268 INDEX

Nouns (continued)
Possessive case- form 10; used for people and animals 11a; article not used
before the person or think possessed (the arm of the boy = the boy’s arm)
11b; used with certain expressions of time (a day’s pay) 11d; used in
expressions such as‘five pound’s worth’ 11d;possessive case(or.of) sometimes
avoided by using certain nouns as adjectives (hall door, park railings) 11c
nouns/verbs formed by verbs+adverbs/prepositions (outbreak,hold-up) 299
nowhere 68
numerals 300-3

Obligation – see under must and need

older and elder 15d
one
one,ones – with adjectives of quality (the blue one, six big ones) 19,24; with
demonstrative adjectives (this one, those ones) 21
one and a/an 25
one, indefinite pronoun (one can only do one’s best) 45
only, positions of 71d
ought
form 154
compared with must, have to and should 155
used with the perfect infinitive to express past unfulfilled obligation (I ought
to have done it) 156

Participles
present or active participle (working, speaking) 263,162,239b, 259
perfect participle active (having spoken0 264
past or passive participle (worked, spoken) 265a
perfect participle passive (this having been done) 265b
misrelated participle 266
passive voice 273-275

PAST TENSE
simple past tense
form – 172 , 99; spelling note 172c; irregular verbs 173, 296
use – for a definite action completed in the past at aknow timw 174; for a
past habit 174; in conditional sentences (if I knew I’d tell you) 216b; after
as if/though, it is time, would rather/sooner (I’d rather you didn’t) and after
wish and if only (I wish I knew; if only I knew) 271,272

Past continuous tense

form 175
use – for a past action whose exact limits are known 176; as a past
equivalent of the present continuous tense – in indirect speech 178a; for
descriptions 178b; with always, etc, for frequently repeated actions 179c;
as an alternative to the simple past, to indicate a casual, less deliberate,
action 177
269 INDEX

PERFECT TENSES
present perfect tense
form 179
use – with Just to express a very recently completed action 180; for a past
action whose time is not definite 181; for an action beginning in the past and
still continuing (I have been here for two years) 182;for and since used with
the present pefect 183
present perfect and simple past tenses, examples of use 184
Present perfect continuous tense
form 185
comparison with the present perfect tense 186, 188
reminder that some verbs do not take the continuous forms 186 (see also
165-7)
Past perfect tense
form 189
use – as apast equivalent of the present perfect 189b; for actions viewed in
retrospect from a point in the past 189b; in time clauses 190; in indirect
speech 191, 276b; in conditional sentences 216; after wish, as if/though 271;
after if only 271
Past perfect continuous tense
form 192
use 192

Possessives
possessive adjectives and pronouns 37-9
possessive adjectives used with gerunds 260a, 257
possessive case of nouns 10, 11, 260b
Prepositions
omission of to and for before indirect objects 77
some useful prepositions – of time and date 78; of travel and movement 79
omission of the in some cases (he wn to sea) 5
pairs of prepositions easily confused – at, in 81; in, into 82; to , till/until 83;
from, since 84; for, since 85, 183; during, for 86
after (prepositions) and afterwards (adverb) 87
like, preposition and adjective 89
gerunds used after prepositions (without asking) 88
prepositions/adverbs (on,up,in,by,near,etc) 90a
prepositions/adverbs used in conjunction with certain verbs 90b, 298
Present perfect tense – see perfect tenses
PRESENT TENSES
present continuous tense
form – general rules 160; present continuous tense of the verb to work 161;
note on the spelling of the present participle 162
use – for a present action 163a; for a definite future arrangement 163b, 195;
with always for a frequently repeated action 164b
verb not normally used in the continuous tense 165
270 INDEX

present continuous tense (continued)

watch, look and listen can be used in the continuous form though see and
hear cannot 166
some verbs in 165 can be used in the continuous form in certain cases and with
special meanings 167
Simple present tense
form – general rule 98, 168; simple present tense of the verb to work 169a;
note on the spelling of the third person singular of verb ending in ss, sh,
ch, x, o and y 169c
use – for habitual actions 170; with say when quoting from books etc. 171a:
for dramatic narrative 171b; for a planned future action or series of actions
171c, 194; instead of the present continuous tense with verbs which cannot
be used in the continuous form 165, 171d; in conditional sentences type 1
216; in time clauses 293

