Compendium Delhi PDF

16th National Workshop
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS &

EFFICIENT OPERATIONS OF BOILERS
2nd & 3rd February 2017
Delhi
Sponsored By Organised By
Central Boilers Board National Productivity Council,

Department of Industrail Policy and Promotion Lodhi Road, New Delhi
Ministry of Commerce and Industry Ministry of Commerce and Industry
Goverment of India Goverment of India
16th National Workshop
COMPENDIUM
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS &

EFFICIENT OPERATIONS OF BOILERS
2nd & 3rd February 2017
Delhi
Sponsored By Organised By
Central Boilers Board National Productivity Council,

Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion Lodhi Road, New Delhi
Ministry of Commerce and Industry Ministry of Commerce and Industry
Government of India Government of India
16th National Workshop “Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Boilers”
CONTENT
1. CO-FIRING OF COAL & BIOMASS WASTE IN A CONVENTIONAL PF FIRED POWER STATION ISSUES
& CHALLENGES by Somnath Bhattacharjee, NTPC- Dadri
2. O&M PRACTICES AND EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS by Ashwini Mishra, Electrotherm (India)

Limited Steel Division
3. CFB TECHNOLOGY - AN OVERVIEW ON EMISSION MODERATION TO MEET NEW REGULATION by

C R Subramaniam and Abhay R Patil, Thermax Ltd
4. CRITICALITY OF FANS FOR EFFICIENT OPERATIONS FOR ANY BOILER by P. Anand Prakash,
Chargewave Energykem Pvt. Ltd
5. IMPROVING BOILER SYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH AN INNOVATIVE STRATEGY OF USING

ENVIRONMENTAL STACK MONITORING DATA by M A Patil, FICCI
6. IMPROVING BOILER RELIABILITY AND AVAILABILITY by Yashwant Ranaware, Thermax Limited
7. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN BOILERS BY REACTION MANAGEMENT by P. Anand Prakash,

Chargewave Energykem Pvt. Ltd
8. USE OF 700° C TECHNOLOGY FOR THE CARBON FREE POWER by R G Prajapati, Gujarat State
Electricity Corporation Ltd
9. ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDUSTRIAL BOILERS IN TEXTILE INDUSTRY by

Mohammad Abul Hasan Khan, Butwal Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Nepal
10. KEY FACTORS FOR RELIABLE AND EFFICIENT OPERATION OF BOILERS by Vikram Sachdeva and
Pankaj Arora, STEAG Energy Services India Pvt. Ltd.
11. FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR SOX, NOX AND PM CONTROL MECHANISM by Rakesh Kumar Lenka,
Odisha Power Generation Corporation Limited
12. ATOMIZATION OF FURNACE OIL - EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE by Dr. B.K. Satis
Kumar and S. Sundar, Madras Fertilizers Limited
13. OPTIMIZATION OF AUXILIARY CONSUMPTION IN POWER PLANT by Bhawandeep Kaur, R

Rajmohan, et al DESL
14. CONDENSATE WATER RECOVERY IN BOILER BY PRESSURE POWERED PUMP PACKAGE UNIT by
Jitendra Kumar Srivastav and Kajol, National Productivity Council-Delhi
15. AGING OF BOILERS & FAILURES by Shashank Shukla, IRC Engineering Ltd

16. BOILER EFFICIENCY, AVAILABILITY AND RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT THORUGH RENOVATION
AND MODERNISATION-NEW APPROACH by P Nagamanickam and R Sriram, BHEL Trichy
17. KEY FACTORS FOR RELIABLE AND EFFICIENT OPERATION OF BOILERS by Arun Tiwari ISGEC
18. MYTHS AND REALITY OF COMBUSTION by Pranav Desai, Freelancer

Co-firing of coal & biomass waste in a conventional PF fired power
Station issues & challenges
Somnath Bhattacharjee, NTPC- Dadri
ABSTRACT
Co-firing is defined as supplementing a primary fuel with a secondary fuel. Biomass can serve as a supplement for coal
combustion and has been successfully employed by various electric utility companies.
There has been considerable interest in co-firing both biomass and waste fuels in coal-fired power plants in recent years.
This is principally due to concerns regarding the emissions of greenhouse gases from these plants. Biomass and some
waste fuels can be considered to be renewable and not to produce net CO2 emissions when combusted hence co-firing in a
coal fired plant reduces overall greenhouse gas emissions.
Currently the most popular option for co-firing applications is direct co-firing where biomass and coal are utilized together in
the same boiler. This is mainly due to relatively low investment cost of turning an existing coal power plant into a co-firing
plant. There are many successful co-firing systems; however there are various constraints that may be encountered. Most of
them originate from fuel properties.
In the 1990s, many power plants demonstrated this option in Europe, Japan and United States, and then proceeded to use it
commercially. In recent years with the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and meet Kyoto requirements in some
countries, there is renewed interest in biomass cofiring on the basis that biomass is “CO2-neutral”.
Biomass may include switchgrass, sawdust, wood wastes, municipal solid wastes and other waste fuels. In most cases,
biomass is limited to a maximum of 15 percent of the total plant input. The boilers could be designed specifically to
accommodate biomass combustion or existing boilers could be modified; the industry has experience with both.
The aim of this paper is to give an overview of the process & constraints associated with co-firing systems.
Keywords: Biomass, co-firing issues, pretreatment methods, physical and chemical properties

INTRODUCTION
Energy production in coal-fired power plants by partial substitution of coal, as the main fuel, with biomass
feedstock is called co-firing. This paper is devoted to biomass co-combustion, which is an accepted and viable
use of biomass that can applied in existing power station infrastructure where one combusts a fraction (3 to 20%
of total fuel weight or energy) of biomass in a coal or gas fired power station. Biomass co-firing offers renewable
energy generation with the smallest capital cost, taking advantage of the high electrical efficiencies of today’s coal
or gas power stations. In today’s political climate, fears over carbon emissions (among others) have raised
people's attention to the opportunity to replace up to 20% of the coal fuel with biomass. This represents a
substantial volume of avoided CO2 emissions. In addition biomass contains fewer traces of sulphur or metal
compounds than coal and due to special interactions between biomass and coal during combustion SO2
emissions are further avoided, further legitimizing its use for co-firing.
There have been around 100 co-firing units in Europe. The graph below gives an impression of the extent of co-
firing plants in Europe. Many of the plants are in trials or demonstrations, for example in the UK and USA. On the
other hand, the co-firing plants in the Netherlands, Denmark, Finland and Sweden are mostly operating on a
commercial basis.
Fig. 1.Co-firing plants in Europe.
At the present time, experience is being generated with various options for co-firing. Three basic types of
technological configurations for biomass co-firing in power plants can be identified: direct co-firing, parallel co-
firing, and indirect co-firing.

Direct co-firing is the cheapest option, most straightforward and commonly applied approach. The biomass is
directly fed to the boiler furnace after being passed through the same mills - crushers, bunkers and pulverisers -
as the coal. The biomass can be mixed with the coal in the fuel yard or can be fed to the combustion chamber
separately. Multi-fuel fluidised bed boilers achieve efficiencies over 90% while flue gas emissions are lower than
for conventional grate combustion due to lower combustion temperatures.
In parallel co-firing the biomass is burnt in a separate boiler for steam generation. The steam is used in a power
plant together with the main fuel. Parallel co-firing is most popular with the pulp and paper industries as dedicated
biomass boilers are used for the utilisation of bark and waste wood. These industries economize and increase
their energy efficiency by using the bio-residues and by-products from their main focus, the production of paper.
In indirect co-firing biomass is first gasified and the fuel gas is then co-fired in the main boiler. Sometimes the
gas has to be cooled and cleaned, which is more challenging and implies higher operation costs. However, this
approach offers a high degree of fuel flexibility. This system has been applied in a few stations, for example,
Zeltweg plant in Austria, the Lahti plant in Finland and the AMER-8 plant in the Netherlands. Since the
gasification takes place separately the ashes from the coal and biomass are kept apart. A wider variety of
biomass fuels can be used as the potential problems from different biomass such as differing chemical
composition and physical properties are dealt with before the fuel gas enters the main combustion chamber thus
boiler efficiency in maintained.
The aim of this paper is to give an overview of the process & constraints associated with co-firing systems. The
quantitative data on the problems encountered in co-firing systems is either not available or very general and
limited.
The analysis is based exclusively on data and information sources publicly accessible or available through paid
subscription, and has mainly qualitative character.
REVIEW OF RESEARCH PAPERS ON CO-FIRING OF COAL WITH

BIOMASS
Van den Broek et al. [1] presented overview of the biomass combustion in boiler technologies and quoted the
efficiency of 37% for a 4.5% biomass co-fired pulverised coal boiler.
Pedersen et al. [2] carried out full-scale measurements on a 250 MW, pulverized coal fired unit using l0-20%
straw (thermal basis). With an increased fraction of straw in the fuel, a net decrease in NO, and SO2 emissions
were measured. The SO2 emission decreased partly due to the lower sulfur content of the fuel per MJ, but also
due to higher sulfur retention in the ash. The NO emission decreased solely due to lower conversion of fuel-N. An
increased fraction of straw in the fuel blend resulted in a higher potassium content, but no significant increase in
slagging or fouling was observed. Only small amounts of deposit at the lower part of the radiant super heater and
little slagging at the furnace walls were observed as a result of co-firing straw and coal.

