PIPES and TUBES

Piping is used for Industrial, marine, transportation and plumbing purposes. Process
piping is used to transport fluids between storage tanks and process units. Service or
utility piping is used to convey steam, air, water, fuel oil etc.
Tubes: Tubes are not used as pipes but used for steam tracing. These are mostly used in
Heat Exchangers. Tube is specified, by outside diameter and wall thickness in mm. The
wall thickness is also expressed in BWG (Birmingham Wire Gauge). The principal uses
for tube are in heat exchangers, instrument lines, and inter-connections on equipments
such as compressors, boilers, and refrigerators. Tubes are generally, in smaller diameters
and are seamless. These produced by extrusion process.

Pipe is identified by Nominal Pipe Size, with wall thickness defined by schedule number,
API designations or weights. Non-standard pipes are specified by nominal size and wall
thickness. Pipe is specified, in DIN Standard by outside diameter and wall thickness in
mm. Pipes are of two types.

 Seamless : These are produced similar to tubes but are of higher diameters than
tube. These are used for severe operating conditions.
 ERW (Electric Resistance Welded): These are as per ASTM A-53B. This general
service carbon steel pipe is electrical resistance welded. This grade is typical
Schedule 40 and 80 pipe. It is well suited for fabrication, and may be used for
pressure vessels with pressure and temperature limitations. Often used for oil,
water, gas and petroleum products.

SIZES : The size of all pipe is identified by Nominal Pipe Size, which is seldom equal to
the true bore (internal diameter) of the pipe. 350 mm NB and larger pipes have outside
diameter equal to nominal pipe size. Normal pipe diameters as per ANSI Standard are 15,
20, 25, 40, 50, 80, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500 and 600 mm NB. 32, 65,
95, 125 mm NB pipes are normally used in small length for final connection to
equipments, but piping later is done with one size larger.
Smaller than 15 NB are restricted for instrument lines or for service and other lines which
have to mate with other equipments. 15 NB pipe is extensively used for steam tracing and
auxiliary piping at pump. Pipes with diameter larger than 600 mm NB are defined by
American Water Works Association Standard (AWWA)
LENGTHS : Straight pipe is supplied in random lengths of 6 to 8 meters and of double
this length.
Pipe Ends of these lengths are generally either Plain end (PE) for socket welding or
Beveled end (BE) for butt-welding, or threaded which is supplied with one coupling per
length.
PIPE THICKNESS : Pipes in the various sizes are made in several wall thickness for
each size, which have been established by three different sources.
1. ANSI through schedule number, and are specified in standard B36.10. and ASME
and ASTM through standard, extra-strong and double extra strong.
2. API through its standard 5L and 5LX. For stainless steel ANSI standard B36.19,
establishes a range of thin walled sizes, identified by schedules 5S and 10S.
TEMPERATURE and PRESSURE LIMITS : Carbon Steels lose strength at high
temperatures. Electric-resistance-welded (ERW) pipe is not considered satisfactory for
service above 400 Deg C. For higher temperatures, pipes made from Stainless Steel or
other alloys should be considered.
MATERIAL of CONSTRUCTION : Different materials are used for construction of
pipes and tubes. These are Carbon Steel, Iron, Non Ferrous, Plastic, Glass, and Lined
metal.
1. Carbon Steel : The most readily available carbon steel pipe is made to ASTM
A53 in schedules 40, 80, STD and XS sizes, in electric arc welded (Grade A and
Grade B-the later grade has the higher tensile strength) and in seamless (Grade A
and B) constructions.
Common finishes are Black (plain or mill finish) and Galvanized.
As with other steels, A53 has a specific gravity of approximately 7.85, and
therefore a density of approximately 7850 kg/m3. A53 pipe comes in several
types and grades A and B. Grade A is not commonly used for structural
applications.
A53 Grade A has a minimum tensile yield strength of 2050 kg/m2, and minimum
tensile ultimate strength of 3300 kg/m2. A53 Grade B has a minimum tensile yield
strength of 2400 kg/m2, and minimum tensile ultimate strength of 4150 kg/m2.
A106 Grade A has a tensile strength of 3200 kg/m2. A106 Grade B has a tensile
strength of 4000 kg/m2, A106 Grade C has tensile strength of 4500 kg/m2.
Most sizes and weights are also available in seamless carbon steel to ASTM A
106, which is comparable specification to A 53, but prescribing more stringent
testing. Three grades of A 106 are available, Grade A, B and C, in order of
increasing tensile strength. Straight seam welded and spiral welded pipe is made
from plate and seamless pipe is made by piercing solid billets. Carbon Steel pipe
is strong, ductile, weldable, mechineable, reasonably durable and is cheaper than
pipe made from other materials. If carbon steel pipe can meet the requirements of
pressure, temperature, corrosion resistance and hygiene, it is natural choice.
2. Iron Pipe : It is made from cast-iron and ductile iron. The principal uses are for
water, gas and sewage lines which are laid under the ground. Wrought iron pipe is
seldom employed.
3. Non-Ferrous Pipes : Pipes or tubes made from copper, lead, nickel, brass,
aluminum and various stainless steels can be readily obtained. These materials are
relatively expensive and are selected usually either because of their particular
corrosion resistance to process chemicals, their good heat transfer, or for their
tensile strength at higher temperatures.
o Copper and Copper Alloys are traditional for instrument lines, food
processing, and heat transfer equipments, but stainless steels are
increasingly being used for these purposes.
Temper: Temper denotes the hardness and strength of tube. Products are
available in a variety of tempers like H (Hard), HH (Half Hard), QH
(Quarter Hard), O (soft annealed) and OL (light annealed). Straight
lengths are primarily drawn temper, or as more commonly known, hard
tube. Annealed temper tube is referred to as soft tube. The following
points provide the various tempers in which copper and copper alloy
 pipes, tube and fittings are provided.
Hard Drawn : No visible grain. Used where minimal forming will be
performed and maximum strength is required.
Half Hard : 0.015-0.040 mm grain size. This temper is similar to light
annealed or light annealed rotary straightened, but has much higher yield
strength due to drawing after annealing. This product is used where high
rigidity is desired with minimal amount of forming ability.
Light Anneal : 0.015-0.040 mm grain size. Preferred for tight bends and
extreme forming application. This is an annealed temper with a fine grain
size to prevent “orange peel” and fracturing when forming.
Soft Anneal : 0.040-0.060 mm grain size. This temper is suitable for
general purpose bending and forming which is not as extreme as that
requiring light annealed temper. Soft anneal temper works hardens at a
slower rate than light anneal.
o Lead: Primarily used for conveying dilute suphuric acid. Lead Pipe
(Seamless) is made from Pure Lead Metal (99.97% min.) or Lead Alloys,
which is readily fabricated by extrusion. Lead Metal have excellent
property of corrosion resistance and flexibility. Lead Pipes finds many
uses in the chemical industry. Lead Pipe for these applications is made
from either chemical Pure Lead or up to 6% Antimonial Lead Alloy. Pure
Lead (Chemical Grade) Pipes & Antimonial Lead Pipes are offered as per
client specification. Standard sizes are min 10 mm ID and max 200 mm
ID. The main application for such Lead Pipes are for Water, Soil Waste,
Ventilating, Gas Purpose, Telephones, Telegraph, Under ground works,
Acids & Chemicals. In present time, Lead Pipes are mainly used for
carriage of corrosive chemicals in chemical plants. The appropriate
composition of Lead with other alloying Metal is extruded for cutting into
short length sleeves which is used for jointing of Lead Sheathed Cables.

o Cupro Nickel: Copper had been proved since the early days to have many
good attributes. It was easy to bend and had very high corrosion
resistance, but there was concern about its low corrosion-fatigue strength.
When copper-nickel was introduced, it displayed corrosion resistance
similar to copper, higher general strength and better fatigue strength. Good
formability allows ease of flaring and bending, and although the metal cost
is greater than that of steel alternatives, copper-nickel is very attractive in
view of its extra life, trouble-free installation and safety/reliability
characteristics.
Properties of Copper-Nickel Brake Tubing: The copper-nickel alloy used
for brake tubing typically contains 10% nickel, with iron and manganese
additions of 1.4% and 0.8% respectively. The product conforms to ASTM
B466, which specifies dimensions, tensile strength and yield strength.
Formability and internal cleanliness conform to specifications SAE J527,
ASTM A254 and SMMT C5B (Society of Motor Manufacturers and
Traders). Also, the alloy meets the requirements for pressure containment,
fabrication and corrosion resistance for ISO 4038 (International Standards
 Organization) and SAE J1047.
Corrosion Resistance: For many years prior to its application as a brake
tubing material, alloy C70600 had been used in ships, power station
condensers and hydraulic lines on tankers, and had displayed excellent
resistance to saline conditions. Early tests revealed that copper-nickel has
almost the same resistance to burst pressure as steel. In testing, however,
when exposed to salt spray over 180 days, steel's burst strength decreases
significantly. The copper alloy remains consistently resistant.
For tubes covered with a moist, salty mudpack for six months, brazed steel
was severely corroded resulting in perforation of the tubing wall; whereas,
only superficial general corrosion was found on the copper-nickel tubing.
ISO 4038 and SAE J1047 include a corrosion resistance requirement
referring to ISO 3768 asking for a minimum burst pressure of 110 MPa
after 96 hours in neutral salt spray. Swedish requirements include a
resistance at least equal to 25µ of zinc. In all cases alloy C70600 easily
exceeds the required corrosion resistance.
Copper-nickel brake tubing provides superior reliability and assures both
manufacturers and vehicle owners improved durability for effective long-
life functioning of the brake system.
o Brass: Using brass pipes has its advantages. Since brass pipe fittings are
corrosive resistant and durable, they last longer than other materials. They
are also easily manufactured, so you can easily have brass pipes in the size
and shape you prefer. Brass pipe suppliers provide various kinds of brass
pipe fittings for plumbing business. Some of the most commonly used are:
pipe adaptors, pipe couplings, pipe elbows, pipe nipples, pipe unions, pipe
tees, pipe plugs and pipe wyes. These brass pipes come in different sizes
which have various uses as well. Residential pipes are relatively smaller
than those used for industrial applications.
4. Plastic Pipes : These are used for transporting actively corrosive fluids, and is
especially useful for handling corrosive or hazardous gases and dilute mineral
acids. Plastics are used in three ways as all plastic pipe, as filled plastic materials
(Glass fiber reinforced, carbon filled, etc.), and as lining or coating material.
Plastic pipe is made from Polypropylene, Polyethylene, Polybutylene, Poly
vinylchloride, Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene, Cellulose Acetate-butyrate,
Polyolefins, and Polyesters. Pipe made from Polyester and Epoxy resins is
frequently glass fiber reinforced (FRP) and commercial product of this type have
good resistance to wear and chemical attack.
5. Glass : Generally, Borosilicate glass is used for pipes and fittings. All glass piping
is used for its chemical resistance, cleanliness and transparency. Glass pipe is not
subject to crazing, often found in glass lined pipes and vessels subjected to
repeated thermal stresses. Pipes, fittings and hardware are available both for
process piping and for drainage. Process lines of 25, 40, 50, 80, 100 and 150 mm
NB are readily available, with 200 Deg C as the maximum operating temperature
and pressure range up to 4 kg/sq. cm. (for 25 to 80 mm NB), 3.5 kg/sq. cm. (for
100 mm NB) and 2.5 kg/sq. cm. (for 150 mm NB)
 6. Lining and Coating : Lining and coating carbon steel pipe with a material able to
withstand chemical attack permits its use to carry corrosive fluids. Lengths of
lined pipes and fittings are joined by flanges, and elbows, tees etc, are available
readily flanged. Lining like rubber can be applied after fabricating the pipe, but
pipe is often pre-lined. Lining of various rubbers, plastics, metals and vitreous
material is available. Coating is made from Plastics like Poly-propylene, Poly-
ethylene, Poly-butylene, Poly-vinylchloride, Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene,
Poly-olefins, and Poly-esters. Carbon Steel pipe coated with zinc, by immersion
into molten zinc (hot-dip galvanized) is used for conveying drinking water,
instrument air and various other fluids. Rubber and Basalt lining is often used to
handle abrasive fluids.

