Evs Textbook PDF

PERSPECTIVES IN
ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
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Copyright © 2004, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2345-7
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Need for Public Awareness
<0), `#%*)., S4*%'#-, N'#/)&)#2), '#, "#$%&'#()#*, 4#., Z)$)5'F()#*
0)5.,%#,T%',.),^4#)%&',%#,ABB_,4#.,F'F654&5E,G#'3#,4-, 9:,%(3);+'2
'$(<)/'55'3).,9E,*0), =&%-1);+''$()&");+*(,$",6-!)>!#!-&4'!"() 4*
^'04##)-96&:,%#,_]]_@,P6-*,A],E)4&-,4/*)&,*0),/%&-*,-6((%*@,04$),0%:0;
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*&42*)., *0), 4**)#*%'#, '/ , *0), :)#)&45, F695%2, *'34&.-, *0), .)*)&%'&4*%#:
)#$%&'#()#*7,8#E,:'$)&#()#*,4*,%*-,'3#,5)$)5,24##'*,420%)$),*0),:'45-
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%*7,>695%2,F4&*%2%F4*%'#,%-,F'--%95),'#5E,30)#,*0),F695%2,%-,434&),49'6*
*0),)2'5':%245,4#.,)#$%&'#()#*45,%--6)-7,8,.&%$),9E,*0),:'$)&#()#*,*'
94#,*0),5%**)&%#:,'/ ,F'5E*0)#),24##'*,9),-622)--/65,6#*%5,*0),F695%2,6#;
.)&-*4#.-,*0),)#$%&'#()#*45,%(F5%24*%'#-,'/ ,*0),-4()7,<0),F695%2,04-
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*0),2'(F5)X,#)*3'&G,'/ ,)#$%&'#()#*,30)&),)$)&E,2'(F'#)#*,%-,5%#G).
*',4#'*0)&7,[*,%-,455,*0),('&),%(F'&*4#*,*',).624*),*0),F)'F5),*04*,-'();
*%()-, *0), 4.$)&-), %(F42*, '/ , )#$%&'#()#*, 4&), #'*, )XF)&%)#2)., '&, #';
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-'&-.'7b,[/ ,3),34#*,*',(4#4:),'6&,F54#)*,)4&*0@,3),04$),*',(4G),455
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&)-F'#-),*',4,>695%2,[#*)&)-*,H%*%:4*%'#,=>[H?,/%5).,9E,L7N7,L)0*4,$-7
`#%'#,'/ ,[#.%4,=ABCC?,*04*,F&'(F*).,*0),4F)X,2'6&*,*',:%$),4,(4#.4*)
/'&,2&)4*%#:,)#$%&'#()#*45,434&)#)--,4('#:,455,2%*%V)#-,'/ ,[#.%47
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%.)4-, 49'6*, 304*, #)).-, *', 9), .'#), 4#., -*%55, /)3)&, 04$), *0), 42*645
)XF)&%)#2), '&, )XF)&*%-), %#, *0), /%)5.7, `#/'&*6#4*)5E@, )#$%&'#()#*45
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F&':&4(()-, %#, *0)'&E, 4#., F&42*%2)7, a"#$%&'#()#*b, %-, $)&E, 3&'#:5E
*4G)#,4-,4,a/4-0%'#b,9E,455,345G-,'/ ,5%/)@,04&.5E,&)45%V%#:,*04*,%*,%-,'6&
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.'#+*,04$),4,.)2)#*,F54#)*,*',F6*,%*,'#cb,"$)#,%/ ,3),9):%#,*'.4E@,*0)
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QUESTIONS
?8 W04*,%-,,*0),#)).,,/'&,-*6.E%#:,)#$%&'#()#*45,%--6)-,c
@8 W04*,%-,*0),-2'F),'/ ,)#$%&'#()#*45,).624*%'#,c
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*$.4"5$*%+.&4"/$/%36%()$%'-(0.$7%8)"5)%-.$%9'&8'%-*%:-(0.-,%.$*&0.5$*;
<)0*%8-($.7%-".7%*&",7%2"'$.-,*7%5&-,7%#&.$*(*7%5.&+*%-'/%8",/%,"#$%-.$%-,,
$=-2+,$*%&# %'-(0.-,%.$*&0.5$*;
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.$1$'$.-($/%8"()"'%-%1"4$'%*+-'%&# %("2$%$;1;%#&.$*(*7%8",/,"#$7
8"'/%$'$.167%3"&2-**%$'$.167%("/-,%$'$.167%)6/.&%+&8$.%$(5;
@&,-.% $'$.16% "*% -,*&% -% .$'$8-3,$% #&.2% &# % $'$.16% -*% "(% "*% -'
"'$=)-0*("3,$%*&0.5$%&#%$'$.16;
! :&'A.$'$8-3,$% .$*&0.5$*% 8)"5)% 5-''&(% 3$% .$1$'$.-($/% $;1;
B&**",%#0$,*%,"9$%5&-,7%+$(.&,$027%2"'$.-,*%$(5;%C'5$%8$%$=)-0*(
()$*$%.$*$.4$*7%()$%*-2$%5-''&(%3$%.$+,$'"*)$/;
D4$'%&0.%.$'$8-3,$%.$*&0.5$*%5-'%3$5&2$%'&'A.$'$8-3,$%"# %8$
$=+,&"(%()$2%(&%*05)%$=($'(%()-(%()$".%.-($%&# %5&'*02+("&'%$=5$$/*%()$".
.-($%&# %.$1$'$.-("&';%B&.%$=-2+,$7%"# %-%*+$5"$*%"*%$=+,&"($/%*&%205)%()-(
"(*%+&+0,-("&'%*"E$%/$5,"'$*%3$,&8%()$%().$*)&,/%,$4$,%()$'%"(%"*%'&(%-3,$
(&%*0*(-"'%"(*$,# %-'/%1.-/0-,,6%()$%*+$5"$*%3$5&2$*%$'/-'1$.$/%&.%$=("'5(;
F(%"*%4$.6%"2+&.(-'(%(&%+.&($5(%-'/%5&'*$.4$%&0.%'-(0.-,%.$*&0.5$*
-'/%0*$%()$2%"'%-%G0/"5"&0*%2-''$.%*&%()-(%8$%/&'H(%$=)-0*(%()$2;%F(
/&$*%'&(%2$-'%()-(%8$%*)&0,/%*(&+%0*"'1%2&*(%&#%()$%'-(0.-,%.$*&0.5$*;
?-()$.7%8$%*)&0,/%0*$%()$%.$*&0.5$*%"'%*05)%-%8-6%()-(%8$%-,8-6*%*-4$
$'&01)%&# %()$2%#&.%&0.%#0(0.$%1$'$.-("&'*;%F'%()"*%0'"(%8$%*)-,,%/"*50**
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5
2.1 FOREST RESOURCES

B&.$*(*%-.$%&'$%&# %()$%2&*(%"2+&.(-'(%'-(0.-,%.$*&0.5$*%&'%()"*%$-.();
M&4$."'1%()$%$-.()%,"9$%-%1.$$'%3,-'9$(%()$*$%#&.$*(*%'&(%&',6%+.&/05$
"''02$.-3,$% 2-($."-,% 1&&/*7% 30(% -,*&% +.&4"/$% *$4$.-,% $'4".&'2$'(-,
*$.4"5$*%8)"5)%-.$%$**$'("-,%#&.%,"#$;
N3&0(%OPQ./%&# %()$%8&.,/H*%,-'/%-.$-%"*%#&.$*($/%8)"5)%"'5,0/$*
5,&*$/%-*%8$,,%-*%&+$'%#&.$*(*;%B&.2$.%R@@?%-55&0'(*%#&.%-3&0(%-%S()
&# %()$%8&.,/H*%#&.$*(*7%T.-E",%#&.%-3&0(%-%U()%-'/%M-'-/-%-'/%R@N%$-5)
#&.%VAUW;%T0(%"(%"*%-%2-(($.%&# %5&'5$.'%()-(%-,2&*(%$4$.68)$.$%()$%5&4$.
&# % ()$% '-(0.-,% #&.$*(*% )-*% /$5,"'$/% &4$.% ()$% 6$-.*;% <)$% 1.$-($*(% ,&**
&550..$/%"'%(.&+"5-,% N*"-%8)$.$%&'$%()"./%&# %()$%#&.$*(%.$*&0.5$*%)-4$
3$$'% /$*(.&6$/;
! USES OF FORESTS
!"##$%&'()*+,$,-*B&.$*(*% +.&4"/$% 0*% -% ,-.1$%'023$.% &#% 5&22$.5"-,
1&&/*% 8)"5)% "'5,0/$% ("23$.7% #".$8&&/7% +0,+8&&/7% #&&/% "($2*7% 1027
.$*"'*7% '&'A$/"3,$% &",*7% .033$.7% #"3$.*7% ,-57% 3-23&&% 5-'$*7% #&//$.7
2$/"5"'$7% /.01*% -'/% 2-'6% 2&.$% "($2*7% ()$% (&(-,% 8&.()% &# % 8)"5)% "*
$*("2-($/%(&%3$%2&.$%()-'%X%QYY%3",,"&'%+$.%6$-.;
Z-,# %&# %()$%("23$.%50(%$-5)%6$-.%"*%0*$/%-*%#0$,%#&.%)$-("'1%-'/
5&&9"'1;%C'$%()"./%&# %()$%8&&/%)-.4$*(%"*%0*$/%#&.%30",/"'1%2-($."-,*
-*%,023$.7%+,68&&/%-'/%)-./8&&/7%+-.("5,$%3&-./%-'/%5)"+3&-./;%C'$
*"=()% &#% ()$% 8&&/% )-.4$*(% "*% 5&'4$.($/% "'(&% +0,+% -'/% 0*$/% #&.% +-+$.
"'/0*(.6;%L-'6%#&.$*(%,-'/*%-.$%0*$/%#&.%2"'"'17%-1."50,(0.$7%1.-E"'17
-'/%.$5.$-("&'%-'/%#&.%/$4$,&+2$'(%&# %/-2*;
.&")"/'&()*+,$,-*K)",$%-%(6+"5-,%(.$$%+.&/05$*%5&22$.5"-,%1&&/*
8&.()%%-3&0(%%X%%S[Y%%"(%%+.&4"/$*%%$'4".&'2$'(-,%*$.4"5$*%8&.()%'$-.,6
X%O[V7%\SY;
<)$%$5&,&1"5-,%*$.4"5$*%+.&4"/$/%36%&0.%#&.$*(*%2-6%3$%*022$/
0+%-*%#&,,&8*>
! 0%"1+&2'"3*"4*"56/$3-*<)$%(.$$*%+.&/05$%&=61$'%36%+)&(&A
*6'()$*"*%8)"5)%"*%*&%4"(-,%#&.%,"#$%&'%()"*%$-.();%<)$6%-.$%."1)(,6
5-,,$/%-*%$-.()H*%,0'1*;
! 7$1+&'3/* /)"8()* 9(%#'3/-* <)$% 2-"'% 1.$$')&0*$% 1-*% 5-.A
3&'%/"&="/$%IMC\J%"*%-3*&.3$/%36%()$%#&.$*(*%-*%-%.-8%2-($."-,
#&.%+)&(&*6'()$*"*;%<)0*%#&.$*(%5-'&+6%-5(*%-*%-%*"'9%#&.%MC\
()$.$36% .$/05"'1% ()$% +.&3,$2% &# % 1,&3-,% 8-.2"'1% 5-0*$/% 36
1.$$')&0*$%1-*%MC\;
Natural Resources 7
! :')1*)'4$*;(8'2(2-%B&.$*(*%-.$%()$%)&2$*%&# %2",,"&'*%&# %8",/

-'"2-,*%-'/%+,-'(*;%N3&0(%U%2",,"&'%*+$5"$*%-.$%#&0'/%"'%()$
(.&+"5-,%#&.$*(*%-,&'$;
! 7$/+)(2'"3* "4* ;61%")"/'&()* &6&)$>% B&.$*($/% 8-($.*)$/*% -5(
,"9$% 1"-'(% *+&'1$*7% -3*&.3"'1% ()$% .-"'#-,,7% *,&8"'1% /&8'% ()$
.0'&## %-'/%*,&8,6%.$,$-*"'1%()$%8-($.%#&.%.$5)-.1$%&# %*+."'1*;
N3&0(%SYA]Y%W&# %()$%2&"*(0.$%"'%()$%-".%-3&4$%(.&+"5-,%#&.$*(*
5&2$*%#.&2%()$".%(.-'*+".-("&'%8)"5)%)$,+*%"'%3."'1"'1%.-"'*;
! <"')* !"3,$%=(2'"3-* B&.$*(*% 3"'/% ()$% *&",% +-.("5,$*% ("1)(,6% "'
()$".% .&&(*% -'/% +.$4$'(% *&",% $.&*"&';% <)$6% -,*&% -5(% -*% 8"'/A
3.$-9*;
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-'/% 5-'% )$,+% "'% 9$$+"'1% ()$% -".% +0.$;* <)$6* )-4$% -,*&* 3$$'
.$+&.($/%(&%-3*&.3%'&"*$%-'/%()0*%)$,+%"'%+.$4$'("'1%-".%-'/
'&"*$% +&,,0("&';
! OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS

@"'5$%("2$%"22$2&."-,7%)02-'*%)-4$%/$+$'/$/%)$-4",6%&'%#&.$*(*%#&.
#&&/7%2$/"5"'$7%*)$,($.7%8&&/%-'/%#0$,;%K"()%1.&8"'1%5"4","E-("&'%()$
/$2-'/*% #&.% .-8% 2-($."-,% ,"9$% ("23$.7% +0,+7% 2"'$.-,*7% #0$,% 8&&/% $(5;
*)&&($/%0+%.$*0,("'1%"'%,-.1$%*5-,$%,&11"'17%2"'"'17%.&-/A30",/"'1%-'/
5,$-."'1%&# %#&.$*(*;%C0.%#&.$*(*%5&'(."30($%*03*(-'("-,,6%(&%()$%'-("&'-,
$5&'&26;%<)$%"'($.'-("&'-,%("23$.%(.-/$%-,&'$%"*%8&.()%&4$.%R@%X%^Y
3",,"&'%+$.%6$-.;%D=5$**"4$%0*$%&# %#0$,%8&&/%-'/%5)-.5&-,7%$=+-'*"&'%&#
0.3-'7%-1."50,(0.-,%-'/%"'/0*(."-,%-.$-*%-'/%&4$.1.-E"'1%)-4$%(&1$()$.
,$/%(&%&4$.A$=+,&"(-("&'%&#%&0.%#&.$*(*%,$-/"'1%(&%()$".%.-+"/%/$1.-/-A
("&';
! DEFORESTATION
<)$%(&(-,%#&.$*(%-.$-%&# %()$%8&.,/%"'%O[YY%8-*%$*("2-($/%(&%3$%U7YYY
2",,"&'%)$5(-.$*%8)"5)%8-*%.$/05$/%(&%\][Y%2",,"&'%)-%"'%O[US%-'/%#$,,
/&8'%(&%G0*(%\7QYY%2",,"&'%)-%36%\YYY;%_$#&.$*(-("&'%.-($%"*%.$,-("4$,6
,$**%"'%($2+$.-($%5&0'(."$*7%30(%"(%"*%4$.6%-,-.2"'1%"'%(.&+"5-,%5&0'(."$*
8)$.$% "(% "*% -*% )"1)% -*% ^YASY% +$.5$'(% -'/% -(% ()$% +.$*$'(% .-($% "(% "*% $*("A
2-($/%()-(%"'%()$%'$=(%VY%6$-.*%8$%8&0,/%,&*$%2&.$%()-'%[Y%+$.5$'(%&#
&0.%(.&+"5-,%#&.$*(*;
<)$% #&.$*($/% -.$-% "'% F'/"-% *$$2*% (&% )-4$% *(-3","E$/% *"'5$% O[]\
8"()% -3&0(% Y;Y^W% /$5,"'$% -''0-,,6% 3$(8$$'% O[]\A[Y;% BNC% IO[]QJ
$*("2-($/%()-(%-3&0(%O;^^%2%)-%&# %,-'/%8-*%3.&01)(%0'/$.%-##&.$*(-("&'
/0."'1%()"*%+$."&/%,$-/"'1%(&%*(-3","E-("&';%N*%+$.%BNC%$*("2-($*7%()$
/$#&.$*(-("&'% .-($% +$.% 0'"(% +&+0,-("&'% "'% F'/"-% "*% ()$% ,&8$*(% -2&'1*(
()$% 2-G&.% (.&+"5-,% 5&0'(."$*7% /$*+"($% ()$% #-5(% ()-(% 8$% )-4$% -% )01$
+&+0,-("&'%*"E$%-'/%4$.6%,&8%+$.%5-+"(-%#&.$*(%-.$-%IY;YUS%)-%+$.%5-+"(-J;
Z&8$4$.7%8$%-.$%*(",,%#-.%3$)"'/%()$%(-.1$(%&# %-5)"$4"'1%QQW%#&.$*(%-.$-7
-*%+$.%&0.%:-("&'-,%B&.$*(%`&,"567%-*%8$%-.$%*(",,%)-4"'1%&',6%O[;\U%W%&#
&0.% ,-'/% -.$-% IVQ;Q]2% )-J% 5&4$.$/% 36% #&.$*(*% 3-*$/% &'% *-($,,"($% /-(-
IL&DB7%O[[]J
Major Causes of Deforestation
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+$&+,$% ,"4"'1% -*% *)"#("'1% 50,("4-(&.*% 8)&% +.-5("5$% *,-*)% -'/% 30.'
-1."50,(0.$%-'/%-.$%*0++&*$/%(&%5,$-.%2&.$%()-'%S%,-9)%)-%&# %#&.$*(*%#&.
*)"#("'1%50,("4-("&'%-''0-,,6;%F'%F'/"-7%8$%)-4$%()"*%+.-5("5$%"'%:&.()A
D-*(% -'/% (&% *&2$% $=($'(% "'% N'/).-% `.-/$*)7% T")-.% -'/% L;`% 8)"5)
5&'(."30($%(&%'$-.,6%)-,# %&# %()$%#&.$*(%5,$-."'1%-''0-,,6;
I!!J >+$)*%$?+'%$#$32,-%F'5.$-*"'1%/$2-'/*%#&.%#0$,%8&&/%36%()$
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()$.$36%"'5.$-*"'1%()$%+.$**0.$%&'%#&.$*(*;
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#0.'"(0.$7% .-",8-6A*,$$+$.*7% +,68&&/7% 2-(5)A3&=$*7% +0,+% #&.% +-+$.% "'A
/0*(.6%$(5;%)-4$%$=$.($/%(.$2$'/&0*%+.$**0.$%&'%#&.$*(*;%`,68&&/%"*%"'
1.$-(%/$2-'/%#&.%+-59"'1%($-%#&.% <$-%"'/0*(.6%&# %N**-2%8)",$%#".%(.$$
8&&/%"*%$=+,&"($/%1.$-(,6%#&.%+-59"'1%-++,$*%"'%abc;
I!"J @$=$)"A#$32*A%"B$&2,-*L-**"4$%/$*(.05("&'%&# %#&.$*(*%&550.
#&.%4-."&0*%/$4$,&+2$'(%+.&G$5(*%,"9$%)6/.&$,$5(."5%+.&G$5(*7%3"1%/-2*7
.&-/%5&'*(.05("&'7%2"'"'1%$(5;
I"J C%"9'3/*4""1*3$$1,-*F'%/$4$,&+"'1%5&0'(."$*%()"*%"*%()$%2-"'
.$-*&'% #&.% /$#&.$*(-("&';% <&% 2$$(% ()$% /$2-'/*% &# % .-+"/,6% 1.&8"'1
+&+0,-("&'7%-1."50,(0.-,%,-'/*%-'/%*$((,$2$'(*%-.$%5.$-($/%+$.2-'$'(,6
36%5,$-."'1%#&.$*(*;
I"!J D=$%/%(E'3/-*<)$%+&&.%"'%()$%(.&+"5*%2-"',6%.$,6%&'%8&&/%-*
-%*&0.5$%&# %#0$,%,$-/"'1%(&%,&**%&# %(.$$%5&4$.%-'/%()$%5,$-.$/%,-'/*%-.$
(0.'$/%"'(&%()$%1.-E"'1%,-'/*;%C4$.1.-E"'1%36%()$%5-((,$%,$-/*%(&%#0.A
()$.%/$1.-/-("&'%&# %()$*$%,-'/*;
Major Consequences of Deforestation
_$#&.$*(-("&'%)-*%#-.%.$-5)"'1%5&'*$d0$'5$*7%8)"5)%2-6%3$%&0(,"'$/
-*%#&,,&8*>
I!J F(% ().$-($'*% ()$% $="*($'5$% &# % 2-'6% 8",/% ,"#$% *+$5"$*% /0$% (&
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Natural Resources 9
I!!J T"&/"4$.*"(6% "*% ,&*(% -'/% -,&'1% 8"()% ()-(% 1$'$("5% /"4$.*"(6% "*
$.&/$/;
I!!!J Z6/.&,&1"5-,%565,$%1$(*%-##$5($/7%()$.$36%"'#,0$'5"'1%.-"'#-,,;
I!"J `.&3,$2*%&# %*&",%$.&*"&'%-'/%,&**%&# %*&",%#$.(","(6%"'5.$-*$;
I"J F'%)",,6%-.$-*%"(%&#($'%,$-/*%(&%,-'/*,"/$*;
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! @$,$%2'4'&(2'"3*'3*;'))6*%$/'"3,*"4*2;$*J'#()(6(,
_$#&.$*(-("&'%"'%Z"2-,-6-*7%"'4&,4"'1%5,$-.-'5$%&#%'-(0.-,%#&.A
$*(*%-'/%+,-'(-("&'%&#%2&'&50,(0.$*%,"9$%#!$%&'()*+%(,-!.'/%012
3456%&'01718%39$&!&' $(5;% )-4$% 0+*$(% ()$% $5&*6*($2% 36% 5)-'1"'1
4-."&0*% *&",% I$/-+)"5J% -'/% 3"&,&1"5-,% +.&+$.("$*;% :0(."$'(% 56A
5,"'1%)-*%3$5&2$%+&&.7%&."1"'-,%."5)%1$.2+,-*2%"*%,&*(%-'/%()$
-.$-% "*% "'4-/$/% 36% $=&("5% 8$$/*;% <)$*$% -.$-*% -.$% '&(% -3,$% (&
.$5&4$.%-'/%-.$%,&*"'1%()$".%#$.(","(6;%<)$%$'(".$%8$*(%c)-*"%)",,
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+-.(*%&# %c02-&'%-'/%e-.)8-,%-.$%'&8%#-5"'1%()$%*$."&0*%+.&3A
,$2%&# %/$*$.("#"5-("&';
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<)"*%)",,6%.$1"&'%0*$/%(&%3$%-%1&&/%#&.$*($/%-.$-%(&8-./*%()$
(0.'% &# % ()$% 5$'(0.6% -'/% 0*$/% (&% .$5$"4$% #-".,6% #.$d0$'(% -#($.A
'&&'%*)&8$.*%#-4&0."'1%($-%+,-'(-("&'*;%B&,,&8"'1%()$%/$*(.05A
("&'%&# %#&.$*(*7%.-"'#-,,%/$5,"'$/%"'%M))&(-%:-1+0.%(&%*05)%-'
$=($'(%()-(%($-%A1-./$'*%-,*&%/"*-++$-.$/%#.&2%()$%.$1"&';
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<)$%*03%'&.2-,%.-"'#-,,%/0."'1%O[VSA]^%-(%C&(6%"'%:",1"."%2&0'A
(-"'*% )-*% 3$$'% #&0'/% (&% 3$% 5,&*$,6% -**&5"-($/% 8"()% /$5,"'"'1
#&.$*(%5&4$.%"'%()"*%.$1"&'%"'%()$%+-*(%\Y%6$-.*;%<)$%.-"'#-,,%+-(A
($.'%8-*%#&0'/%(&%#,05(0-($%8"()%8&&/$/%,-'/%-.$-%"'%()$%)",,*;
K)$'%()$%:",1"."%2&0'(-"'*%)-/%,0=0."-'(%#&.$*(%5&4$.%-''0-,
.-"'#-,,%0*$/%(&%3$%205)%)"1)$.;
Major Activities in Forests