Boylan [3] reported the tests conducted in June 1992 at Georgia Power Company’s plant Hammond Unit I to
evaluate the impact of co-firing wood waste with pulverized coal on plant performance. Hammond 1 is a 100 MW
Babcock and Wilcox (B & W) unit fuelled by pulverized coal. Over a three day period, 11 full load performance
tests were conducted, five with coal and six with wood/coal mixture. A total of 125 tonnes (as received, 19%
moisture) was burned, the wood waste a mixture of sawdust and ground tree trimming waste. Wood percentage in
the fuel ranged between 9.7 and 13.5%, with an average for the co-fire tests of 11.5% (all percentages by weight).
At medium and high O2 levels, boiler efficiency with wood co-firing was within 0.2-0.4% of boiler efficiency with
coal alone.
Hunt et al. [4] presented the results for Unit 2 and Unit 3. Unit 2 is a 138 MWe (gross) wall-fired pulverized coal
boiler equipped with ball and race mills, table feeders, and low-NOx burners. Unit 3 is a 190 MWe (gross)
tangentially fired pulverized coal boiler equipped with bowl mills, paddle feeders, and low-NOx burners. Firstly, the
project tested the use of blended bio fuels in boilers equipped with low NOx burners. Additionally, three types of
bio fuels were tested: (1) mill waste sawdust, (2) utility right of- way trimmings, and (3) harvested hybrid poplar.
For both units, the 3 weight percent bio fuel blends behaved like wet coal. Three percent wood co-firing produced
significant negative impacts in the pulverizing systems, leading to significant boiler capacity reductions in both a
wall-fired PC boiler and a tangentially fired PC boiler. They recommended separate injection of wood to avoid the
negative impacts experienced during the testing.
Ekmann et al. [5] discussed the status of co-firing coal with biomass and other wastes in the light of International
Survey of co-firing coal with biomass. They reported co-firing of waste tyres, municipal solid waste, and wood
waste up to 10% in units designed for pulverised coal.
In year 2000, Tillman [6] wrote an editorial in a journal titled “Biomass and Bio energy” in which he stated “Every
tonne of biomass co-fired directly reduces fossil CO2 emissions by over 1 tonne. Co-firing is in its infancy today. If
we can not make co-firing work as commercial technology for electricity generations, it is doubtful that we can
make the more far-reaching technologies a commercial reality”. He strongly advocated co-firing as low cost, low
risk, renewable strategy.
Tillman [7] reviewed the co-firing experience of various organisations in USA like Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI), TVA,GPU Genco, Northern Indiana Public Service Company (NIPSCO), Central and South West
Utilities (C&SW), Southern Company, Madison Gas & Electric (MG&E), New York State Electric and Gas
(NYSEG). These companies blended 5-20% of the wood waste with coal. He advocated for co-firing due to
environmental benefits of reduced NOx, SO2, and CO2 for electricity generation despite the reduction in boiler
efficiency reported at various stations.
Sami et al. [8] reviewed the state of knowledge on burning of pulverised coal and biomass. In their review, they
anticipated that blending biomass with higher quality coal would reduce flame stability problems as well as
corrosion effects. They suggested that synergetic effects of blending coal and biomass may also lead to reduction
in other emissions like NOx, SOx and CO2. Authors quoted name of the 32 full scale utility boilers where co-firing
tests performed using waste wood, sander dust, saw dust, plastic waste, willow, grass crop and forest debris as
biomasses Most of the utilities used wood. They concluded that fundamental combustion studies must be

performed, particularly for pre-mixed coal and biomass fuel blends, in order to determine combustion behaviour
characteristics in controlled laboratory settings. They described coal biomass combustion a promising technology
for electric utility despite of all the issues and concerns.
Savolainen [9] reported the results of co-firing tests with sawdust and coal that were carried out at FORTUM’s
Naantali-3 CHP power plant (315 MW fuel). The Naantali-3 plant is a tangentially-fired pulverised-coal unit with a
Sulzer once-through boiler that produces 79 MW electricity, 124 MW district heat and 70 MW steam. Naantali-3 is
equipped with roller coal mills (Loesche), modern low-NOx burners (IVO RI-JET), over-fire air (OFA), electrostatic
precipitator (ESP) and flue-gas desulphurization plant (FGD). Coal and sawdust were blended in the coal yard,
and the mixture fed into the boiler through coal mills. Tests were carried out for three months during the April 1999
to April 2000 period with pine sawdust (50-65% moisture, as received). During the tests, sawdust proportions of
2.5–8% (from the fuel input) were examined. The co-firing tests were successful in many ways, but the behaviour
of the coal mills caused some problems, and therefore the simultaneous feed will not be the solution in a long-
term use. A separate bio fuel grinding system and bio- or bio-coal-burner were developed. By using this system, it
is possible to utilize many kinds of bio fuels in PC-boilers as well as increase the share of bio fuels, compared to
the simultaneous feed of bio fuel and coal.
Baxter [10] highlighted the benefits of biomass and coal co-combustion as low risk, low cost, sustainable,
renewable energy option that promises reduction in net CO2, SOx and NOx emissions along with several societal
benefits. He also mentioned challenges associated like supply, handling, storage, potential increase in corrosion,
fly ash utilisation etc. He concluded that issues associated biomass combustion are manageable but require
careful consideration of fuels, boiler operating conditions and boiler design.
Demirbas [11] while describing biomass coal co-firing in boilers revealed that biomass like spruce wood, beech
wood, hazelnut shell, wheat straw and tea waste have higher volatile matter yield than coals: the biomass fuels
have VM/FC ratio typically>4:1 as compared to VM/FC of coal of virtually always<1:0. He found that greater is the
VM/FC ratio greater is the reduction in NOx. A laboratory scale bubbling fluidised bed combustor was used for
experiments. He endorsed the co-combustionof biomass with coal as an effective method to reduce NOx, SO2
and ash volume for coal fired power plants.
Lu et al. [12] reported little effect of the amount of biomass addition on flame stability provided that the addition is
less than 20%.
Zhang et al. [13] presented an overview of recent advances in thermo-chemical conversion of biomass. They
dicussed the principles, reactions, and applications of four fundamental thermo-chemical processes (combustion,
pyrolysis, gasification and liquefaction) for bioenergy production, as well as recent developments in these
technologies. They have also discussed advanced thermo-chemical processes, including co-firing/co-combustion
of biomass with coal or natural gas, fast pyrolysis, plasma gasification and supercritical water gasification. While
discussing advantages and disadvantages, potential for future applications and challenges of these processes,
they concluded that the co-firing of biomass and coal is the easiest and most economical approach for
the generation of bio-energy on a large-sale because of the few modifications that are required to upgrade
the original coal based power plants.