REINFORCEMENTS : This is used for straight run pipes as well as for branch
connections.
1. On Straight Pipe : If a butt-weld joining two sections of straight pipe is subject
to unusual external stress, it may be reinforced by addition of a sleeve, which is a
pipe cut at the seams in two parts. The Code applicable to piping should be
referred for reinforcement. Reinforcing pieces are usually provided with a small
hole to vent gases produced by welding, which would otherwise get trapped. A
vent hole also serves to indicate any leak in the weld.
2. On Branch Connections : It is addition of extra metal at a branch connection
made from a pipe or vessel wall. The added metal compensates for structural
weakening due to the hole. Stub-ins may be reinforced with regular or wrap-
around saddles. Rings made from pipe stock are used to reinforce branches made
with welded laterals and butt welded connections to vessels. Small welded
connections may be reinforced by adding extra metal to the joint.

METHODS of PIPE JOINING : There are five methods of joining pipes to each other.
These are Butt-Welded, Socket Welded, Screwed, Bolted Flanges and Bolted Quick
Couplings.
1. Butt Welded Pipes : These are used for most of the process, utility and service
piping. If welding is not properly done, intruding material may affect flow. The
end of the pipe is first beveled. Fittings are similarly beveled by the manufacturer.
The two parts are aligned, properly gapped, tack welded, and the continuous weld
is made to complete the joint. Lines 50 mm NB and larger are usually butt
welded, this being the most economic and leak proof way of joining larger
diameter piping. Usually such lines lines are sub-contracted to a piping fabricator
for pre-fabrication in sections, termed as spools, which are then transported to the
site. Butt weld fittings are used in these lines.
2. Socket-Welded Pipes : These are used for pipelines conveying flammable, toxic
or expensive material, where no leakage can be permitted. Socket welding is
easier to align on small lines than butt welding. Tack welding is not necessary. No
weld metal can enter the bore. Joint will not leak, when properly made. A small
gap between pipe and fitting may hold liquid in it. To make the joint pipe is
finished flat. It is located in the fitting, valve, flange etc., and a continuous fillet
weld is made around the circumference. Lines 40 mm NB and smaller are usually
 socket welded and are normally field run by the piping contractor from general
arrangement drawings. These have socket welding fittings.
3. Screwed Pipes : Lines 40 mm NB and smaller can have screwed joints but these
joints can leak. These should not be used for flammable or corrosive liquids.
These can be easily made on site from pipes and fittings. It minimizes fire hazard
when installing these as no welding work is involved. Not good for erosion,
crevice corrosion, shock or vibration or at very high temperatures. Seal welding
may be necessary. Strength of the pipe is reduced, as forming the screw thread
reduces the wall thickness. These are field run by piping contractor.
4. Bolted Flanged Pipes : These are expensive and for the most part are used to
mate with flanged vessels, equipments, valves, and for process lines which may
require periodic cleaning. Flanged joints are made by bolting together two flanges
with a gasket between them to provide a seal.
5. Bolted Quick Couplings : Connections of this type may be suitable for either
permanent or temporary use depending on the joint and gasket, and service
conditions. Piping can be built rapidly with these, and these are useful for making
repairs to lines, for constructing short-run process installations such as pilot plants
and for process modifications.

Process Piping
Process piping is a form of link used to transport materials used in industrial processes
and manufacturing. It is specially designed for particular applications to ensure that it will
meet health and safety standards, in addition to suiting the needs of a given
manufacturing process. Process piping can be installed by plumbers, as well as
contractors who specialize in installing factory components, and like other fixed elements
of a manufacturing facility, it is subject to inspection and approval by government
regulators.
This type of piping can be used in a wide variety of ways. In food manufacturing, for
example, process piping can be used to transport food ingredients to various points on the
assembly line. Chemical manufacturing facilities use process piping to transport
components of their products along with materials like natural gas used in manufacturing.
Refineries and similar facilities also utilize process piping to move chemical compounds.

Many different materials can be used to make process piping. An important consideration
is the types of materials that will be transported, as there may be special needs like inert
glass or ceramic piping, corrosion-resistant stainless steel that can be sterilized in a food
manufacturing facility, or inexpensive plastics for transporting materials like water. The
designer of the piping also has to consider issues like the amount of pressure the piping
will be subjected to and the width of the piping when selecting an appropriate
construction material.
The process piping connects with reservoirs, holding tanks, and other containers designed
to release or retain the materials transported in the piping. For safety, valves and shutoffs
are installed along the line to release pressure, close off pipes, and isolate leaks. Some of
these devices are designed to trigger automatically during an emergency, usually while
sending an alarm so that a technician can address the problem. The piping can also be
controlled electronically using central control panels in many facilities.
Process piping is laid out in schematic diagrams at the time that a facility is designed.
Designers now use computer-aided design (CAD) programs to lay out piping and print
schematics while others may work by hand, depending on preference. In addition to
being used as guides during construction, these schematics are also used in the future as
people maintain piping, address problems that arise, and respond to emergency situations.
Schematics must be updated to reflect changes made in the piping over time so that the
information they contain is current.
One of the most important components of the infrastructure in the industrialized world is
the vast network of pipelines and process piping—literally millions and millions of miles.
The term “pipelines” generally refers to the network of pipelines that transport water,
sewage, steam, and gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons from sources (e.g., reservoirs, steam
plants, oil and gas wells, refineries) to local distribution centers (“transmission
pipelines”), and to the network of pipelines that distribute such products to local markets
and end users (“distribution” pipelines). The term “process piping” generally refers to the
system of pipes that transport process fluids (e.g., air, steam, water, industrial gases, fuels,
chemicals) around an industrial facility involved in the manufacture of products or in the
generation of power. Pipelines and process piping are generally made of steel, cast iron,
copper, or specialty metals in certain highly aggressive environments, but the use of
plastic materials is growing, especially in hydrocarbon-based distribution lines and in
sewer lines. Very large-diameter water transmission lines are often made of reinforced
concrete.
The most common method of joining the individual segments of pipe is by welding (or
soldering in the case of copper, and gluing in the case of plastics), although bolted flanges
or threaded connections are often used in smaller-diameter process piping. In low-
pressure piping systems that transport non-hazardous fluids like water and sewage,
mechanical joints (e.g., “ball and spigot,” compression) that rely on friction are
commonly used. Pipelines and piping are usually constructed and maintained in
accordance with national and local regulations and applicable industry standards. For
example, the most commonly used industrial code for the transport of liquids is ASME
B31.4. B31.8 is most commonly used for the transmission and distribution of gas, and
ASME B31.3 most often applies to process piping. Once assembled, pipelines are usually
buried, but process piping is usually above ground.
Pipelines and process piping are the safest means to transport gases and fluids across
countries or across manufacturing facilities. However, given the extensive network of
pipelines and piping, failures do occur, which can be quite spectacular and lead to
extensive property damage and loss of life. Given their potential impact, it is important to
investigate the cause(s) of such failures, which often involve input from many different
engineering and scientific disciplines. As such, Exponent, with its broad range of skill
sets, is uniquely positioned to investigate such failures, and has done so on hundreds of
occasions, ranging from quarter-inch process tubing to 20-ft-diameter concrete water
distribution pipelines.
Equally important, of course, is the prevention of pipeline and piping failures. Our
scientists and engineers provide in-depth technical knowledge that has enabled us to
make significant contributions to clients during the design, layout, and construction of
pipelines and piping systems, and in the development and implementation of integrity
and risk management programs. Exponent staff has brought their expertise to bear on
preventive projects ranging in scope from reviewing the design and construction of the
process piping at petrochemical plants to overall integrity reviews of long-distance oil
and gas transmission pipeline systems.
Clients that have utilized Exponent’s pipeline and process piping expertise have included
Fortune 500 manufacturing and petrochemical companies, utilities, pipeline companies,
insurers, and capital project lending organizations.

PIPING DESIGN
General considerations to be evaluated for Piping Design should be the Design
Conditions such as temperatures, pressures, and various forces applicable to the design of
piping systems.
1. Design Pressure : The design pressure of a piping system shall not be less than
the pressure at the most severe condition of coincident pressure and temperature
resulting in the greatest required component thickness or rating.
2. Design Temperature : The design temperature is the material temperature
representing the most severe condition of coincident pressure and temperature.
For uninsulated metallic pipe with fluid below 38°C (100°F), the metal
temperature is taken as the fluid temperature.
o With fluid at or above 38°C (100°F) and without external insulation, the
metal temperature is taken as a percentage of the fluid temperature unless
a lower temperature is determined by test or calculation. For pipe,
threaded and welding-end valves, fittings, and other components with a
wall thickness comparable with that of the pipe, the percentage is 95
percent; for flanges and flanged valves and fittings, 90 percent; for lap-
joint flanges, 85 percent; and for bolting, 80 percent.
o With external insulation, the metal temperature is taken as the fluid
temperature unless service data, tests, or calculations justify lower values.
For internally insulated pipe, the design metal temperature shall be
calculated or obtained from tests.

The following criteria must be met for a good piping design

1. The piping system shall have no pressure-containing components of cast iron or

other nonductile metal.
 2. Nominal pressure stresses shall not exceed the yield strength at temperature (see
Table 10-49 and data in ASME Code, Sec. VIII, Division 2).
3. Combined longitudinal stresses (SL) shall not exceed the limits established in the
code (see pressure design of piping components for SL limitations).
4. The number of cycles (or variations) shall not exceed 7000 during the life of the
piping system.
5. Occasional variations above design conditions shall remain within one of the
following limits for pressure design:
o When the variation lasts no more than 10 hours at any one time and no
more than 100 hours per year, it is permissible to exceed the pressure
rating or the allowable stress for pressure design at the temperature of the
increased condition by not more than 33 percent.
o When the variation lasts no more than 50 hours at any one time and not
more than 500 hours per year, it is permissible to exceed the pressure
rating or the allowable stress for pressure design at the temperature of the
increased condition by not more than 20 percent
o Dynamic Effects Design must provide for impact (hydraulic shock, etc.),
wind (exposed piping), earthquake (see ANSI A58.1), discharge reactions,
and vibrations (of piping arrangement and support).
Weight considerations include
 live loads (contents, ice, and snow)
 dead loads (pipe, valves, insulation, etc.)
 test loads (test fluid).
o Thermal-expansion and -contraction loads occur when a piping system is
prevented from free thermal expansion or contraction as a result of
anchors and restraints or undergoes large, rapid temperature changes or
unequal temperature distribution because of an injection of cold liquid
striking the wall of a pipe carrying hot gas.