Pronouns
demonstrative, distributive, quantitative and interrogative pronouns – see under
adjective and pronouns
personal pronouns (I, he, you, they, etc.) – form 40; use of the norminative,
accusative and dative forms 41; position of accusative and dative pronouns
42; case of pronouns after than/as (he is older than I/me) 17; the pronoun it
43, 44, 114, 248; one used as a personal pronoun (one does one’s best) 45
possessive pronouns (mine, yours, etc.) – form 37, 38; use 39a; the expression
of mine/yours/hers, etc. 39b
reflexive and emphasizing pronouns (myself, yourself, etc.) 46, 47
relative pronouns – defining relative clauses 49

Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses

form 50
use for person – norminative who, that 51a; accusative whom, who, that 51b;
with a preposition 51c; possessive whose 51d
use for things – nominative which, that 52a; accusative which, that 52b;
with a preposition 52c; possessive whose 52d
that used after superlatives and after all, no, one, etc. (all that I have) 51a, 52b
the relative pronoun what 53
an infinitive can sometimes replace a relative clause (he has work that the must
do = he has work to do) 54
it is/was + noun/pronoun + relative clause (it was Tom who paid) 55

Non-defining relative clauses 56

relative pronouns used in non defining relative clauses
form 57
use for persons – nominative who 58a; accusative whom, who 58b; with a
preposition 58c; possessive whose 58d;
use for things – nominative which 59a; accusative which 59b; after a
preposition 59c; with a verb + preposition/adverb combination (my glasses,
which I’ve been looking for all day, have just turned up) 59d; possessive
whose, of which 59e

Commas in relative clauses 62

Connective relatives who, which 60
relative adverbs (when, where, why) 61
271 INDEX

Purpose
expressed by the infinitive – simple infinitive 288a; so as or in order +
infinitive 288b;
expressed by clauses of purpose – so that with will/would or can/could +
infinitive 289a; so that or in order that with shall/should or may/might +
infinitive 289b; negative purpose clauses 289c; in case and lest 290

quantitative adjective and pronouns – see under Adjective and pronouns

question tags (= interrogative additions to sentences) 106
quite 74

rather and fairly 73

reason, clauses of 292
because and for 93
reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, etc.) 46
relative pronouns and clauses – see under Pronouns
reported speech
direct and indirect speech 276
statements in indirect speech – changes in tense necessary 276; other changes
necessary 277
questions in indirect speech – changes necessary 278; questions beginning
shall I? shall we? 279
commands in indirect speech – the accusative and infinitive construction (he
told me to do it) 280
other ways of expressing indirect commands – the be + infinitive construction
(he said that I was to do it) 281; order + should + infinitive 281
commands with let’s, let us, let him 282
exclamations and yes and no 283
combinations of statement, questions and commands in indirect speech 284
ask, say and tell 285
must and needn’t 286
could 287
result, clauses of 294

say and tell 285

second person singular, old form
thou, thee, thine (pronouns) 40, 37
thy (adjective) 37

sequence of tenses 212

shall
used to form future tenses 199, 200 (see also under future)
shall I? shall we? – used in request for orders or advice 231; expressed in
indirect speech 279
shall in the second or third person – to express the speaker’s intention 232a;
to express a command 232b; shall you go?’ as an alternative to ‘will you be
going?’ 232c
272 INDEX

shall may become will/would in indirect speech 277b

should
used to form conditional tenses 213, 215
used as a past equivalent of shall 214. See also 232, 276g, 277b, 279
used in conditional sentences – see under Conditional
used to express an unlikely supposition 217d
used to express obligation or duty or to indicate a correct or sensible action
233
used to express assumption (he should be there by now) 236e
used to add emphasis to remarks querying the reasonableness of an assumption
(Idon’t see why you should think that) 236
used in dramatic expressions of surprise (what should I see but an enormous
snake!) 236
used after lest and sometimes after in case 236, 290
used in clauses of purpose 289b, c, 290
that… should – used in indirect commands (he ordered that Tom should
leave the house) 281; used after certain verbs as an alternative to a gerund or
infinitive construction 234; used after certain impersonal expressions (it is
strange that you should think so) 235
since and for 183, 85
since and from 84
so
so and not as pronouns (will he enjoy it? I hope so) 48
so + auxiliary + subject (he drinks wine and so do I) 107a
so + adjective + as + infinitive (would you be so good as to reply by
return?) 248c
so as + infinitve of purpose 288
so that + clause of purpose 289
so… that clause of result 294
some and any 26, 27
compounds (something, anything) 28, 68