CONSTRAINTS RELATED TO CO-FIRING OF COAL WITH BIOMASS
Co-combustion of biomass and coal may face many challenges, which, among others, include fuel preparation,
handling, storage issues, milling, feeding, different combustion behavior, possible changes in overall efficiency,
deposit formation (slagging and fouling), agglomeration and sintering, corrosion and/or erosion and consequently
changes in life-time of equipment, ash utilization issues and overall economics The above listed problems need
not to be encountered in every system. In systems with proper combination of technology, biomass, and coal they
are likely not to be an issue, as is usually the case in systems co-firing clean biomass at low ratios. However the
importance of these challenges increases with trends to raise the biomass/coal ratio, and utilize low quality
biomass, especially in direct co--firing systems.
Different types of difficulties (challenges) can be faced depending on:

Co-firing configuration - e.g. in direct co-firing systems, the milling of biomass can become a problematic issue for
a number of reasons. Existing coal mills have certain capacity while the calorific values of biomass are on average
half of that of coal. This can create the limitation to the amount of biomass that can be co-milled with coal in
existing mills, and consequently co-fired. Moreover, coal mills or pulverizers cannot process certain types of
biomass, due to its fibrous nature. These problems are not likely to be often faced in indirect or parallel co-firing
configurations, as the biomass is milled and delivered to the boiler by an independent line (such dedicated line
could also be introduced to direct co-firing system), however other issues are challenging there.
Grindability and co-milling – In general, coal mills break up coal by a brittle fracture mechanism, and most
biomass materials have poor grinding properties and therefore, some larger biomass particles tend to be retained
within the mill, and this can act to limit the co-firing ratio that is achievable in this way . In vertical spindle coal
mills, the power consumption might increase with increasing biomass co-firing ratio (the power required to size
biomass is higher than for coal due to non-friable character of biomass) and this may represent a limiting factor as
well. In most conventional coal mills, where hot air is applied to dry the coal in the mill, safety might be an issue,
as biomass materials tend to release combustible volatile matter into the mill body at temperatures significantly
lower than those that apply when milling bituminous coals. As a consequence, it may be necessary to modify the
mill operating procedures to minimize the risks of overheating the coal-wood mixture.
Despite these potential difficulties and limitations, co-milling of a number of chipped, granular and pelletized
biomass materials through most of common designs of conventional coal mills has been carried out successfully
on a fully commercial basis in a number of power plants in Europe.
The milling of wood pellets in coal mills, and the firing of the mill product through the existing pipework and
burners, is done at a small number of power stations in Europe, including Hasselby in Sweden. The coal mills are
very robust, and have high availability/low maintenance requirements. At best, the coal mill breaks the pellets
back to the original dust size distribution. The mill has to be modified to operate with cold primary air. There are
generally no requirements for modifications to the grinding elements. The maximum heat input from the mill group
is significantly derated, commonly to around 50-70% of that with coal.
The more popular option, involves the pneumatic injection of the pre-milled biomass into the pulverised coal
firing system downstream of the coal mills, i.e. into the pulverised coal pipework or directly into the burners. In
both cases, additional air and fuel are introduced to the mill group of burners, and the mill primary air and coal
flow rates have to be reduced accordingly, to maintain both the coal mills and burners within their normal
operating envelopes. This option has proved to be relatively inexpensive and simple to implement, however there
are significant interfaces with the mill and combustion control system, which have to be carefully managed. The
options for the location of the biomass injection point are:
· Directly into the burner.
· Into the pulverised coal pipework, just upstream of the burner, and
· Into the mill outlet pipework local to the mill outlet,
The first option involves significant modification of the coal burners and this approach is necessary for some
biomass materials, where there is concern about the potential for the blockage of the pulverised coal pipework
system, and particularly of splitters, riffle boxes, and of the coal burners.
TECHNICAL ISSUES RELATED TO CO-FIRING OF COAL WITH BIOMASS

Boiler capacity and performance - Biomass may contain around 70% of volatiles, while coal is almost pure
carbon. The amount of flue gases per unit of energy resulting from biomass is much larger than that of coal, which
implies that flow patterns of combustion gases through the boiler can be changed and limit the percentage of
biomass that can be co-fired in existing installations.
Co-firing of biomass materials, and particularly of wet biomass, can have an impact on the maximum achievable
boiler load, depending on the mill constraints, and on the boiler efficiency. At low biomass co-firing ratios and with
dry (<10% moisture content) biomass materials these constraints are modest.
In general, if there are no large biomass particles (> 2-5 mm) passing to the burners, the combustion
behavior of the blended fuel is acceptable. Biomass materials are more reactive in combustion systems than most
coals and in general the unburned carbon levels in bottom and fly ashes are similar or less than when firing coal
alone.
Addition of biomass to a coal-fired boiler does not significantly impact, or at worst slightly decreases the overall
boiler efficiency of coal-fired power plant.
Ash deposition in the near-burner zone can negatively impact the co-firing efficiency or combustion conditions,
eventually leading to unburned carbon levels in the ash.
Co-combustion of biomass and coal may face various challenges, which include fuel preparation, handling,
storage issues, milling, feeding, different combustion behavior, possible changes in overall efficiency, deposit
formation (slagging and fouling), agglomeration and sintering, corrosion and/or erosion, ash utilization issues and
overall economics.
The degree of the difficulties associated with co-firing systems depends on the quality and percentage of biomass
in the fuel blend, type of combustion and/or gasification used the co-firing configuration of the system, properties
of coal and others. In low co-firing ratios, those issues might be of low significance, due to high buffering capacity
of coal in the system. In general the operating and maintenance costs of co-firing systems (vs. coal based
systems) increase with higher biomass/coal ratio, and lower quality of biomass used.
Most of the problems encountered in co-firing systems originate from biomass properties. Certain problems could
be reduced or even avoided with appropriate fuel blend control. Other way of dealing with these are the
downstream solutions (change of corroded equipment, cleaning of deposits, addition of chemicals to the process
etc.) as well as the upstream solutions (tailoring biomass properties by pre-treatment, installation of separate
equipment dedicated to biomass, investing in more advanced configuration of co-firing system). Biomass pre-
treatment is an interesting option, because by modifying biomass properties, it addresses the source of problems,
rather than their consequences.
ECONOMICS OF BIOMASS CO-FIRING SYSTEM

In general, the energy systems which co-fire biomass with coal are more expensive than dedicated coal systems.
Therefore, reasons for co-firing are primarily connected with environmental benefits rather than cost-
savings. Thus a more appropriate approach is a comparison of the costs of co-firing systems with other
renewable energy options, among which co-firing is usually the cheapest, in most situations where biomass
resources and coal-based power plant are available in the same region .
Costs related to co-firing (adapting coal-based power plant to co-firing) can be divided into few groups:
1. Capital costs (capital, depreciation, and interest costs) - Co-firing installations costs range from $50-$300/kW
of biomass capacity and are so low, because they mostly make use of existing infrastructure of a power plant.
These costs are usually lower than for any other renewable energy option, except for hydropower.
2. Fuel costs (fuel procurement, pre-treatment costs and the electricity demand for it) - One of the most sensitive factors in
economics of co-firing is the cost of biomass fuel. Even in the case of residues, where the fuel is usually nominally free at
the point of its generation, the costs of transportation, pre-treatment and handling increase its effective costs per unit of
energy to the extent, that it sometimes exceeds that of coal. That is why the supply chain of biomass fuels deserves to
be given attention, as by its optimization, the costs could be reduced.
3. Operation-based costs (O&M) (personnel costs, maintenance) - Operating costs are typically higher for
biomass than for coal. This is mainly due to different biomass properties in comparison with coal, such as lower
energy density, resulting in high volumes to be handled etc. The O&M costs usually remain constant irrespective
of the actual amount of electricity generated, but some are dependent on it e.g. lubricants and chemicals used in
the generation process.
In general, costs of biomass as a fuel for energy consist of two main parts: the purchase price and the costs of
logistics (transport, storage, handling and pre-treatment). In general, the operation costs of biomass are higher
compared to the fossil fuels due to a number of reasons e.g. lower energy density of biomass in comparison with
fossil fuels, translating into higher transportation and storage costs per energy unit.