Design Criteria for Metallic Pipe : The code uses three different approaches to design,
as follows:
1. It provides for the use of dimensionally standardized components at their
published pressure-temperature ratings.
2. It provides design formulas and maximum stresses.
3. It prohibits the use of materials, components, or assembly methods in certain
conditions.

Wall Thickness : External-pressure stress evaluation of piping is the same as for pressure
vessels. For piping, the design pressure and temperature are taken as the maximum
intended operating pressure and temperature combination which results in the maximum
thickness. For straight metal pipe under internal pressure the formula for minimum
required wall thickness tm is applicable for OD/t ratios greater than 6.
PDo
tm = ------------- + C
2(SE + PY)
where (in consistent units)
P = design pressure
Do = outside diameter of pipe
C = sum of allowances for corrosion, erosion, and any thread or groove depth. For
threaded components the depth is h of ANSI B2.1, and for grooved components the depth
is the depth removed (plus 1/64 in when no tolerance is specified).
SE = allowable stress
S = basic allowable stress for materials, excluding casting, joint, or structural-grade
quality factors
E = quality factor. The quality factor E is one or the product of more than one of the
following quality factors: casting quality factor Ec, joint quality factor Ej, and structural-
grade quality factor Es of 0.92.
Y = coefficient for ductile ferrous materials
tm = minimum required thickness, in, to which manufacturing tolerance must be added
when specifying pipe thickness on purchase orders.
Pipe with t equal to or greater than D/6 or P/SE greater than 0.385 requires special
consideration.
Thermal Expansion and Flexibility : Metallic Piping ANSI B31.3 requires that piping
systems have sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal expansion or contraction or the
movement of piping supports or terminals from causing (1) failure of piping supports
from overstress or fatigue; (2) leakage at joints; or (3) detrimental stresses or distortions
in piping or in connected equipment (pumps, turbines, or valves, for example), resulting
from excessive thrusts or movements in the piping. To assure that a system meets these
requirements, the computed displacement –stress range SE shall not exceed the allowable
stress range SA, the reaction forces Rm shall not be detrimental to supports or connected
equipment, and movement of the piping shall be within any prescribed limits.
Displacement Strains result from piping being displaced from its unrestrained position:
1. Thermal displacements. A piping system will undergo dimensional changes with
any change in temperature. If it is constrained from free movement by terminals,
guides, and anchors, it will be displaced from its unrestrained position.
2. Reaction displacements. If the restraints are not considered rigid and there is a
predictable movement of the restraint under load, this may be treated as a
compensating displacement.
3. Externally imposed displacements. Externally caused movement of restraints will
impose displacements on the piping in addition to those related to thermal effects.
Such movements may result from causes such as wind sway or temperature
changes in connected equipment.

Total Displacement Strains Thermal displacements, reaction displacements, and

externally imposed displacements all have equivalent effects on the piping system and
must be considered together in determining total displacement strains in a piping system.
Expansion strains may be taken up in three ways: by bending, by torsion, or by axial
compression. In the first two cases maximum stress occurs at the extreme fibers of the
cross section at the critical location. In the third case the entire cross-sectional area over
the entire length is for practical purposes equally stressed.
Bending or torsional flexibility may be provided by bends, loops, or offsets; by
corrugated pipe or expansion joints of the bellows type; or by other devices permitting
rotational movement. These devices must be anchored or otherwise suitably connected to
resist end forces from fluid pressure, frictional resistance to pipe movement, and other
causes.
Axial flexibility may be provided by expansion joints of the slip joint or bellows types,
suitably anchored and guided to resist end forces from fluid pressure, frictional resistance
to movement, and other causes. Displacement Stresses may be considered proportional to
the total displacement strain only if the strains are well distributed and not excessive at
any point. The methods outlined in the code are applicable only to such a system. Poor
distribution of strains (unbalanced systems) may result from highly stressed small-size
pipe runs in series with large and relatively stiff pipe runs.

Scope of Piping Engineer

A piping engineer is anyone who installs, repairs and maintains pipes in Chemical Plants.
Piping engineers must understand the functions of the types of pipes involved and have a
grasp of a plant's piping. They need to know which pipes are used for heating or cooling.
Basics: Piping engineers typically start with a draftsman's blueprint, which illustrates
where piping needs to be positioned. Their responsibilities range from laying down pipe
to making repairs. They often work odd and long hours and spend a fair amount of time
traveling to multiple job sites. Many work as independent contractors and are available
for long periods in the event that an emergency repair is needed.
Skills: Piping engineers must possess strength and stamina, as they often lift and position
heavy material, as well as stand or bend over for extended periods. They need to be
skilled with their hands and cautious on the job, as one mistake could set a project back
or create additional (and unwanted) costs. Piping engineers should be attentive to detail.
Although these professionals must be able to work independently, they must also be
capable of following instructions. In addition, they must exhibit the analytical skills
necessary to read a blueprint.
Background: There are no set requirements to become a piping engineer. Many learn
their skills on the job or in apprenticeships. Some receive a certification after attending a
piping courses. Others work in related fields, such as construction, before making the
transition to piping engineer. A background in math may prove beneficial to an aspiring
piping engineer.
Prospects: Projects jobs for piping engineers increase 10 to 15% percent every year. This
growth rate is higher than the national average for all occupations.
Earnings: Salaries depend on experience, the specific industry involved.
Non Newtonian Fluids
A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose flow properties differ in any way from those of
Newtonian fluids. Most commonly the viscosity (measure of a fluid's ability to resist
gradual deformation by shear or tensile stresses) of non-Newtonian fluids is dependent on
shear rate or shear rate history. However, there are some non-Newtonian fluids with
shear-independent viscosity, that nonetheless exhibit normal stress-differences or other
non-Newtonian behavior. Many salt solutions and molten polymers are non-Newtonian
fluids, as are many commonly found substances such as ketchup, custard, toothpaste,
starch suspensions, paint, blood, and shampoo. In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between
the shear stress and the shear rate is linear, passing through the origin, the constant of
proportionality being the coefficient of viscosity. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation
between the shear stress and the shear rate is different, and can even be time-dependent.
Therefore, a constant coefficient of viscosity cannot be defined.

Although the concept of viscosity is commonly used in fluid mechanics to characterize

the shear properties of a fluid, it can be inadequate to describe non-Newtonian fluids.
They are best studied through several other rheological properties which relate stress and
strain rate tensors under many different flow conditions, such as oscillatory shear, or
extensional flow which are measured using different devices or rheometers. The
properties are better studied using tensor-valued constitutive equations, which are
common in the field of continuum mechanics.
Shear thinning fluid: A familiar example of the opposite, a shear thinning fluid, or
pseudoplastic fluid, is wall paint: one wants the paint to flow readily off the brush when it
is being applied to the surface being painted, but not to drip excessively. Note that all
thixotropic fluids are extremely shear thinning, but they are significantly time dependent,
whereas the colloquial "shear thinning" fluids respond instantaneously to changes in
shear rate. Thus, in order to avoid confusion, the latter classification is more clearly
termed pseudoplastic.
Bingham plastic: There are fluids which have a linear shear stress/shear strain
relationship which require a finite yield stress before they begin to flow (the plot of shear
stress against shear strain does not pass through the origin). These fluids are called
Bingham plastics. Several examples are clay suspensions, drilling mud, toothpaste,
mayonnaise, chocolate, and mustard. The surface of a Bingham plastic can hold peaks
when it is still. By contrast Newtonian fluids have flat featureless surfaces when still.
Rheopectic: There are also fluids whose strain rate is a function of time. Fluids that
require a gradually increasing shear stress to maintain a constant strain rate are referred to
as rheopectic. An opposite case of this, is a fluid that thins out with time and requires a
decreasing stress to maintain a constant strain rate (thixotropic).
Many common substances exhibit non-Newtonian flows. These include:

 Soap solutions and cosmetics

 Food such as butter, cheese, jam, ketchup, mayonnaise, soup, and yogurt
 Natural substances such as magma, lava, gums, and extracts such as vanilla
extract. Ketchup is a shear thinning fluid. Shear thinning means that the fluid
viscosity decreases with increasing shear stress. In other words, fluid motion is
initially difficult at slow rates of deformation, but will flow more freely at high
rates.
 Biological fluids such as blood, saliva, semen, and synovial fluid
 Slurries such as cement slurry, emulsions such as mayonnaise, and some kinds of
dispersions

Two Phase Flow

In fluid mechanics, two-phase flow occurs in a system containing gas and liquid with a
meniscus separating the two phases. Two-phase flow is a particular example of
multiphase flow.
The most commonly studied cases of two-phase flow are in large-scale power systems.
Coal and gas-fired power stations used very large boilers to produce steam for use in
turbines. In such cases, pressurized water is passed through heated pipes and it changes to
steam as it moves through the pipe. The design of boilers requires a detailed
understanding of two-phase flow heat-transfer and pressure drop behavior, which is
significantly different from the single-phase case. Even more critically, nuclear reactors
use water to remove heat from the reactor core using two-phase flow.
Another case where two-phase flow can occur is in pump cavitation. Here a pump is
operating close to the vapor pressure of the fluid being pumped. If pressure drops further,
which can happen locally near the vanes for the pump, for example, then a phase change
can occur and gas will be present in the pump. Similar effects can also occur on marine
propellers; wherever it occurs, it is a serious problem for designers. When the vapor
bubble collapses, it can produce very large pressure spikes, which over time will cause
damage on the propeller or turbine.

The above two-phase flow cases are for a single fluid occurring by itself as two different
phases, such as steam and water. The term 'two-phase flow' is also applied to mixtures of
different fluids having different phases, such as air and water, or oil and natural gas.
Sometimes even three-phase flow is considered, such as in oil and gas pipelines where
there might be a significant fraction of solids.
Characteristics of two-phase flow: Several features make two-phase flow an interesting
and challenging branch of fluid mechanics.

 Surface tension makes all dynamical problems nonlinear (see Weber number).
 In the case of air and water at standard temperature and pressure, the density of
the two phases differs by a factor of about 1000. Similar differences are typical of
water liquid/water vapor densities.
 The sound speed changes dramatically for materials undergoing phase change,
and can be orders of magnitude different. This introduces compressible effects
into the problem.
 The phase changes are not instantaneous, and the liquid vapor system will not
necessarily be in phase equilibrium.