G'#8$%*.52%(&2'"3-%!&11"'1%#&.%4-,0-3,$%("23$.7%*05)%-*%($-9%-'/
L-)&1-'6%'&(%&',6%"'4&,4$*%-%#$8%,-.1$%(.$$*%+$.%)$5(-.$%30(%-3&0(%-
/&E$'%2&.$%(.$$*%*"'5$%()$6%-.$%*(.&'1,6%"'($.,&59$/%8"()%$-5)%&()$.
36%4"'$*%$(5;%N,*&%.&-/%5&'*(.05("&'%#&.%2-9"'1%-++.&-5)%(&%()$%(.$$*
5-0*$*%#0.()$.%/-2-1$%(&%()$%#&.$*(*;
N'3'3/-%L"'"'1%&+$.-("&'*%#&.%$=(.-5("'1%2"'$.-,*%-'/%#&**",%#0$,*
,"9$%5&-,%&#($'%"'4&,4$*%4-*(%#&.$*(%-.$-*;%L"'"'1%#.&2%*)-,,&8%/$+&*"(*
"*% /&'$% 36% ,+%4(&$* #'3'3/%8)",$% ()-(% #.&2% /$$+% /$+&*"(*% "*% /&'$% 36
,+8O,+%4(&$* #'3'3/;% L&.$% ()-'% ]Y7YYY% )-% &# % ,-'/% &# % ()$% 5&0'(.6% "*
+.$*$'(,6%0'/$.%()$%*(.$**%&# %2"'"'1%-5("4"("$*;%L"'"'1%-'/%"(*%-**&5"-($/
-5("4"("$*% .$d0".$% .$2&4-,% &# % 4$1$(-("&'% -,&'1% 8"()% 0'/$.,6"'1% *&",
2-'(,$% -'/% &4$.,6"'1% .&59% 2-**$*;% <)"*% .$*0,(*% "'% /$#-5"'1% ()$
(&+&1.-+)6%-'/%/$*(.05("&'%&#%()$%,-'/*5-+$%"'%()$%-.$-;
!-.1$% *5-,$% /$#&.$*(-("&'% )-*% 3$$'% .$+&.($/% "'% L0**&."$% -'/
_$).-/0'%4-,,$6%/0$%(&%"'/"*5."2"'-($%2"'"'1%&#%4-."&0*%2"'$.-,*%&4$.
-%,$'1()%&# %-3&0(%^Y%c2;%<)$%#&.$*($/%-.$-%)-*%/$5,"'$/%-(%-'%-4$.-1$
.-($%&# %QQW%-'/%()$%"'5.$-*$%"'%'&'A#&.$*(%-.$-%/0$%(&%2"'"'1%-5("4"("$*
)-*%.$*0,($/%"'%.$,-("4$,6%0'*(-3,$%E&'$*%,$-/"'1%(&%,-'/*,"/$*;
F'/"*5."2"'-($%2"'"'1%"'%#&.$*(*%&# %e&-%*"'5$%O[VO%)-*%/$*(.&6$/
2&.$%()-'%SY7YYY%)-%&#%#&.$*(%,-'/;%M&-,%2"'"'1%"'%a)-."-7%?-'"1-'G
-'/%@"'1.-0,"%-.$-*%)-4$%5-0*$/%$=($'*"4$%/$#&.$*(-("&'%"'%a)-.9)-'/;
L"'"'1%&# %2-1'$*"($%-'/%*&-+A%*(&'$*%)-4$%/$*(.&6$/%O^%)-%&# %#&.$*(%"'
()$%)",,%*,&+$*%-(%c)".-9&(7%c&*"%4-,,$67%N,2&.-;%L"'"'1%&# %.-/"&-5("4$
2"'$.-,*%"'%c$.-,-7%<-2",'-/0%-'/%c-.'-(-9-%-.$%+&*"'1%*"2",-.%().$-(*
&# %/$#&.$*(-("&';%<)$%."5)%#&.$*(*%&#%K$*($.'%e)-(*%-.$%-,*&%#-5"'1%()$
*-2$%().$-(%/0$%(&%2"'"'1%+.&G$5(*%#&.%$=5-4-("&'%&# %5&++$.7%5).&2"($7
3-0="($%-'/%2-1'$("($;
! DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND PEOPLE

T"1% /-2*% -'/% ."4$.% 4-,,$6% +.&G$5(*% )-4$%20,("A+0.+&*$% 0*$*% -'/% )-4$
3$$'%.$#$..$/%(&%-*%:;97539&')< '7)89($'=$8!1>?'Z&8$4$.7%()$*$%/-2*%-.$
-,*&%.$*+&'*"3,$%#&.%()$%/$*(.05("&'%&# %4-*(%-.$-*%&# %#&.$*(*;%F'/"-%)-*
2&.$% ()-'% OSSY% ,-.1$% /-2*7% ()$% 2-="202% 3$"'1% "'% ()$% *(-($% &#
L-)-.-*)(.-% I2&.$% ()$'% VYYJ7% #&,,&8$/% 36% e0G-.-(% I2&.$% ()$'% \SYJ
-'/% L-/)6-% `.-/$*)% IOQYJ;% <)$% )"1)$*(% &'$% "*% ;9-(!' 8177% &'% ."4$.
T)-1".-()"%"'%R((-.-'5)-,%-'/%()$%,-.1$*(%"'%($.2*%&# %5-+-5"(6%"*%T)-9.-
/-2%&'%."4$.%@-(,0G%"'%Z;`;%T"1%/-2*%)-4$%3$$'%"'%*)-.+%#&50*%&# %4-."&0*
$'4".&'2$'(-,% 1.&0+*% -,,% &4$.% ()$% 8&.,/% 8)"5)% "*% 2-"',6% 3$5-0*$% &#
*$4$.-,%$5&,&1"5-,%+.&3,$2*%"'5,0/"'1%/$#&.$*(-("&'%-'/%*&5"&A$5&'&2"5
+.&3,$2*%.$,-($/%(&%(."3-,%&.%'-("4$%+$&+,$%-**&5"-($/%8"()%()$2;%<)$
Natural Resources 11
@!39$6' A13394% )6/.&$,$5(."5% +.&G$5(% 8-*% &'$% &# % ()$% #".*(% *05)% +.&G$5(*
*"(0-($/%"'%()$%(.&+"5-,%.-"'%#&.$*(%-.$-%&# %K$*($.'%e)-(*%8)"5)%-((.-5($/
205)% 5&'5$.'% &# % ()$% +$&+,$;% ;-9' 0(%&189' 1,1!$&6' 6-9' 90)3),!013' 8171,9
1$8'89<)(9&616!)$'01%&98'8%9'6)';9-(!'817'B1&'398'+4'@-?'@%$89('313'C1-%,%$1.
6-9' 39189(' )< ' D-!5E)' 7)"979$6?';-9' 01%&9' )< ' @1(81(' @1()"1(' F17' (931698
!&&%9&'-1&'+99$'61E9$'%5'+4'6-9'9$"!()$79$613'106!"!&6&'G98-1'#169E1(.'H)!$98
+4' I(%$8-16!'J14'1$8'C1+1' I769?
B&.%30",/"'1%3"1%/-2*7%,-.1$%*5-,$%/$4-*(-("&'%&# %#&.$*(*%(-9$*%+,-5$
8)"5)% 3.$-9*% ()$% '-(0.-,% $5&,&1"5-,% 3-,-'5$% &# % ()$% .$1"&';% B,&&/*7
/.&01)(*%-'/%,-'/*,"/$*%3$5&2$%2&.$%+.$4-,$'(%"'%*05)%-.$-*;%B&.$*(*
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3"&/"4$.*"(6%-'/%36%/$*(.&6"'1%()$2%I%+-.("50,-.,67%()$%(.&+"5-,%.-"'%#&.A
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2.2 WATER RESOURCES

K-($.%"*%-'%"'/"*+$'*-3,$%'-(0.-,%.$*&0.5$%&'%()"*%$-.()%&'%8)"5)%-,,
,"#$%/$+$'/*;%N3&0(%[UW%&# %()$%$-.()H*%*0.#-5$%"*%5&4$.$/%36%8-($.%-'/
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2-="202%.-"'#-,,%8)",$%()$%2-G&.%8&.,/%/$*$.(*%&550.%"'%E&'$*%&# %/.67
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! WATER USE AND OVER-EXPLOITATION

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Unconfined aquifer recharge area

Evapo-transpiration
Precipitation from croplands Evaporation
Evaporation from stream
from lake
Confined
aquifer
recharge
area Infiltration
Permeable
rock
Infiltration Unconfined
aquifer
(Water table)
Confined
Less permeable Impermeable aquifer
material rock layer
Fig. 2.2.1. The groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer

(water table) is formed when water collects over a rock or
compact clay. A confined aquifer is formed sandwitched
between two layers having very low permeability.
Effects of Groundwater Usage

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! CONFLICTS OVER WATER

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Traditional Water Management System

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! BIG DAMS- BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

Benefits
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+,-6%-%9$6%.&,$%"'%()$%/$4$,&+2$'(%+.&5$**%/0$%(&%()$".%20,("+,$%0*$*;
F'/"-%)-*%()$%/"*("'5("&'%&# %)-4"'1%()$%,-.1$*(%'023$.%&# %."4$.A4-,,$6
+.&G$5(*;% <)$*$% /-2*% -.$% &#($'% .$1-./$/% -*% -% *623&,% &# % '-("&'-,
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-'/%d0-,"(6%&# %,"#$;%<)$%/-2*%)-4$%(.$2$'/&0*%+&($'("-,%#&.%$5&'&2"5
0+,"#(2$'(%-'/%1.&8();%<)$6%5-'%)$,+%"'%5)$59"'1%#,&&/*%-'/%#-2"'$*7
1$'$.-($% $,$5(."5"(6% -'/% .$/05$% 8-($.% -'/% +&8$.% *)&.(-1$7% +.&4"/$
".."1-("&'%8-($.%(&%,&8$.%-.$-*7%+.&4"/$%/."'9"'1%8-($.%"'%.$2&($%-.$-*
-'/%+.&2&($%'-4"1-("&'7%#"*)$.6%$(5;
Environmental Problems
<)$%$'4".&'2$'(-,%"2+-5(*%&# %3"1A/-2*%-.$%-,*&%(&&%2-'6%/0$%(&%8)"5)
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! USES AND EXPLOITATION

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`.$4$'("'1% $=5$**"4$% ".."1-("&'7% *03A*0.#-5$% /.-"'-1$% ($5)'&,&16
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N3&0(%\YW%&# %()$%8&.,/H*%5.&+,-'/*%.$5$"4$%".."1-("&'%8"()%5-'-,%8-($.
&.%1.&0'/%8-($.%8)"5)%0',"9$%.-"'8-($.%&#($'%5&'(-"'*%/"**&,4$/%*-,(*;
R'/$.% /.6% 5,"2-($*7% ()$% 8-($.% $4-+&.-($*% ,$-4"'1% 3$)"'/% *-,(*% "'% ()$
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-##$5($/% 36% *&",% *-,"'"(6% -'/% -,9-,"'"(6;% @-,"'"(6% 5-0*$*% *(0'($/% +,-'(
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*-,"'"(6;
Evaporation and transpiration
Salt
crust Upper soil profile
containing salts
Percolation
of saline
irrigation
water
ing
Water logg
Less permeable
Salinization clay layer
Addition of salts with saline
Waterlogging
irrigation water
Evapo-transpiration leaves Rain water and irrigation
behind salts water percolate down
Salt-build up occurs in upper Water table rises
soil profile
Fig. 2.4.1. Salinization and water logging.
7$#$16-*<)$%2&*(%5&22&'%2$()&/%#&.%1$(("'1%."/%&# %*-,(*%"*%(&
#,0*)% ()$2% &0(% 36% -++,6"'1% 2&.$% 1&&/% d0-,"(6% 8-($.% (&% *05)% *&",*;
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!F<.* <GH@I.<
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<)$%#".*(%-,-.2"'1%.$+&.(%&# %*-,(A-##$5($/%8-*($,-'/%#&.2-("&'%"'
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M-'-,% 8$.$% *0##$."'1% #.&2% /$*(.05("4$% *-,"'$% $##,&.$*5$'5$;% <)$
m?$)%M&22"(($$n%"'%O]]V%/.$8%()$%-(($'("&'%&# %()$%1&4$.'2$'(
&'% *&2$% 4"(-,% +&"'(*% *)&8"'1% -% 5,&*$% .$,-("&'*)"+% 3$(8$$'
".."1-("&'7%/.-"'-1$%-'/%*+.$-/%&# %m.$)n%-'/%m0*-.n%*&",*;
MD)$68?N
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F'(.&/05("&'%&#%5-'-,%".."1-("&'%"'%O;\%2%)-%"'%Z-.6-'-%.$*0,($/
"'% ."*$% "'% 8-($.A(-3,$% #&,,&8$/% 36% 8-($.A,&11"'1% -'/% *-,"'"(6% "'
2-'6%".."1-($/%-.$-*%5-0*"'1%)01$%$5&'&2"5%,&**$*%-*%-%.$*0,(%&#
#-,,%"'%5.&+%+.&/05("4"(6;%?-G-*()-'%(&&%)-*%*0##$.$/%3-/,6%"'%()"*
.$1-./% #&,,&8"'1% ()$% 3"11$*(% ".."1-("&'% +.&G$5(% mF'/".-% e-'/)"
M-'-,% `.&G$5(n% -'/% ()$% *0##$."'1*% &# % -% 3"1% -.$-% "'% K$*($.'
?-G-*()-'% )-4$% 5)-'1$/% #.&2% -% 5&'/"("&'% &# % m8-($.A*(-.4$/
8-*($,-'/n%(&%()-(%&# %-%m8-($.%*&-9$/%8-*($,-'/n;
2.5. ENERGY RESOURCES

D'$.16%5&'*02+("&'%&# %-%'-("&'%"*%0*0-,,6%5&'*"/$.$/%-*%-'%"'/$=%&#
"(*%/$4$,&+2$'(;%<)"*%"*%3$5-0*$%-,2&*(%-,,%()$%/$4$,&+2$'(-,%-5("4"("$*
-.$% /".$5(,6% &.% "'/".$5(,6% /$+$'/$'(% 0+&'% $'$.16;% K$% #"'/% 8"/$
/"*+-."("$*% "'% +$.% 5-+"(-% $'$.16% 0*$% 3$(8$$'% ()$% /$4$,&+$/% -'/% ()$
/$4$,&+"'1% '-("&'*;
<)$%#".*(%#&.2%&# %$'$.16%($5)'&,&16%+.&3-3,6%8-*%()$%#".$7%8)"5)
+.&/05$/% )$-(% -'/% ()$% $-.,6% 2-'% 0*$/% "(% #&.% 5&&9"'1% -'/% )$-("'1
+0.+&*$*;%K"'/%-'/%)6/.&+&8$.%)-4$%-,*&%3$$'%"'%0*$%#&.%()$%,-*(%OY7YYY
6$-.*;%<)$%"'4$'("&'%&#%*($-2%$'1"'$*%.$+,-5$/%()$%30.'"'1%&# %8&&/%36
5&-,%-'/%5&-,%8-*%,-($.%.$+,-5$/%(&%-%1.$-(%$=($'(%36%&",;%F'%O[UYH*%/0$
(&%F.-'"-'%.$4&,0("&'%-'/% N.-3%&",%$23-.1&%()$%+."5$*%&# %&",%*)&&($/
0+;%<)"*%0,("2-($,6%,$/%(&%$=+,&.-("&'%-'/%0*$%&# %*$4$.-,%-,($.'-($%*&0.5$*
&# %$'$.16;
! GROWING ENERGY NEEDS

_$4$,&+2$'(%"'%/"##$.$'(%*$5(&.*%.$,"$*%,-.1$,6%0+&'%$'$.16;%N1."50,(0.$7
"'/0*(.67% 2"'"'17% (.-'*+&.(-("&'7% ,"1)("'17% 5&&,"'1% -'/% )$-("'1% "'
30",/"'1*% -,,% '$$/% $'$.16;% K"()% ()$% /$2-'/*% &#% 1.&8"'1% +&+0,-("&'
()$%8&.,/%"*%#-5"'1%#0.()$.%$'$.16%/$#"5"(;%<)$%#&**",%#0$,*%,"9$%5&-,7%&",
-'/%'-(0.-,%1-*%8)"5)%-(%+.$*$'(%-.$%*0++,6"'1%[SW%&# %()$%5&22$.5"-,
$'$.16%&#%()$%8&.,/%.$*&0.5$*%-'/%-.$%'&(%1&"'1%(&%,-*(%#&.%2-'6%2&.$
6$-.*;%C0.%,"#$%*(6,$%"*%5)-'1"'1%4$.6%#-*(%-'/%#.&2%-%*"2+,$%8-6%&# %,"#$
8$%-.$%*)"#("'1%(&%-%,0=0."&0*%,"#$%*(6,$;%F# %6&0%G0*(%,&&9%-(%()$%'023$.%&#
$,$5(."5% 1-/1$(*% "'% 6&0.% )&2$*% -'/% ()$% '023$.% &# % +."4-($% 5-.*% -'/
*5&&($.*%"'%6&0.%,&5-,"(6%6&0%8",,%.$-,"E$%()-(%"'%()$%,-*(%#$8%6$-.*%()$6
)-4$%20,("+,"$/%2-'6%#&,/*%-'/%-,,%&# %()$2%5&'*02$%$'$.16;
_$4$,&+$/%5&0'(."$*%,"9$%R;@;N;%-'/%M-'-/-%5&'*("(0($%-3&0(%SW
&# % ()$% 8&.,/H*% +&+0,-("&'% 30(% 5&'*02$% &'$% #&0.()% &# % 1,&3-,% $'$.16
.$*&0.5$*;% N'% -4$.-1$% +$.*&'% ()$.$% 5&'*02$*% QYY% ea% Ie"1-% a&0,$*7
$d0-,%(&%VY%3-..$,*%&# %&",*J%+$.%6$-.;%T6%5&'(.-*(7%-'%-4$.-1$%2-'%"'%-
+&&.%5&0'(.6%,"9$%T)0(-'7%:$+-,%&.%D()"&+"-%5&'*02$*%,$**%()-'%O%ea
"'%-%6$-.;%@&%-%+$.*&'%"'%-%."5)%5&0'(.6%5&'*02$*%-,2&*(%-*%205)%$'$.16
"'%-%*"'1,$%/-6%-*%&'$%+$.*&'%/&$*%"'%-%8)&,$%6$-.%"'%-%+&&.%5&0'(.6;
<)"*%5,$-.,6%*)&8*%()-(%&0.%,"#$A*(6,$%-'/%*(-'/-./%&# %,"4"'1%-.$%5,&*$,6
.$,-($/%(&%$'$.16%'$$/*;%B"1;%\;S;O%*)&8*%()$%*(.&'1%5&..$,-("&'%3$(8$$'
+$.% 5-+"(-% $'$.16% 0*$% -'/% e:`% Ie.&**% :-("&'-,% +.&/05(J;% R;@;N;7
:&.8-67%@8"(E$.,-'/%$(5;%8"()%)"1)%e:`%*)&8%)"1)%$'$.16%0*$%8)",$
F'/"-7%M)"'-%$(5%)-4$%,&8%e:`%-'/%,&8%$'$.16%0*$;%T-).-"'%-'/%q0-(-.
-.$%&",%."5)%*(-($*%IRNDJ%-'/%)$'5$%()$".%$'$.16%5&'*02+("&'%-'/%e:`
-.$%2&.$7%-,()&01)%()$".%/$4$,&+2$'(%"*%'&(%()-(%)"1);
600
UAE
Energy consumption in GJ per capita
450
Canada USA
300 Kuwait Norway
Sweden
Russia Germany
150
UK
Greece Switzerland
50
China Argentina Denmark
Japan
Egypt
India
0
10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Ethiopia
Gross National Product (GNP)
$ per capita
Fig. 2.5.1. Per capita energy use and GNP