An issue, which could influence the economy of the plant, is related to challenges associated to co-firing of
biomass with coal. It is not necessarily economical to use the cheapest fuel available, if the negative effects on the
boiler operation or fuel operability are significant.
RELEVANCE OF BIOMASS CO-FIRING SYSTEM FOR INDIA

India is an energy deficient country. The per capita electricity consumption was 779 kWh in 2009–10 (as per CEA
report). Over the same period, the world average per capita electricity consumption was about 2659 kWh, almost
four times larger than that of India. Over one third of India's rural population lacked electricity, as did 6% of the
urban population. Of those who did have access to electricity in India, the supply was intermittent and unreliable.
India faces a power deficit of 10.3%.
At present, people are facing severe load shedding/blackout problems due to shortage of about 2 GW power
supply. India relies on coal for two-thirds of its power generation, and will need even more for the additional
capacity planned to tackle the power deficit. Indigenous reserves of oil and gas are limited and the country heavily
depends on imported oil. The oil import bill is a serious strain on the country’s economy.
India must develop indigenous environment friendly energy resources to meet its future electricity needs. India
can overcome this energy crisis by co-utilizing its un-used agricultural residues and coal reserves. This strategy
can solve the energy crises while producing clean energy, deposing off waste and increasing income of the rural
population.
Co-combustion of agricultural residues in energy recovery schemes could significantly increase the income of the
rural people in our country. Agricultural residues are a form of biomass that is renewable but largely not utilised in
the energy recovery schemes.
Agricultural residues are non-edible plant parts that are left in the field after harvest. Co-firing of these abundantly
available agricultural residues with coal can convert a negative value biomass in to a positive fuel along with
environmental relief. If only 5% of coal energy could be replaced by biomass in all coal-fired power plants, this
would result in an emission reduction of around 300 M ton CO2/year [14].
Both issues of agricultural waste management and pollutant emissions from existing coal power plants can be
resolved simultaneously by utilising co-firing potential of agricultural waste. Biomass as a fuel class is very much
different from coals. They have high volatile matter, higher hydrogen content, generally low nitrogen content and
little or zero sulphur.

INSTANCES OF CO-FIRING STUDIES/TRIALS IN INDIA
Co-firing is currently practiced in many countries around the world. A database [15] of power plants that use one
of the co-firing technologies includes 243 units around the world. The database shows that co-firing is mainly
practiced in Europe and North America. Hence, there is enough operational experience worldwide.
However, no record of any major power plant utilizing co-firing in India has been found. Following are some
references available on co-firing studies/trials in India
1) Laboratory scale studies on combustion of Indian coal and biomass blends have been reported [16]
2) Co-firing trials [17] have also been performed previously in an industrial scale cogeneration unit in India with an
aim to optimize the biomass/coal blending ratio from an emissions point of view
3) Thermax biomass boilers have been used to fire both biomass (mainly bagasse) and coal mainly in
cogeneration plants located in sugar mills [18]
CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTATION OF CO-FIRING IN INDIA & WAY

FORWARD
India has an ideal situation where co-firing of coal and biomass should be in optimal use. However, it has not
been the case. The big question that immediately arises is why this technology has been overlooked?
Has it been tried and tested enough to be ignored? A preliminary analysis on this issue points to the following
factors:
1) Technical problems arising from the combustion of biomass (even if minor) in furnaces designed for coal
combustion.
2) Further capital investment in the power plant to accommodate biomass storage, processing, and feeding.
3) Fluctuating availability of biomass and unpredictable prices.
4) Utilities’ concern about issues arising from the use of biomass and their effect on the plant availability and
power production.
5) Utilities’ mindset to only adopt conventional pulverised coal technology that has proven to be successful over
the years with indigenous coal and now with imported coal as well.
6) Lack of government and industry initiatives to study and test coal/biomass co-firing in Indian power plants.
As discussed earlier, co-firing of coal and various kinds of biomasses is now a mature technology and is currently
being practiced all over the world successfully. The technology has advanced and many limitations associated
with it have been mitigated. If a proper system is established, co-firing could be successfully implemented in
Indian coal-based power plants. A few recommendations in this regard are as follows:
1) The government should present subsidies or tax reductions and take initiatives to study the coal/biomass co-
firing technology options in detail. Pilot co-firing projects need to be funded by the government / banks /
collaborative projects to gauge the techno-economic feasibility.
2) A process similar to the allocation of coal resources should be followed to allocate biomass resources to the
power plants. A minimum of 5-10% of coal should be replaced by biomass during co-firing.

3) Biomass sector should be organised better to ensure constant supply of biomass to the power plants. The
production of energy crops should be encouraged to aid in the regular supply of biomass to power plants
CONCLUSIONS
The aim of this work was to provide an overview of possible constraints that can be encountered in systems co-
firing coal with biomass.
The main conclusions from the literature review performed in this report can be listed as follows:
1. There are many successful commercial co-firing installations, however various constraints can be encountered
especially in the direct co-firing mode (which is the most common among co-firing systems) and with tendency to
increase biomass/coal ratio and use low quality biomass. These constraints include handling, storage, milling and
feeding problems, deposit formation (slagging and fouling), agglomeration, corrosion and/or erosion, and ash
utilization issues.
2. The problems associated with co-firing systems can be addressed by various measures.
Application of downstream measures (e.g. cleaning of deposits by soot blowing or exchange of agglomerated bed
material) is one possibility. Another option is addition of chemicals reducing corrosion and increasing the ash
melting point in order to avoid agglomeration and deposit formation.
A commonly applied option is an introduction of dedicated biomass infrastructure (e.g. for feeding, milling,
storage, conveying) to the existing coal system. A more expensive alternative (in terms of investment costs) is an
introduction of more advanced co-firing mode such as parallel co-firing or indirect co-firing, where not only fuel
preparation and feeding lines, but also conversion units for biomass and coal are independent.
3. Most of the co-firing challenges originate from biomass properties and could be reduced (as one of the possible
options) by upstream measures such as biomass pre-treatment. Pre-treatment is an interesting option, as by
modifying biomass properties, it addresses problems at their source.
4. The costs of biomass utilization in co-firing systems depend not only on its purchase price and pre-treatment
costs, but also on the costs of operability of the fuel (handling, storage, transport) and operability of the boiler and
combustion process. It might not necessarily be optimal to use the cheapest fuel available, if negative effects on
boiler operation and fuel operability are significant.
5. The most advanced form of bio-feedstock currently used in co-firing on commercial scale is biomass pre-
treated into pellets, and it is commonly used in the Netherlands and Denmark.
The feasibility of using of biomass as a substitute fuel in coal fired power plants of NTPC should be given due
attention. NTPC can utilize biomass as a low-cost, substitute fuel and an agent to control emission. The
opportunity for the adoption of this technology is quite attractive due to benefits associated. NTPC plants are
facing acute coal shortage & we have resorted to use of blended coal by using imported coal along with Indian
coal. Use of this technology will reduce our coal consumption. Biomass co-firing with coal is proving to be the
cheapest method for generating green power in utility plant demonstrations.
Successful development of technology to use biomass as supplement fuel will create an environment-friendly, low
cost fuel source for the power industry and provide means for an alternate method of disposal of biomass and a
possible revenue source for farmers and feedlot operators.
Till date no such co-fired fossil based utility power plant using biomass exists in India. NTPC, market
leader in Indian Power sector, through NETRA & CENPEEP can collaborate with national & international
technology providers in this field for joint research & field demonstration through pilot study at one of its
existing plants for technology validation & implementation.
Finally it is apt to conclude that burning renewable fuels such as biomass residues or energy crop-derived
biomass fuels in conventional coal-fired utilities as a low-cost option for reducing greenhouse gas emission.