The most common class of Multiphase Flows are two-phase flows, and these include the
following:
Gas-liquid flows: This is probably the most important form of multiphase flow, and is
found widely in a whole range of industrial applications. These include pipeline systems
for the transport of oil-gas mixtures, evaporators, boilers, condensers, submerged
combustion systems, sewerage treatment plants, air-conditioning and refrigeration plants,
and cryogenic plants. Gas-liquid systems are also important in the meteorology and in
other natural phenomena.
Gas-solid flows: Flows of solids suspended in gases are important in pneumatic
conveying and in pulverized fuel combustion. Fluidized beds may also be regarded as a
form of gas-solid flow. In such beds, the solid remains within the fixed container while
the gas passes through. However, within the bed itself, both the gas and the solid are
undergoing complex motions.
Liquid-liquid flows: Examples of the application of this kind of flow are the flow of oil-
water mixtures in pipelines and in liquid-liquid solvent extraction mass transfer systems.
Solvent extraction equipment includes packed columns, pulsed columns, stirred
contactors and pipeline contactors.
Liquid-solid flows: The most important application of this type of flow is in the
hydraulic conveying of solid materials. Liquid-solid suspensions also occur in
crystallization systems, in china clay extraction and in hydro-cyclones.
Design Parameters in Two-phase Flow:
The more important design parameters for two-phase flow systems include the following:
Pressure drop: Pressure losses occur in two-phase flow systems due to friction,
acceleration and gravitational effects. If a fixed flow is required, then the pressure drop
determines the power input of the pumping system. Here, examples are the design of
pumps for the pipeline transport of slurries, or for pumping of oil-water mixtures. If the
available pressure drop is fixed, the relationship between velocity and pressure drop
needs to be invoked in order to predict the flow rate. An example of this latter application
is in the prediction of the circulation rate in natural circulation boiler systems.
Heat transfer coefficient: Heat transfer coefficients in two-phase systems are obviously
important in determining the size of heat exchangers in such systems. Examples here are
thermo-syphon reboilers in distillation plant and condensers in power plant.
Mass transfer coefficient: This is important in the design of separation equipment and
also in predicting the situation of combined heat and mass transfer such as in the
condensation of vapor mixtures.
Mean phase content (e): This quantity represents the fraction by volume or by cross-
sectional area of a particular phase. In gas-liquid flows, the gas mean phase content eG is
often referred to as the Void Fraction and the liquid phase fraction eL the liquid holdup. In
systems containing a solid phase, the mean solid phase content is referred to as the solid
hold-up. Mean phase content can be important in governing the inventory of a particular
phase within a system, particularly when that phase is toxic or valuable. Mean phase
content also governs the gravitational pressure gradient.
Flux limitations: Limitations in mass and heat fluxes are important in the design of two-
phase flow systems. Examples of mass flux limitations include Critical Flow (which
tends to occur at lower velocities in multiphase system than those found in single-phase
systems), Flooding and Flow Reversal in counter-current flow systems (for example in a
reflux condenser), and minimum fluidization velocities in Fluidized Beds. Heat flux
limitations are important in boiling, where exceeding the burnout or critical heat flux can
lead to poor system performance or physical damage due to excessive increases in the
channel wall temperature.
Modeling Approaches for Two-phase Flows: A wide range of models have been
developed for two-phase flow systems. These include:
Homogeneous model: In the homogeneous model, the two phases are assumed to be
traveling at the same velocity in the channel and the flow is treated as being analogous to
a single phase flow.
Separated flow models: Here, the two fluids are considered to be traveling at different
velocities and overall conservation equations are written taking this into account.
Multi-fluid model: Here, separate conservation equations are written for each phase,
these equations containing terms describing the interaction between the phases.
Drift flux model: Here, the flow is described in terms of a distribution parameter and an
averaged local velocity difference between the phases.
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models: In contrast to the above models, the
Computational fluid dynamic, CFD, models usually involve two or three dimensions, and
attempt to describe the full flow field.

CODES and STANDARDS

For Piping Systems proper selection of Material of Construction along with

Specifications, Adherence to Codes and Standards is essential. Standardization reduces
cost, confusion and inconvenience. Standards are published by Professional Societies,
Committees and Trade Organizations. It is also accepted by Governments. The main
objective is to have Standardization and Safety.

 CODE : A group of general rules or systematic procedures for Design,

Fabrication, Installation and Inspection methods prepared in such a manner that it
can be adopted by legal jurisdiction and made into a law.
 STANDARDS : Documents prepared by a Professional group or Committee
which are believed to be good and proper Engineering Practices and which
contain mandatory requirement.

 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES : Documents prepared by professional group or

committee indicating Good Engineering Practices but which are optional.

Companies also develop Guides in order to have consistency in the documentation. These
cover various engineering methods which are considered good practices, without specific
recommendations or requirements.

Codes and Standards, besides being regulations, might also be considered as Design Aids
since they provide guidance from experts.

Each country has its own Codes and Standards. On global basis, American National
Standards are the most widely used and compliance with those requirements are accepted
world over. In India, other than American Standards, British and Indian Standards are
also used for design and selection of Piping Systems.

1. AMERICAN STANDARDS :
Not all American Standards are issued directly by American National Standards
Institute. The Material Standards are covered under ASTM (American Society for
Testing and Materials) and Dimension Standards under ANSI (American National
Standards Institute). Most of these Standards are adapted by ASME (American
Society for Mechanical Engineers).
The American Standards referred by Piping Engineers are:
o The American Petroleum Institute (API) : The Standards referred by
Piping Engineers are:
1. API 5L - Specification for Line Pipe
2. API 6D - Pipe Line Valves, End Closures, Connectors and Swivels
3. API 6F - Recommended Practice for Fire Test for valves
4. API 593 - Ductile Iron Plug Valves - Flanged Ends
5. API 598 - Valve Inspection and Test
6. API 600 - Steel Gate Valves
7. API 601 - Metallic Gaskets for Refinery Piping
8. API 602 - Compact Design Carbon Steel Gate Valves
9. API 604 - Ductile Iron Gate Valves - Flanged Ends
10. API 605 - Large Diameter Carbon Steel Flanges
11. API 607 - Fire Test for Soft Seated Ball Valves
12. API 609 - Butterfly Valves
 13. API 1104 - Standard for Welding Pipeline and Facilities
o The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) : These specify the material
by its Chemical and Physical properties. When specific model of
manufacture of the element is not to be specified, then the material can be
identified by ANSI Standards. The most commonly used AISI
specifications are :
1. AISI 410 - 13% Chromium Alloy Steel
2. AISI 304 - 18/8 Austenitic Stainless Steel
3. AISI 316 - 18/8/3 Austenitic Stainless Steel
o American National Standard Institute (ANSI) and The American Society
for Mechanical Engineers (ASME) : The American National Standards
Institute's standards used in the design of the Piping Systems are :
1. B31.1 - 2001 - Power Piping: Piping for industrial plants and
marine applications. This code prescribes minimum requirements
for the design, materials, fabrication, erection, test, and inspection
of power and auxiliary service piping systems for electric
generation stations, industrial institutional plants, central and
district heating plants.
The code covers boiler external piping for power boilers and high
temperature, high pressure water boilers in which steam or vapor is
generated at a pressure of more than 15 pounds per square inch
(PSIG) or 1 Kg per square centimeters, and high temperature water
is generated at pressures exceeding 160 pounds per square inch
(PSIG) or 12.5 Kg per square centimeters and / or temperatures
exceeding 250 degrees F. (120 degrees C.)
2. B31.2 - 1968 - Fuel Gas Piping : This has been withdrawn as a
National Standard and replaced by ANSI/NFPA Z223.1, but B31.2
is still available from ASME and is a good reference for the design
of gas piping systems (from the meter to the appliance).
3. B31.3 - 2002 - Process Piping : Design of chemical and petroleum
plants and refineries processing chemicals and hydrocarbons, water
and steam. This Code contains rules for piping typically found in
petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, paper,
semiconductor, and cryogenic plants; and related processing plants
and terminals.
This Code prescribes requirements for materials and components,
design, fabrication, assembly, erection, examination, inspection,
and testing of piping. This Code applies to piping for all fluids
including:
 Raw, intermediate, and finished chemicals
 Petroleum products
 Gas, steam, air and water
 Fluidized solids
 Refrigerants
 Cryogenic fluids
 Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or stages within
a packaged equipment assembly.
The principal design codes used for piping design are the
ANSI/ASME B31.1(Code for Power Piping) and ANSI/ASME
B31.3 (Code for Process Piping). Complementing these codes are
ASME VIII (Code for Pressure Vessel) and British Standard
BS5500 for unfired fusion welded pressure vessel.
The basic consideration of B31.1 Code is safety. It includes:
a. Material and component standards
b. Designation of dimensional standards for elements of piping
system
c. Requirements for design of components, including supports
d. Requirements for evaluation and limitation of stresses, reactions
and movements associated with pressure, temperatures and
external forces
e. Requirements for fabrication, assembly and erection
f. Requirements for testing and inspection before and after
assembly.
Pipes: For pipes, the materials used in geothermal application are
normally A53-B, A106-B and API 5L-B pipe , with mill tolerance.
Commercial available pipes normally have a mill tolerance of
12.5% and pipe schedule numbers based in B36.10.
Fittings: For elbows, tees, and reducers, the material used in
geothermal application is normally A234 WPB. All dimensions are
in accordance with B16.9. Flanges and valves rating Flanges are
rated to ANSI B16.5 standard, For those up to 24” diameter, they
are rated to ANSI 150, ANSI 300, ANSI 600 and ANSI 900. For
flanges of 26” and bigger , ANSI B16.47 applies. The flanges are
usually classified series A and series B. The material used for these
flanges are A181 grade I and A105 grade I. Valve rating is similar
to the flange rating selected for the pipe.

4. B31.4 - 2002 - Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid

Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids : This Code prescribes
requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly,
inspection, and testing of piping transporting liquids such as crude
oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied
petroleum gas, carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous
ammonia and liquid petroleum products between producers' lease
facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries,
stations, ammonia plants, terminals (marine, rail and truck) and
other delivery and receiving points.
Piping consists of pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief
devices, fittings and the pressure containing parts of other piping
components. It also includes hangers and supports, and other
equipment items necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure
 containing parts. It does not include support structures such as
frames of buildings, buildings stanchions or foundations.
5. B31.5 - 2001 - Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components
: This Code prescribes requirements for the materials, design,
fabrication, assembly, erection, test, and inspection of refrigerant,
heat transfer components, and secondary coolant piping for
temperatures as low as -320 deg F (-196 deg C), whether erected
on the premises or factory assembled, except as specifically
excluded in the following paragraphs.
Users are advised that other piping Code Sections may provide
requirements for refrigeration piping in their respective
jurisdictions. This Code shall not apply to:

1. any self- contained or unit systems subject to the

requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or other
nationally recognized testing laboratory.
2. water piping
3. piping designed for external or internal gage
pressure not exceeding 15 psi (105 kPa) regardless of size
4. pressure vessels, compressors, or pumps, but does
include all connecting refrigerant and secondary coolant
piping starting at the first joint adjacent to such apparatus.
2. B31.8 - 2003 - Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems :
This Code covers the design, fabrication, installation, inspection,
and testing of pipeline facilities used for the transportation of gas.
This Code also covers safety aspects of the operation and
maintenance of those facilities.
3. B31.8S-2001 - 2002 - Managing System Integrity of Gas
Pipelines : This Standard applies to on-shore pipeline systems
constructed with ferrous materials and that transport gas. Pipeline
system means all parts of physical facilities through which gas is
transported, including pipe, valves, appurtenances attached to pipe,
compressor units, metering stations, regulator stations, delivery
stations, holders and fabricated assemblies. The principles and
processes embodied in integrity management are applicable to all
pipeline systems. This Standard is specifically designed to provide
the operator (as defined in section 13) with the information
necessary to develop and implement an effective integrity
management program utilizing proven industry practices and
processes. The processes and approaches within this Standard are
applicable to the entire pipeline system.
4. B31.9 - 1996 - Building Services Piping : This Code Section has
rules for the piping in industrial, institutional, commercial and
public buildings, and multi-unit residences, which does not require
the range of sizes, pressures, and temperatures covered in B31.1.
This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials,
 fabrication, installation, inspection, examination and testing of
piping systems for building services. It includes piping systems in
the building or within the property limits.
5. B31.11 - 2002 - Slurry Transportation Piping Systems : Design,
construction, inspection, security requirements of slurry piping
systems. Covers piping systems that transport aqueous slurries of
no hazardous materials, such as coal, mineral ores and other solids
between a slurry processing plant and the receiving plant.

