• Personality provides defenses and outlets for the self-concept and acquitted motives.

Determinants of Personality Several factors influence shaping of our personality.

 1.Constitutional Determinants These are inborn traits which the individual inherits. Heredity endowment and
genetic structures influence behavior, learning and motivation. Age, brain, biofeedback and physical stature act as
potentials for a variety of different personality characteristics.

2. Group Membership Determinants These factors make a more significant contribution to personality than
biological factors. Each culture expects and trains, its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the
group. People are also influenced by the beliefs and values of family These are inborn traits which the individual
inherits. Heredity endowment and genetic structures influence behavior, learning and motivation. Age, brain,
biofeedback and physical stature act as potentials for a variety of different personality characteristics

These factors make a more significant contribution to personality than biological factors. Each culture expects and
trains, its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. People are also influenced by the beliefs
education, religion within any culture. Affinitive groups influence our attitudes, - 11 - values and other personality
characteristics. Social learning has a lasting influence on their ways of viewing life.

3. Role Determinants Each person has to play a number of different roles at different times. The roles that an
individual plays to fulfill a given position are determined by the group within which the position exists. Thus, social
roles of people influence their personality.

4. Situational Determinants The environment has a strong effect on personality formation. Learned modifications
in behavior are not passed on to children, they must be acquired by them through their own personal experience
through interaction with their environment.

4 Personality Development Development refers to a progressive series of changes that occur in orderly predictable
as a result of maturation and experience. The human being is never static from conception to death change is
constantly taking place in his physical and psychological capacities. A study of personality is important because it
provides means of predicting human behavior.

Physical Development It involves all those changes occurring in a person’s body, like changes in height,
weight, in the brain, heart and other structures and processes and in skeletal, muscular and neurological
features that affect motor skills.
Cognitive Development It involves all those changes that occur in the mental activity including
sensation, perception, memory, though reasoning and language .
Psychological Development It includes all those changes that concern a person’s personality, emotion
and relationship with others.

Process of Personality Development

(a) Growth :The increase in size that occurs with changing age called growth.

(b) Maturation: Maturation is the unfolding of genetically prescribed patterns of behavior or biological potentials.
Such changes are relatively independent of the environment like the infant’s motor development like grasping,
sitting, crawling etc. - 12 - Both growth and maturation involve biological changes while growth refers to the
increase in the individual’s cells and tissues. Maturation concerns the development of organs and limbs to become
functional.

(c) Learning: It is more or less a permanent modification in behavior that results from the individual’s experience
in the environment. It differs from maturation. Which occur without any specific experience or practice?

Factors affecting Personality:

The following five factors of personality are contributing to the formation and development of human personality.

Biological Factors

Social Factors

Cultural Factors

Physical Environment

Situational Factors

1. Biological Factors of Personality

Biological factors of personality are very important for the formation of human personality. Children are born in a
family; inherit many traits and features from their parents. Children get physical and psychological characteristics
from their parents which becomes a part of their personalities. Some of the inherited traits are courage, coward,
intelligence, weakness etc.

For example it was experimented on the negro that they are biological inferior. A normal healthy man has some
physical similarities such as two hands five senses, two eyes and these biological similarities help to explain some of
the similarities in the behavior.

It separates individuals from one another and their various physical characteristics except identical twins having the
same physical qualities. So, biological factors of personality are responsible for the development of personality.

2. Social Factors of Personality

When an individual interact with other persons in his/her group give and take relationship takes place and it affects
the personality of an individual social factors of personality are responsible for the formation of personality, when
an individual has group experience and contact with others personality of an individual is influenced by others may
be bad or good but depends on the association in which he/she keeps. In a society every person plays a specific role
and status.

For example in our society younger are expected to be respectful for elders. Many other social factors like
environment, group life, family, media with which an individual interact in his/her society daily life mold their
personalities. We can say that whatever comes in contact with an individual’s social life affects personality of that
individual and develop good or bad personality.

3. Cultural Factors of Personality

Both material as well as non-material culture affects personality of an individual. An individual living in his/her
culture adopts the traits consciously or unconsciously and acts accordingly. Culture of any society determines the
behaviors and personality of an individual and he/she is expected to act according to the culture. A person follows
all the social norms of a culture which results in the formation of good personality while non-conformity to the
cultural rules develops abnormal or bad personality. So, the culture in which an individual seeks satisfaction adjusts
himself/herself and develops personality.