REFERENCES
[1] Van den Brook, R., Faaij, A. and van Wijk, A. 1996. Biomass combustion for power generation.
Biomass Bioenerg. 11:271-281.
[2] Pedersen, L.S., Nielsen, H.P., Kiil, S., Hansen, L.A., Dam-Johansen, K., Kildsig, F. Christensen,
J. and Jespersen, P. 1996. Full-scale co-firing of straw and coal. Fuel. 75:1584-1590.
[3] Boylan, D.M. 1996. Southern company tests of wood/coal co-firing in pulverized coal units.
Biomass Bioenerg. 10:139-147.
[4] Hunt, E.F., Prinzing, D.E., Battista, J.J. and Hughes, E. 1997. The shawville coal/biomass
Co-firing test: A coal/power industry cooperative test of direct fossil-fuel CO2 mitigation.
[5] Ekmann, J.M., Winslow, J.C., Smouse, S.M. and Ramezan, M. 1998. International survey of
Co-firing coal with biomass and other wastes. Fuel Process. Technol. 54:171-188.
[6] Tillman, D.A. 2000. Co-firing benefits for coal and biomass. Biomass Bioenerg. 19:363-364.
[7] Tillman, D.A. 2000. Biomass co-firing: the technology, the experience, the combustion
consequences. Biomass Bioenerg. 19:365-384..
[8] Sami, M., K. Annamalai and Wooldridge, M. 2001. Co-firing of coal and biomass fuel blends.
Prog. Energ. Combust. 27:171-214.
[9] Savolainen, K. 2003. Co-firing of biomass in coal fired utility boilers. Appl. Energ. 74:369-381.
[10] Baxter, L. 2005. Biomass-coal co-combustion: opportunity for affordable renewable energy. Fuel.84:1295-1302.
[11] Demirbas, A. 2005. Biomass Co-Firing for Boilers Associated with Environmental Impacts. Energ. Source. 27:1385-1396.
[12] Lu, G., Y. Yan, Cornwell, S., Whitehouse, M. and Riley, G. 2008. Impact of co-firing coal and
biomass on flame characteristics and stability. Fuel. 87:1133-1140.
[13] Zhang, L., Xu, C. and Champagne, P. 2010. Overview of recent advances in thermo-chemical conversion of biomass. Energ.
Convers. Manage.51:969-982.
[14] IEA Bioenergy Task 32, 2009. Technical Status of Biomass co-firing, Ed. Cremers, M.F.G. IEA. p.4,7,10.
[15] http:// www.ieabcc.nl/database/cofiring.php
[16] K.V. Narayanan and E. Natarajan, Experimental studies on cofiring of coal and biomass blends in India, Renewable Energy 32,
(2007):2548–2558.
[17] http://www.thermaxindia.com/Fileuploader/Files/Biomass-Fired- Boilers.pdf
[18]. Report of the Group for Studying Range of Blending of Imported Coal with Domestic Coal, Central
Electricity Authority, India, April 2012.

`
O&M Practices and Efficiency Improvements

Ashwini Mishra, Captive Power Plant Electrotherm (India) Limited Steel Division, Kutch
ABSTRACT
This article has been written with one goals in mind: that is clean boiler is efficient boiler and we can save considerable
energy by keeping heat transfer surface area clean all time through sonic horn.
Keywords: sonic horn to improve boiler efficiency
INTRODUCTION
Electrotherm India Limited is ISO 9001:2015, ISO 14001:2015, BS OHSAS 18001:2007 & ISO 50001:2011
certified company, Electrotherm India Limited is going through a operation excellence activity like Kaizen, Gemba
walk, RCA, 7 QC Tools, KPI, since January-2015 and started getting fruits from very first day. We have got 1st
prize in NECA 2016 on 14th Dec 216 in thermal power plant.
Even though there is no straight line relationship between boiler load and efficiency, boiler efficiency is very poor
both at low load and overload conditions. Efficiency is good at 80-90% loading. Efficiency of boiler depends on
design of the particular boiler, and it should be experimentally determined at what load the boiler efficiency is
maximum.

`
Sonic Horns/Sonic Soot Blowers in Boilers
Soot is an excellent insulators and reduce heat transfer in boiler heat transfer area thereby stack/chimney flue gas
temperature goes higher than normal which is wastage of energy.
When SO2 from the flue gas reacts with alkali ash component form alkali sulphates which act as a glue and fly ash
particles bind together. This type of deposits happen in convective surfaces such as convective super heaters, boiler
banks, evaporators,Economizers, Air preheaters etc. in coal fired boilers.
Ash deposits/soot deposits need to be removed continuously either through steam soot blower or through sonic
horns to avoid wastage of energy due to higher stack temperature/Dry flue gas loss.
Steam soot blowers are traditional soot blowers which have various disadvantages such as
 Operation Cost is too high

 Initial investment is too high
 Need to drain condensate properly before operation or a steam trap management program
needed so that dry steam allow to pass through the steam soot blower to avoid erosion of boiler
tubes.
 Steam soot blowers required frequent maintenance as well and every chance of damaging boiler
tubes if not maintained/operated the steam soot blowers properly.
Sonic horn is an alternative to steam soot blower with various advantages as under
 Sonic horn does not creates corrosion, erosion or mechanical damage to boiler tubes and do not
produce any effluent.
 Sonic horn/ Sonic soot blowers usually sounded for a few seconds (200DB) in every 10 or 15
Minutes and can be operated by SCADA or individual timer on each solenoid valve hence air
requirement for producing sound is too less which is 2mm hole at 6 Kg/CM2 1 Min in hour hence
operating cost is far less than steam soot blowers. Its create sound on the same principle of
Sankha.
 No moving parts in sonic horn hence very low maintenance cost.
 360° cleaning of all tube surfaces possible in sonic horn.
 Help to combat global climate change and the effect of global warming.
 Cost of one sonic horn is around 1 Lakh and steam soot blower is 5 lakh hence initial investment is
very low.

`
 One steam soot blower if operated 6 times in a day consume 3MT steam which is equivalent to
500 kwh where as one sonic horn consumes 2 Kwh equivalent of power in a day hence operating
cost is too low.
We had replaced all steam soot blowers 38 Nos with sonic horns in our 2×65 TPHAFBC Boilers and 1×38
TPH (WHRB) and 1×28 TPH (WHRB) in January 2016 and benefits are as under.
1) Power saving of 8738.1 Kwh per year which is used to operate steam soot blower by motor.
2) Steam consumption of 41610 MT/year eliminated which is used in steam soot blowers which is
equivalent to 6935 mwh which is equivalent to 2.7 crore wastage in a year.
CONCLUSION
Electrotherm India limited reduced specific energy consumption per unit 11% less in F.Y 2016-17(till date)
against F.Y 2015-16 and sonic horn is one of the initiatives. We have also won 1st prize in National
energy conservation award in thermal power plant sector below 100 MW categories in 14th
December 2016.
REFERENCES
[1]Energy manager magazines

[2]Article of Mr. Ashwini Mishra in energy magazine in 2013
[3]Excellence activity of Electrotherm India limited

CFB Technology - An Overview on Emission moderation to meet new
regulation
C R Subramaniam, Abhay R Patil
Thermax Ltd., Pune, India
Keywords: CFB, Emission, MoEFCC, FGD,SNCR,SCR, SOx, NOx, UBC
Abstract
With the recent MoEFCC directive on SOx,NOx, Particulate Matter,Mercury,Water

and ZLD it is imperative to retrofit older PF,CFB units to meet the regulation on gaseous
emission compliance. All other parameters are independent of Combustion technology
which demands high efficiency turbine cycle selection, Closed circuit Cooling or Air cooled
condensor etc., Thus for newer units, careful selection of Fuel properties like Sulfur ,GCV
and Moisture shall be considered to moderate investment cost on Emission reduction.CFB
technology is well established as multi fuel technology with best in class in furnace
emission reduction capability.CFB which was introduced in mid 70s for cleaner power and
steam generation gained momentum in past few decades and matured as Utility
technology to a scale of Ultra super critical range. Large utility and captive CFB power
plant owners now demand specific fuel properties to fuel suppliers to maximize the
emission reduction capacity of CFB to eliminate external DeNox and desox system. This
paper aims in analysis various fuel firing scenarios in CFB and extent of emission
reduction capacities and short comparison with Conventional PF Technology.
Introduction
With ongoing Global Warming control discussions from different part of the world and
based on the Paris Climate convention, MoEFCC had issued guidelines for existing and
new Power plants in Dec 2015. This move is curb SOX ,NOX, and mercury,PM on
gaseous emission stand point. The directive mentions that all the Thermal power plants
which are to be installed after Dec2016 shall meet gaseous emission SOx, NOX less than
100 mg/Nm3 and PM less than 30 mg/Nm3 and Mercury 0.03mg/Nm3.The detrimental
effects of SOx,NOx,Hg are well discussed in many open domain literatures. Mercury
emissions can affect the central nervous system of humans when inhaled in form of
National Workshop on Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Industrial Boilers 2017
1|Page
methyl mercury after combination with moisture. Mercury emission from Boiler is
independent of Firing technology and needs a mandatory external system like Activated
Carbon to moderate. On the other hand SOx and NOx moderation can be moderated
within furnace to certain extent based on the firing Technology. NOx control in PF boilers
occurs by installing low NOx burners, however SOx emission is totally uncontrolled due to
inability to add Limestone inside furnace. This is due to the fact that furnace temperature
inside PF furnace is relatively high compared to CFB furnace which does not promote
Sulfation phenomenon.
This paper shall discuss the merits of CFB technology and its effectiveness interms of in
furnace Emission reduction.
Pulverised Fuel Technology