Of the above, the most commonly used code is ASME B 31.3. Refineries
and Chemical Plants are designed based on the same. All Power Plants are
designed as per ASME B31.1. Other major ANSI / ASME Standards
refereed for the piping elements are :
6. ANSI B 1.1 - Unified Inch Screw Threads
7. ANSI / ASME B 1.20.1 - Pipe threads for general purposes
8. ANSI / ASME B 16.1 - Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged
Fittings
9. ANSI / ASME B 16.3 - Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings
10. ANSI / ASME B 16.4 - Cast Iron Threaded Fittings
11. ANSI / ASME B 16.5 - Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
12. ANSI / ASME B 16.9 - Steel Butt Welding Fittings
13. ANSI / ASME B 16.10 - Face to Face and End to End dimensions
of Valves
14. ANSI / ASME B 16.11 - Forged Steel Socket Welding and
Threaded fittings
15. ANSI B 16.20 - Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges - ring joint,
spiral wound
16. ANSI / ASME B 16.21 - Non Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges
17. ANSI / ASME B 16.25 - Butt Welding Ends
18. ANSI / ASME B 16.28 - Short Radius Elbows and Returns
19. ANSI / ASME B 16.34 - Steel Valves, Flanged and butt welding
ends
20. ANSI / ASME B 16.42 - Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged
Fittings - Class 150# and 300#
21. ANSI / ASME B 16.47 - Large Diameter Steel Flanges - NPS - 26"
to 60"
22. ANSI / ASME B 18.2 1 and 2 - Square and Hexagonal head Bolts
and Nuts (Inch and mm)
23. ANSI / ASME B 36.10 - Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel
Pipes
24. ANSI / ASME B 36.19 - Welded and Seamless Austinitic Stainless
Steel Pipe
o American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) : These consist of 16
sections on definitions and classifications of materials of construction and
Test methods. Most of the ASTM Standards are adapted by ASME and are
specified in ASME Section II. The Section II has four parts.
  Part A - Ferrous Materials
 Part B - Non-Ferrous Materials
 Part C - Welding Materials
 Part D - Properties of Materials

In Section II, the materials are listed in the index based on the available
forms such as plates, castings, tubes etc., and also on the numerical index.
The selection of ASTM Specification depends on the manufacturer, form
of material, its mechanical strength and corrosion properties.
The specification number is given an Alphabetical prefix "A" for ferrous
and "B" for non-ferrous materials.
ASTM also specifies standard practice for numbering metal and alloys as
Unified Numbering System.
Unified Numbering System (UNS) establishes 18 series numbers of metals
and alloys. Each UNS number consists of a single letter prefix followed by
5 digits. In most cases the alphabet is suggestive of the family of the metal
identified.

 A00001 - A99999 - Aluminum and Aluminum alloys

 C00001 - C99999 - Copper and Copper Alloys
 E00001 - E99999 - Rare earth and rare earth like metals and alloys
 L00001 - L99999 - Low Melting metals and alloys
 M00001 - M99999 - Miscellaneous non-ferrous metals and alloys
 N00001 - N99999 - Nickel and Nickel Alloys
 P00001 - P99999 - Precious Metals and Alloys
 R00001 - R99999 - Reactive and Refractory metals and alloys
 Z00001 - Z99999 - Zinc and zinc alloys
 D00001 - D99999 - Specified mechanical properties of Steel
 F00001 - F99999 - Cast Iron and Cast Steel
 G00001 - G99999 - AISI and ASE Carbon and alloy steels
 H00001 - H99999 - AISI H Steels
 J00001 - J99999 - Cast Steel
 K00001 - K99999 - Miscellaneous Steels and Ferrous alloys
 S00001 - S99999 - Stainless Steel
 T00001 - T99999 - Tool Steel
 W00001 - W99999 - Welding Filler Metals and Electrodes
o American Welding Society (AWS) : These standards provide information
on the welding fundamentals, weld design, welder's training qualifications,
testing and inspection of the welds and guidance on the application and
use of welds. Individual electrode manufacturers have given their own
brand names for the various electrodes and the same are sold under these
names.
o American Water Works Association (AWWA) : These standards refer to
the piping elements required for low pressure water services. These are
less stringent than other standards. Valves, Flanges etc., required for large
 diameter water pipelines are covered under this standard and are refereed
rarely by piping engineers.
 C-500 : Gate Valves for Water and sewage system
 C-504 : Rubber Seated Butterfly Valves
 C-507 : Ball Valves 6" to 48"
 C-508 : Swing Check Valves 2" to 24"
 C-509 : Resilient Seated Gate Valves for water and sewage
 C-510 : Cast Iron Sluice Gate Valves
o The manufacturers Standardization Society of Valves and Fitting Industry
- Standard Practices (MSS-SP) : In addition to the above standards and
material codes, there are standard practices followed by manufacturers.
These are published as advisory standards and are widely followed. The
most common MSS-SP standards referred for piping are :
 MSS-SP-6 : Standard Finishes for contact surface for flanges
 MSS-SP-25 : Standard marking system for valves, fittings, flanges
 MSS-SP-42 : Class 150 corrosion resistant gate, globe and check
valves
 MSS-SP-43 : Wrought stainless steel butt weld fittings
 MSS-SP-56 : Pipe hanger supports - Material, design and
manufacture
 MSS-SP-61 : Pressure testing of valves
 MSS-SP-67 : Butterfly Valves
 MSS-SP-68 : High Pressure off seat butterfly valves
 MSS-SP-69 : Pipe hanger supports - selection and applications
 MSS-SP-70 : Cast iron gate valves
 MSS-SP-71 : Cast iron check valves
 MSS-SP-72 : Ball Valves
 MSS-SP-78 : Cast iron plug valves
 MSS-SP-80 : Bronze gate, globe and check valves
 MSS-SP-81 : Stainless steel bonnet-less knife gate valves
 MSS-SP-83 : Pipe unions
 MSS-SP-85 : Cast iron globe valves
 MSS-SP-88 : Diaphragm valves
 MSS-SP-89 : Pipe hangers and supports - fabrication and
installation practices
 MSS-SP-90 : Pipe hangers and supports - guidelines on
terminology
 MSS-SP-92 : MSS valves user guide
 MSS-SP-108 : Resilient seated eccentric CI plug valves
2. BRITISH STANDARDS : In many instances, it is possible to find a
British Standard which may be substitutes for American Standards. For example,
BS 2080 (British Standard for Face to Face or End to End dimensions of valves)
is identical to ANSI/ASME B16.10. Similarly BS 3799 and ANSI/ASME B 16.11
also compare.
There are certain British Standards referred by Indian Manufacturers for Piping
and Valves. The most commonly referred British Standards in the Piping Industry
are :
o BS 10 : Flanges
o BS 806 : Pipes and Fittings for Boilers
o BS 916 : Black Bolts, Nuts and Screws
o BS 970 : Steel for Forging, Bars, Rods, valve steel, etc.
o BS 1212 : Specification for Float Operated Valves
o BS 1306 : Copper and Copper alloy pressure piping system
o BS 1414 : Gate Valves for Petroleum Industry
o BS 1560 : Steel Pipe Flanges
o BS 1600 : Dimensions of Steel Pipes
o BS 1640 : Butt Welding Fittings
o BS 1740 : Wrought Steel screwed pipe fittings
o BS 1868 : Steel Check Valves for Petroleum Industry
o BS 1873 : Steel Globe and Check Valves for Petroleum Industry
o BS 1965 : Butt welding pipe fittings
o BS 2080 : Face to Face / End to End dimensions of Valves
o BS 2598 : Glass Pipelines and Fittings
o BS 3059 : Boiler and Super-heater Tubes
o BS 3063 : Dimensions of Gaskets for Pipe Flanges
o BS 3381 : Metallic Spiral Wound Gaskets
o BS 3600 : Dimensions of Welded and Seamless Pipes and Tubes
o BS 3601 : C.S. Pipes and Tubes for pressure purposes at room
temperature
o BS 3602 : C.S. Pipes and Tubes for pressure purposes at high
temperature
o BS 3603 : C.S. and Alloy Steel Pipes and Tubes for pressure
purposes at low temperature
o BS 3604 : Alloy Steel Pipes and Tubes for high temperature
o BS 3605 : SS Pipes and Tubes for pressure purposes
o BS 3799 : Socket Weld / Screwed Fittings
o BS 3974 : Pipe hangers, Slides and Roller type supports
o BS 4346 : PVC pressure pipe - joints and fittings
o BS 4504 : Steel, Cast Iron and Copper alloy fittings
o BS 5150 : Cast Iron Wedge and Double Disc Gate Valves for
general purposes
o BS 5151 : Cast Iron Gate (parallel slide) Valves for general
purposes
o BS 5152 : Cast Iron Globe and Check Valves for general purposes
o BS 5153 : Cast Iron Check Valves for general purposes
o BS 5154 : Copper alloy Globe, Gate and Check Valves
o BS 5155 : Cast Iron and Cast Steel Butterfly Valves for general
purposes
o BS 5156 : Diaphragm Valves for general purposes
o BS 5157 : Steel Gate (parallel slide) Valves for general purposes
 o BS 5158 : Cast Iron and Cast Steel Plug Valves for general
purposes
o BS 5159 : Cast Iron and Cast Steel Ball Valves for general
purposes
o BS 5160 : Flanged Steel Globe and Check Valves for general
purposes
o BS 5163 : Flanged Cast Iron Wedge Gate Valves for general
purposes
o BS 5351 : Steel Ball Valves for Petroleum Industry
o BS 5352 : Steel Gate, Globe and Check Valves, smaller than 2" NB
o BS 5353 : Specifications for Plug Valves
o BS 5391 : Specifications for ABS pressure pipes
o BS 5392 : Specifications for ABS fittings
o BS 5433 : Specifications for underground stop valves for water
services
o BS 5480 : Specifications for GRP pipes and fittings
o BS 6364 : Specifications for Valves for Cryogenic services
o BS 6755 : Testing of Valves
o BS 6759 : Safety Valves
3. INDIAN STANDARDS : Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) have so far
not developed an Indian Standard for the design of Piping Systems. Hence, ANSI
Standards ASME 31.1 and 31.3 are widely used for the design. These standards
also accept materials covered in other standards. Unlike American Standards,
Indian Standards cover dimensions and material specifications under the same
standard number. There are no groupings based on branch of engineering. Some
of the most commonly referred Indian Standards by Piping Engineers are :
o IS 210 : Grey Iron Castings
o IS 226 : Structural Steel (superseded by IS 2062)
o IS 554 : Dimensions of Pipe Threads
o IS 778 : Specification for Copper Alloy Gate, Globe and Check Valves
o IS 780 : Specification for Sluice Valves - 50 NB to 300 NB
o IS 1239 (Part I and II) : Specification for Mild Steel tubes and fittings
o IS 1363 : Hexagonal Bolts, Screws and nuts - Grade C
o IS 1364 : Hexagonal Bolts, Screws and nuts - Grade A and B
o IS 1367 : Technical supply conditions for threaded steel fastners
o IS 1536 : Centrifugally Cast Iron Pipes
o IS 1537 : Vertically Cast Iron Pipes
o IS 1538 : Cast Iron Fittings
o IS 1870 : Comparison of Indian and Overseas Standards
o IS 1879 : Malleable Iron Pipe Fittings
o IS 1978 : Line Pipe
o IS 1979 : High Test Line Pipe
o IS 2002 : Steel Plates
o IS 2016 : Plain Washers
o IS 2041 : Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels used at moderate and low
temperature
o IS 2062 : Steel for general structural purposes
o IS 2379 : Color Code for Identification of Pipelines
o IS 2712 : Compressed Asbestos Fiber Jointing
o IS 2825 : Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels
o IS 2906 : Specification for Sluice Valves - 350 NB to 1200 NB
o IS 3076 : Specification for LDPE Pipes
o IS 3114 : Code of Practice for laying pipes
o IS 3516 : Cast Iron flanges and flanged fittings for Petroleum Industry
o IS 3589 : Seamless or ERW Pipes (150 NB to 2000 NB)
o IS 4038 : Specifications for Foot Valves
o IS 4179 : Sizes for pressure vessels and leading dimensions
o IS 4853 : Radiographic Examination of Butt Weld Joints in pipes
o IS 4864 to IS 4870 : Shell Flanges for vessels and equipments
o IS 4984 : Specification for HDPE Pipes
o IS 4985 : Specification for PVC Pipes
o IS 5312 : Specification for Check Valves
o IS 5572 : Classification of Hazardous area for Electrical Installation
o IS 5822 : Code of practice for laying welded steel pipes
o IS 6157 : Inspection and Testing of Valve
o IS 6286 : Seamless and Welded pipes for Subzero temperatures
o IS 6392 : Steel Pipe Flanges
o IS 6630 : Seamless alloy steel pipes for high temperature service
o IS 6913 : Stainless Steel tubes for food and beverage industry
o IS 7181 : Horizontally cast iron pipes
o IS 7240 : Code of Practice for Cold Insulation
o IS 7413 : Code of Practice for Hot Insulation
o IS 7719 : Metallic spiral wound gaskets
o IS 7806 : Stainless Steel Castings
o IS 7899 : Alloy Steel castings for pressure services
o IS 8008 : Specification for molded HDPE Fittings
o IS 8360 : Specification for fabricated HDPE Fittings
o IS 9890 : Ball Valves for general purposes
o IS 10221 : Code of Practice for coating and wrapping of underground MS
pipelines
o IS 10592 : Eye wash and safety showers
o IS 10605 : Steel Globe Valves for Petroleum Industries
o IS 10611 : Steel Gate Valves for Petroleum Industries
o IS 10711 : Size of Drawing Sheets
o IS 10805 : Foot Valves
o IS 10989 : Cast / Forged Steel Check Valves for Petroleum Industry
o IS 10990 : Technical drawings - Simplified representation of pipelines
o IS 11790 : Code of Practice for preparation of Butt welding ends for
valves, flanges and fittings
o IS 11791 : Diaphragm Valves for general purposes
o IS 11792 : Steel Ball Valves for Petroleum Industry
 o IS 12709 : Specifications for GRP pipes
o IS 13049 : Specifications for Diaphragm type float operated valves
o IS 13095 : Butterfly Valves
o IS 13257 : Ring type joint gasket and grooves for flanges