(Data from World Resources Institute, 1997)
! RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

N%*&0.5$%&#%$'$.16%"*%&'$%()-(%5-'%+.&4"/$%-/$d0-($%-2&0'(%&# %$'$.16
"'%-%0*-3,$%#&.2%&4$.%-%,&'1%+$."&/%&# %("2$;%<)$*$%*&0.5$*%5-'%3$%&#
(8&%(6+$*>
LWM 7$3$9(8)$*7$,"+%&$,*9;'&;*&(3*8$*/$3$%(2$1*&"32'3+"+,)6
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$'$.167% ("/-,% $'$.167% )6/.&+&8$.7% 3"&2-**% $'$.167% 3"&A#0$,*7
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'&'A5&'4$'("&'-,%*&0.5$*%&#%$'$.16%-'/%()$6%5-'%3$%0*$/%-1-"'
-'/%-1-"'%"'%-'%$'/,$**%2-''$.;
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-'/%'05,$-.%#0$,*%,"9$%0.-'"02%-'/%()&."02;
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*+-5$%"*%-++.&="2-($,6%O;^%9",&G&0,$*P*$5&'/P2\%9'&8'%-*%*&,-.%5&'A
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-'/% #&&/A1.-"'*7% +.$*$.4-("&'% &# %$-(-3,$*% -'/% #&.% &3(-"'"'1% *-,(% #.&2
*$-A8-($.;% :&8% 8$% )-4$% *$4$.-,% ($5)'"d0$*% #&.% )-.'$**"'1% *&,-.% $'A
$.16;% @&2$% "2+&.(-'(% *&,-.% $'$.16% )-.4$*("'1% /$4"5$*% -.$% /"*50**$/
)$.$;
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`-**"4$% *&,-.% )$-(% 5&,,$5(&.*% -.$% '-(0.-,% 2-($."-,*% ,"9$% *(&'$*7% 3."59*
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.$,$-*$%"(%*,&8,6%-(%'"1)(;%%N5("4$%*&,-.%5&,,$5(&.*%+02+%-%)$-(%-3*&.3"'1
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,"9$%*","5&'%-'/%1-,,"02;%K)$'%*&,-.%.-/"-("&'*%#-,,%&'%()$27%-%+&($'("-,
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-30'/-'(,6% -4-",-3,$% -'/% "'$=+$'*"4$;% T6% 0*"'1% 1-,,"02% -.*$'"/$7
5-/2"02%*0,+)"/$%&.%3&.&'7%$##"5"$'56%&# %()$%`l%5$,,*%5-'%3$%"2+.&4$/;
<)$%+&($'("-,%/"##$.$'5$%+.&/05$/%36%-%*"'1,$%`l%5$,,%&#%^%52\%*"E$%"*
-3&0(%%Y;ÂY;S%%4&,(*%%-'/%%+.&/05$*%%-%%50..$'(%%&# %%VY%%2",,"%%%-2+$.$*;
B"1;%\;S;\%I1J%*)&8*%()$%*(.05(0.$%&# %-%*&,-.%5$,,;
Boron enriched
silicon
Solar
Phosphorus radiations
enriched
silicon
Electric
bulb
Junction
DC electricity
Solar cell (PV cell)
Fig. 2.5.2. (a) Solar cell.

Solar
radiations
Solar cell
Electric Solar cell

motor Battery panel
Water pump
Fig. 2.5.2. (b) A solar pump run by electricity produced by solar cells.
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Solar
radiations
Plane mirror
(reflector)
Inside
blackened
metallic box
Glass
cover
Blackened
metallic container
for cooking food
Fig. 2.5.3. Simple box-type solar cooker.

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Tidal barrage
Sea (High tide)
Reservoir
(a)
Water stored
at high tide
in reservoir
Turbine
Sea
Low
tide
(b)
Fig. 2.5.4. Water flows into the reservoir to turn the turbine
at high tide (a), and flows out from the reservoir to the
sea, again turning the turbine at low tide (b).
! OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY (OTE)

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Mixing Floating
Slurry tank Biogas
biogas holder supply outlet Overflow
(Cattle dung + water) tank
Ground
level
Outlet Spent
Inlet slurry
pipe pipe
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 2.5.5. Floating gas holder type biogas plant.
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Mixing
tank Slurry Fixed Biogas supply
dome outlet
Slab cover
Overflow tank
Ground level
Biogas
Inlet Spent
chamber slurry
Outlet
chamber
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 2.5.6. Fixed dome type Biogas plant.
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Z&8$4$.7%)6/.&1$'%"*%)"1),6%"'#,-22-3,$%-'/%$=+,&*"4$%"'%'-(0.$;
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<)$*$%-.$%()$%#&**",%#0$,*%,"9$%5&-,7%+$(.&,$027%'-(0.-,%1-*%-'/%'05,$-.
#0$,*;%<)$*$%8$.$%#&.2$/%36%()$%/$5&2+&*"("&'%&# %()$%.$2-"'*%&# %+,-'(*
-'/%-'"2-,*%30."$/%0'/$.%()$%$-.()%2",,"&'*%&# %6$-.*%-1&;%<)$%#0$,*%-.$
4$.6%+.$5"&0*%3$5-0*$%()$6%)-4$%(-9$'%*05)%-%,&'1%("2$%(&%3$%#&.2$/
-'/% "# % 8$% $=)-0*(% ()$".% .$*$.4$*% -(% *05)% -% #-*(% .-($% -*% 8$% )-4$% 3$$'
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.$*&0.5$*% #&.$4$.;
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*&",%-'/%/0$%(&%()$%)$-(%-'/%+.$**0.$%1.-/0-,,6%1&(%5&'4$.($/%"'(&%+$-(
-'/%5&-,%&4$.%2",,"&'*%&# %6$-.*%&#%("2$;%%<)$.$%-.$%2-"',6%().$$%(6+$*%&#
5&-,7%'-2$,6% %!&(#%0'&"%I)-./%5&-,J7%<'&18'!51,** I@&#(%5&-,J%-'/% *'.!'&"
I3.&8'%5&-,J;%N'().-5"($%5&-,%)-*%2-="202%5-.3&'%I[YWJ%-'/%5-,&."#"5
4-,0$%I]UYY%95-,P91;J%T"(02"'&0*7%,"1'"($%-'/%+$-(%5&'(-"'%]Y7%UY%-'/
VYW%5-.3&'7%.$*+$5("4$,6;%M&-,%"*%()$%2&*(%-30'/-'(%#&**",%#0$,%"'%()$
8&.,/;% 9&3 &("3 2#","!&3 #%&"3 5; 3 1,%."A3 &("3 05%*3 #","#)",3 %#"3 *'$"*/3 &53 *%,&
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1&&/%"'%($.2*%&# %)$-(%5-+-5"(6;%L-G&.%5&-,%#"$,/*%"'%F'/"-%-.$%?-'"1-'G7
a)-."-7%T&9-.&7%@"'1.-0,"7%-'/%e&/-4-."%4-,,$6;%<)$%5&-,%*(-($*%&# %F'/"-
-.$%a)-.9)-'/7%C."**-7%K$*(%T$'1-,7%L-/)6-%`.-/$*)7%N'/).-%`.-/$*)
-'/%L-)-.-*)(.-;%N'().-5"($%5&-,%&550.*%&',6%"'%a%b%c;
K)$'% 5&-,% "*% 30.'(% "(% +.&/05$*% 5-.3&'% /"&="/$7% 8)"5)% "*% -
1.$$')&0*$%1-*%.$*+&'*"3,$%#&.%5-0*"'1%$')-'5$/%1,&3-,%8-.2"'1;%M&-,
-,*&%5&'(-"'*%"2+0."("$*%,"9$%*0,+)0.%-'/%()$.$#&.$%-*%"(%30.'*%()$%*2&9$
5&'(-"'*%(&="5%1-*$*%,"9$%&="/$*%&# %*0,+)0.%-'/%'"(.&1$';
! PETROLEUM
F(%"*%()$%,"#$,"'$%&# %1,&3-,%$5&'&26;%<)$.$%-.$%OQ%5&0'(."$*%"'%()$
8&.,/%)-4"'1%VUW%&#%()$%+$(.&,$02%.$*$.4$*%8)"5)%(&1$()$.%#&.2%()$
C`DM%IC.1-'"E-("&'%&#%`$(.&,$02%$=+&.("'1%5&0'(."$*J;%N3&0(%OP^()
&# %()$%&",%.$*$.4$*%-.$%"'%@-0/"%N.-3"-;
N(% ()$% +.$*$'(% .-($% &# % 0*-1$7% ()$% 8&.,/H*% 5.0/$% &",% .$*$.4$*% -.$
$*("2-($/%(&%1$(%$=)-0*($/%"'%G0*(%^Y%6$-.*;%@&2$%&+("2"*(*7%)&8$4$.7
3$,"$4$% ()-(% ()$.$% -.$% *&2$% 6$(% 0'/"*5&4$.$/% .$*$.4$*;% D4$'% ()$'% ()$
5.0/$%&",%.$*$.4$*%8",,%,-*(%#&.%-'&()$.%^Y%6$-.*%&.%*&;%M.0/$%+$(.&,$02
"*%-%5&2+,$=%2"=(0.$%&#%-,9-'$%)6/.&5-.3&'*;%Z$'5$%"(%)-*%(&%3$%+0."#"$/
-'/%.$#"'$/%36%()$%+.&5$**%&# %<(106!)$13'8!&6!3316!)$7%/0."'1%8)"5)%+.&5$**
/"##$.$'(%5&'*("(0$'(*%*$+-.-($%&0(%-(%/"##$.$'(%($2+$.-(0.$*;%K$%1$(%-
,-.1$%4-."$(6%&# %+.&/05(*%#.&2%()"*7%'-2$,67%+$(.&,$02%1-*7%9$.&*$'$7
+$(.&,7%/"$*$,7%#0$,%&",7%,03."5-("'1%&",7%+-.-##"'%8-=7%-*+)-,(7%+,-*("5%$(5;
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5&2+,$($,6%-'/%,$-4$*%'&%.$*"/0$;%F(%"*%-,*&%$-*"$.%(&%(.-'*+&.(%-'/%0*$;
<)-(% "*% ()$% .$-*&'% 8)6% +$(.&,$02% "*% +.$#$..$/% -2&'1*(% -,,% ()$% #&**",
#0$,*;
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+$(.&,$02%"*%30(-'$7%()$%&()$.%3$"'1%+.&+-'$%-'/%$()-'$;%<)$%+$(.&,$02
1-*% "*% $-*",6% 5&'4$.($/% (&% ,"d0"/% #&.2% 0'/$.% +.$**0.$% -*% !è;% F(% "*
&/&0.,$**7%30(%()$%!è%"'%&0.%/&2$*("5%1-*%56,"'/$.*%1"4$*%-%#&0,%*2$,,;
<)"*%"*7%"'%#-5(7%/0$%(&%$()6,%2$.5-+(-'7%-%#&0,%*2$,,"'1%1-*7%-//$/%(&
!è% *&% ()-(% -'6% ,$-9-1$% &# % !è% #.&2% ()$% 56,"'/$.% 5-'% 3$% /$($5($/
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c-4$."%-'/%L-)-'-/";
! NATURAL GAS
F(%"*%2-"',6%5&2+&*$/%&# %2$()-'$%I[SWJ%8"()%*2-,,%-2&0'(*%&#
+.&+-'$% -'/% $()-'$;% F(% "*% -% #&**",% #0$,;% :-(0.-,% 1-*% /$+&*"(*% 2&*(,6
-55&2+-'6% &",% /$+&*"(*% 3$5-0*$% "(% )-*% 3$$'% #&.2$/% 36% /$5&2+&*"'1
.$2-"'*%&# %/$-/%-'"2-,*% -'/% +,-'(*% 30."$/% 0'/$.% ()$% $-.();% K(2+%()
/(,* ',* 2;$* &)$(3$,2* 4",,')* 4+$)Q% F(% 5-'% 3$% $-*",6% (.-'*+&.($/% ().&01)
+"+$,"'$*;% F(% )-*% -% )"1)% 5-,&."#"5% 4-,0$% &# % -3&0(% SYcaPe% -'/% 30.'*
8"()&0(%-'6%*2&9$;
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()$% &./$.% &# % ]Y7% ^SY% 1% 2iQ;% ?0**"-% )-*% 2-="202% .$*$.4$*% I^YWJ7
#&,,&8$/%36%F.-'%IO^WJ%-'/%R@N%IUWJ;%:-(0.-,%1-*%.$*$.4$*%-.$%#&0'/
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3$$'%#&0'/%"'% <."+0.-7%a-"*-,2$.7%C##A*)&.$%-.$-%&# %L023-"%-'/%()$
c."*)'-%e&/-4-."%_$,(-;
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-%#0$,%"'%()$.2-,%+&8$.%+,-'(*%#&.%1$'$.-("'1%$,$5(."5"(6;%F(%"*%0*$/%-*%-
*&0.5$%&# %)6/.&1$'%1-*%"'%#$.(","E$.%"'/0*(.6%-'/%-*%-%*&0.5$%&# %5-.3&'
"'%(6.$%"'/0*(.6;
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(&%+$(.&,%-'/%/"$*$,%#&.%(.-'*+&.(%&# %4$)"5,$*;%_$,)"%)-*%(&(-,,6%*8"(5)$/
&4$.% (&% M:e% 8)$.$% 30*$*% -'/% -0(&% ."59*)-8*% .0'% &'% ()"*% '$8% #0$,;
M:e%0*$%)-*%1.$-(,6%.$/05$/%4$)"50,-.%+&,,0("&'%"'%()$%5"(6;
<632;$2'&*3(2+%()*/(,*L<KCM-*F(%"*%-%2"=(0.$%&# %5-.3&'%2&'&="/$
-'/%)6/.&1$';%F(%"*%-%5&''$5("'1%,"'9%3$(8$$'%-%#&**",%#0$,%-'/%*03*("(0($/
'-(0.-,%1-*;%!&8%1.-/$%5&-,%"*%"'"("-,,6%(.-'*#&.2$/%"'(&%*6'()$("5%1-*
36%1-*"#"5-("&'%#&,,&8$/%36%5-(-,6("5%5&'4$.*"&'%(&%2$()-'$;
! NUCLEAR ENERGY
:05,$-.% $'$.16% "*% 9'&8'% #&.% "(*% )"1)% /$*(.05("4$% +&8$.% -*
$4"/$'5$/% #.&2% '05,$-.% 8$-+&'*;% <)$% '05,$-.% $'$.16% 5-'% -,*&% 3$
)-.'$**$/% #&.% +.&4"/"'1% 5&22$.5"-,% $'$.16;% :05,$-.% $'$.16% 5-'% 3$
1$'$.-($/%36%(8&%(6+$*%&# %.$-5("&'*>
I!J U%0391('V!&&!)$>% F(% "*% ()$% '05,$-.% 5)-'1$% "'% 8)"5)% '05,$0*% &#
5$.(-"'% "*&(&+$*% 8"()% ,-.1$% 2-**% '023$.*% -.$% *+,"(% "'(&% ,"1)($.% '05,$"
&'%3&23-./2$'(%36%'$0(.&'*%-'/%-%,-.1$%-2&0'(%&# %$'$.16%"*%.$,$-*$/
().&01)%-%5)-"'%.$-5("&'%-*%*)&8'%"'%B"1;%\;S;U%I1J;
Kr n
Energy n
Kr
Ba
n
Kr
n
235
n U
nucleus Ba n
n
Kr
Ba n
Ba n
n
Fig. 2.5.7. (a) Nuclear fission—a chain reaction initiated

by one neutron that bombards a Uranium (U235) nucleus,
releasing a huge quantity of energy, two smaller nuclei
(Ba, Kr) and 3 neutrons.
\QS O [\ OÔ%k%Q% 'O% k%D'$.16

[\R %k% Y' %→% QVc. %k% SVT- Y
:05,$-.%?$-5(&.*%2-9$%0*$%&#%'05,$-.%5)-"'%.$-5("&';%F'%&./$.%(&
5&'(.&,%()$%.-($%&# %#"**"&'7%&',6%O%'$0(.&'%.$,$-*$/%"*%-,,&8$/%(&%*(."9$
#&.%*+,"(("'1%-'&()$.%'05,$0*;%R.-'"02A\QS%'05,$"%-.$%2&*(%5&22&',6
0*$/%"'%'05,$-.%.$-5(&.*;
I!!J U%0391('<%&!)$>%Z$.$%(8&%"*&(&+$*%&# %-%,"1)(%$,$2$'(%-.$%#&.5$/
(&1$()$.%-(%$=(.$2$,6%)"1)%($2+$.-(0.$*%IO%3",,"&'%fMJ%0'(",%()$6%#0*$%(&
#&.2%-%)$-4"$.%'05,$0*%.$,$-*"'1%$'&.2&0*%$'$.16%"'%()$%+.&5$**;%F(%"*
/"##"50,(%(&%"'"("-($%()$%+.&5$**%30(%"(%.$,$-*$*%2&.$%$'$.16%()-'%'05,$-.
#"**"&';%IB"1;%\;S;U%I+JJ
n
+
Hydrogen-2
+ +
(Deuterium)
Energy
+ + +
1 billion °C
Hydrogen-2
(Deuterium) Helium-3
nucleus
Fig. 2.5.7. ( b ) Nuclear fusion reaction between two