PF technology was employed in early 20th century in order to overcome smoky
combustion from grate fired units and continued to dominate the steam and Power
generation for decades.PF technology employs pulveriser to grind the Coal to micron level
and firing it thorough a Low NOx burner. B&W Pulverised Boiler technology employs wall
fired Burners located in the Front and rear side of Burner. The Reheat and Superheat
surfaces are located in the backpass in parallel arrangement followed by gas biasing
dampers located below economizer. These dampers allows to modify the Gas flow
proportion to achieve rated SH/RH temperature at various loads.
Fig.2 2 x 750 TPH PF Boiler installation by Thermax at

Fig.1 B&W PF Boiler Vadinar,Gujrath
2|Page
Thermax had supplied 2 x 750 TPH (240MWeq) PF Boiler to Vadinar Power Company Ltd
which runs on Indonesian Coal and successfully cloaked 500 days of Continuous
operation without any single stoppage translating to 100% availability for a longer period
of time.PF Boiler has an advantage of Low gas velocity, high combustion efficiency and
high reliability which was the key driver for Utility scale Power plants. However for
midrange Utility, Captive CFB is preferred due to strong in furnace SOx,NOx reduction
capabilities even with slight reduction in reliability(due to Tube erosion).
NOx Emission in PF Boiler

In general the 90-95% of NOx emitted from Power plants is in the form of NO and gets
oxidizes at Chimney outlet. The predominant form of NOx is NO ,N2O and NO2 ,although
other forms of NOx are present in traces. The major NOx formation pathway occurs during
Fuel devolatilisation which are more reactive to form NOx, portion of Nitrogen fuel gets
fixed into devolatilised char and found to be less reactive .Thus the Fuel bound Nitrogen
released free radicals like HCN,NH3,NH which participates in series of reactions to form
NOx. The HCN has a tendency to form N2O and NH3 has tendency to form NO. Due to
high temperature in the PF furnace zone the Molecular Nitrogen from the combustion air
dissociate and participate in series of reactions to generate Thermal NOx. The share of
NOx from PF boiler shall be 60:40 (Fuel NOx : Thermal NOx).The NOx generated from
Indonesian Coal from PF Boiler ranges from 530-650 mg/Nm3 based on the Volatile
matter content and extent of air staging within Burners. Further reduction is possible with
separated OFA ports. Further
reduction is not possible as
the Combustion temperature
cannot be reduced which will

affect the Carbon burnout
efficiency. Following figure
show B&W Low NOX PF
burner depicting various
zones of combustion.
Fig.3 ZonesMethods
Reduction inside Low NOx Burner
3|Page
NOx reduction in shall be reduced(without external system) in following ways:
1. Air staging
2. Reducing the combustion temperature
3. Reducing Excess air
Air staging is a common technique used in PF and CFB boiler, however achieving a
perfect balance between NOx reduction and CO reduction and Unburned combustible is
highly empirical in nature. Operation changes required based on fuel quality changes to
achieve the best of all the three. Typically the primary air to total ratio is maintained
between 50-70% based on the fuel reactivity. It was proven that the air staging technique
is effective when the fuel has higher amount of Volatiles. The bottom portion of CFB is
operated below Stoichiometric limits which generates CO and Char. The NO formed from
fuel volatiles is partially reduced by unreacted char. Strong intensity of air staging affects
CO formation. Fig.4. shows the relation of NOx, CO with equivalence ratio ,it is to be
noted NOx is found to be lower above below the equivalence ratio of 1,it is obvious that
the fuel rich zone can promote lower NOx formation, however after a particular limit of
excess air (fuel lean zone) ,the NOx stops dropping due to the reason that the higher
dilution air inhibits combustion and combustion temperature. Thus the CFB bottom zone is
operated below Equivalence ratio of 1 and the remaining stoichiometric and excess air is
admitted well above the PA zone to reduce overall NO emission
Low volatile fuels like Petcoke, Char(from steel Industry) may not produce the NOx
reduction desired due to air staging as much in High volatile fuel and on the other hand
need more amount of air through Plenum to promote combustion and high temperature
environment in PA zone. The Fixed nitrogen in the fuel contribution is less influencing to
promote NOx Formation.
Fig.4 Emission variation [2]
4|Page
Thermax CFB
CFB technology evolved over past 4

decades with positive features like use of
variety of fuels including Biomass, good
emission reduction capability thus
avoiding external SCR,FGD systems in
recent years. impact separator based
CFB was introduced in mid 80s by B&W
with a novel concept of having low
velocity solid separation which has huge
benefit of reducing erosion and refractory
content when compared to Cyclone
based CFB systems. It has undergone 4
stages of Technology improvement, the
present version of CFB is majority by
internal recirculation type with two stage
separation system namely Internal Fig.5 CFB Schematic
recirculation through Ubeams which is primarily uncontrolled and second stage comprising
of MDC whose collection solids can be controlled to meet desired bed temperature based
on fuel firing and operating conditions.
Thermax had put up efforts to modify the system to suit Indian Fuels like Washery
Rejects,Petcoke,Char,Lignite and Biomass and perfecting the finer aspects of the
Technology.Thermax had more than 70 installation within India and abroad.
System Description
The major advantage in CFB is acceptance of coarser particle (4-

6mm) thus eliminating the need for fuel Pulverization. The coarser particles gets broken
down to micron size by means of attrition and combustion thus exposing the fresh carbon
core for efficient combustion. Primarily solids are captured through Impact separator and
Fines recirculation through MDC. This enables in finer bed temperature control for Various
5|Page
fuels within narrow bandwidth ,thus maximizing SOx,NOx reduction efficiency within
Furnace.
The absolute residence time in CFB ranges from 30-40 minutes before escaping the solid
circulation system. This results in Combustion efficiency upto 99.4 % on Coal. As CFB is
characterized by higher solid flux for uniform heat transfer, it is imperative to have more
solids in the form of inherent fuel ash or Limestone or bed material.
Effect of CaO in NO formation
With the new Emission norms, it is imperative to maximize in furnace SOx capture to
avoid elaborate Wet FGD systems in CFB Boilers. However the addition of Limestone
quantity increases significantly after 92% capture and shall result in generation of excess
CaO in the circulating ash. The Fuel volatile releases NH3,HCN and NH3 can be catalyzed
by CaO ,result in NO formation and HCN is converted to N2O [3]. Field experience of
Thermax shows that for Low volatile fuels like Petcoke, char the Limestone addition has
very negligible effect on NOx emission which corroborates with Moritomi and Suzuki's
findings. However with high sulfur fuel, Low GCV fuel like Lignite, the effect of limestone
addition is predominant on NOx formation and a tradeoff to be done to moderate SO2 and
NO within furnace envelope.
NO, N2O
NH3,HCN
Fuel
Fig. 6 Fuel NOx release
The below table indicate the NOx emission from various fuels in PF
and CFB technology. It is clear from the table that the NOx emission from PF units require
substantial reduction in excess of 80% which can be met only by SCR system. However
the additional capture required in CFB is very less for Coal and shall be met with SNCR
6|Page
through ammonia injection. This brings substantial cost saving in DeNox system
installation, retrofit time and auxiliary power consumption.
Description Indian Coal Indonesian Coal Lignite