4. Physical Environment

Physical environment also determines the personality of an individual. Environmental factors include land, river,
mountains, hills, forests, plain area, atmosphere etc which affect the personality to be good or bad, healthy or
weak. All the feelings, emotions, ideas, attitudes, habits and behavior as well as body structure is the result of
physical environment of to which an individual belongs. For example, body structure, physique, color and health of
the rural people are different from urban people. These people have different environment due to which they
develop variety of personalities. The people living in cities have facilities and modern ways of life which creates to
develop delicate bodies and minds as compare to the rural people who are deprived of these facilities.

5. Situational Factors of Personality

Situational factors of personality also have a complete share in the formation of personality of an individual.
situational factors of personality are charging according to the social situations. Every person face may situations in
his life which enables him/her to change his/her behavior. For example, a teacher may be rigid and strict with
students but may not with his/her family. An officer may behave with the subordinates differently as compare to
his/her friends. Personality is not the result of only one factor but every factor is responsible to give complete share
in its formation. A person behave and his/her personality exists when interacts with environment, culture, society,
parents, friends and to those who come in contact by chance.

Theories of Personality

1. Psychoanalytic Theory (1856-1939) Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed the best-known theory of
personality focused upon internal growth or psycho dynamic some other psychologists such as Carl Jung,
Alfred Adler, Karen Horney and Eric Fromm etc. have also made additional contributions. Freud assumes
that human personality is composed of three interrelated, but often conflicting psychoanalytic concepts.
(A) Structure of Personality Freud constructed a model of personality with three interlocking parts.

(i) Id

(ii) Ego

(iii) Super Ego –

Id The Id most primitive part can be thought as a storehouse of biological based urges. The urge to eat,
drink, eliminate and to be sexually stimulated, etc. The sexual energy that underlines these urges is called
‘libido.’ The Id operates according to self. The Id would satisfy the fundamental urges immediately and
reflectively as they arise without regard to rules, the realities of life and morals of any kind. All biological
needs are essential for survival except sex.

Ego (Reality Principle) The Id is usually managed by ego. It consists of elaborate ways of behaving and
thinking which constitute the creative function of the Person. The ego delays satisfying the Id, and
channelises the behavior into more socially acceptable outlet. It keeps working for a living, getting along
with people and generally adjusting to the realities of life.

Super Ego (Moral Principle) The super ego corresponds closely to what we call conscience (what we find
inside). It consists of mainly prohibition learned from parents and other authorities. It condemns certain
activities of ego, which are to satisfy the Id.

According to Freud, the entire Id is unconscious. The ego and super ego include material at all three
levels of consciousness.
(B) Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud emphasized on biological development and on sexual
development. In his theory of child development, Freud described a succession of stages revolving under
body zones. He called mouth, arms and gential zones (Excitable Zones). According to Freud, all human
beings pass through a series of five stages:

(a) Oral Stage (From Birth to One Year)

(b) Anal Stage (1-3 Years)

(c) Phalic Stage (3-6 Years)

(d) Latency Period (6-12 Years)

(e) The Genital Period (During Adolescence)

(a) Oral Stage: The infants obtain sexual pleasure, first by sucking and later by biting. Feeding and contact with
mother will help to make the mouth the focus of pleasure during first year. - 17 –

(b) Anal Stage: The anal stage occurs when parents are training the child in toileting. Psychoanalytic theory holds
that the first part of the anal stage involves pleasure from expulsion of faces.

(c) Phalic Stage: The pleasure is obtained by funding the gentiles. The child develops sexual feelings towards
parent of opposite sex Freud called these thought and feelings as oedipus complex and electra complex in boys and
girls respectively. The boys try to identify themselves with father and try to become father. In this process, the boys
take on their father’s behavior pattern, irrespective of whether it is right or wrong. Thus the boys develop super -ego.
In the same way the girls through identification with mother develop super-ego.

(d) Latency Period: Sexual interests are repressed and lie dormant till puberty. Period of gang formation and
fierce gang Loyalties. Boys cling together and shun girls. Girls despise boys .