hydrogen-2 nuclei, which take place at a very high
temperature of 1 billion °C; one neutron and one fusion
nucleus of helium-3 is formed along with a huge amount
of energy.
\%k% \%→% \ O
OZ OZ QZ$ %k% Y' %k%D'$.16
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:05,$-.%#0*"&'%.$-5("&'%5-'%-,*&%(-9$%+,-5$%3$(8$$'%&'$%Z6/.&1$'A\
I_$0($."02J%-'/%&'$%Z6/.&1$'AQ%I<."("02J%'05,$0*%-(%OYY%2",,"&'%fM
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2.6. LAND RESOURCES
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52%*&",7%/$+$'/"'1%0+&'%()$%5,"2-($%-'/%()$%*&",%(6+$;%T0(7%8)$'%.-($
&# %$.&*"&'%"*%#-*($.%()-'%.-($%&# %.$'$8-,7%()$'%()$%*&",%3$5&2$*%-%'&'A
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2&.$%-'/%2&.$%+.$**0.$%&'%()$%,"2"($/%,-'/%.$*&0.5$*%8)"5)%-.$%1$(("'1
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-3&4$%-'/%()$%-4$.-1$%-''0-,%$.&*"&'%.-($%"*%\YAOYY%("2$*%2&.$%()-'
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*&",%8"()%"'/0*(."-,%8-*($*%,"9$%#,6A-*)7%+.$**A20/%&.%)$-46%2$(-,*%-,,
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<)$% ."5)% 5&0'(."$*% 8",,% )-4$% (&% ,&8$.% /&8'% ()$".% 5&'*02+("&'
,$4$,*%8)",$%()$%3-.$%2"'"202%'$$/*%&# %()$%+&&.%)-4$%(&%3$%#0,#",,$/%36
+.&4"/"'1% ()$2% .$*&0.5$*;% N% #-".$.% *)-."'1% &# % .$*&0.5$*% 8",,% '-..&8
/&8'%()$%1-+%3$(8$$'%()$%."5)%-'/%()$%+&&.%-'/%8",,%,$-/%(&%*0*(-"'-3,$
/$4$,&+2$'(%#&.%-,,%-'/%'&(%G0*(%#&.%-%+."4",$1$/%1.&0+;
QUESTIONS
WQ K)-(%-.$%.$'$8-3,$%-'/%'&'A.$'$8-3,$%.$*&0.5$*%t%e"4$%$=-2A
+,$*;
UQ _"*50**%()$%2-G&.%0*$*%&# %#&.$*(*;%Z&8%8&0,/%6&0%G0*("#6%()-(%$5&A
,&1"5-,%0*$*%&# %#&.$*(*%*0.+-**%5&22$.5"-,%0*$*%t
VQ K)-(%-.$%()$%2-G&.%5-0*$*%-'/%5&'*$d0$'5$*%&#%/$#&.$*(-("&'%t
\Q _"*50**%8"()%()$%)$,+%&# %-%5-*$%*(0/67%)&8%3"1%/-2*%)-4$%-##$5($/
#&.$*(*%-'/%()$%(."3-,*;
bQ K)-(%"*%-'%-d0"#$.%t%_"*50**%"(*%(6+$*;
^Q K)-(%-.$%()$%$'4".&'2$'(-,%"2+-5(*%&# %1.&0'/%8-($.%0*-1$%t
hQ T."$#,6% /"*50**% /.&01)(*% -'/% #,&&/*% 8"()% .$*+$5(% "*% ()$".% &550.A
.$'5$%-'/%"2+-5(*;
iQ K)-(%-.$%()$%2-G&.%5-0*$*%#&.%5&'#,"5(*%&4$.%8-($.%t%_"*50**%&'$
"'($.'-("&'-,%-'/%&'$%"'($.A*(-($%8-($.%5&'#,"5(;
]Q @)&0,/% 8$% 30",/% 3"1% /-2*% t% e"4$% -.102$'(*% "'% #-4&0.% &# % 6&0.
-'*8$.;
WdQ K)-(%-.$%()$%0*$*%&# %4-."&0*%(6+$*%&# %2"'$.-,*%t
WWQ _"*50**%()$%2-G&.%$'4".&'2$'(-,%"2+-5(*%&#%2"'$.-,%$=(.-5("&';
WUQ K)-(%"*%&4$.1.-E"'1%t%Z&8%/&$*%"(%5&'(."30($%(&%$'4".&'2$'(-,
/$1.-/-("&'%t
WVQ K)-(%/&%6&0.%2$-'%36%I1J%$0(.&+)"5-("&'%I+J%*0+$.%+$*(%I0J%*)"#(A
"'1%50,("4-("&'%I8J%8-($.%,&11"'1%t
W\Q e"4$%-%3."$# %-55&0'(%&# %'&'A.$'$8-3,$%$'$.16%.$*&0.5$*;
WbQ K)-(%-.$%*&,-.%5$,,*%t%_.-8%-%/"-1.-2%-'/%$'02$.-($%"(*%-++,"5-A
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WiQ K)-(% "*% 3"&1-*% t% _"*50**% ()$% *(.05(0.$% -'/% #0'5("&'% &# % 3"&1-*
+,-'(*;
W]Q K)-(%"*%'05,$-.%$'$.16%t%_"*50**%"(*%(8&%(6+$*;
UdQ K)-(%"(*%*&",%$.&*"&'%t%Z&8%5-'%"(%3$%5)$59$/%t
UWQ Z&8% % 5-'% % 6&0% % -*% % -'% % "'/"4"/0-,% 5&'*$.4$% /"##$.$'(% '-(0.-,
.$*&0.5$*%t
!"#$
% !"#$%$&'($
! CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM
!"#$%&'( )$*+'( %, ( -$,.( '&//%#0$*1( '2'0.3'( -$).( 04.( ,%#.'0'5( 1#"''-"*+'5
%6."*'5( -").'5( #$7.#'5( 3%&*0"$*'5( +.'.#0'( "*+( .'0&"#$.'( '4%8( 8$+.
7"#$"0$%*'($*(04.$#('0#&60&#"-(6%3/%'$0$%*("*+(,&*60$%*'9(:%8.7.#5(04.2
"--( "#.( "-$).( $*( 04.( ,"60( 04"0( 04.2( 6%*'$'0( %, ( -$7$*1( .*0$0$.'( $*0.#"60$*1
8$04(04.$#('&##%&*+$*1'(.;64"*1$*1(3"00.#("*+(.*.#129(:%8(+%(04.'.
+$,,.#.*0(&*$0'(-$).("(4%0(+.'.#05("(+.*'.(.7.#1#..*(,%#.'05(04.(<*0"#60$6
=."(%#("('4"--%8(/%*+(+$,,.#($*(04.(02/.(%, (04.$#(,-%#"("*+(,"&*"5(4%8
+%(04.2(+.#$7.(04.$#(.*.#12("*+(*&0#$.*0'(0%(-$7.(0%1.04.#5(4%8(+%(04.2
$*,-&.*6.(."64(%04.#("*+(#.1&-"0.(04.$#('0">$-$02("#.(04.(?&.'0$%*'(04"0
"#.("*'8.#.+(>2(@6%-%129
A4.( 0.#3( @6%-%12( 8"'( 6%$*.+( >2( @"#*'0( :".6).-( $*( BCDE9( F0( $'
+.#$7.+(,#%3(04.(G#..)(8%#+'(!"#$%H(4%3.(I( &$'$%H('0&+29(=%(!"#$#%&
'!($)*+,-.*-.!*)-/'&*#0*#1%(2,)3)*,2*-.!,1*2(-/1($*.#3!*,2-!1("-,2%
+,-.* -.!,1* )/11#/2',2%)4( A4.( '&##%&*+$*1'( %#( .*7$#%*3.*0( 6%*'$'0'
%, (%04.#(-$7$*1(%#1"*$'3'(J>$%0$6K("*+(/42'$6"-(J">$%0$6K(6%3/%*.*0'9
L%+.#*(.6%-%1$'0'(>.-$.7.(04"0("*("+.?&"0.(+.,$*$0$%*(%, (.6%-%12(3&'0
'/.6$,2('%3.(&*$0(%, ('0&+2("*+(%*.('&64(>"'$6(&*$0(+.'6#$>.+(>2(A"*'-.2
JBEMNK(8"'(.6%'2'0.39(52*!"#)&)-!3*,)*(*%1#/6*#0*7,#-,"*"#33/2,-,!)
#0* )6!",!)* ,2-!1("-,2%* +,-.* #2!* (2#-.!1* (2'* +,-.* -.!,1* 2#28$,9,2%
!29,1#23!2-* !:".(2%,2%* !2!1%&* (2'* 3(--!14* ;#+* !"#$#%&* ,)* #0-!2
'!0,2!'*()*<-.!*)-/'&*#0*!"#)&)-!3)=9
<*(.6%'2'0.3($'("*($*0.1#"0.+(&*$0(6%*'$'0$*1(%,($*0.#"60$*1(/-"*0'5
"*$3"-'( "*+( 3$6#%%#1"*$'3'( 84%'.( '&#7$7"-( +./.*+'( &/%*( 04.
3"$*0.*"*6.("*+(#.1&-"0$%*(%,(04.$#(>$%0$6("*+(">$%0$6('0#&60&#.'("*+
,&*60$%*'9(A4.(.6%'2'0.3($'(04&'5("(&*$0(%#("('2'0.3(84$64($'(6%3/%'.+
%, ("(*&3>.#(%, ('&>&*$0'5(04"0("#.("--(+$#.60-2(%#($*+$#.60-2(-$*).+(8$04
."64( %04.#9( A4.2( 3"2( >.( ,#..-2( .;64"*1$*1( .*.#12( "*+( 3"00.#( ,#%3
%&0'$+.O"*( $()*+ ),$%-%.)/+ %#( 3"2( >.( $'%-"0.+( ,#%3( %&0'$+.O"( ,&$%)0
),$%-%.)/9
65
! ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
@6%'2'0.3'('4%8(-"#1.(7"#$"0$%*'($*(04.$#('$P.5('0#&60&#.5(6%3/%'$0$%*
.069(:%8.7.#5("--(04.(.6%'2'0.3'("#.(64"#"60.#$P.+(>2(6.#0"$*(>"'$6('0#&6H
0&#"-("*+(,&*60$%*"-(,."0&#.'(84$64("#.(6%33%*9
! STRUCTURAL FEATURES
Q%3/%'$0$%*("*+(%#1"*$P"0$%*(%, (>$%-%1$6"-(6%33&*$0$.'("*+(">$%0$6
6%3/%*.*0'(6%*'0$0&0.(04.('0#&60&#.(%,("*(.6%'2'0.39
I. Biotic Structure
A4.(/-"*0'5("*$3"-'("*+(3$6#%%#1"*$'3'(/#.'.*0($*("*(.6%'2'0.3(,%#3
04.( >$%0$6( 6%3/%*.*09( A4.'.( %#1"*$'3'( 4"7.( +$,,.#.*0( *&0#$0$%*"-( >.H
4"7$%&#( "*+( '0"0&'( $*( 04.( .6%'2'0.3'( "*+( "#.( "66%#+$*1-2( )*%8*( "'
12$03,)2%+%#( 4$*%3/)2%5(>"'.+(%*(4%8(+%(04.2(1.0(04.$#(,%%+9
J6K* >1#'/"!1)?* A4.2( "#.( 3"$*-2( 04.( 1#..*( /-"*0'5( 84$64( 6"*
'2*04.'$P.(04.$#(,%%+(04.3'.-7.'(>2(3")$*1(&'.(%,(6"#>%*+$%;$+.(/#.'.*0
$*(04.("$#("*+(8"0.#($*(04.(/#.'.*6.(%, ('&*-$140(>2($*7%-7$*1(64-%#%/42--5
04.( 1#..*( /$13.*0( /#.'.*0( $*( 04.( -."7.'5( 04#%&14( 04.( /#%6.''( %,
6.#-#)&2-.!),)9(A4.2("#.("-'%()*%8*("'(6.#-#((/-#-1#6.)*J"&0%R'.-,S
0#%/4R,%%+5( /4%0%R-$140K9
A4.#.("#.('%3.(3$6#%%#1"*$'3'("-'%(84$64(6"*(/#%+&6.(%#1"*$6
3"00.#( 0%( '%3.( .;0.*0( 04#%&14( %;$+"0$%*( %,( 6.#0"$*( 64.3$6"-'( $*( 04.
">'.*6.(%, ('&*-$1409(A4.2("#.()*%8*("'(".!3#)&2-.!-,"*%#1"*$'3'(%#
".!3#8(/-#-1#6.)9( T%#( $*'0"*6.( $*( 04.( %6."*( +./04'5( 84.#.( 04.#.( $'
*%('&*-$1405(64.3%"&0%0#%/4$6('&-/4&#(>"60.#$"(3").(&'.(%,(04.(4."0
1.*.#"0.+(>2(04.(+.6"2(%,(#"+$%"60$7.(.-.3.*0'(/#.'.*0($*(04.(."#04U'
6%#.( "*+( #.-."'.+( $*( %6."*U'( +./04'9( A4.2( &'.( 04$'( 4."0( 0%( 6%*7.#0
+$''%-7.+( 42+#%1.*( '&-/4$+.( J:V=K( "*+( 6"#>%*( +$%;$+.( JQWVK( $*0%
%#1"*$6( 6%3/%&*+'9
J7K* @#2)/3!1)?(<--(%#1"*$'3'(84$64(1.0(04.$#(%#1"*$6(,%%+(>2
,..+$*1(&/%*(%04.#(%#1"*$'3'("#.(6"--.+(6%*'&3.#'5(84$64("#.(%, (04.
,%--%8$*1( 02/.'X
J"K !"#$%&'#"()J/-"*0(."0.#'KX(A4.2(,..+(+$#.60-2(%*(/#%+&6.#'("*+
4.*6.( "-'%( )*%8*( "'( (2"/62-+ ,$*%3/)2%9( .919( #">>$05( $*'.605
3"*9
J""K *+#,%&'#"() J3."0( ."0.#'KX( A4.2( ,..+( %*( %04.#( 6%*'&3.#'9( F,
04.2(,..+(%*(4.#>$7%#.'(04.2("#.(6"--.+(%),$*062-+,$*%3/)2%+J.919
,#%1K("*+($, (04.2(,..+(%*(%04.#(6"#*$7%#.'(J'*").5(>$1(,$'4(.069K
04.2("#.()*%8*("'( .)2."62-+,62*"8$2)%Y,$*%3/)2%9
Ecosystems 67
J"""K -.,%&'#"(X(A4.2(,..+(%*(>%04(/-"*0'("*+("*$3"-'9(.919(4&3"*'5
#"05(,%;5(3"*2(>$#+'9
J"8K /"0#%0%&'#"()1/"0#%02()3""4"#()'#)5+6#'0#'67(89(A4.2(,..+(%*(04.
/"#0'(%,(+."+(%#1"*$'3'5(8"'0.'(%, (-$7$*1(%#1"*$'3'5(04.$#(6"'0H
%,,'( "*+( /"#0$"--2( +.6%3/%'.+( 3"00.#( .919( >..0-.'5( 0.#3$0.'5
"*0'5(6#">'5(."#048%#3'(.069
J,K A!"#36#)!1)?(A4.2(+.#$7.(04.$#(*&0#$0$%*(>2(>#.")$*1(+%8*
04.(6%3/-.;(%#1"*$6(3%-.6&-.'(0%('$3/-.#(%#1"*$6(6%3/%&*+'("*+(&-H
0$3"0.-2( $*0%( $*%#1"*$6( *&0#$.*0'9( !"#$%&'( >"60.#$"( "*+( ,&*1$( "#.
+.6%3/%'.#'9
F*( "--( 04.( .6%'2'0.3'5( 04$'( >$%0$6( '0#&60&#.(/#.7"$-'9( :%8.7.#5($*
'%3.5($0($'(04.(/#$3"#2(/#%+&6.#'(84$64(/#.+%3$*"0.(J.919($*(,%#.'0'5
"1#%.6%'2'0.3'K( 84$-.( $*( %04.#'( 04.( +.6%3/%'.#'( /#.+%3$*"0.( J.919
+../(%6."*K9
II. Abiotic Structure

A4.(/42'$6"-("*+(64.3$6"-(6%3/%*.*0'(%, ("*(.6%'2'0.3(6%*'0$0&0.($0'
">$%0$6( '0#&60&#.9( F0( $*6-&+.'( 6-$3"0$6( ,"60%#'5( .+"/4$6( J'%$-K( ,"60%#'5
1.%1#"/4$6"-(,"60%#'5(.*.#125(*&0#$.*0'("*+(0%;$6('&>'0"*6.'9
J6K):7;(%<+=)3+<0'#(?*A4.('&*-$140("*+('4"+.5($*0.*'$02(%, ('%-"#(,-&;5
+&#"0$%*( %, ( '&*( 4%&#'5( "7.#"1.( 0.3/.#"0&#.5( 3";$3&3H3$*$3&3
0.3/.#"0&#.5("**&"-(#"$*,"--5(8$*+5(-"0$0&+.("*+("-0$0&+.5('%$-(02/.5(8"0.#
"7"$-">$-$025( 8"0.#( 6&##.*0'( .069( "#.( '%3.( %, ( 04.( $3/%#0"*0( /42'$6"-
,."0&#.'(84$64(4"7.("('0#%*1($*,-&.*6.(%*(04.(.6%'2'0.39
Z.(6"*(6-."#-2('..(04.('0#$)$*1(+$,,.#.*6.'($*('%-"#(,-&;5(0.3/.#"0&#.
"*+(/#.6$/$0"0$%*(J#"$*,"--5('*%8(.069K(/"00.#*($*("(+.'.#0(.6%'2'0.35($*
"(0#%/$6"-(#"$*,%#.'0("*+($*(0&*+#"(.6%'2'0.39
J7K)*7".%<+=)3+<0'#(X(<7"$-">$-$02(%, (3"[%#(.''.*0$"-(*&0#$.*0'(-$).
6"#>%*5( *$0#%1.*5( /4%'/4%#&'5( /%0"''$&35( 42+#%1.*5( %;21.*( "*+
'&-/4&#5( -.7.-( %, ( 0%;$6( '&>'0"*6.'5( '"-0'( 6"&'$*1( '"-$*$02( "*+( 7"#$%&'
%#1"*$6( '&>'0"*6.'( /#.'.*0( $*( 04.( '%$-( %#( 8"0.#( -"#1.-2( $*,-&.*6.( 04.
,&*60$%*$*1(%,(04.(.6%'2'0.39
<--(04.(>$%0$6(6%3/%*.*0'(%, ("*(.6%'2'0.3("#.($*,-&.*6.+(>2(04.
">$%0$6(6%3/%*.*0'("*+(7$6.(7.#'"5("*+(04.2("#.(-$*).+(0%1.04.#(04#%&14
.*.#12(,-%8("*+(3"00.#(626-$*1("'('4%8*(+$"1#"33"0$6"--2($*(T$19(M9B9
Nutrient cycling
Abiotic
component
Energy Biotic
flow compo-
nent
Nutrient
flow Bacteria
Plants Animals
Abiotic
component
Nutrie
nt Cycling
Fig. 3.1. Nutrient cycling and energy flow mediated through food-
chain. The flow of energy is unidirectional while the nutrients
move in a cyclic manner from the abiotic to biotic (food chain)
to abiotic and so on.
! FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES
@7.#2( .6%'2'0.3( /.#,%#3'( &*+.#( *"0&#"-( 6%*+$0$%*'( $*( "( '2'0.3"0$6
8"29(F0(#.6.$7.'(.*.#12(,#%3(04.('&*("*+(/"''.'($0(%*(04#%&14(7"#$%&'
>$%0$6(6%3/%*.*0'("*+($*(,"605("--(-$,.(+./.*+'(&/%*(04$'(,-%8(%, (.*.#129
\.'$+.'( .*.#125( 7"#$%&'( *&0#$.*0'( "*+( 8"0.#( "#.( "-'%( #.?&$#.+( ,%#( -$,.
/#%6.''.'( 84$64( "#.( .;64"*1.+( >2( 04.( >$%0$6( 6%3/%*.*0'( 8$04$*
04.3'.-7.'( "*+( 8$04( 04.$#( ">$%0$6( 6%3/%*.*0'( 8$04$*( %#( %&0'$+.( 04.
.6%'2'0.39(A4.(>$%0$6(6%3/%*.*0'("-'%(#.1&-"0.(04.3'.-7.'($*("(7.#2
'2'0.3"0$6( 3"**.#( "*+( '4%8(3.64"*$'3'( 0%( .*6%&*0.#( '%3.( +.1#..
%, ( .*7$#%*3.*0"-( '0#.''9( A4.( 3"[%#( ,&*60$%*"-( "00#$>&0.'( %, ( "*
.6%'2'0.3'("#.("'(,%--%8'X
J"K T%%+(64"$*5(,%%+(8.>'("*+(0#%/4$6('0#&60&#.
J""K @*.#12(,-%8
J"""K Q26-$*1(%, (*&0#$.*0'(J\$%1.%64.3$6"-(626-.'K
J"8K ]#$3"#2("*+(=.6%*+"#2(/#%+&60$%*
J8K @6%'2'0.3(+.7.-%/3.*0("*+(#.1&-"0$%*
Ecosystems 69
! TROPHIC STRUCTURE
A4.('0#&60&#.("*+(,&*60$%*'(%, (.6%'2'0.3'("#.(7.#2(6-%'.-2(#.-"0.+("*+
$*,-&.*6.(."64(%04.#('%($*0$3"0.-2(04"0(04.2(*..+(0%(>.('0&+$.+(0%1.04.#9
A4.( ,-%8(%, ( .*.#12( $'( 3.+$"0.+( 04#%&14( "( '.#$.'( %,(,..+$*1( #.-"0$%*H
'4$/'($*("(+.,$*$0.('.?&.*6.(%#(/"00.#*(84$64($'()*%8*("'(0##'*".(,29
^&0#$.*0'(0%%(3%7.("-%*1(04.(,%%+(64"$*9(A4.(/#%+&6.#'("*+(6%*'&3H
.#'("#.("##"*1.+($*(04.(.6%'2'0.3($*("(+.,$*$0.(3"**.#("*+(04.$#($*0.#H
"60$%*( "-%*1( 8$04( /%/&-"0$%*( '$P.( "#.( .;/#.''.+( 0%1.04.#( "'( -1#6.,"
)-1/"-/1!9(@"64(,%%+(-.7.-($'()*%8*("'(-1#6.,"*$!9!$*"*+(04.("3%&*0(%,
-$7$*1(3"00.#("0(."64(0#%/4$6(-.7.-("0("(1$7.*(0$3.($'()*%8*("'()-(2',2%
"1#6* %#( )-(2',2%*7,#3())9
\.,%#.(8.('0&+2(">%&0(.*.#12(,-%8(%#(*&0#$.*0(626-$*15(8.(3&'0
-."#*(">%&0(04.(,%%+H64"$*'5(04"0(/#%7$+.(04.(/"04(04#%&14(84$64(04.
,-%8(%,(.*.#12("*+(3"00.#(0").(/-"6.($*(.6%'2'0.39
! FOOD CHAINS
B.!*)!C/!2"!*#0*!(-,2%*(2'*7!,2%*!(-!2*,2*(2*!"#)&)-!3*,)*D2#+2*()
0##'*".(,24*<--(%#1"*$'3'5(-$7$*1(%#(+."+5("#.(/%0.*0$"-(,%%+(,%#('%3.
%04.#(%#1"*$'3("*+(04&'5(04.#.($'(.''.*0$"--2(*%(8"'0.($*(04.(,&*60$%*$*1
%, ("(*"0&#"-(.6%'2'0.39(<(6"0.#/$--"#(."0'("(/-"*0(-.",5("('/"##%8(."0'
04.(6"0.#/$--"#5("(6"0(%#("(4"8)(."0'(04.('/"##%8("*+(84.*(04.2("--(+$.5
04.2( "#.( "--( 6%*'&3.+( >2( 3$6#%%#1"*$'3'( -$).( >"60.#$"( %#( ,&*1$
J+.6%3/%'.#'K( 84$64( >#.")( +%8*( 04.( %#1"*$6( 3"00.#( "*+( 6%*7.#0( $0
$*0%('$3/-.($*%#1"*$6('&>'0"*6.'(04"0(6"*("1"$*(>.(&'.+(>2(04.(/-"*0'H
04.(/#$3"#2(/#%+&6.#'9
=%3.(6%33%*(.;"3/-.'(%, ('$3/-.(,%%+(64"$*'("#.X
! G#"''(→(1#"''4%//.#(→(T#%1(→(=*").(→(:"8)(JG#"''-"*+
.6%'2'0.3K
! ]420%/-"*)0%*'( →( 8"0.#( ,-."'( →( '3"--( ,$'4( →( A&*"( J]%*+
.6%'2'0.3K
! _$64.*'(→(#.$*+..#( →(L"*(J<#60$6(0&*+#"K
@"64( %#1"*$'3( $*( 04.( .6%'2'0.3( $'( "''$1*.+( "( ,..+$*1( -.7.-( %#
0#%/4$6(-.7.-(+./.*+$*1(%*($0'(*&0#$0$%*"-('0"0&'9(A4&'5($*(04.(1#"''-"*+
,%%+( 64"$*5( 1#"''4%//.#( %66&/$.'( 04.( F'0( 0#%/4$6( -.7.-5( ,#%1( 04.( FF*+
"*+('*").("*+(4"8)(%66&/2(04.(FFF#+("*+(04.(F!04(0#%/4$6(-.7.-'5(#.H
'/.60$7.-29( A4.( +.6%3/%'.#'( 6%*'&3.( 04.( +."+( 3"00.#( %, ( "--( 04.'.
0#%/4$6(-.7.-'9(F*(*"0&#.5(8.(6%3.("6#%''(08%(3"[%#(02/.'(%, (,%%+(64"$*'X
E4 F1(G,2%*0##'*".(,2?*F0('0"#0'(8$04(1#..*(/-"*0'(J/#$3"#2(/#%H
+&6.#'K("*+(6&-3$*"0.'($*(6"#*$7%#.'9(<--(04.(.;"3/-.'(6$0.+(">%7.('4%8
04$'(02/.(%, (,%%+(64"$*9(<*%04.#(.;"3/-.(6%&-+(>.
G#"''(→(`">>$0(→(T%;
Small fish
Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons
(Algae, diatoms)
Cornivorous
fish
Fig. 3.2. A grazing food chain in a pond ecosystem.
EE4 A!-1,-/)*0##'*".(,2?*F0('0"#0'(8$04(+."+(%#1"*$6(3"00.#(84$64
04.(+.0#$0$7%#.'("*+(+.6%3/%'.#'(6%*'&3.9(]"#0$"--2(+.6%3/%'.+(+."+
%#1"*$6(3"00.#("*+(.7.*(04.(+.6%3/%'.#'("#.(6%*'&3.+(>2(+.0#$0$7%#.'
"*+(04.$#(/#.+"0%#'9(<*(.;"3/-.(%, (04.(+.0#$0&'(,%%+(64"$*($'('..*($*("
L"*1#%7.( J.'0&"#2K9
Dead mangrove
tree leaves
Detritus feeders
Phytoplanktons Carnivores
Decomposers (Bacteria, fungi)
Fig. 3.3. A detritus food chain in an estuary based on dead

leaves of mangrove trees.
Ecosystems 71
:.#.5("(-"#1.(?&"*0$02(%, (-.", (3"0.#$"-(,"--'($*(04.(,%#3(%, (-$00.#