There are certain other international standards, which are also referred in Piping
Industry. These are DIN standards of Germany and JIS standards of Japan. DIN
standards are more popular and equivalent.
Periodic review of the standards by the committee are done and these are revised
to incorporate the modified features based on the research and feedback from
industry. It is, hence, necessary that the latest editions of the codes and standards
are referred for the design.

Pressure Drop in Pipes

Pressure drop is decrease in pressure from one point in a pipe or tube to another point
downstream. Pressure drop occurs due to frictional forces acting on a fluid as it flows
through the tube. The frictional forces are caused by the resistance to flow. The main
determinants of resistance to fluid flow are fluid velocity through the pipe and fluid
viscosity. Any liquid or gas will always flow in the direction of least resistance (less
pressure). Pressure drop increases proportional to the frictional shear forces within the
piping network. A piping network containing a high relative roughness rating as well as
many pipe fittings and joints, tube convergence, divergence, turns, surface roughness and
other physical properties will affect the pressure drop. High flow velocities and / or high
fluid viscosities result in a larger pressure drop across a section of pipe or a valve or
elbow. Low velocity will result in lower or no pressure drop. Pressure Drop can be
calculated using two values: the Reynolds Number, Re (determining laminar or turbulent
flow), and the relative roughness of the piping.

Where D is the diameter of the pipe, v is the velocity of the fluid, ρ is the density of the
fluid, and μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The relative roughness of the piping is
usually known by cross referencing the Reynolds number with the relative roughness, the
friction factor, f, is calculated.

The velocity of hydraulic fluid through a conductor (pipe, tube or hose) is dependent on
flow rate and cross sectional area. Recommended fluid velocities through pipes and hoses
in hydraulic systems are as follows:
Service Velocity (ft/sec) Velocity (m/sec)
Pump suction 2-4 0.6 - 1.2
Pump return 4 - 13 1.5 - 4
Pump discharge 7 - 8 2 - 5.5
Use values at the lower end of the range for lower pressures or where operation is
continuous. Refer to the flow/velocity nomograms for more information.

Alternatively, fluid velocity can be calculated using the following formula:

Q × 0.408
v = --------------
D2
Where:
v = velocity in feet per second (ft/sec)
Q = flow rate in US gallons per minute (US gpm)
D = inside diameter of pipe or hose in inches (in).

Calculation of Pump Head: Friction between the fluid flowing through a conductor and
its inside wall causes losses, which are quantified as pressure drop. Pressure drop in
conductors is an important consideration for the designer especially in systems where
long pipe or hose runs are necessary. The pressure drop over a length of pipe or hose can
be calculated using the following formula, which for ease of calculation uses metric units.
Before proceeding to the pressure drop calculations, the following variables need to be
known:
Flow rate in liters per minute (L/min) Q
Inside diameter of pipe or hose in millimeters (mm) D
Kinematic viscosity of fluid (at operating temperature) in centistokes (cSt) ν
Density of the fluid in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) ρ
Length of the pipe, tube or hose in meters (m) L

1. Calculate fluid velocity:

Q × 21.22
v = --------------
D2

Where:
v = velocity in meters per second (m/sec)
Q = flow rate in liters per minute (L/min)
D = inside diameter of pipe or hose in millimeters (mm).
2. Calculate the Reynolds Number (Re):
1000 × v × D
Re = -------------
ν

Where:
Re = Reynolds Number
v = velocity in meters per second (m/sec)
D = inside diameter of pipe or hose in millimeters (mm)
ν = kinematic viscosity of fluid (at operating temperature) in centistokes (cSt) 3.
Calculate the friction factor (f)
The formula used to calculate the friction factor is dependent on the magnitude of the
Reynolds Number. If the Reynolds Number is less than 2300, flow is laminar and the
following formula is used to calculate the friction factor:
64
f = -----------
Re
Where :
f = friction factor
Re = Reynolds Number < 2300

If the Reynolds Number is between 2300 and 4000, flow is transition and greater than
4000 flow is turbulent. For Reynolds Numbers greater than 2300 and less than 100,000
the following formula can be used to calculate the friction factor:
f = 0.3164 × Re-0.25

Where:
f = friction factor
Re = Reynolds Number > 2300 and < 100,000
In instances where the Reynolds Number is greater than 100,000, friction is highly
dependant on the roughness of the conductor inner surface. In these cases Colebrook
equation, which considers pipe roughness, is used to calculate the friction factor.
However, due to the relatively low fluid velocities and high fluid viscosities present in
hydraulic systems, Reynolds Numbers of this magnitude should not be encountered.
4. Calculate the pressure drop:
Finally, pressure drop can be calculated using the following formula:
v2 × f × L × ρ
Δp = ----------------
2D

Where:
Δp = pressure drop in Pascals (Pa)
v = velocity in meters per second (m/sec)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe or hose in meters (m)
ρ = density of the fluid in kilograms per cubic meter (870-890 kg/m for hydraulic oil)
D = inside diameter of pipe or hose in meters (m)
 Type of Fitting K Factor
90 Deg Elbow Standard 0.5
90 Deg Elbow Single Miter 1.4
90 Deg Elbow Double Miter 0.8
90 Deg Elbow Triple Miter 0.6
45 Deg Elbow Standard 0.3
45 Deg Elbow Single Miter 0.5
Tee Straight flow 0.4
Tee flow to branch 1.4
Tee flow from branch 1.7
Reducer, Single reduction 0.7

When more accuracy is required, head loss in fittings can be determined using loss
coefficients (K-factors) for each type of fittings. In this approach K-factor is multiplied
by the velocity head of the fluid flow.
H = K (v2/2g)
where,
H = Head loss, m
V = Velocity of flow, m/s
Pressure drop or head loss, occurs in all piping systems because of elevation changes,
turbulence caused by abrupt changes in direction, and friction within the pipe and fittings.
The most common methods used to determine the head loss in fiberglass pipe are Hazen-
Williams, Manning and Darcy-Weisbach equations. The suitability of each method
depends on the type of flow (gravity or pumped) and the level of accuracy required. Due
to the smooth inside surface and the resistance to corrosion, ADPF fiber glass pipes have
a relatively low head loss as compared to other material pipes.
Hazen-Williams Equation: The Hazen-Williams Equation is applicable to water pipes
under conditions of full turbulent flow. It has gained wide acceptance in the water and
wastewater industries because of its simplicity.
v = 0.85 C R0.63J0.54
where,
v = velocity, m/s
C = Hazen-Williams Coefficient
R = Hydraulic mean radius, m
J = Hydraulic gradient, m/m
Hazen-William coefficient, C for ADPF fiber glass pipe is taken as 150.
Manning Equation: The Manning equation typically solves gravity flow problems
where the pipe is only partially full and is under the influence of an elevation head only.
v = (1/n) R0.667 J0.5 where,
v = velocity, m/s
n = Manning Coefficient
R = Hydraulic mean radius, m
J = Hydraulic gradient, m/m
Manning Coefficient, n for ADPF fiber glass pipe is taken as 0.01
Darcy-Weisbach Equation: It states that pressure drop is proportional to the square of
the velocity and the length of the pipe. This equation is valid for all fluids in both laminar
and turbulent flow. The disadvantage is that the Darcy- Weisbach friction factor is a
variable. J = ( f.L.v2)/2.g.D where,
J = Head loss, m
g = Gravity constant, 9.81 m/s2
v = Velocity, m/s
D = Inside diameter, m
f = Friction factor
L = Length of the pipe, m
The well known Reynolds number equation is used to characterize the fluid flow.
If the flow is Laminar,
f = 64 / Re
If the flow is Turbulent, the friction factor can be determined from the Moody diagram
found in most fluid mechanics texts or calculated from the Colebrook equation.