(e) Genital Period: Young people begin experiencing romantic infatuation and emotional upheavals. Problems
encountered at any one stage either of deprivation or over indulgence many produce fixation at the stage. A person
fixated at oral stage, may lead to excessive oral behavior like eating, smoking and drinking. A person fixated at anal
stage may be abnormally concerned with cleanliness and orderliness (obsessive compulsive neuroses). For Freud the
first six years are critical for personality development what happens to individual in the later life is fashioned during
the child’s first six years.

(C) Topographical Description of Psyche or Levels of Consciousness Mind is a function of body; it

does not exist apart from the body. It is the sum total of the various mental processes or activities. Mental processes
can be conscious. Unconsciousness or preconscious.

(a) Conscious As per Freud, the conscious part of the mind consists of those mental activities of which we are
aware, such as thoughts feelingsit does not exist apart from the body. It is the sum total of the various mental
processes or activities. Mental processes can be conscious. Unconsciousness or preconscious. The conscious part of
the mind consists of those mental activities of which we are aware, such as thoughts feelings and sensations. It
functions only when the individual is awake.

(b) Unconscious It is by for the largest part of the mind. It includes our repressed desires, our fears and phobias,
for which we do not know the reason and many others. Material stored in the unconscious has a powerful influence
on our thoughts or feelings (unconscious motivation)
 (c) Preconscious or Subconscious It is the part of the mind in which ideas and reactions are stored and partially
forgotten. It also prevents certain unacceptable, disturbing unconscious memories from reaching the conscious mind.
Material from the subconscious can be brought to the conscious, if the concentrates on recall.

GORDON W.ALLPORT (November 11, 1897 – October 9, 1967) , Indiana Gordon W. Allport was a
longtime and influential member of the faculty at Harvard University from 1930 to 1967. In 1931, he served on the
faculty committee that established Harvard's Sociology Department. He received the APA's Distinguished Scientific
Contribution Award. Gordon Allport died on October 9, 1967 in Cambridge, Massachusetts of lung cancer. He was
seventy years old.

He developed a list of 4500 trait like words.

 He focused on the uniqueness of each individual and importance of the present context and opposed to past
history.

 American psychologist GORDON ALLPORT ,was one of the first psychologists o focus on the study of
personality traits.

Allport’s theory

INDIVIDUAL TRAITS : These are behavioural characteristics that are not found in all persons and may not
even exist in more than specific individual.

COMMON TRAITS : Characteristics which are more general than habits and attitudes in respect to which
people in a population can be profitably compared.

Allport ‘s trait levels Cardinal Trait, Ordinal Trait, Secondary Trait

ABRAHAM LINCOLN ( honest ),MOTHER TERESA ( religious service ) For e.g : if a person is humorous
in nature. These are limited in number to just one or two. The trait that dominates and shapes a person’s behavior
that they coloue every aspect of one’s behavior. These are also called primary traits.

Cardinal Trait: For e.g.: honesty, kindness etc. FIVE TO TEN central traits in an individual’s personality This is
general characteristic found in some degree in every person. These are the basic building blocks that shape most of
our behaviour .

Central Traits: For e.g. : stage fear before speaking at public. Preferences, attitudes, situational traits are all
secondary traits. These are not considered enough and not dominant characteristics. These are characteristics seen
only in certain circumstances .They must be included to provide a complete picture of human complexity.
Secondary Trait

Big Five personality traits

Human resources professionals often use the Big Five personality dimensions to help place employees.
That is because these dimensions are considered to be the underlying traits that make up an individual’s
overall personality.

The Big Five personality traits are:

Openness
Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

OCEAN:

Openness - People who like to learn new things and enjoy new experiences usually score high in openness.
Openness includes traits like being insightful and imaginative and having a wide variety of interests.

Conscientiousness - People that have a high degree of conscientiousness are reliable and prompt. Traits
include being organized, methodic, and thorough.

Extraversion - Extraverts get their energy from interacting with others, while introverts get their energy from
within themselves. Extraversion includes the traits of energetic, talkative, and assertive .

Agreeableness - These individuals are friendly, cooperative, and compassionate. People with low agreeableness
may be more distant. Traits include being kind, affectionate, and sympathetic.

Neuroticism - Neuroticism is also sometimes called Emotional Stability. This dimension relates to one’s emotional
stability and degree of negative emotions. People that score high on neuroticism often experience emotional
instability and negative emotions. Traits include being moody and tense.