$*0%( 04.( 8"0.#9( A4.( -.", ( ,#"13.*0'( "#.( ."0.*( >2( )(61#-1#6.)4
J="/#%0#%/4'("#.(04%'.(%#1"*$'3'(84$64(,..+(%*(+."+(%#1"*$6(3"00.#K9
A4.'.( ,"--.*( -."7.'( "#.( 6%-%*$P.+( >2( '3"--( "-1".5( 84$64( "#.( "-'%
6%*'&3.+( >2( 04.( '"/#%0#%/4'( %#( +.0#$0$7%#.'( 6%*'$'0$*1( %, ( 6#">'5
3%--&')'5('4#$3/'5($*'.60(-"#7".5(*.3"0%+.'("*+(,$'4.'9(A4.(+.0#$0$7%#.'
"#.(."0.*(>2('3"--(6"#*$7%#%&'(,$'4.'5(84$64($'(0&#*("#.(."0.*(>2(-"#1.
6"#*$7%#%&'( ,$'4.'9
_.", ( -$00.#( →( "-1".( →( 6#">'( →( '3"--( 6"#*$7%#%&'( ,$'4( →( -"#1.
6"#*$7%#%&'(,$'4(JL"*1#%7.(.6%'2'0.3K
a."+(%#1"*$6(3"00.#(→(,&*1$( →(>"60.#$"(JT%#.'0(.6%'2'0.3K
A4&'(04.(1#"P$*1(,%%+(64"$*(+.#$7.'($0'(.*.#12(>"'$6"--2(,#%3(/-"*0
.*.#12( 84$-.( $*( 04.( +.0#$0&'( ,%%+( 64"$*( $0( $'( %>0"$*.+( /#$3"#$-2( ,#%3
/-"*0(>$%3"''5('.6%*+"#$-2(,#%3(3$6#%>$"-(>$%3"''("*+(0.#0$"#$-2(,#%3
6"#*$7%#.'9(\%04(04.(,%%+(64"$*'(%66&#(0%1.04.#($*(*"0&#"-(.6%'2'0.3'5
>&0(1#"P$*1(,%%+(64"$*(&'&"--2(/#.+%3$*"0.'9
! FOOD WEB
T%%+(64"$*'($*(.6%'2'0.3'("#.(#"#.-2(,%&*+(0%(%/.#"0.("'($'%-"0.+(-$*."#
'.?&.*6.'9( `"04.#5( 04.2( "#.( ,%&*+( 0%( >.( $*0.#6%**.60.+( "*+( &'&"--2
,%#3("(6%3/-.;(*.08%#)(8$04('.7.#"-(-$*)"1.'("*+("#.()*%8*("'(,%%+
8.>'9( A4&'5( 0##'* +!7* ,)* (* 2!-+#1D* #0*0##'* ".(,2)* +.!1!* ',00!1!2-
-&6!)*#0*#1%(2,)3)*(1!*"#22!"-!'*(-*',00!1!2-*-1#6.,"*$!9!$)H*)#*-.(-
-.!1!* (1!* (* 2/37!1* #0* #6-,#2)* #0* !(-,2%* (2'* 7!,2%* !(-!2* (-* !(".
-1#6.,"* $!9!$4
T$19( M9b( $--&'0#"0.'( "*( .;"3/-.( %, ( "( ,%%+H8.>( $*( 04.( &*$?&.
<*0"#60$6(@6%'2'0.39(A4$'($'(#./#.'.*0$*1(04.(0%0"-(.6%'2'0.3($*6-&+$*1
04.( <*0"#60$6( '."( "*+( 04.( 6%*0$*.*0"-( -"*+9( A4.( -"*+( +%.'( *%0( '4%8
"*2(4$14.#(-$,.(,%#3'(%, (/-"*0'9(A4.(%*-2('/.6$.'("#.(04"0(%, ('%3.("-1".5
-$64.*'( "*+( 3%''.'9( A4.( "*$3"-'( $*6-&+.( /.*1&$*'( "*+( '*%8( /.0#.-
84$64(+./.*+(&/%*(04.("?&"0$6(64"$*(,%#(04.$#(,%%+(.*.#129
F*("(0#%/$6"-(#.1$%*5(%*(04.(%04.#(4"*+5(04.(.6%'2'0.3'("#.(3&64
3%#.( 6%3/-.;9( A4.2( 4"7.( "( #$64( '/.6$.'( +$7.#'$02( "*+( 04.#.,%#.5( 04.
,%%+(8.>'("#.(3&64(3%#.(6%3/-.;9
Z42(*"0&#.(4"'(.7%-7.+(,%%+(8.>'($*(.6%'2'0.3'($*'0."+(%, ('$3H
/-.(-$*."#(,%%+(64"$*'c(A4$'($'(>.6"&'.(,%%+(8.>'(1$7.(1#."0.#('0">$-$02
0%(04.(.6%'2'0.39(F*("(-$*."#(,%%+(64"$*5($, (%*.('/.6$.'(>.6%3.'(.;0$*60
%#(%*.('/.6$.'('&,,.#'(04.*(04.('/.6$.'($*(04.('&>'.?&.*0(0#%/4$6(-.7.-'
"#.("-'%(",,.60.+9(F*("(,%%+(8.>5(%*(04.(%04.#(4"*+5(04.#.("#.("(*&3>.#
%, (%/0$%*'("7"$-">-.("0(."64(0#%/4$6(-.7.-9(=%($, (%*.('/.6$.'($'(",,.60.+5($0
+%.'(*%0(",,.60(%04.#(0#%/4$6(-.7.-'('%('.#$%&'-29
Humans
Blue Whale Sperm Whale
Elephant Seal
Killer Whale
Leopard Seal
Squid
Penguin
Emperor Penguin
Snow
Petrel Fish
Carnivorous Herbivorous
Krill Zooplankton
Plankton
Phytoplankton
Fig. 3.4. A simplified food web in Antarctic ecosystem.
d&'0(6%*'$+.#(04.('$3/-.(,%%+(64"$*'(%, ("#60$6(0&*+#"(.6%'2'0.3X
Q-"+%*$"( →(`.$*+..#(→(L"*
G#"''(→(Q"#$>%&(→(Z%-,
F, (+&.(0%('%3.('0#.''5(04.(/%/&-"0$%*(%, (#.$*+..#(%#(Q"#$>%&(,"--'5
$0( 8$--( -."7.( -$00-.( %/0$%*( ,%#( 3"*( %#( 8%-,( 0%( ."0( ,#%3( 04.( .6%'2'0.39
:"+(04.#.(>..*(3%#.(>$%+$7.#'$025($0(8%&-+(4"7.(-.+(0%(6%3/-.;(,%%+
8.>(1$7$*1(04.(.6%'2'0.3(3%#.('0">$-$029
I,%2,0,"(2"!*#0*0##'*".(,2)*(2'*0##'*+!7)
! T%%+(64"$*'("*+(,%%+(8.>'(/-"2("(7.#2('$1*$,$6"*0(#%-.($*(04.
.6%'2'0.3( >.6"&'.( 04.( 08%( 3%'0( $3/%#0"*0( ,&*60$%*'( %,( ",>

"#?;) 3='@) +,4) ,20#%",0) <;<=%,?) 0+A") 6=+<") 07#'2?7) 07".B
Ecosystems 73
! A4.(,%%+(64"$*'("-'%(4.-/($*(3"$*0"$*$*1("*+(#.1&-"0$*1(04.
/%/&-"0$%*('$P.(%, (+$,,.#.*0("*$3"-'("*+(04&'5(4.-/(3"$*0"$*
04.( "<'='?%<+=)$+=+,<"4
! T%%+(64"$*'('4%8("(&*$?&.(/#%/.#02(%, (7,#$#%,"($*3(%2,0,"(8
-,#2( %, ( '%3.( 64.3$6"-'9( A4.#.( "#.( '.7.#"-( /.'0$6$+.'5( 4."72
3.0"-'("*+(%04.#(64.3$6"-'(84$64("#.(*%*H>$%+.1#"+">-.($*
*"0&#.9(=&64(64.3$6"-'("#.(*%0(+.6%3/%'.+(>2(3$6#%%#1"*H
$'3'("*+(04.2()../(%*(/"''$*1(,#%3(%*.(0#%/4$6(-.7.-(0%("*H
%04.#9(<*+5("0(."64('&66.''$7.(0#%/4$6(-.7.-5(04.2()../(%*($*H
6#."'$*1( $*( 6%*6.*0#"0$%*9( A4$'( /4.*%3.*%*( $'( )*%8*( "'
>$%3"1*$,$6"0$%*( %#( >$%-%1$6"-( 3"1*$,$6"0$%*9
@5IJ* IBKAL
<( 7/,$'8/6* #0* AAB* "#2"!2-1(-,#2* ?( <( '0#$)$*1( 6"'.( %,

>$%3"1*$,$6"0$%*(%, (aaA(J"(>#%"+(#"*1.($*'.60$6$+.K(8"'(%>'.#7.+
84.*('%3.(>$#+'(-$).(W'/#.2(8.#.(,%&*+(0%('&,,.#("('4"#/(+.6-$*.
$*(04.$#(/%/&-"0$%*9(A4.(2%&*1(%*.'(%, (04.'.(>$#+'(8.#.(,%&*+(0%
4"064(%&0($*(/#.3"0&#.(6%*+$0$%*(-."+$*1(0%(04.$#(+."049(A4$'(8"'
-"0.#( ,%&*+( 0%( >.( +&.( 0%( >$%H3"1*$,$6"0$%*( %,( aaA( 04#%&14( 04.
,%%+( 64"$*9( aaA( '/#"2.+( ,%#( /.'0( 6%*0#%-( 8"'( $*( 7.#2( -%8
6%*6.*0#"0$%*5(>&0($0'(6%*6.*0#"0$%*($*6#."'.+("-%*1(04.(,%%+(64"$*
04#%&14(/420%/-"*)0%*'(0%(P%%/-"*)0%*'("*+(04.*(0%(,$'4(84$64
8"'(."0.*(>2(04.(>$#+'9(A4.(6%*6.*0#"0$%*(%, (aaA(8"'(3"1*$,$.+
'.7.#"-(04%&'"*+(0$3.'($*(04.(>$#+'(84$64(6"&'.+(04$**$*1(%, ('4.--'
$*(04.(>$#+'U(.11'5(6"&'$*1(+."04(%, (04.(2%&*1(%*.'9
F0( >.6%3.'( 7.#2( 6-."#( ,#%3( 04.( ">%7.( $*'0"*6.( 04"0( 04.( "*$3"-'
%66&/2$*1( 04.( 4$14.#( 0#%/4$6( -.7.-'( "#.( "0( "( 1#."0.#( #$')( %,
>$%3"1*$,$6"0$%*( %,( 0%;$6( 64.3$6"-'9( :&3"*( >.$*1'( 6%*'&3$*1
3$-)5(.11'("*+(3."0("#.("0("(4$14.#(0#%/4$6(-.7.-9(=%5(8.(4"7.(0%
'0%/($*+$'6#$3$*"0.(&'.(%, (/.'0$6$+.'("*+(4."72(3.0"-'($, (8.(8$'4
0%('"7.(%&#'.-7.'(,#%3(04.$#(>$%-%1$6"--2(3"1*$,$.+(0%;$6(-.7.-'9
! ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
F1(6.,"*1!61!)!2-(-,#2*#0*-1#6.,"*)-1/"-/1!*(2'*0/2"-,#2*#0*(2*!"#)&)8
-!3H*)-(1-,2%*+,-.*61#'/"!1)*(-*-.!*7()!*(2'*)/""!)),9!*-1#6.,"*$!9!$)
0#13,2%*-.!*(6!:*,)*D2#+)*()*(2*!"#$#%,"($*6&1(3,'4*@6%-%1$6"-(/2#"H
3$+'("#.(%,(04#..(02/.'X
>&1(3,'* #0* 2/37!1)?* F0( #./#.'.*0'( 04.( *&3>.#( %, ( $*+$7$+&"-
%#1"*$'3'("0(."64(0#%/4$6(-.7.-9(Z.(3"2(4"7.(3(2"'9.+%#("*8)2.)0+/2#"3$+
%, (*&3>.#'5(+./.*+$*1(&/%*(04.(02/.(%,(.6%'2'0.3("*+(,%%+(64"$*("'
'4%8*( $*( T$19( M9N9( <( 1#"''-"*+( .6%'2'0.3( JT$19( M9N6K( "*+( "( /%*+
.6%'2'0.3('4%8("*(&/#$140(/2#"3$+(%, (*&3>.#'9(A4.(/#%+&6.#'($*(04.
1#"''-"*+'( "#.( 1#"''.'( "*+( 04"0( $*( "( /%*+( "#.( /420%/-"*)0%*'( J"-1".
.069K5(84$64("#.('3"--($*('$P.("*+(7.#2(-"#1.($*(*&3>.#9(=%(04.(/#%+&6.#'
,%#3( "( >#%"+( >"'.9( A4.( 4.#>$7%#.'( $*( "( 1#"''-"*+( "#.( $*'.60'( 84$-.
0.#0$"#2( 6"#*$7%#.'( "#.( 4"8)'( %#( %04.#( >$#+'( 84$64( "#.( 1#"+&"--2( -.''
"*+( -.''( $*( *&3>.#( "*+( 4.*6.( 04.( /2#"3$+( "/.;( >.6%3.'( 1#"+&"--2
*"##%8.#( ,%#3$*1( "*( &/#$140( /2#"3$+9( =$3$-"#( $'( 04.( 6"'.( 8$04( 04.
4.#>$7%#.'5( 6"#*$7%#.'( "*+( 0%/( 6"#*$7%#.'( $*( /%*+( 84$64( +.6#."'.( $*
*&3>.#("0(4$14.#(0#%/4$6(-.7.-'9
Top carnivores Top carnivores
Hawks, Lion, Tiger
other birds
Carnivores Frogs, birds Snakes, foxes,

Carnivores
lizards
Herbivores Insects Herbivores Insects, birds
Producers Grasses Producers Trees
(a) (b)
Hyper parasites Fleas, microbes
Parasites Lice, bugs
Herbivores Birds
Producers Trees
(c)
Fig. 3.5. Pyramid of numbers (a) grassland (b) forest (c) Parasitic food chain.
F*("(,%#.'0(.6%'2'0.35(>$1(0#..'("#.(04.(/#%+&6.#'5(84$64("#.(-.''
$*(*&3>.#("*+(4.*6.(,%#3("(*"##%8(>"'.9(<(-"#1.#(*&3>.#(%, (4.#>$7%#.'
$*6-&+$*1( >$#+'5( $*'.60'( "*+( '.7.#"-( '/.6$.'( %, ( "*$3"-'( ,..+( &/%*( 04.
0#..'( J%*( -."7.'5( ,#&$0'5( ,-%8.#'5( >"#)( .069K( "*+( ,%#3( "( 3&64( >#%"+.#
3$++-.( -.7.-9( A4.( '.6%*+"#2( 6%*'&3.#'( -$).( ,%;5( '*").'5( -$P"#+'( .069
"#.(-.''($*(*&3>.#(04"*(4.#>$7%#.'(84$-.(0%/(6"#*$7%#.'(-$).(-$%*5(0$1.#
.069("#.('0$--('3"--.#($*(*&3>.#9(=%(04.(/2#"3$+($'(*"##%8(%*(>%04('$+.'
"*+(>#%"+.#($*(04.(3$++-.(JT$19(M9N(7K9
]"#"'$0$6(,%%+(64"$*('4%8'("*($*7.#0.+(/2#"3$+(%, (*&3>.#9(A4.
/#%+&6.#'( -$).( "( ,.8( >$1( 0#..'( 4"#>%&#( ,#&$0( ."0$*1( >$#+'( "60$*1( -$).
Ecosystems 75
4.#>$7%#.'(84$64("#.(-"#1.#($*(*&3>.#9(<(3&64(4$14.#(*&3>.#(%, (-$6.5
>&1'(.069(1#%8("'(/"#"'$0.'(%*(04.'.(>$#+'(84$-.("('0$--(1#."0.#(*&3>.#
%, (42/.#/"#"'$0.'(-$).(>&1'5(,-."'("*+(3$6#%>.'(,..+(&/%*(04.35(04&'
3")$*1("*($*7.#0.+(/2#"3$+(JT$19(M9N(,K9
>&1(3,'* #0* 7,#3())?* F0( $'( >"'.+( &/%*( 04.( 0%0"-( >$%3"''( J+#2
3"00.#K("0(."64(0#%/4$6(-.7.-($*("(,%%+(64"$*9(A4.(/2#"3$+(%,(>$%3"''
6"*("-'%(>.(3(2"'9.+%#("*8)2.)0:*T$19(M9D(J65+7K('4%8(/2#"3$+'(%, (>$%3"''
$*( "( ,%#.'0( "*+( "*( "?&"0$6( .6%'2'0.39( A4.( /2#"3$+( %, ( >$%3"''( $*( "
,%#.'0($'(&/#$140($*(6%*0#"'0(0%($0'(/2#"3$+(%, (*&3>.#'9(A4$'($'(>.6"&'.
04.(/#%+&6.#'(J0#..'K("66&3&-"0.("(4&1.(>$%3"''(84$-.(04.(6%*'&3.#'U
0%0"-(>$%3"''(,..+$*1(%*(04.3(+.6-$*.'("0(4$14.#(0#%/4$6(-.7.-'5(#.'&-0$*1
$*(>#%"+(>"'.("*+(*"##%8$*1(0%/9
Tertiary Carnivores Big fish

Carnivores
Carnivores Small fish

Snakes, frog, birds
Herbivores Insects
Squirrel, rabbit,
Herbivores
Producers
insects
Phytoplanktons
Producers Grasses,
herbs
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.6. Pyramid of biomass (a) Grassland (b) Pond.
A4.( /%*+( .6%'2'0.3( '4%8'( "*( $*7.#0.+( /2#"3$+( %, ( >$%3"''