Pressure drop in fittings: Head Loss in Fittings is frequently expressed as the equivalent
length of pipe that is added to the straight run of pipe as shown below. This approach is
used most often with the Hazen-Williams or Manning equations. The approach does not
consider turbulence and subsequent losses created by different velocities.
Fitting mm NB 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000
90 Deg Elbow 8.5 6.4 7.9 9.4 10.7 12.2 14.0 17.0 23.0 28.0 32.4 37.1 42.3
45 Deg Elbow 3.5 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 6.5 8.2 10.9 13.6 16.2 20.1 23.5 25.6
Tee 11.0 14.4 17.8 21.1 24.0 27.5 32.8 38.3 49.5 61.5 72.9 84.6 96.8
Surge pressure (Water Hammer): Pressure surge or Internal shock, known commonly
as water hammer, results from abrupt change of velocity within the system. Under certain
conditions, these shock forces can reach magnitude sufficient to rupture or collapse a
piping system, regardless of the material of construction. The transient pressure is the
rapidly moving wave which increases and decreases the pressure in the system depending
on the source of the transient and direction of wave travel. Rapid valve closure can result
in the build-up of shock waves due to the conversion of kinetic energy of the moving
fluid to potential energy which must be accommodated. These pressure waves will travel
throughout the piping system and can cause damage far away from the wave source. The
magnitude of the water hammer depends on
 Fluid properties
 Velocity of flow
 Modulus of Elasticity of the pipe material
 Length of the pipe line
  Speed in which the momentum of the fluid changes

The low modulus of elasticity of fiberglass contributes to a self dampening effect as the
pressure wave travels through the piping system. The magnitude of pressure wave in a
metallic piping system is much higher due to the higher modulus of elasticity of these
materials. In addition to rapid valve closure or opening, sudden air release and pump start
up or shut down can create water hammer. Talbot formula gives:

where,
a = Wave velocity (ft/s)
P = Surge Pressure (psi)
v = Change in flow velocity (ft/s)
w = Density of fluid (lb/ft3)
SG = Specific gravity of fluid
K = Bulk modulus of fluid (psi)
E = Hoop modulus of elasticity (psi)
d = Inside diameter of pipe (inch)
t = Pipe wall thickness (inch)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (ft/s2)
Good design practice usually prevents water hammer in most systems. Installation of
valves which cannot open or close rapidly is one simple precaution. In addition, pumps
should never be started into empty discharge lines unless slow opening mechanically
actuated valves can increase the flow rate gradually. Check valves on pumps should close
as quickly as possible to minimize the velocity of fluid flowing back. In some cases,
thoroughly anchoring the piping system may mitigate this problem. In other cases,
mechanical valve operators, accumulators, or feedback loops around pumps may have to
be used to remove the source of water hammer.
 Pipe Sizing
Introduction: The chemical process industry is involved in many operations, for
different types of fluids, with different applications. Though in principle, various
guidelines and formulae are available for pipeline sizing for different services. Hence it
becomes critical at times conceptualization is necessary before deciding design
parameters.
When fluids are to be carried from one place to another in household piping to cross
country pipeline, piping and fitting constitutes a high cost. The size of piping plays an
important role in the pumping cost. Hence the selection of the line size becomes
important. Though in principle, various formulae are available for sizing for different
services, conceptualiation is necessary before deciding parameters.

Pipeline Sizing: In any chemical process industry, various types of fluids are being used
in different forms like liquid, gaseous, slurry, etc. Raw material, intermediate product or
finished product produced through various unit operations require connectivity of all the
units with pipelines and fittings due to the following reasons:

 Ease of operation
 Safe handling of materials
 Avoiding loss of material
 Hygienic conditions of the plant

For example, liquid feed is transported from its bulk storage area to day-storage using
pump connecting bulk storage tank, pump and day storage tank with the necessary
pipelines. It is very difficult to imagine a chemical process industry complex without any
pipeline work. Rather one can see huge piping network within the complex. The design
of any piping network involves various activities like the selection of piping material,
specification with respect to thickness, pipe size, its routing, etc. the discussion deals with
conceptual basis of pipeline sizing.
Though various formulae and thumb rules are available in literature and can be used
directly for sizing of pipelines, criticality with respect to experience in the fluid handling
of related chemical process industry cannot be avoided. Over or under sizing of pipelines
may even become a bottleneck for plant operations. For slurry applications, a larger size
pipeline not only increases the plant cost but also creates operational problems. Likewise,
the smaller pipe size may consume more energy for fluid movement. One should bear in
mind that the larger pipeline size than necessary increases plant cost due to pipelines
along with the connected valves, fittings, supporting structures, etc.
Many factors should be kept in mind before sizing any pipeline. The basic principle of
pipeline size is based on the available pressure drop between its two ends. Normally to
maintain certain fluid velocity (may be from the available thumb rules), e.g. considering
1.5 meter / second for clear water at pump discharge for the maximum possible fluid flow
rate through that pipeline, cross-sectional area (or diameter) of pipeline is calculated.
Based on this, the nearest commercially available pipeline size (of inside diameter closely
matching with the calculated value) is selected for application. With these preliminary
calculations of pipeline sizing and pipe routing, pressure drop between start and end
point, incorporating all fittings, is calculated. Decision of the selection of higher or lower
pipeline size is made according to the available pressure drop versus calculated pressure
drop.
Normally pipelines are sized after optimizing between the costs of material versus
operating cost (incurred due to line pressure drop). Higher the pipeline diameter (i.e.,
higher initial investment), lower will be the pressure drop (thus less operating cost) and
vice versa. Velocity norms are fixed for different applications, based on the optimum
design conditions and pipeline sizes are only calculated using these norms. In some
typical applications discussed here, these guidelines are not valid and one needs to
understand the typical application and size the pipelines accordingly.
Liquid Flow under Gravity: Liquid flows under gravity due to the elevation difference
between the start point (always at higher elevation) and the end point (at lower elevation),
i.e. difference in potential energy. The elevation difference mainly governs the pipeline
sizing. Additional effects of pressure conditions for start/end point matter in pipeline
sizing. If the available elevation difference is higher, a high liquid velocity (i.e. with high
allowable pressure drop) can be considered for pipeline sizing. Thus, a lower pipeline
size can be selected for such a condition.
In case, the end point is connected to a pressurized system, e.g. distillation column, the
equivalent pressure shall be deducted from the available elevation difference and the
effective available differential pressure is reduced. Thus even with the higher available
elevation difference, for the end point of the pipeline connected to the pressurized system,
the pipeline size will be of a lower size. Similarly if the start point of the pipeline is under
vacuum, i.e. in barometric condensers, pipelines of high diameters are selected to reduce
pipeline friction losses and thus increase the available differential pressure.
Such applications are work-based on the available pressure drop. These cannot be sized
only as per the economic pipeline size guidelines only, i.e. optimizing material cost
versus operating cost.
Hot Liquid Flow: Various problems are commonly observed in the process plants
handling hot boiling liquids. These are mainly due to vaporization of flowing hot liquid,
i.e. the phase change of liquid to vapor, inside the pipeline or equipment. This
phenomenon is also called the flashing of liquid. A typical example is centrifugal pump
cavitation, which is due to low available NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head).
The higher pipeline size is preferred to lower down pressure drop and thus to achieve
higher available NPSH at pump suction port. Similarly in other pipelines, the pressure
drop due to sudden change in the flow direction or the reduction of the line size, hot
liquid vaporization takes place which generates vapor bubbles inside the pipeline. Due to
this more space is occupied by the mixture of generated vapors and flowing liquid and
subsequently fluid flow is obstructed. Similar type of phenomena are observed in case of
liquids carrying dissolved gases, which expand at higher temperatures. For these types of
applications normally higher pipeline sizes are recommended.
Bypass Line for Equipment/Instrument: Equipment/instruments especially which
create a high-pressure drop and are provided with a bypass line (to have the facility for
maintaining process continuity even during maintenance work). i.e. plate heat
exchangers, control valves, etc. are provided with a bypass arrangement, which normally
has two isolation valves in line of the unit and a flow regulation valve in parallel to this
unit.
In normal operations, as fluid passes through the main units either the plate heat
exchanger or control valve, it exerts an additional pressure drop. Accordingly the supply
pressure for the fluid stream is estimated, which the connecting unit like the centrifugal
pump creates. The centrifugal pump is selected based on this created pressure drop by the
unit. During bypassing of the connected unit, this additional pressure is eliminated, while
running pump discharges the high flow rate as per the typical pump characteristics. To
avoid this situation, it is always recommended to use a lower size bypass line with a
regulation valve to create pressure equivalent to the main connecting unit.
Sample Line: Normally a small fluid quantity is collected for analysis to determine its
composition. It is applicable for any stage of processing like for raw material,
intermediate product, finished product or it may be even utility or effluent. Even for small
quantity of sample collection, line size mainly depends upon the type of fluid being
handled and the location of the sample point in the process.
For example, for gases under pressurized conditions, small lines with valves (e.g. 6 mm)
are sufficient for withdrawing the representative sample quantity. Providing a high
sample line size will not only be difficult to control but higher wastage of gases during
sample collection cannot be avoided. On the other hand, small sample line will create
trouble for slurries where solid particles may choke the sample line quite frequently.
Thus, irrespective of material losses and the cost of the pipeline and valve, the sample
line size is dependent upon the solid particle size and the characteristics of the slurry.
Similar are the experiences for viscous liquids.
Even for clear liquids, the sample line size depends upon its location like at the
atmospheric tank, pump suction/or discharge, etc. Though it is very difficult to define
proper guidelines for sample line sizing, the following points should be kept in mind
while sizing:
 Characteristics of sample fluid
 Less fluid losses
 Safety during sample withdrawal
 Ease of operation
 Location of sample point, etc.

Cooling Water Circulation: Higher velocities are preferred for cooling water circulation
pipelines. This is mainly due to the following two reasons:
Cooling water, in the cooling tower, is exposed to sunlight that helps in the development
of algae formation. This generated algae material goes to the circulating cooling water. At
a lower liquid velocity in the pipelines, algae starts growing within the pipeline and after
some time, they start blocking cooling water circulation or it passes to the connected heat
exchanger unit. Thus, a higher liquid velocity (e.g. 1.8 -2.5 meter/second) for circulation
line is recommended to avoid algae development within the pipeline.
Normally higher cooling water circulation flow rates are encountered in the chemical
process industries that require large size pipelines with longer lengths to cover various
heat exchanging units. Thus, to reduce the cost of pipe material even with high power
consumption (due to increased pressure drop) will be an appropriate choice.
Tank Overflow: Overflow lines in the tanks are provided for the following reasons:
 To avoid liquid losses (overflowed liquid is recovered in another tank)
 To avoid unwanted spillage of liquid around plant building
  To maintain liquid levels in the overhead tanks