spelling rules
doubling the final consonant, before a suffix beginning with a vowel 306
162b, 172c
omission of a final e, 307, 162a
words ending in ce or ge 308
the suffix –ful 309
words ending in y 8b, 169c 172c, 310
ie and el 311
plurals of nouns ending in ss, sh, ch, x and o 8a
third person singular of verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x and o 169c
still and yet 69b

subjunctive
form 270
use of present subjunctive 270
use of past subjunctive 271, 272
the subjunctive were 271, 219
273 INDEX

subordinate clauses 212

suck… that 294

tell and say 285

than
used in comparisons 16, 17, 66, 291
followed by a pronoun 17
followed by infinitive or gerund 291b
that
relative pronoun 50-54
that, not which, used after superlatives, and after no and compounds of no, etc.
52b
that, those 13, 20, 21
that as a conjunction – after verbs of knowing and thinking 241; introducing
statements in indirect speech 277a; that… should – see under should; so
that/in order that 289;so… that 294

the definite article 4, 5, 80

there is/there are 112b
these (plural of this), demonstrative pronoun and adjective 13, 20, 21
this, demonstrative pronoun and adjective 13, 20, 21
this and these in indirect speech 277c
those (plural of that), demonstrative pronoun and adjective 13,20, 21
time
clause of 293, 201c adverbs of 69
to when omitted 77, 80
to and till/until 83
too and enough 71, 248a, b

unless in conditional sentences 221

until/till and to 83
used, adjective meaning ‘accustomed’ 159
used to, auxiliary verb (I used to smoke) 158, 258g

verbs
auxiliary verbs – introduction 96; list of auxiliary verbs with principal parts
102; rules applicable to all auxiliary verbs 103; for be, can, dare, do, have,
may, must, need, ought, used, see under these heading; for shall, will, see
under future and under shall, will; for should, would, see under Conditional
and under should, would

common conversational use of auxiliary verbs – in additions to remaks (I can’t

ride but he can) 107; in agreements and disagreements with remaks (Itype
well, Yes, you do) 105: in question tags (he saw her didn’t he?) 106; in
short answers ( do you smoke? yes I do) 104
auxiliary verbs used in comparisons (he swims better than I do) 108
274 INDEX

verbs (continued)
ordinary verbs – introduction 96 – 101 ; tenses; see under present, perfect, past,
Future and Conditional tenses also under Infinitive, Gerund and Participles;
for imperatives, Subjunctive and Passive voice, see under these headings
verbs of the senses followed by –ing (I heard him shouting) 263c
verbs + preposition/adverb combinations (look for, put up with) 297,298
verbs/nouns formed by adverbs/prepositions + verbs (outbreak) 299

weights and measures 305

were, subjunctive 271, 219
when, as and while 95
what
interrogative 31, 33-5
relative 53

which
interrogative 31, 34, 35
relative 50, 52-4, 57, 59-61

who, whom
interrogative 31-35
relative 50, 51, 53, 57, 58, 60

who, which
connective relatives 60

whose
interrogative 31
relative 50-2, 57-9

will
used to form future tenses – see under Future
will + infinitive used to express intention – 201f-205, 208; compared with the
going to form 202, 203; compared with want and wish 205; compared with
the future continuous tense 208; used to express determination 204
will + infinitive used to express – assumptions (he’ll be there by now) 228;
invitations (will you come to tea) 224; polite request (will you shut the door,
please?) 225; commands (you will leave the money in the hollow tree) 226;
habits (a mad dog will bite anyone) 227a; obstinate ististence (he will eat
oysters though they always make him ill) 227b

wish
compared with want and will 205
followed by the infinitive or by object + infinitive 238
followed by would for a not very hopeful wish 230e
followed by the past or past perfect tense for unrealizable wishes (I wish I
knew; I wish I hadn’t bought it) 271

would
used to form the conditional tenses 213, 215
used in conditional sentences – see Conditional sentences
as a past equivalent of will 214, 227
275 INDEX

would (continued)
in indirect speech as a past equivalent of shall (he said, ‘I shall be there’ =
he said that he would be there) 214b, 227b, 279a
after wish or if only to express a not very hopeful wish 230e, f, 271c, 222
in clauses of purpose 289a,c
for polite request into present 225, 230d
would you like? would you care? 229a, b
if + would in conditional sentences (if you would wait a moment) 217
would rather/sooner 229c, 272

yet and still 69b

yet with the present perfect tense 181c