JT$19(M9D( 7K9(A4.(0%0"-(>$%3"''(%, (/#%+&6.#'(J/420%/-"*)0%*'K($'(3&64
-.''( "'( 6%3/"#.+( 0%( 4.#>$7%#.'( JP%%/-"*)0%*'5( $*'.60'K5( Q"#*$7%#.'
J=3"--(,$'4K("*+(0.#0$"#2(6"#*$7%#.'(J>$1(,$'4K9(A4&'(04.(/2#"3$+(0").'
"*( $*7.#0.+( '4"/.( 8$04( *"##%8( >"'.( "*+( >#%"+( "/.;9
>&1(3,'*#0*J2!1%&?*A4.("3%&*0(%, (.*.#12(/#.'.*0("0(."64(0#%/4$6
-.7.-($'(6%*'$+.#.+(,%#(04$'(02/.(%,(/2#"3$+9(]2#"3$+(%, (.*.#12(1$7.'
04.( >.'0( #./#.'.*0"0$%*( %, ( 04.( 0#%/4$6( #.-"0$%*'4$/'( "*+( $0( $'( "-8"2'
3(2"'9.9
<0(.7.#2('&66.''$7.(0#%/4$6(-.7.-5(04.#.($'("(4&1.(-%''(%, (.*.#12
J">%&0( EefK( $*( 04.( ,%#3( %, ( 4."05( #.'/$#"0$%*( .069( A4&'5( "0( ."64( *.;0
4$14.#(-.7.-(%*-2(Bef(%, (04.(.*.#12(/"''.'(%*9(:.*6.5(04.#.($'("('4"#/
+.6-$*.($*(.*.#12(-.7.-(%, (."64('&66.''$7.(0#%/4$6(-.7.-("'(8.(3%7.(,#%3
/#%+&6.#'(0%(0%/(6"#*$7%#.'9(A4.#.,%#.5(04.(/2#"3$+(%, (.*.#12($'("-8"2'
&/#$140("'('4%8*($*(T$19(M9g9
Top carnivores
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
Fig. 3.7. Pyramid of energy.
! ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

T-%8(%, (.*.#12($*("*(.6%'2'0.3(0").'(/-"6.(04#%&14(04.(,%%+(64"$*("*+
$0( $'( 04$'( .*.#12( ,-%8( 84$64( )../'( 04.( .6%'2'0.3( 1%$*19( A4.( 3%'0
$3/%#0"*0(,."0&#.(%, (04$'(.*.#12(,-%8($'(04"0($0($'(/2,',1!"-,#2($*%#(#2!8
+(&*0$#+4*h*-$).(04.(*&0#$.*0'(J-$).(6"#>%*5(*$0#%1.*5(/4%'/4%#&'(.069K
84$64(3%7.($*("(626-$6(3"**.#("*+("#.(#.&'.+(>2(04.(/#%+&6.#'(",0.#
,-%8$*1(04#%&14(04.(,%%+(64"$*5(.*.#12($'(*%0(#.&'.+($*(04.(,%%+(64"$*9
<-'%5(04.(,-%8(%, (.*.#12(,%--%8'(04.(08%(-"8'(%, (A4.#3%+2*"3$6'X
E)-* $(+* #0* B.!13#'&2(3,")* '0"0.'( 04"0( .*.#12( 6"*( *.$04.#( >.
6#."0.+(*%#(>.(+.'0#%2.+(>&0($0(6"*(>.(0#"*',%#3.+(,#%3(%*.(,%#3(0%
"*%04.#9(A4.('%-"#(.*.#12(6"/0&#.+(>2(04.(1#..*(/-"*0'(J/#%+&6.#'K(1.0'
6%*7.#0.+( $*0%( >$%64.3$6"-( .*.#12( %, ( /-"*0'( "*+( -"0.#( $*0%( 04"0( %,
6%*'&3.#'9
EE2'*$(+*#0*B.!13#'&2(3,")*'0"0.'(04"0(.*.#12(+$''$/"0.'("'($0($'
&'.+(%#($*(%04.#(8%#+'5($0'(1.0'(6%*7.#0.+(,#%3("(3%#.(6%*6.*0#"0.+(0%
+$'/.#'.+(,%#39(<'(.*.#12(,-%8'(04#%&14(04.(,%%+(64"$*5(04.#.(%66&#'
+$''$/"0$%*(%, (.*.#12("0(.7.#2(0#%/4$6(-.7.-9( A4.(-%''(%, (.*.#12(0").'
/-"6.(04#%&14(#.'/$#"0$%*5(-%''(%, (.*.#12($*(-%6%3%0$%*5(#&**$*15(4&*0H
$*1("*+(%04.#("60$7$0$.'9(<0(.7.#2(-.7.-(04.#.($'(">%&0(Eef(-%''(%, (.*.#12
"*+(04.(.*.#12(0#"*',.##.+(,#%3(%*.(0#%/4$6(-.7.-(0%(04.(%04.#($'(%*-2
">%&0(Bef9
J2!1%&*0$#+*3#'!$)?(A4.(,-%8(%, (.*.#12(04#%&14(7"#$%&'(0#%/4$6
-.7.-'($*("*(.6%'2'0.3(6"*(>.(.;/-"$*.+(8$04(04.(4.-/(%, (7"#$%&'(.*.#12
,-%8(3%+.-'9
J6K( K2,9!1)($* !2!1%&* 0$#+* 3#'!$?* @*.#12( ,-%8( 04#%&14( "*
.6%'2'0.3(8"'(.;/-"$*.+(>2(@9]9(W+&3("'(04.(&*$7.#'"-(.*.#12(,-%8
3%+.-(JT$19(M9CK9(<'(04.(,-%8(%, (.*.#12(0").'(/-"6.5(04.#.($'("(1#"+&"-
-%''(%, (.*.#12("0(.7.#2(-.7.-5(04.#.>2(#.'&-0$*1($*(-.''(.*.#12("7"$-">-.
"0(*.;0(0#%/4$6(-.7.-("'($*+$6"0.+(>2(*"##%8.#(/$/.'(J.*.#12(,-%8K("*+
'3"--.#(>%;.'(J'0%#.+(.*.#12($*(>$%3"''K9(A4.(-%''(%, (.*.#12($'(3"$*-2
04.( .*.#12( *%0( &0$-$P.+( J^hK9( A4$'( $'( 04.( .*.#12( -%'0( $*( -%6%3%0$%*5
Ecosystems 77
.;6#.0$%*( .069( %#( $0( $'( 04.( .*.#12( -%'0( $*( #.'/$#"0$%*( J`K( 84$64( $'( ,%#
3"$*0.*"*6.9(A4.(#.'0(%, (04.(.*.#12($'(&'.+(,%#(/#%+&60$%*(J]K9
NU
Energy
storage
Input I P Output
A
energy energy
Standing Biomass
Respiration
Fig. 3.8. Universal energy flow model applicable to all living

components (I = Energy input; A : assimilated energy ; P =
Production ; NU = Energy not used.
J7K*I,2%$!*".(22!$*!2!1%&*0$#+*3#'!$?*A4.(,-%8(%, (.*.#12(0").'
/-"6.( $*( "( &*$+$#.60$%*"-( 3"**.#( 04#%&14( "( '$*1-.( 64"**.-( %, ( 1#..*
/-"*0'(%#(/#%+&6.#'(0%(4.#>$7%#.'("*+(6"#*$7%#.'9(T$19(M9E(+./$60'('&64
"(3%+.-("*+($--&'0#"0.+(04.(1#"+&"-(+.6-$*.($*(.*.#12(-.7.-(+&.(0%(-%''
%, (.*.#12("0(."64('&66.''$7.(0#%/4$6(-.7.-($*("(1#"P$*1(,%%+(64"$*9
NU NA NU NA
Sunlight
I GPP NPP
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
R R R
Heat loss
Fig. 3.9. One-way energy flow model showing unidirectional flow

through primary producers, herbivores and carnivores. At each
successive trophic level there is huge loss of energy (I = Solar
energy input ; GPP = Gross primary production ; NPP = Net
primary production ; NU = Energy not used ; NA = Energy not
assimilated e.g. excretion ; R = Respiratory loss).
J,K*A#/7$!*".(22!$*#1* L8).(6!'*!2!1%&*0$#+*3#'!$?*F*(*"0&#.5
>%04(1#"P$*1(,%%+(64"$*("*+(+.0#$0&'(,%%+(64"$*(%/.#"0.($*(04.('"3.
.6%'2'0.39( :%8.7.#5( '%3.0$3.'( $0( $'( 04.( 1#"P$*1( ,%%+( 64"$*( 84$64
/#.+%3$*"0.'9( F0( 4"//.*'( $*( 3"#$*.( .6%'2'0.3( 84.#.( /#$3"#2
/#%+&60$%*($*(04.(%/.*('."($'(-$3$0.+("*+("(3"[%#(/%#0$%*(%, ($0($'(."0.*
>2( 4.#>$7%#%&'( 3"#$*.( "*$3"-'9( A4.#.,%#.5( 7.#2( -$00-.( /#$3"#2
/#%+&60$%*($'(-.,0(0%(>.(/"''.+(%*(0%(04.(+."+(%#(+.0#$0&'(6%3/"#03.*09
W*(04.(%04.#(4"*+5($*("(,%#.'0(.6%'2'0.3(04.(4&1.(?&"*0$02(%, (>$%3"''
/#%+&6.+( 6"**%0( >.( "--( 6%*'&3.+( >2( 4.#>$7%#.'9( `"04.#5( "( -"#1.
/#%/%#0$%*(%, (04.(-$7.(>$%3"''(.*0.#'($*0%(+.0#$0&'(J+."+K(6%3/"#03.*0
$*(04.(,%#3(%, (-$00.#9(:.*6.(04.(+.0#$0&'(,%%+(64"$*($'(3%#.($3/%#0"*0
04.#.9
A4.( 08%( 64"**.-( %#( iH'4"/.+( 3%+.-( %,( .*.#12( ,-%8( '4%8'( 04.
/"''"1.( %, ( .*.#12( 04#%&14( 04.'.( 08%( 64"$*'5( 84$64( "#.( './"#"0.+( $*
0$3.("*+('/"6.(JT$1(M9BeK9
Respiration
R R RR
R
s Carnivores
ivore
Herb
Tree Grazing food chain
canopy ( in forest canopy)
Ground R
level Litter,
roots etc. D
D
Storage
Producers D
(Trees)
Detritus food chain
(in soil)
Detritivores
Decomposers
Fig. 3.10. Y-shaped or 2-channel energy flow model showing energy

flow through the grazing food chain and the detritus food chain (R =
Respiration, D = Detritus or dead matter).
! NUTRIENT CYCLING
\.'$+.'( .*.#12( ,-%85( 04.( %04.#( $3/%#0"*0( ,&*60$%*"-( "00#$>&0.( %, ( "*
.6%'2'0.3($'(*&0#$.*0(626-$*19(^&0#$.*0'(-$).(6"#>%*5(*$0#%1.*5('&-/4&#5
%;21.*5(42+#%1.*5(/4%'/4%#&'(.069(3%7.($*(6$#6&-"#(/"04'(04#%&14(>$%0$6
"*+(">$%0$6(6%3/%*.*0'( "*+( "#.( 04.#.,%#.( )*%8*("'( 7,#%!#".!3,"($
"&"$!)4*Z"0.#("-'%(3%7.'($*("(626-.5()*%8*("'(42+#%-%1$6"-(626-.9(A4.
*&0#$.*0'( 0%%( 3%7.( 04#%&14( 04.( ,%%+( 64"$*( "*+( &-0$3"0.-2( #."64( 04.
Ecosystems 79
+.0#$0&'(6%3/"#03.*0(J6%*0"$*$*1(+."+(%#1"*$6(3"00.#K(84.#.(7"#$%&'
3$6#%H%#1"*$'3'(6"##2(%&0(+.6%3/%'$0$%*9(!"#$%&'(%#1"*$6"--2(>%&*+
*&0#$.*0'( %, ( +."+( /-"*0'( "*+( "*$3"-'( "#.( 6%*7.#0.+( $*0%( $*%#1"*$6
'&>'0"*6.'(>2(3$6#%>$"-(+.6%3/%'$0$%*(04"0("#.(#."+$-2(&'.+(&/(>2(/-"*0'
J/#$3"#2(/#%+&6.#'K("*+(04.(626-.('0"#0'(",#.'49
Nitrogen cycle
Q26-$*1(%, (%*.('&64($3/%#0"*0(*&0#$.*0(*$0#%1.*($'('4%8*($*(T$19(M9BB9
^$0#%1.*($'(/#.'.*0($*(04.("03%'/4.#.("'(^V($*(-"#1.("3%&*0(JgCfK("*+
$0($'(,$;.+(.$04.#(>2(04.(/42'$6"-(/#%6.''(%,(-$140.*$*1(%#(>$%-%1$6"--2(>2
'%3.(>"60.#$"("*+Y%#(62"*%>"60.#$"(J>-&.(1#..*("-1".K9(A4.(*$0#%1.*
$'(0").*(&/(>2(/-"*0'("*+(&'.+($*(3.0">%-$'3(,%#(>$%'2*04.'$'(%,("3$*%
"6$+'5(/#%0.$*'5(7$0"3$*'(.069("*+(/"''.'(04#%&14(04.(,%%+(64"$*9(<,0.#
+."04(%,(04.(/-"*0'("*+("*$3"-'5(04.(%#1"*$6(*$0#%1.*($*(+."+(0$''&.'($'
+.6%3/%'.+(>2('.7.#"-(1#%&/'(%, ("33%*$,2$*1("*+(*$0#$,2$*1(>"60.#$"
84$64(6%*7.#0(04.3($*0%("33%*$"5(*$0#$0.'("*+(*$0#"0.'5(84$64("#.("1"$*
&'.+(>2(/-"*0'9(=%3.(>"60.#$"(6%*7.#0(*$0#"0.'5($*0%(3%-.6&-"#(*$0#%1.*
%#(^V(84$64($'(#.-."'.+(>"6)($*0%(04.("03%'/4.#.("*+(04.(626-.(1%.'
%*9
Atmosphere
Nitrogen
Volcanic NOX Acid rain
eruptions N2
Biological Electrification
N2 fixation Acid
rain
Fertilizer
Runoff Hydro-
(Eutrophication) sphere
Litho- Animal Animals
protoplasm Shallow marine
sphere Nitrates sediments
(soil)
Industrial Plant
activities protoplasm Nitrites
Loss to deep
Nitrification sediments
Death
and Deacy Ammonia
Ammonification Denitrification
Excretion Organic
(Urea, uric Nitrogen
acid)
(Proteins, amino acids)
Fig. 3.11. Nitrogen cycle—a gaseous cycle with major reserve

as N2 (78%) in the atmosphere. Circulation of N- between living
components and soil/atmosphere is mediated by a group of
micro-organisms which convert one form of N into another.
Carbon Cycle
=%3.0$3.'( 4&3"*( $*0.#,.#.*6.'( +$'0&#>( 04.( *%#3"-( 626-$*1( %, ( '&64
*&0#$.*0'("*+(6#."0.($3>"-"*6.'9(T%#(.;"3/-.5(*"0&#.(4"'("(7.#2(>"-H
"*6.+(6"#>%*(626-.(JT$19(M9BVK9(Q"#>%*5($*(04.(,%#3(%,(6"#>%*(+$%;$+.
$'(0").*(&/(>2(1#..*(/-"*0'("'("(#"8(3"0.#$"-(,%#(/4%0%'2*04.'$'5(04#%&14
84$64("(7"#$.02(%, (6"#>%42+#"0.'("*+(%04.#(%#1"*$6('&>'0"*6.'("#.(/#%H
+&6.+9(A4#%&14(04.(,%%+(64"$*($0(3%7.'("*+(&-0$3"0.-2(%#1"*$6(6"#>%*
/#.'.*0( $*( 04.( +."+( 3"00.#( $'( #.0&#*.+( 0%( 04.( "03%'/4.#.( "'( 6"#>%*
+$%;$+.( >2( 3$6#%%#1"*$'3'9( `.'/$#"0$%*( >2( "--( %#1"*$'3'( /#%+&6.'
6"#>%*(+$%;$+.5(84$-.(04.(-"00.#($'(&'.+(&/(>2(/-"*0'9
F*( 04.( #.6.*0( 2."#'( 6"#>%*( +$%;$+.( -.7.-'( 4"7.( $*6#."'.+( $*( 04.
"03%'/4.#.( +&.( 0%( >&#*$*1( %, ( ,%''$-( ,&.-'( .069( 84$64( 4"'( 6"&'.+( "*
$3>"-"*6.($*(04.(*"0&#"-(626-.("*+(04.(8%#-+(0%+"2($'(,"6$*1(04.('.#$%&'
/#%>-.3(%, (1-%>"-(8"#3$*1(+&.(0%(.*4"*6.+(6"#>%*(+$%;$+.(.3$''$%*'9
n Atmospheric
atio
s pir
re Carbondioxide
al t n
m (CO2)
a n io
P l i rat
i
An
y
pl rest on b
sp
re
ti
ts l
an ria
te ixa
Fossil fuel
f
Decomposition
2
CO
burning
r
Direct
CO2 fixation absorption
(by aquatic plants)
Carbonates, CO2
Dead organic
matter
(Organic
carbon)
Microbial
action
Fig. 3.12. Carbon cycle.
Phosphorus cycle
]4%'/4%#%&'(626-.($'("*%04.#($3/%#0"*0(*&0#$.*0(626-.H84$64($'('4%8*
$*(T$19(M9BM9((A4.((#.'.#7%$#(%, (/4%'/4%#&'(-$.'($*(04.(#%6)'5(,%''$-'(.069
84$64($'(.;6"7"0.+(>2(3"*(,%#(&'$*1($0("'("(,.#0$-$P.#9(T"#3.#'(&'.(04.
/4%'/4"0.(,.#0$-$P.#'($*+$'6#$3$*"0.-2("*+("'("(#.'&-0(.;6.''(/4%'/4"0.'
"#.( -%'0( "'( #&*H%,,5( 84$64( 6"&'.'( 04.( /#%>-.3( %, ( .&0#%/4$6"0$%*( %#
%7.#*%&#$'43.*0(%,(-").'(-."+$*1(0%("-1"-(>-%%3'("'("-#."+2(+$'6&''.+
Ecosystems 81
P-reserves
Death and
Excreta Guano(P-rich) decay
deposits
Sea birds
Phosphate Bones and Animal
rocks teeth protoplasm
Eutro- Runoff
phication fossil, bones,
teeth Plant
Marine
protoplasm
fish etc. Fertilizers
Mining
(PO4)
ia
er
Erosion ct
Loss to deep
g ba
marine sediments izin
Plant Phosphat
Dissolved phosphate
uptake
Fig. 3.13. Phosphorus cycle—a sedimentary cycle with major

reserves of phosphorus in the sediments.
$*(&*$0(V9(<(1%%+(/#%/%#0$%*(%, (/4%'/4"0.'(3%7$*1(8$04('&#,"6.(#&*H
%,, (#."64.'(04.(%6."*'("*+("#.(-%'0($*0%(04.(+../('.+$3.*0'9(W&#(-$3$0.+
'&//-2( %,( /4%'/4%#&'( -2$*1( $*( 04.( /4%'/4"0.( #%6)'( %,( 04$'( ."#04( "#.
04&'(%7.#H.;/-%$0.+(>2(3"*("*+("(-"#1.(/"#0($'(0").*(%&0(%, (04.(*%#3"-
626-.( +&.( 0%( -%''( $*0%( %6."*'9( =%( 4&3"*( >.$*1'( "#.( 3")$*1( 04.
/4%'/4%#%&'(626-.("626-$69(=."(>$#+'5(%*(04.(%04.#(4"*+5("#.(/-"2$*1("*
$3/%#0"*0( #%-.( $*( /4%'/4%#&'( 626-$*19( A4.2( ."0( '."H,$'4.'( 84$64( "#.
/4%'/4%#&'(#$64("*+(04.(+#%//$*1'(%#(.;6#.0"(%, (04.(>$#+'(#.0&#*(04.
/4%'/4%#&'(%*(04.(-"*+9(A4.(G&"*%(+./%'$0'(%*(04.(6%"'0'(%, (].#&("#.
7.#2(#$64('%&#6.'(%,(/4%'/4%#&'9
! PRIMARY PRODUCTION
>1,3(1&*61#'/"-,9,-&*#0*(2*!"#)&)-!3*,)*'!0,2!'*()*-.!*1(-!*(-*+.,".
1(',(2-* !2!1%&* ,)* "#29!1-!'* ,2-#* #1%(2,"* )/7)-(2"!)* 7&* 6.#-#)&28
-.!),)* #1* ".!3#8)&2-.!),)* 7&* -.!* 61,3(1&* 61#'/"!1)4
Z4.*( %#1"*$6( 3"00.#( $'( /#%+&6.+( >2( 04.( /#$3"#2( /#%+&6.#'
J3"$*-2(1#..*(/-"*0'("*+('%3.(3$6#%%#1"*$'3'K5('%3.(%, ($0($'(%;$+$P.+
%#(>&#*0($*'$+.(04.$#(>%+2("*+(6%*7.#0.+($*0%(6"#>%*H+$%;$+.(84$64($'
#.-."'.+( +&#$*1( #.'/$#"0$%*( "*+( $'( "66%3/"*$.+( >2( -%''( %, ( .*.#129
`.'/$#"0%#2( -%''( %, ( .*.#12( $'( "( 3&'05( >.6"&'.( $0( $'( #.?&$#.+( ,%#( 04.
3"$*0.*"*6.(%, (04.(%#1"*$'39(^%85(04.(/#%+&6.#'("#.(-.,0(8$04("(-$00-.
-.''(%#1"*$6(3"00.#(04"*(84"0(8"'("60&"--2(/#%+&6.+(>2(04.39(A4$'($'
)*%8*("'(04.( 2!-*61,3(1&*61#'/"-,#2(J^]]K("*+(04.(#.'/$#"0%#2(-%''
J`K("++.+(0%($0(1$7.'(04.( %1#))*61,3(1&*61#'/"-,#2(JG]]K9
A4&'5 ^]](R(G]](j(`9
]#$3"#2( /#%+&60$%*( %, ( "*( .6%'2'0.3( +./.*+'( &/%*( 04.( '%-"#