Volatile Content 16-20% 20-30% >30%
Fuel Bound Nitrogen 0.5-1.5% 0.7-1.2 0.5-1.5%
NO Emission 530-650 530-650 550-700
(mg/Nm3)-PF*
NOx emission 100-125 100-125 150-175
CFB(mg/Nm3)*
New Regulation 100 mg/Nm3 *
% capture required in 81-84 81-84 82-86
PF boiler (SCR)
% capture required in 0-20 0-20 33-42
CFB boiler (SNCR)
*@6% O2 vol.dry
Challenges in External DeNox Systems
Systems like SNCR,SCR,SNRB are available for external DeNOx system. Considering
Low temperature combustion, air staging the NOx generated in CFB is comparatively
lower than PF technology. This helps in meeting the Norms with a combination of air
staging and SNCR which eliminates the use of Catalyst based system which will have
substantial investment and subsequent maintenance costs. In addition to this SCR
systems are yet to be proven for high ash Indian coals in terms of Erosion, Catalyst
plugging etc., SCR catalyst regeneration/disposal systems needs deliberation which will
also be paramount interest before employing these systems.
SO2 emission
Fossils fuels has sulfur in three distinct forms namely
Organic,Pyritic,Inorganic. Out of the three forms organic and
Pyritic forms are converted into SO2 emission and inorganic form
of Sulfur is rejected in bottom and fly ash as SO3 which is called
as Sulfatic Sulfur. By estimating the percentage of these forms
,estimation of actual SO2 emission can be made accurate.
Organic sulfur (40%) is chemically bonded to the hydrocarbon Fig.7.Sulfur Structure inside Coal [4]
7|Page
matrix in the forms of thiophene, thiopyrone, sulfides and thiol which gets liberated as
SO2.Inorganic sulfur in the coal as loose pyrite and sulfates(SO3) which doesn't take part
in combustion.
Carbon (black) and hydrogen (red) atoms, sulfur atoms (yellow),Iron (Green)
Many intermediate reaction steps place before final SO2 conversion. It is interesting to
note that the entire Sulfur present in coal may not convert into SO2 and portion of Sulfur
may get released as Carbon di sulfide ,Carbonyl sulfide and unreacted sulfur[5]
Fuel Devolatilisation
Fuel S + Heat ---> H2S+COS+ Char(S)
Char Oxidation
Char S + O2 --> SO2
Char S +CO2---> COS
Char S +H2O---> H2S
Gas Phase Reactions
H2S+0.5O2---> SO2+H2O
CO2+H2S--->COS+H2O
COS+H2S---->CS2+H2O
CS2---> C + 2S
Following table indicates the uncontrolled SO2 emission from various fuels and
respective capture efficiency required to meet the new norm. It is apparent that even with
lower sulfur % than Petcoke ,Lignite shall emit 40% excess SO2 due to low calorific value
of the fuel. For Indian coal and Indonesian coals, the in furnace lime addition can be used
to moderate the SO2 generation, thus eliminating the external FGD system which makes
CFB as more economic option for SO2 reduction than PF. However fuels like Lignite and
Petcoke a combination of In furnace and External FGD shall be required.
Methods of SO2 control

• Dry Sorbent injection in furnace (applicable to AFB,CFB boilers)
• Spray drier Absorber(SDA) with Bag filter or ESP
o Primary reaction in absorber
o Secondary reaction in Bag filter
• Dry sorbent injection in the flue duct
8|Page
• Wet FGD after Bagfilter/ESP outlet
Based on the capture efficiency, the above methods can be used in isolation or its
combination. Following table provides a comparison between the key available FGD
technologies.
DrySorbent Spray DrySorbent Wet FGD
Injection Drier Injection after Bag
in Furnace Absorber in Flue duct Filter/ESP
Reagent Limestone Hydrated Hydrated\Lime, Limestone, Caustic
/Dolomite Lime/Quick Lime Sodium Bi carbonate Lye, Hydrated Lime
Typical Capture 93-96% 80-85% 30-50% 98-99%
Efficiency
Typical Calcium to 2.5-3.5 1.2-1.5 1.2-1.5 1.03-1.05
Sulfur Molar ratio
Temperature Zone 800-900C 200-250C 180-200C 140-160C

of reagent Injection
Pressure drop NIL Moderate Minimum High
Power Consumers Only feeder Atomizer, Reagent Reagent Injection Lime slurry
slurry preparation Blower, Fabric Filter recirculation pump,
system, Pump, Gypsum vacuum
Fabric Filter/ESP belt and Limestone
Preparation
System, Oxidation
Blower
Zero Liquid Easy Easy Easy Difficult
Discharge
Compliance
Temperature at 800-900C 70-80C 160-180C 55-80C
Outlet of System
*Sulfur not higher than 0.5% and GCV not less than 3500 kcal/kg
For fuels like Indian coal*, Indonesian Coal* in furnace capture of SOx using limestone
shall be able to provide the required MoEFCC emission limits, however for fuels like
Petcoke and Lignite external FGD shall be required .Washery rejects being a high ash fuel
.the inherent CaO present in fuel ash shall be able to act as a limestone which can offset a
portion of Fresh limestone addition.
9|Page
Following table shall compare PF and CFB boiler interms of emission performance
Parameter Unit PF CFB
Power plant size MWe 150
Fuel size mm max 0.15 max.8
Combustion efficiency % 99.7 99.4
Temperature at bottom furnace C 1250-1300 C 900-950C
Fuel flexibility Limited Wide
Oil support required % upto 35% upto 25%
BMCR
FD/PA fan head mmWC 280-300 1200-1500
Aux power for Boiler island [A] kW/MWe 22-24 26-28
Equipments Fans,Feeders,Mills,ESP Fans,Feeders,ESP
Boiler Foot print(Bunker to ID W x L 50 x115m 35 x 130 m
Fan outlet)
FGD foot print(with lime W x L 60 x 60 m --
preparation plant, Gypsum plant)
DeSOx method Wet FGD In furnace lime addition
DeNOx Method Air staging +SCR Air staging+ SNCR(as
applicable)
Additional head required for mmWC 400-500 Nil
DeNOx, DeSOX
Additional Aux power kW/MWe 12-14 0.5
consumption for DeSox, DeNOx
[B]
Total APC [A]+[B] kW/MWe 34-38 26.5-28.5
Cost of FGD(Limestone based) Cr/MWe 0.35-0.45 Nil
Cost of SCR/SNCR Cr/MWe 0.28-0.35(SCR) 0.02-0.04(SNCR)
Cost of Emission Control Cr./MWe 0.63-0.80 0.05(max)
Equipment
Based on Indonesian Coal( GCV:4500-4700 kcal/kg,max 0.4%S)
Conclusion
Although PF boiler is considered a natural choice for Utility scale Power generation like 500-
660MWe,CFB now undoubtedly moved from small industrial scale technology to an alternate
subcritical,USC scale to PF in recent years. While we retrofit or build new power plants Fuel
efficiency, economical emission reduction are key driving factors for plant owners to earn shorter
payback years. Thus CFB technology shall become strong contender in utility power segment in
the coming years.
10 | P a g e
References
[1] Steam Book, Edition 41
[2] Modeling NOx-Formation in Combustion Processes , Christian Schwedt,2006
[3] Moritomi and Suzuki, 1992
[4] http://www.fossil.energy.gov/education/energylessons/coal/coal_cct2.html
[5] Control Of Pollutants In Flue Gases And Fuel Gases, Zevenhoven and Kilipinen
Abbreviation
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment ,Forest and Climate