In all the above-mentioned cases, overflow line is sized for the maximum possible input
liquid flow rate to the tank irrespective of the outlet liquid flow rate. Other design
guidelines are similar to the pipeline sizing for gravity liquid flow, i.e. as per the
availability of vertical available height between the highest and end points (where it
comes in contact with the atmosphere) of the overflow pipeline.
Here the highest point which is also the start point of the liquid flow line is located
almost at the top of the tank (overflow nozzle of the tank), while the endpoint may be
somewhere near the drain gutter (close to ground). This may not always be true, as the
overflow line may also be terminated at the higher elevation floor. In that case the
available differential head will be lower. Hence as per the pipeline location, the overflow
line shall be sized, based on the gravity flow principle.
Slurry Flow: Slurries, mixtures of suspended solids in liquids, are kept in agitated
conditions to maintain homogeneity, other wise, depending upon the solid's
characteristics, lighter or heavier than liquid, particles float or settle down respectively.
Agitated conditions are maintained in equipment, like tanks by the use of agitators or
gases sparing. While in the pipelines it is achieved by maintaining turbulent fluid flow
conditions.
At a lower fluid velocity in the pipeline, solids have a tendency to separate out from the
liquid phase. Thus sufficiently high fluid velocity shall be maintained in the pipelines,
irrespective of encountering a high-pressure drop in the pipelines for slurries (beyond the
guidelines for optimum pipeline sizing for clear liquids).
On the other hand, for very small pipeline size for slurries, its choking is quite frequently
observed in plants. Thus, a small pipeline size is also not recommended for these
applications. Apart from this, some slurry containing abrasive solid particles may cause
pipeline erosion at very high fluid velocities. Hence, high fluid velocities are not
recommended. Various slurries behave in different fashions at different fluid velocities,
hence pipeline size is more critical. Along with the basic design guidelines, past
experience to understand slurry behaviour shall also be used during pipeline sizing.
Apart from above discussion, many other applications can be seen in any chemical
process industry. i.e. very low fluid velocities are considered for designing pipelines
carrying highly viscous liquids, storage tank vent lines (depending upon the tank design
pressure), tank drain lines (related with the vent line size as well as the time required for
the draining out tank), etc.
How sensitive is pressure drop due to
friction with roughness factor?
In the February 2007 tip of the month (TOTM), Joe Honeywell [1] presented a procedure
for calculating fluid pressure drop for liquid in a piping system due to friction.
Continuing Honeywell’s TOTM, we will outline procedures for calculation of friction
losses in oil and gas pipelines. From an engineer’s point of view the question may arise
“how sensitive is friction pressure drop with the wall roughness factor?” Of course the
answer is “it depends”. To explain this answer quantitatively and qualitatively, we will
study the effect of wall roughness factor for two case studies in this month’s TOTM. In
the first case study, an oil pipeline with a flow rate of 0.313 m3/s (170,000 bbl/day) and in
the second case, a natural gas pipeline with a flow rate of 22.913 Sm3/s (70 MMSCFD)
will be studied and calculation results will be presented in tabular and graphical format.

Friction Factor
The Moody diagram in Figure 1 is a classical representation of the fluid behavior of
Newtonian fluids and is used throughout industry to predict fluid flow losses. It
graphically represents the various factors used to determine the friction factor. For
example, for fluids with a Reynolds number of 2000 and less, the flow behavior is
considered a stable laminar fluid and the friction factor is only dependent on the
Reynolds number [2]. The friction factor, f, for the Laminar zone is represented by:

Where Re is the Reynolds number and is expressed as the ratio of inertia force to viscous
force and mathematically presented as.

Fluids with a Reynolds number between 2000 and 4000 are considered unstable and can
exhibit either laminar or turbulent behavior. This region is commonly referred to as the
critical zone and the friction factor can be difficult to accurately predict. Judgment should
be used if accurate predictions of fluid loss are required in this region. Either Equation 1
or 3 are commonly used in the critical zone. If the Reynolds number is beyond 4000, the
fluid is considered turbulent and the friction factor is dependent on the Reynolds number
and relative roughness. For Reynolds numbers beyond 4000, the Moody diagram
identifies two regions, transition zone and completely turbulent zone. The friction factor
represented in these regions is given by the Colebrook formula which is used throughout
industry and accurately represents the transition and turbulent flow regions of the Moody
diagram.
The Colebrook formula for Reynolds number over 4000 is given in equation 3.

The roughness factor is defined as the absolute roughness divided by the pipe diameter
or . Typical values of absolute roughness are 5.9x10-4 in (0.0015 mm) for PVC, drawn
tubing, glass and 0.0018 in (0.045 mm) for commercial steel/welded steel and wrought
iron [3].
The Colebrook equation has two terms. The first term, ( )/3.7, is dominate for gas

flow where the Re is high. The second term, , is dominate for fluid flow where
the relative roughness lines converge (smooth pipes). In the “Complete Turbulence”
region, the lines are “flat”, meaning that they are independent of the Reynolds Number.
In the “transition Zone”, the lines are dependent on Re and . When the lines
converge in the “smooth zone” the fluid is independent of relative roughness.

Liquid (Incompressible) Flow

For liquid flow, equation 4 has been used by engineers for over 100 years to calculate the
pressure drop in pipe due to friction. This equation relates the various parameters that
contribute to the friction loss. This equation is the modified form of the Darcy-Weisbach
formula which was derived by dimensional analysis.

The friction factor in this equation is calculated by equation 3 for a specified Reynolds
number and roughness factor using an iterative method or a trial and error procedure.

Gas (Compressible) Flow

For gas flow, density is a strong function of pressure and temperature, and the gas density
may vary considerably along the pipeline. Due to the variation of density, equation 5
should be used for calculation of friction pressure drop.

Again, the friction factor in this equation is calculated by equation 3 for a specified
Reynolds number and roughness factor using a trial and error procedure. Actual volume
flow rate is needed to calculate the velocity of gas in the line from which the Reynolds
number is calculated. Equation 6 may be used to convert the volume flow rate at standard
condition to the actual volume flow rate.

Case Study 1: Oil Pipeline

Consider a 16-inch (inside diameter of 395 mm) oil export line for transportation of
170,000 bbl/day (0.313 m3/s) of a 43 API crude oil (relative density of 0.81) from an
offshore platform to the shore oil terminal. The total length of pipe is 55 km. The ambient
temperature is 5 °C and the crude oil viscosity at the average pipe temperature is 0.001
cP. The pipe line inlet pressure is 14.9 MPa (absolute). Since the objective is to study the
effect of roughness factor on friction pressure drop, we will ignore elevation change.
To study the effect of roughness factor on friction pressure drop, was varied from
1x10-6 to 1x10-3. The roughness factor of = 1x10-6 represents a very smooth pipe. The
calculated friction pressure drop as a function of the roughness factor is plotted in Figure
2. For each value of roughness factor, the percent change in frictional pressure drop was
calculated in comparison to a very smooth pipe ( = 1x10-6) and the results are
presented in Figure 3. The calculated results are also presented in Table 1.

Case Study 2: Gas Pipeline

Let’s consider an 8-inch (inside diameter of 190 mm) gas export line for transportation of
70 MMSCFD (22.913 Sm3/s) of natural gas with a molecular weight of 19.3 (relative
density of 0.67) from an offshore platform to the shore. The total length of pipe is 43 km.
The ambient temperature is 5°C and the gas viscosity at the average pipeline temperature
is 1.1x10-6 cP. The gas inlet temperature is 35°C and pressure is 13.0 MPa (absolute).
Since the objective is to study the effect of roughness factor on friction pressure drop, we
will again ignore elevation change.
Similar to the oil pipeline, the roughness factor, was varied from 1×10-6 to 0.006.
Note, for a roughness factor greater than 0.006, a higher inlet pressure, a larger diameter
or lower flow rate was needed. The calculated friction pressure drop as a function of
roughness factor is presented in Figure 2. For each value of roughness factor, the percent
change in frictional pressure drop in comparison to a very smooth pipe ( = 1×10-6)
was calculated and the results are presented in Figure 3.
Discussion and Conclusions
The analysis of Figure 2 indicates that for the oil pipeline, the friction pressure drop is
almost independent of the roughness factor in the range of 1×10-6< <1×10-4; however,
for >1×10-4, it will increase with . For liquid lines, the Reynolds number is
normally in the range of 5×104 to 1×106. For this range, the friction factor curves in
Figure 1 approach close to each other so the values of friction factors become close to
each other.
Contrary to the oil pipeline, the friction pressure drop for the gas pipeline is a strong
function of . As can be seen in Figure 2, friction pressure drop increases very rapidly
with the roughness factor. Figure 3 shows the comparison of percent change of friction
pressure drop between oil and gas pipelines as a function of roughness factor. For the
liquid pipeline, the maximum change is 20 % but for the gas pipeline the maximum
change is more than 200 %. Again this can be explained by referring to Figure 1. For gas
pipelines, the Reynolds number is higher than in the liquid line and the range is
normally 5×106<Re<1×108. For this range, the friction factor curves in Figure 1 are
apart from each other, so the friction factors are not close.
In summary, contrary to liquid pipelines the gas pipelines are very sensitive to wall
roughness and using smooth pipe can reduce friction pressure drop considerably. This in
turn lowers the OPEX. Therefore, regular pigging to clean the pipe surface is done to
lower the roughness factor. The modern gas transmission companies will add a Fusion
Bounded Epoxy (FBE) liner to gas pipelines because the pipe is sensitive to roughness.
This lowers OPEX for the long term. It should be noted that the smoother the pipe, the
higher the CAPEX, so as always, detailed total cost analysis should be performed for
engineering applications.
Due to the sensitivity of gas pipelines to roughness factor and other operation parameters,
there are numerous gas flow equations (e.g. Weymouth, Panhandle A and B, AGA) to
best fit certain design conditions [1].
To learn more about similar cases and how to minimize operational problems, we suggest
attending our ME44 (Overview of Pumps and Compressors in Oil and Gas
Facilities), ME46 (Compressor Systems – Mechanical Design and Specification), PL4
(Fundamental Pipeline Engineering), G40 (Process/Facility Fundamentals), G4 (Gas
Conditioning and Processing), and PF4 (Oil Production and Processing Facilities)
courses.

By: Dr. Mahmood Moshfeghian

Characterization of surface roughness effects on pressure
drop in single-phase flow in minichannels
Roughness features on the walls of a channel wall affect the pressure drop of a fluid
flowing through that channel. This roughness effect can be described by (i) flow area
constriction and (ii) increase in the wall shear stress. Replotting the Moody’s friction
factor chart with the constricted flow diameter results in a simplified plot and yields a
single asymptotic value of friction factor for relative roughness values of ε∕D>0.03
in the fully developed turbulent region. After reviewing the literature, three new
roughness parameters are proposed (maximum profile peak height Rp, mean spacing of
profile irregularities RSm, and floor distance to mean line Fp). Three additional
parameters are presented to consider the localized hydraulic diameter variation
(maximum, minimum, and average) in future work. The roughnessε is then defined as
Rp+Fp. This definition yields the same value of roughness as obtained from the sand-
grain roughness [H. Darcy, Recherches Experimentales Relatives au Mouvement de
L’Eau dans les Tuyaux (Mallet-Bachelier, Paris, France, 1857); J. T. Fanning, A Practical
Treatise on Hydraulic and Water Supply Engineering (Van Nostrand, New York, 1877,
revised ed. 1886); J. Nikuradse, “Laws of flow in rough pipes” [“Stromungsgesetze in
Rauen Rohren,” VDI-Forschungsheft 361 (1933)]; Beilage zu “Forschung auf dem
Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens,” Ausgabe B Band 4, English translation NACA Tech.
Mem. 1292 (1937)]. Specific experiments are conducted using parallel sawtooth ridge
elements, placed normal to the flow direction, in aligned and offset configurations in a
10.03mm wide rectangular channel with variable gap (resulting hydraulic diameters
of 325μm–1819μm with Reynolds numbers ranging from 200 to 7200 for air and
200 to 5700 for water). The use of constricted flow diameter extends the applicability of
the laminar friction factor equations to relative roughness values (sawtooth height) up to
14%. In the turbulent region, the aligned and offset roughness arrangements yield
different results indicating a need to further characterize the surface features. The laminar
to turbulent transition is also seen to occur at lower Reynolds numbers with an increase in
the relative roughness.