#"+$"0$%*'5("7"$-">$-$02(%, (8"0.#("*+(*&0#$.*0'("*+(&/%*(04.(02/.(%, (04.
/-"*0'("*+(04.$#(64-%#%/42--(6%*0.*09(A">-.(M9B('4%8'(04.("7.#"1.(1#%''
/#$3"#2(/#%+&60$7$02(%, ('%3.(3"[%#(.6%'2'0.3'9
B(7$!*M4N4*522/($*(9!1(%!*#0*%1#))*61,3(1&*61#'/"-,#2
#0* )#3!* 3(O#1* !"#)&)-!3)
J"#)&)-!3 F1#))* >1,3(1&* >1#'/"-,9,-&

PQ* @($R3SR&1T
a.'.#0'("*+(A&*+#" Vee
W/.*(W6."*' B5eee
G#"''-"*+' V5Nee
L%$'0(A.3/.#"0.(T%#.'0' C5eee
<1#%H.6%'2'0.3' BV5eee
Z.0(A#%/$6"-(T%#.'0' Ve5eee
@'0&"#$.' Ve5eee
]#%+&60$7$02(%, (0#%/$6"-(,%#.'0'("*+(.'0&"#$.'("#.(04.(4$14.'09(A4$'
$'( >.6"&'.( 0#%/$6"-( ,%#.'0'( 4"7.( ">&*+"*0( #"$*,"--5( 8"#3( 0.3/.#"0&#.
6%*1.*$"-(,%#(1#%8045(">&*+"*0('&*-$140("*+("(#$64(+$7.#'$02(%, ('/.6$.'9
@'0&"#$.'(1.0(*"0&#"-(.*.#12('&>'$+$.'($*(04.(,%#3(%, (8"7.(6&##.*0'(04"0
>#$*1("-%*1(8$04(04.3(*&0#$.*0'(#.?&$#.+(,%#(/#%+&60$%*9
a.'.#0'( %*( 04.( %04.#( 4"*+5( 4"7.( -$3$0"0$%*'( %, ( "+.?&"0.( 8"0.#
'&//-2(84$-.(A&*+#"(4"7.(7.#2(-%8(0.3/.#"0&#.("'(-$3$0$*1(,"60%#("*+
4.*6.('4%8(-%8(/#$3"#2(/#%+&60$%*9
<1#%H.6%'2'0.3'( 1.0( -%0'( %, ( .*.#12( '&>'$+$.'( $*( 04.( ,%#3( %,
$##$1"0$%*(8"0.#5(1%%+(?&"-$02('..+'5(,.#0$-$P.#'("*+(/.'0$6$+.'("*+('4%8
"(4$14(/#%+&60$7$02(%, (BV5eee(k(Q"-Y3VY2#9(=0$--5($0($'(*%0.8%#042(04"0
04.$#( /#%+&60$7$02( $'( -.''( 04"*( 04"0( %, ( 0#%/$6"-( ,%#.'0'( 84$64( "#.( *%0
#.6.$7$*1("*2("#0$,$6$"-(.*.#12('&>'$+$.'9(^"0&#.($0'.-, (4"'(+.'$1*.+($0'
'/.6$.'(6%3/%'$0$%*5('0#&60&#.5(.*.#12(6"/0&#.("*+(,-%85("*+("(6-%'.+
*&0#$.*0(626-$*1('2'0.3(04"0(.*'&#.'("(4$14(/#$3"#2(/#%+&60$%*(%,(Ve5eee
k(Q"-Y3VY2#9(<-'%5(04.(?&"-$0"0$7.(7"#$.02(%, (04.(/#$3"#2(/#%+&60$%*($'
.*%#3%&'($*(04.(0#%/$6"-(,%#.'0'9(A4$'(3").'($0("--(04.(3%#.($3/%#0"*0
0%(6%*'.#7.(%&#(0#%/$6"-(,%#.'0'9
Ecosystems 83
Secondary Production
A4.( ,%%+( '2*04.'$P.+( >2( 1#..*( /-"*0'( 04#%&14( /4%0%'2*04.'$'( $'( 04.
/#$3"#2(/#%+&60$%*(84$64($'(."0.*(>2(4.#>$7%#.'9(A4.(/-"*0(.*.#12($'
&'.+(&/(,%#(/#%+&6$*1(%#1"*$6(3"00.#(%,(04.(4.#>$7%#.'(84$645($*(0&#*5
$'(&'.+(&/(>2(04.(6"#*$7%#.'9(A4.("3%&*0(%, (%#1"*$6(3"00.#('0%#.+(>2
04.(4.#>$7%#.'(%#(6"#*$7%#.'(J$*(.;6.''(%, (#.'/$#"0%#2(-%''K($'()*%8*("'
'.6%*+"#2( /#%+&60$%*9(B.!* !2!1%&* )-#1!'* (-* "#2)/3!1* $!9!$* 0#1* /)!
7&*-.!*2!:-*-1#6.,"*$!9!$*,)*-./)*'!0,2!'*()*)!"#2'(1&*61#'/"-,#24
! ECOSYSTEM REGULATION
<--(.6%'2'0.3'(#.1&-"0.(04.3'.-7.'("*+(3"$*0"$*(04.3'.-7.'(&*+.#("
'.0( %, ( .*7$#%*3.*0"-( 6%*+$0$%*'9( <*2( .*7$#%*3.*0"-( '0#.''( 0#$.'( 0%
+$'0&#>( 04.( *%#3"-( .6%'2'0.3( ,&*60$%*'9(:%8.7.#5( 04.( .6%'2'0.35( >2
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4%3.%'0"0$6(/-"0."&9(A4.2('4%&-+(*%0(6%*0#$>&0.(0%(/%'$0$7.(,..+>"6)'
%04.#8$'.(04.(.6%'2'0.3'(8$--(6%--"/'.9
Death or
+ ve collapse
Feedback
System function
– ve – ve Homeostatic
Feedback Feedback plateau
+ ve Feedback
Death or collapse
(–) O (+)
Stress conditions
Fig. 3.14. Ecosystem regulation by homeostasis. On application of a

stress, the negative feedback mechanisms start operating, trying to
counter the stress to regulate the system. But beyond the homeostatic
plateau, positive feedback starts which further accelerate the stress
effects causing death or collapse of the organism/system.
! ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
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Ecosystems 85
J""K V!)(1".?*'0"#0$*1($*("*("#."(%, ("+.?&"0.(3%$'0&#.9

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Process of Succession
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Free floating stage
(a) Open water body (lake), sediment brought in by river.
Rooted floating stage
Sediment
(b) Sediment accumulation continues, organic debris from plants too

add to soil formation and shrinking of water body occurs.
Marshy vegetation
Soil with standing water
(c) A mat of vegetation covers the water which is mostly a

marshy habitat now, with a small part as aquatic system.
Ecosystems 87
Woodland Stage
Soil
(d) Eventually the former lake is covered by climax woodland

community, representating a terrestrial ecosystem.
Fig. 3.15. Ecological succession: A hydrach—from lake
to woodland community.
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MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES

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Ecosystems 89
Plate II. Tropical rain forest.
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Plate III. Rafflesia—the biggest flower.

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Ecosystems 91
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! AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
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Ecosystems 93
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Littoral zone
Rooted
plants Euphotic zone
Limnetic zone (High productivity)
Compensation
level
Profundal zone Aphotic zone
(Dark) (Little productivity)
Fig. 3.16. Zonation in a lake ecosystem.
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! THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
T9)'2>)'+2#+.#%,'1'2-)'+2#+" #-#06%>'%0#'0#-#2-):.-,#6.+>%00#+" #%(+,:)'+2A
!2# )*%# ;%+,+;'># 6%.'+&# )*%# %-.)*# *-0# %96%.'%2>%&# 1-00# %9)'2>)'+20A
[:.'2;# %(+,:)'+27# 06%>'%0# *-(%# &'%&# +:)# -2&# *-(%# 5%%2# .%6,->%&# 58
+)*%.0A#U+$%(%.7#)*%#.-)%#+" #,+00#+" #06%>'%0#'2#;%+,+;'>#6-0)#*-0#5%%2#-
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1',,'+2#8%-.0A#H*%#6.+>%00#+" #%9)'2>)'+2#*-0#5%>+1%#6-.)'>:,-.,8#"-0)#'2
)*%#.%>%2)#8%-.0#+" #*:1-2#>'(','D-)'+2A#!2#)*'0#>%2):.87#)*%#*:1-2#'16->)
*-0#5%%2#0+#0%(%.%#)*-)#)*+:0-2&0#+" #06%>'%0#-2&#(-.'%)'%0#-.%#5%>+1'2;
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0)-.),'2;# "';:.%# .-'0%0# -2# -,-.1# .%;-.&'2;# )*%# 0%.'+:0# )*.%-)# )+
5'+&'(%.0')8A#i(%.#)*%#,-0)#3=4#8%-.0#)*%#.-)%#+" #%9)'2>)'+2#*-0#%0>-,-)%&
1+.%#&.-1-)'>-,,8A#!" #)*%#6.%0%2)#).%2&#>+2)'2:%0#$%#$+:,&#,+0%#3mN.&
)+#MmN.&#+" #+:.#>:..%2)#5'+&'(%.0')8#58#)*%#1'&&,%#+" #)$%2)8#"'.0)#>%2):.8A
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! LOSS OF HABITAT
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5'+&'(%.0')8#,+00A#O',,'+20#+" #*%>)-.%0#+"#"+.%0)0#-2&#;.-00,-2&0#*-(%#5%%2
>,%-.%&#+(%.#)*%#6-0)#347444#8%-.0#"+.#>+2(%.0'+2#'2)+#-;.'>:,):.%#,-2&07
6-0):.%07#0%)),%1%2)#-.%-0#+.#&%(%,+61%2)#6.+?%>)0A#H*%0%#2-):.-,#"+.%0)0
-2&#;.-00,-2&0#$%.%#)*%#2-):.-,#*+1%0#+" #)*+:0-2&0#+" #06%>'%0#$*'>*
6%.'0*%&#&:%#)+#,+00#+" #)*%'.#2-):.-,#*-5')-)A#_%(%.%#&-1-;%#*-0#5%%2
>-:0%&#)+#$%),-2&0#)*'2@'2;#)*%1#)+#5%#:0%,%00#%>+080)%10A#H*%#:2'E:%
.'>*# 5'+&'(%.0')8# +" # )*%# $%),-2&07# %0):-.'%0# -2&# 1-2;.+(%0# -.%# :2&%.
)*%# 1+0)# 0%.'+:0# )*.%-)# )+&-8A# H*%# $%),-2&0# -.%# &%0).+8%&# &:%# )+
&.-'2'2;7#"',,'2;#-2&#6+,,:)'+2#)*%.%58#>-:0'2;#*:;%#5'+&'(%.0')8#,+00A
_+1%)'1%0#)*%#,+00#+"#*-5')-)#'0#'2#'20)-,1%2)0#0+#)*-)#)*%#*-5')-)
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,+00# +" # "+.%0)# *-5')-)7# ')# '0# %0)'1-)%&# )*-)# M4<M=g# +" # )*%# ;,+5-,# ",+.-
$+:,&# 5%# ,+0)# $')*'2# -# "%$# 8%-.0A# `-.'2%# 5'+&'(%.0')8# '0# -,0+# :2&%.
0%.'+:0#)*.%-)#&:%#)+#,-.;%#0>-,%#&%0).:>)'+2#+" #)*%#".-;',%#5.%%&'2;#-2&
"%%&'2;# ;.+:2&0# +" # +:.# +>%-2'># "'0*# -2&# +)*%.# 06%>'%07# -0# -# .%0:,)# +"
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! POACHING
!,,%;-,# ).-&%# +" # $',&,'"%# 6.+&:>)0# 58# @',,'2;# 6.+*'5')%&# %2&-2;%.%&
-2'1-,0#'A%A#6+->*'2;#'0#-2+)*%.#)*.%-)#)+#$',&,'"%A#[%06')%#'2)%.2-)'+2-,
5-2#+2#).-&%#'2#6.+&:>)0#".+1#%2&-2;%.%&#06%>'%07#01:;;,'2;#+" #$',&,'"%
')%10#,'@%#":.07#*'&%07#*+.207#):0@07#,'(%#06%>'1%20#-2&#*%.5-,#6.+&:>)0
$+.)*#1',,'+20#+" #&+,,-.0#6%.#8%-.#>+2)'2:%0A#H*%#&%(%,+6'2;#2-)'+20
'2#^0'-7#]-)'2#^1%.'>-#-2&#^".'>-#-.%#)*%#.'>*%0)#0+:.>%#+" #5'+&'(%.0')8
-2&# *-(%# %2+.1+:0# $%-,)*# +" # $',&,'"%A# H*%# .'>*# >+:2).'%0# '2# T:.+6%
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+.#$',&#,'"%#')0%,"A
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+)*%.# >+:2).'%0# 1%&'-)%&# )*.+:;*# -# 1-"'-A# +.%! */2$! /> ! %(%9.'#$! $62P2
*'#!1/!69$/!Q!KLL!9%&!P1R!$.%!(%/9'&=!>6&!*/'$!"2!2/(=!'$!Q!KLLJLLL!"#!S'9'#
;."(%!4"&=!*'$*.%&2!*'#!>%$*.!69$/!Q!KLJLLL!>/&!'!&'&%!.,'*"#$.!7'*';J!'
4%'6$">6(!*/(/6&%=!4"&=J!>&/7!H&'T"(A#H*%#$+.0%#6-.)#+"#)*%#0)+.8#'0#)*-)
"+.# %(%.8# ,'(%# -2'1-,# )*-)# ->):-,,8# ;%)0# '2)+# )*%# 1-.@%)7# -5+:)# =4
-&&')'+2-,#-2'1-,0#-.%#>-:;*)#-2&#@',,%&A
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[+'2;#0+#$',,#*%,6#'2#>*%>@'2;#":.)*%.#&%>,'2%#+" #)*%0%#06%>'%0A#^,0+#&+
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! MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
J%#*-(%#&'0>:00%&#-5+:)#)*%#2%%&#)+#6.%0%.(%#-2&#6.+)%>)#+:.#$',&,'"%A
U+$%(%.7# 0+1%)'1%0# $%# >+1%# ->.+00# >+2",'>)'2;# 0'):-)'+20# $*%2
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0:>*#>+2&')'+20#')#5%>+1%0#(%.8#&'""'>:,)#"+.#)*%#"+.%0)#&%6-.)1%2)#)+
6->'"8# )*%# -""%>)%&# (',,-;%.0# -2&# ;-'2# ,+>-,# 0:66+.)# "+.# $',&<,'"%
>+20%.(-)'+2A
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".+1#0%(%.-,#0)-)%0#'2#+:.#>+:2).8A#!2#_-15-,6:.7#i.'00-#3L=#*:1-20
$%.%#@',,%&#'2#)*%#,-0)#=#8%-.0#58#%,%6*-2)0A#!2#.%)-,'-)'+2#)*%#(',,-;%.0
@',,%&#LW#%,%6*-2)0#-2&#5-&,8#'2?:.%&#N4#%,%6*-2)0A#_%(%.-,#'20)-2>%0
+" #@',,'2;#+" #%,%6*-2)0#'2#)*%#5+.&%.#.%;'+20#+" #\+)%<P*-1-.-?-2-;-.
5%,)#'2#`80+.%#*-(%#5%%2#.%6+.)%&#.%>%2),8A#H*%#1-2<%,%6*-2)#>+2",'>)
'2#)*'0#.%;'+2#*-0#-.'0%2#5%>-:0%#+" #)*%#1-00'(%#&-1-;%#&+2%#58#)*%
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(',,-;%.0# %,%>).+>:)%# )*%# %,%6*-2)0# -2&# 0+1%)'1%0# *'&%# %96,+0'(%0# '2
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"+.#')0#$',&,'"%#>+20%.(-)'+2#%""+.)#*-0#5%>-1%#-#D+2%#+" #)%..+.#"+.#)*%
,+>-,0A# ^)# )'1%07# 0:>*# >+2",'>)'2;# 0'):-)'+20# *-(%# 5%%2# .%6+.)%&# ".+1
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1%2#$%.%#@',,%&#58#,%+6-.&0#'2#a+$-'7#`:15-'A#^#)+)-,#+" #3R#6%.0+20
$%.%#@',,%&#&:.'2;#3L#-))->@0#0'2>%#F-2:-.8#58#)*%#,%+6-.&0#".+1#)*%
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-))->@#)*%#"'%,&#+.#0+1%)'1%0#%(%2#*:1-20A#U:1-2#%2>.+->*1%2)#'2)+
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;%)0#-#>+16%20-)'+2#+" #V0A#R44m<#6%.#E:'2)-,#+"#%96%>)%&#8'%,&#$*',%
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Remedial Measures to Curb the Conflict

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"+.#%,%6*-2)#>+..'&+.0#"+.#)*%'.#0%-0+2-,#1';.-)'+2A
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! ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA

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:0:-,,8#,+>-,'D%&#$')*'2#.%0).'>)%&#-.%-0#'A%A#)*%8#-.%#:0:-,,8
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Passenger pigeon Dodo
Extinct
Spotted owl Tortoise The Great Indian Bustard
Black rhinoceros Dugong Red panda
Green sea turtle Tiger Snow leopard
Endangered
Plate IV. Some important extinct and endangered

Indian species of animals.
! ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

!2&'-#*-0#)$+#5'+&'(%.0')8#*+)#06+)0#-2&#)*:0#6+00%00%0#-#,-.;%#2:15%.
+" #%2&%1'>#06%>'%0A#i:)#+"#-5+:)#RZ7444#06%>'%0#+" #6,-2)0#'2#+:.#>+:2).8
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>+:2).8#'0#%2&%1'>A#H*%#$%0)%.2#;*-)0#-.%#6-.)'>:,-.,8#.'>*#'2#-16*'5<
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-16*'5'-20#-2&#=4g#,'D-.&0#-.%#%2&%1'>#)+#J%0)%.2#I*-)0A#['""%.%2)
06%>'%0# +" # 1+2')+.# ,'D-.&0# QI%"%-9'S7# .%)'>:,-)%&# 68)*+2# -2&# !2&'-2
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Plate V. Some endemic and endangered plants.

! CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
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)*%#$+.,&#+(%.#)+#>+20%.(%#5'+&'(%.0')8#'2>,:&'2;#6,-2)0#-2&#$',&,'"%A
H*%.%#-.%#)$+#-66.+->*%0#+" #5'+&'(%.0')8#>+20%.(-)'+2f
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O%2;-,S7# I:,"# +" # `-22-.# QH-1',# Y-&:S7# Y',;'.'# Q\-.2-)-@-7# \%.-,-7
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Environmental Pollution 125
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Trachea Connective tissue

Basement membrane
Columnar cell
Right
bronchus
Mucus producing
Goblet cell
Cilia
Mucus
Bronchial lining
(a)
Bronchiole
Muscles
Alveoli
Alveolar
ducts
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(b)
Fig. 5.1. Lower respiratory system of human beings (a and b) and

cross section of bronchial lining showing cilia and goblet cells.
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Space
Sun
Carbon dioxide, water vapours,
methane, nitrous oxide, ozone
Heat
in the atmosphere
radiations
Solar
Atm
radiations osp
her
e
Re-radiated
heat radiations
Earth
L)*5&e5O5&E0(&*1((%0."+(&(::(3/5
Greenhouse Gases
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Carbon dioxide
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Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
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! WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972

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! FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980

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1992 Amendment in the Forest Act
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! WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION)

ACT, 1974
F/&71.-)2(+&:.1&#$)%/$)%)%*&$%2&1(+/.1)%*&/0(&40.,(+.#(%(++&.: &4$/(1
'<&71(-(%/)%*&$%2&3.%/1.,,)%*&)/+&7.,,"/).%5&@.,,"/).%&)+&2(:)%(2&$+&1*32
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I*'$5%)+ G.))"$&.'+ I.'$5.)+ R.%5,+ KIGIRLC
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#($+"1(+5
! THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION)

ACT, 1981
M$,)(%/&:($/"1(+&.: &/0(&$3/&$1(&$+&:.,,.4+\
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A+++B ?.)+(&7.,,"/).%&0$+&'((%&)%+(1/(2&$+&7.,,"/).%&)%&/0(& W3/&)%
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:.,,.4+&/0(&%.1#+&.1&+/$%2$12+&,$)2&2.4%&'<&/0(&H.$12&"%2(1&+(3/).%
TV;&1(*$12)%*&/0(&2)+30$1*(&.: &(#)++).%&.:&$%<&$)1&7.,,"/$%/5&H$+(2&"7.%
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A5B ["+/&,)9(&/0(&8$/(1&W3/;&/0(&W)1& W3/&0$+&71.-)+).%+&:.1&2(:)%C

)%*&/0(&3.%+/)/"/).%;&7.4(1+&$%2&:"%3/).%&.: &@.,,"/).%&K.%/1.,&H.$12+;
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+/$%2$12+&:1.#&$"/.#.'),(+5&H$+(2&"7.%&)/;&/0(&+/$/(&*.-/5&)+&(#7.4(1(2
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+.%&+0$,,;&4)/0."/&71).1&3.%+(%/&.:&M/$/(&H.$12&.7(1$/(&.1&(+/$',)+0&$%<
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71.-)+).%&:.1&$77($,+&0$+&'((%&#$2(5&W%&;//*))%$*+;"$4.5&$8+3.%+)+/C
)%*&.:&$&+)%*,(&7(1+.%&.1&/01((&7(1+.%+&$77.)%/(2&'<&/0(&!($2&.:&/0(
M/$/(;& >.-(1%.1& )+& 3.%+/)/"/(2& /.& 0($1& +"30& $77($,+& $+& :),(2& '<& +.#(
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! THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

E0(&W3/&3$#(&)%/.&:.13(&.%&?.-5&TU;&TUae;&/0(&')1/0&$%%)-(1+$1<&.: &."1
k$/(& @1)#(& G)%)+/(1& F%2)1$& >$%20);& 40.& 4$+& $& 7).%((1& .: & (%-)1.%C
#(%/$,&71./(3/).%&)++"(+&)%&."1&3."%/1<5&E0(& W3/&(N/(%2+&/.&40.,(&.:
F%2)$5&M.#(&/(1#+&1(,$/(2&/.&(%-)1.%#(%/&0$-(&'((%&2(+31)'(2&$+&:.,C
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/).%+0)7+&/0$/&(N)+/+&$#.%*&$%2&'(/4((%&/0(#&$%2&0"#$%&'()%*+;&$,,
./0(1&,)-)%*&.1*$%)+#+&$%2&71.7(1/<5
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.1&/(%2&/.&'(;&)%I"1)."+&/.&(%-)1.%#(%/5
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40)30&'<&)/+&70<+)3.C30(#)3$,&71.7(1/)(+&.1&0$%2,)%*&)+&,)$',(&/.&3$"+(
0$1#& /.& 0"#$%& '()%*+;& ./0(1& ,)-)%*& .1*$%)+#+;& 71.7(1/<& .1& (%-)1.%C
#(%/5
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#($+"1(+&/.&71./(3/&$%2&)#71.-(&(%-)1.%#(%/&40),(&/0(&+/$/(&*.-(1%C
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/1$,&>.-/5&"%2(1&/0)+& W3/&)%3,"2(&+(//)%*&"7&.:\
A$B E0(&+/$%2$12+&.: &]"$,)/<&.: &$)1;&4$/(1&.1&+.),&:.1&-$1)."+&$1($+
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(%-)1.%#(%/$,&7.,,"/$%/+&A)%3,"2)%*&%.)+(B&:.1&2)::(1(%/&$1($+5
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Methods to Propagate Environmental Awareness

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Plate VI. Awareness through Environmental rally, small children can be very
effective in spreading the message of environmental protection among
general public through their spontaneous love for nature.
Plate VII. Tree plantation compaigns serve as the most effective environmental
conservation efforts involving local people. Sh. Sunderlal Bahuguna,
the Chipko movement leader, planting a sapling.
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Human Population and the Environment 213
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! ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT

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! VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS
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=!A U//<%3/0%."33*0*-$%$(+*#%/3%,"3*%3/0&#9%P/%(/6%3"-.%#/&*%30**7
3,/'$"-4%#&',,%+,'-$#%=+5($/+,'-<$/-#A%/0%#&',,%'-"&',#%=V//+,'-<$/-#AH
K0*%$5*0*%#/&*%0//$*.%+,'-$#%#**-%6-.*0-*'$5H%P/%(/6%/)#*01*%'B6'$"8
'-"&',#%,"<*%."33*0*-$%3"#5*#2%$/0$/"#*Q$60$,*2%80/8/.",*Q',,"4'$*02%D'$*0
#-'<*%*$89H%:5'$%'0*%$5*%"&+/0$'-$%'B6'$"8%)"0.#%#**-%)(%(/6H
=!!A P0'D%'%3//.7D*)%."'40'&%$5'$%D/6,.%)*%+0*#*-$%"-%$5*%0"1*09
="%>828/%R/D%"#%$5*%0"1*0%D'$*0%6#*.H%I0*+'0*%'%,"#$%/3 %$5*%6#*#9
?"# @+A%,# 5AB%&.8/% :5'$% '0*% $5*% &'W/0% "&+'8$#% 8'6#*.% )(% 567
&'-%)*"-4#%"-%(/60%'0*'%/-%$5*%0"1*0H%R'1*%(/6%,*'0-$%/3 %'-(%&'W/0
"-8".*-$%*949%&'##"1*%3"#5%.*'$5%/0%8'$$,*%.*'$5%/0%#<"-%+0/),*&#%$/%567
&'-%)*"-4#%8/-#6&"-4%$5*%D'$*0H%;0(%$/%"-$*0+0*$%$5*%#'&*9
(B) STUDY OF A FOREST

=!A $%&'()*+,-#-%.%/%C/$*%./D-%$5*%-'&*%/3%$5*%3/0*#$9%:5'$
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$5*%+0*#*-$%3/0*#$2%'%+'0$%/3 %#/&*%X"/#+5*0*%0*#*01*%/0%C'$"/-',%+'0<%/0
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" :5'$%'0*%$5*%./&"-'-$%$0**#H%K0*%$5*0*%'-(%5*0)'8*/6#%8,"&)7
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5'#%/+*-%#+'8*#H
" P/*#%$5*%3/0*#$%#5/D%'%$5"8<Q.*-#*%40/D$5%/0%"$%"#%.*40'.*.H
" F#%$5*0*%'-%6-.*0#$/0(%/3 %#506)#2%5*0)#%'-.%40'##*#%/3 %,/D*0
5*"45$H
" F#% $5*0*% '% $5"8<% /0% $5"-% 3/0*#$% 3,//0% 8/-#"#$"-4% /3 % ,*'3 % ,"$$*0
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#$0'$"3"*.% #$068$60*% "9*9% &6,$"7,'(*0*.% #$068$60*% /3 % 1*4*$'$"/-
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:5'$%D/6,.%)*%$5*"0%+0/)'),*%"&+'8$#H
(C) ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF A GRASSLAND

=!A $%&'()*+,-#5,<*)A%.5*,/%:5'$%$(+*%/3 %40'##,'-.%"#%$5"#H%F#
"$% +*0*--"',% /0% '--6',H% K0*% $5*0*% $',,% 40'##*#% /0% #5/0$% 40'##*#H% F#% "$
./&"-'$*.%)(%W6#$%'%3*D%#+*8"*#%/0%"#%"$%'%&"G*.%$(+*%/3 %40'##,'-.H%F#%"$
+0/$*8$*.% !$#$%3*-8*.%/0%."#$60)*.H
=!!A F)%884%,-# 3+%45.6# *782)9%.5*,8/
" ;0(%$/%".*-$"3(%$5*%-'&*#%/3 %#/&*%/3 %$5*%./&"-'-$%40'##*#%/0
+,'-$#9%K0*%$5*#*%./&"-'-$%+,'-$#%5'1"-4%'%#/3$2%.*,"8'$*2%W6"8(
-'$60*%D"$5%40**-%8/,/60%#5/D"-4%4//.%+','$')","$(H%[\%$5*
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K0*% $5*0*% -6&*0/6#% 3")0/6#% 0//$#% "-% '% )6-852% ='.1*-$"$"/6#

0//$#A2%06--*07$(+*2%5'1"-4%05"V/&*#%/0%$5*0*%"#%'%#"-4,*2%,/-4
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8,*#%3"0&,(%'-.%5*,+%"-%8/-#*01"-4%$5*%#/",9%F3 %$5*%0//$%"#%$'+
0//$2%$5*-%"$%8'--/$%5*,+%"-%)"-."-4%$5*%#/",%+'0$"8,*#%3"0&,(9
:5'$%"#%$5*%8/-."$"/-%./&"-'-$%"-%$5*%+0*#*-$%40'##,'-.H%P/
(/6%/)#*01*%#/",%*0/#"/-H
=!!!A F)%G5,(#%,-#;92)()%G5,(/%E"-.%/6$%"3 %$5*0*%"#%&'-'4*.%40'V7
"-4%/-%$5*%40'##,'-.%"9*9%/-,(%'%,"&"$*.%-6&)*0%/3%,"1*#$/8<%=8'$$,*A%"#
)*"-4%',,/D*.%$/%40'V*%[\%$5*0*%"#%6-&'-'4*.%40'V"-49
C/0&',%40'V"-4%"#%6#*36,%3/0%"-80*'#"-4%$5*%/1*0',,%+0/.68$"1"$(Q
("*,.% /3 % $5*% 40'##,'-.9% [1*040'V"-4% 5'#% #*1*0',% 3'0% 0*'85"-4
Field Work 239
8/-#*B6*-8*#9% Z'<*% (/60% /D-% /)#*01'$"/-#% "-% $5*% +0*#*-$% 40'##,'-.

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" F3 %(/6%3"-.%$5'$%4//.%B6',"$(%40'##*#Q5*0)#%'0*%40/D"-4%$5*-
"$%"#%0"45$,(%40'V*.9
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'0*'#2% "$% "-."8'$*#% .*40'.'$"/-% /3 % $5*% 40'##,'-.% .6*% $/

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(D) STUDY OF MOUNTAIN/HILLY AREA

=!A $%&'()*+,-# -%.%/% C/$*% ./D-% $5*% -'&*% /3 % $5*% &/6-$'"-
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'1*0'4*%'--6',%0'"-3',,%'-.%$*&+*0'$60*%"-%$5*%'0*'9
=!!A ;782)9%.5*,8#*,#,%.+)%4#92(2.%.5*,/%Z'<*%(/60%/)#*01'$"/-#
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$5*% 5",,#% /0% .*3/0*#$'$"/-% "#% /)#*01*.% "-% #/&*% '0*'#H% U//<% 3/0% #/&*
./&"-'-$% $0**% #+*8"*#% '-.% 3"-.% /6$% $5*"0% -'&*#% '-.% 6#*#% 30/&% ,/8',
+*/+,*9
=!!!A H%,-845-28/%J/6%D",,%8/&*%'80/##%#/&*%0*4"/-#2%D5*0*%,'-.7
#,".*%D/6,.%5'1*%/88600*.%0*8*-$,(%/0%"-%$5*%+'#$9%P/%(/6%/)#*01*%'-(
&'W/0% '-$50/+/4*-"8% '8$"1"$(% $5*0*H% :5'$% "#% $5*% 8/-."$"/-% /3 % 3/0*#$
40/D$5%"-%$5*%0*4"/-H%O'-%(/6%*#$'),"#5%#/&*%,"-<#%)*$D**-%$5*#*%'#7
+*8$#H% J/6%8'-%4'$5*0%#/&*%"-3/0&'$"/-%')/6$%#685%'#+*8$#%30/&%$5*
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=!"A 1%.2)I8J2-8/%;0(%$/%,//<%3/0%#/&*%#+0"-4#2%0"1*0#%'-.%85'-7
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"$#%6#*#%'-.%"$#%#$'$6#%"9*9%D5*$5*0%"$%"#%D*,,%&'-'4*.%/0%.*40'.*.9
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*-1"0/-&*-$%[\%./%(/6%$5"-<%$5*(%8'-%5'1*%#/&*%.'&'4"-4
*33*8$#%,'$*0%/-H%P"#86##%D"$5%,/8',%+*/+,*9
=!"A R/D% &685% '-$50/+/4*-"8% '8$"1"$"*#% ./% (/6% /)#*01*% /-% $5*
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;5*#*% '8$"1"$"*#% 6#6',,(% "-8,6.*% &"-"-42% B6'00("-42% $/60"#&2
8/-#$068$"/-2% 5(.0/*,*8$0"8% +0/W*8$#% *$89% :5'$% &'W/0% "&+'8$#% ./% (/6
/)#*01*%/0%+0*."8$%"-%36$60*H
! VISIT TO SOME LOCAL POLLUTED SITE

R6&'-% '8$"1"$"*#% 0*,'$*.% $/% 60)'-"V'$"/-% '-.% "-.6#$0"',"V'$"/-% 5'1*
,*.%$/%,'04*%#8',*%+/,,6$"/-%/3 %$5*%*-1"0/-&*-$9%K40"86,$60',%+0'8$"8*#
5'1*%',#/%,*.%$/%+*#$"8".*%+/,,6$"/-2%D'$*0%,/44"-4%'-.%#',"-"V'$"/-9%K
1"#"$%$/%#/&*%"-.6#$0"',%'0*'%/0%.*40'.*.%,'-.%'0*'%D",,%)*%1*0(%6#*36,
$/%/)$'"-%3"0#$%5'-.%"-3/0&'$"/-%')/6$%$5*%#'&*9
(A) STUDY OF AN INDUSTRIALLY POLLUTED AREA

=!A $%&'()*+,-# -%.%/% C/$*% ./D-% $5*% -'&*% /3 % $5*% "-.6#$0(2% "$#
8'+'8"$(2% (*'0% /3 % *#$'),"#5&*-$2% $5*% $(+*% /3 % +0/.68$% '-.% $5*% $(+*% /3
D'#$*#Q*&"##"/-#%+0/.68*.%)(%"$9
=!!A K*44+.5*,#%8B2&.8/%U//<%'$%$5*%#$'8<#%=85"&-*(#A%"-%$5*%'0*'
D5"85% &"45$% )*% 4"1"-4% 8*0$'"-% *&"##"/-#9% :5'$% '0*% $5*% $/G"8% 4'#*#
+0*#*-$%"-%$5*&%7%'0*%$5*(%/)-/G"/6#%#&*,,"-4H% K#%$5*%D"-.%),/D#2%./
$5*(%&/1*%"-%'%."0*8$"/-%$5'$%"#%$/D'0.#%$5*%8"$(%/0%"-%/$5*0%."0*8$"/-H
P/%(/6%/)#*01*%564*%5*'+#%/3%#,6.4*%'0/6-.Q/6$#".*%$5*%3'8$/0(H
P/%(/6%3"-.%'-(%$0**#%/0%/$5*0%+,'-$#%40/D"-4%"-%#685%.6&+"-4%#"$*#H
E"-.% /6$% "3 % $5*0*% "#% '-(% ^33,6*-$% ;0*'$&*-$% I,'-$% =^;IA% D"$5"-
$5*%"-.6#$0(%$/%$0*'$%$5*%D'#$*#%)*3/0*%."#85'04"-4%$5*&9%J/6%8'-%',#/
#**% $5*% D/0<"-4% /3 % '-% ^;I2% D"$5% +0"/0% +*0&"##"/-% 30/&% $5*% "-.6#$0(
+*/+,*9
=!!!A F)22,#724./%P/%(/6%/)#*01*%'%40**-%)*,$%+,'-$*.%'0/6-.%$5*
"-.6#$0(H%F$%5'#%-/D%)*8/&*%&'-.'$/0(%3/0%',,%)"4%"-.6#$0"*#%$/%+,'-$
40**-%$0**#%'0/6-.%$5*%"-.6#$0(9
;5"#%"#%)*8'6#*%$5*%$0**%8'-/+(%=,*'1*#A%5'#%4/$%'-%*G8*,,*-$%8'7
+'8"$(% $/% ')#/0)% 1'0"/6#% +/,,6$'-$#% '-.% ',#/% 0*.68*% -/"#*9% ;5*(% ',#/
0*,*'#*%/G(4*-%$/%&'<*%$5*%'$&/#+5*0*%+60*9
=!"A @2%4.J# %8B2&.8/% ;0(% $/% 4*$% "-3/0&'$"/-% ')/6$% '-(% #*0"/6#
5*',$5%"&+'8$#%"-%$5*%+*/+,*%,"1"-4%"-%$5*%1"8"-"$(%/3%$5*%"-.6#$0(9%*949
Field Work 241
" ;5*% D'$*0% .0'D-% 30/&% $6)*D*,,#Q5'-.% +6&+#% &'(% )*% 8/-7
$'&"-'$*.% D"$5% #/&*% $/G"8% #6)#$'-8*#Q.(*#% *$89% D5"85% /-
.0"-<"-4%&'(%8'6#*%5*',$5%'",&*-$#9
" ;5*%$/G"8%4'#*#%'-.%#6#+*-.*.%+'0$"86,'$*%&'$$*0%0*,*'#*.%)(
$5*%"-.6#$0(%"#%"-5',*.%)(%$5*%+*/+,*%,"1"-4%-*'0)(%D5"85%&"45$
8'6#*% #<"-% "00"$'$"/-Q',,*04(Q0*#+"0'$/0(% +0/),*&#9
(B) STUDY OF A WATER-LOGGED/SALINE LAND

=!A $%&'()*+,-#5,<*)A%.5*,/%!"#"$%'%D'$*0%,/44*.%/0%#',$7'33*8$*.
,'-.%"-%#/&*%060',%'40"86,$60',%'0*'9%K-%'0*'%5'1"-4%+*0&'-*-$,(%#$'-.7
"-4%D'$*0%/-%$5*%#/",%"#%'%D'$*07,/44*.%#/",9%J/6%8'-%/)#*01*%806#$#%/3
D5"$*%#',$#%/-%$5*%#/",%#603'8*%&'<"-4%"$%)'00*-7$5'$%"#%'%#',"-*%#/",9
]'$5*0% "-3/0&'$"/-% 30/&% $5*% 3'0&*0#% ')/6$% "$#% 5"#$/0"8',% )'8<7
40/6-.%"9*9%5/D%&685%"00"4'$"/-%D'#%)*"-4%./-*%"-%$5*#*%'0*'#%'-.%3/0
5/D%,/-4H% :'#%$5*%'0*'%3*0$",*%#/&*%(*'0#%'4/%'-.%5'#%40'.6',,(%)*7
8/&*%D'$*07,/44*.%'-.%#',"-*H% :5'$%D'#%$5*%80/+%40/D-%*'0,"*0H% ;0(
$/%8/00*,'$*%$5*%+0/),*&%D"$5%$5*%"00"4'$"/-%+0'8$"8*#%3/,,/D*.%$5*0*9
=!!A M%45,5.6# %,-# &)*B# ()*N.J/
" E"-.%/6$%$5*%#',"-"$(%,*1*,%=^,*8$0"8',%8/-.68$"1"$(2%ÔA%/3 %$5*
#/",9%E/0%$5"#%(/6%8'-%$'<*%?_%40'&#%/3 %#/",%'-.%."##/,1*%"$%"-
`_%&,%/3 %D'$*0%"-%'%)*'<*09%P"+%'-%Ô%+0/)*%"-$/%"$%D5"85%D",,
"-."8'$*% $5*% Ô% /3 % $5*% #/",9% ;5*% -/-7#',"-*% -/0&',% #/",% 5'#
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'-(% 1*4*$'$"/-9
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! STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS AND BIRDS

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PERSPECTIVES IN

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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2345-7

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

!"#$%&'#()#*+, %-, .)&%$)., /&'(, *0), 1&)#20, 3'&., !"#$%&""'%( , 30%20

2.1 FOREST RESOURCES

! :')1*)'4$*;(8'2(2-%B&.$*(*%-.$%()$%)&2$*%&# %2",,"&'*%&# %8",/

! OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS

! @',(AA$(%'3/* G$(* /(%1$3,* '3* !;;"2(* K(/A+%

! :(3'3/* 7('34())* '3* H1;(/(#(31()(#* LD"26M

Major Activities in Forests

! DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND PEOPLE

<(%1(%*<(%"=(%*@(#*LHA%""2$1*>"%$,2,* F31* G%'8(),M-

.$)-3","(-("&'% "**0$% $4$.% $'5&0'($.$/% -*% +$.% ()$% K&.,/% T-'9;

2.2 WATER RESOURCES

! WATER USE AND OVER-EXPLOITATION

Water: A Precious Natural Resource

Unconfined aquifer recharge area

Fig. 2.2.1. The groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer

Effects of Groundwater Usage

! CONFLICTS OVER WATER

Traditional Water Management System

! BIG DAMS- BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

2.3 MINERAL RESOURCES

! USES AND EXPLOITATION

! ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION

! N'3'3/* '3* <(%',T(* G'/$%* 7$,$%=$*'3* F%(=())',

! H%(3'+#* N'3'3/* '3* K()/"31(R* FQ0QYG;$* A+8)'&* ;$(%'3/

2.4 FOOD RESOURCES

@$4'&'$3&6 J$()2;* .44$&2 K"Q*"4*!(,$, @$(2;,*A$%*6$(%

`.&($"'*%-'/ @(0'($/%1.&8()7 USY OSA\Y

! WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS

! IMPACTS OF OVERGRAZING AND AGRICULTURE

"'#-'(*% (&% ()$% 2-="202% $=($'(% 5-0*"'1% $4$'% /$-();% F'

I0J ['")"/'&()* #(/3'4'&(2'"3-% L-'6% &#% ()$% +$*("5"/$*% -.$% '&'A

Evaporation and transpiration

Fig. 2.4.1. Salinization and water logging.

2.5. ENERGY RESOURCES

! GROWING ENERGY NEEDS

Fig. 2.5.1. Per capita energy use and GNP

! RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

I1J% 7$3$9(8)$* .3$%/6* 7$,"+%&$,

Solar cell (PV cell)

Fig. 2.5.2. (a) Solar cell.

Electric Solar cell

Fig. 2.5.3. Simple box-type solar cooker.

Sea (High tide)

! OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY (OTE)

Fig. 2.5.5. Floating gas holder type biogas plant.

@&2$("2$*% 5&..&*"&'% &# % *($$,% 1-*A)&,/$.% ,$-/*% (&% ,$-9-1$% &#

Fig. 2.5.6. Fixed dome type Biogas plant.

IB,&-("'1% /.02% (6+$J7% a-'(-% L&/$,% IB"=$/% /&2$% (6+$J7% _$$'3-'/)0

Fig. 2.5.7. (a) Nuclear fission—a chain reaction initiated

\QS O [\ O^O%k%Q% 'O% k%D'$.16

Fig. 2.5.7. ( b ) Nuclear fusion reaction between two

2.6. LAND RESOURCES

Plate I(a) Terrace farming Plate I(b) Strip cropping

! CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: ROLE OF AN

! EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE

II. Abiotic Structure

Fig. 3.2. A grazing food chain in a pond ecosystem.

Decomposers (Bacteria, fungi)

Fig. 3.3. A detritus food chain in an estuary based on dead

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