Change
CFB Circulating Fluidised bed Boiler
SOx Sulfur Oxides
B&W Babcock and Wilcox
NOx Nitrogen oxides
FGD Flue gas Desulfurization
SDA Spray Dryer Absorber
SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction
SNRB Sox,NOx,Rox,BOX
CaCO3 Calcium Carbonate
CaO Calcium Oxide
PA Primary Air
PF Pulverised Fuel Boiler
HCN Hydrogen Cyanide
MW Molecular Weight
ESP Electro static Precipitator
CO Carbon Monoxide
NH3 Ammonia
SO3 Sulfur Trioxide
SNCR Selective Non catalytic reduction
UBC Unburned Carbon
APC Auxiliary Power Consumption
Disclaimer: All copyright matter, logos, names, trademarks, service marks, designs,
text and images used in this presentation are properties of their respective owners and
have been used solely for non-commercial educational/information purpose only. Neither the
authors or Thermax Ltd make any guarantee, warranty, expressed or implied ,about the accuracy,
completeness or usefulness of Information within this paper be liable for error, damages of any
kind. This paper is published with the intention of information and knowledge sharing and not to
attempt any engineering or Professional services nor offering a product for sale.
11 | P a g e
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FANS CRITICALITY
P.Anand Praksh , Chargewave Energykem Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad, Telangana, 500003, INDIA
ABSTRACT
The fans which come along with the boiler are the following:
1) Primary Air (PA) Fan: Associated with fuel movement, fuel throw into the combustion zone, spread of the fuel
2) Forced Draught (FD) Fan: Associated with providing for combustion air, if PA is present and if PA fan is absent then play
the role of the fuel throw and combustion air too
3) Secondary Air (SA) Fan: Associated with delivering fuel throw, fuel quantity, fuel spread in few boilers and where PA, FD
or FD fans / fan are / is present
4) Seal Air Fan: Associated for air seals
5) Induced Draught Fan: Associated with exhausting flue gas through the chimney in all boilers, again in boilers where FD /
PA / SA fans are absent, provide combustion air through the fuel grate and exhaust it too
INTRODUCTION
Fan Design:
All fans are designed to provide for either air push (PA, FD, SA fans) or air pull (ID fans). Whatever their jobs are
the functionality of the fans are determined by the following parameters irrespective whether they are axial /
centrifugal.
Fan Air pressure, Fan Air volume delivered at related pressure, Fan Motor Amps which determines the load of the
Motor.
The following is the inter-relationship of the fan performance.
For example : A fan design pressure is 1000 mmwc, design volume is 50 m3/sec, design Amps is 36, this
means that when the fan runs at 36 Amps, it should develop pressure of 1000 mmwc and generate 50 m3 / sec
volume.
Fans which violate their design values deliver boilers with consistent operation problems, combustion zone
problems, reaction efficiency problems. Many boilers operate at lower efficiency in the Direct Method, have issues
with LOI.
Causes regards to air deviations:
1) Volume variation: When the given fan delivers more air volume than at its designated pressure, volume
variation is the result. Such boilers have to be operated at lower pressure of the fan, as higher volume of air
overwhelms ID fans, cause back pressure, back fire
2) Pressure variation: When the given fan delivers / operates at higher air pressure than at its designated
pressure at designated motor amps load, lesser air volume is the result. Such boilers have to be operated at

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higher pressure of the fan as lower volume air volume does not satisfy combustion air demands and mostly boilers
end up operating at lower loads
3) Volume & Pressure variation :When for the given fan motor load the air volume vs air pressure both are in
deviation to design parameters cause severe problems in combustion and operation
4) Air ducts: The Air ducts also play a vital role in ensuring the pressure and volume delivery. Ducts can be
fabricated at their design sizes or smaller or larger which can cause the above mentioned problems. If the fans are
checked and found that there is no deviation in their design vs. performance, then the deviation can occur in the
ducts. Smaller ducts raise pressure and drop the air volume and larger size vice versa.
5) Leakages: Air leakages mainly hurt the pressure and pressure loss leads to lower combustion zone
performance or steam load.
Fan & duct conditions:
Fans Ducts Effect

Correct Correct Boiler can be run in 3T condition, high efficiency in the Direct Method
Correct Wrong Boiler cannot be run in 3T condition, lower efficiency in the Direct Method
Wrong Correct Boiler cannot be run in 3T condition, lower efficiency in the Direct Method
Wrong Wrong Boiler cannot be run in 3T condition, lower efficiency in the Direct Method
Why are the fans having deviations?
1) Fans are not checked before dispatch and after installation whether they conform to their design specs or not,
the OEM’s certificate is considered accurate.
2) Boilers are purchased for multiple fuels with varying densities, which makes the fan design very difficult and
decision of fans pressures inaccurate during their design. Often fans are designed to handle only the lowest or
the highest of the densities of the fuel specs that have been provided at the time of purchase.
3) Fan internals such as impellers length, width, height, no. of blades, Tongue specs are not verified to match the
original drawings at the time of installation / in later inspections.
4) Fan casing dimensions are not verified.
5) The duct dimensions whether they confirm to original drawing or not is not confirmed.
6) The fans are felt that they are not a critical component in the entire boiler erection & commissioning.

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7) The fan OEM & Boiler OEM is different.
8) During the boiler commissioning the pressure on the personnel is for producing steam or power or PG test
which put the fans installation / ducts, checking or verifying them has lower priority.
9) Any leakages along the duct lines never identified or rectified.
Problems faced due to fan deviations:
1) Indirect Method and Direct Method assessment of the boilers show huge gaps as 3T conditions cannot be
established
2) For PF boilers, the flame throw, flame spread become smaller due to PA lower pressure and the ball
diameter becomes smaller, similarly the flame ball gets opened up and the ball diameter becomes larger
to due to PA fan higher pressure
3) For PC boilers, the flame throw does not reach its full potential; flame is either shorter or longer with larger
or smaller spread
4) For CFBC boilers, the Wind Box has to be run lower when the PA / FD fan air pressure becomes lower,
means they have to be operated at lower bed height which again means that the thermal concentration
becomes higher, lesser bed volume concentrates greater heat (Kcal / Cum furnace volume) increasing
thermal stress in the system, weakening the tubes, walls etc. closer to the bed Quicker erosion results.
Lower WB operation leads to lower Efficiency in the Direct Method
5) For AFBC boilers, the Wind Box has to be run lower then PA fan air pressure becomes lower, means they
have to be operated at lower bed height which again means that the thermal concentration becomes
lesser, lesser bed volume concentrates greater heat (Kcal / Cum furnace volume) increasing thermal
stress in the system, weakening the tubes, walls etc. closer to the bed. Similar experience with lower FD
fan pressure and lower WB pressure for a FBC boiler
6) For Stoker boilers, considering the bed thickness is constant lower FD pressure, lowers the flame length,
therefore the efficiency
7) For AFBC, CFBC, FBC boilers improper fan settings / deviations in fans lead to increased bed circulation
rates which increases erosion and raises bed material density. Increased bed density means increased
bed weight for identical bed height which causes lesser bed expansion

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Turbulence, time and temperature variations caused due to fan settings
The PA Fan, FD fan, Wind Box can be set in 27 different ways, which is true for all boilers which have these 2 fans
& WB
For example PA Fan high is a setting for which associated FD settings can be FD High, FD Correct, FD low,
similarly for each combination of the FD fan, 3 conditions of WB arise say WB High, WB Correct & WB low.
Therefore one setting of PA fan generates 9 variations in combination of FD & WB. For 3 settings of the PA fan 27
conditions are present.
Out of these 27 conditions, 13 conditions are associated with high velocity of the flue gases and 13 conditions are
associate with low flue gas velocity. High flue gas velocity ejects the fuel out of the boiler, lower flue gas velocity
increases fuel residence time affecting the reactivity.
Only one condition
1) Right PA, right FD & right WB creates 3T condition for boilers associated with PA, FD & WB
2) Right FD, right SA & right WB creates 3T condition for boilers associated with FD, SA & WB
3) Right FD, right SA, right bed thickness, creates 3T condition for stoker boilers
81 conditions for operating the boiler:
When the design fuel density & operating fuel density change
a) The weight of the fuel increases or decreases as per increase or decrease in density
b) Fuel throw, fuel injection velocity into the furnace gets effected, the distance traveled by the fuel increases or
decreases as per the change in density
If the fuel injection becomes quicker due to lower density of fuel when in comparison with design density the fuel
ejects out of the combustion zone increasing the LOI, flame failures & other issues, decreases reaction efficiency
of C & O2
Similarly if the fuel injection becomes slower due to increase in density of the fuel when in comparison with design
density, the fuel does not spread completely, reaches lesser potential, and decreases reaction efficiency of C &
O2.
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When fuel density also adds up as variable then 81 combinations of operation emerge out of which only in
combination brings in 3T.
How the fans influence the 3T:
Turbulence is air to fuel ratio defined and controlled by the fans, covered by all the air and fuel physical
parameters
Time is associated with flame throw, volume of the combustion zone etc. defined by the Wind Box, bed height, bed
thickness
Temperature is associated with the reaction conditions that get created by Turbulence and Time
Boiler Audits in the Direct & the Indirect Methods:
A boiler must be audited in the Direct & the Indirect Methods, as the Direct Method represents heat generation or
reaction efficiency in actual operation and the Indirect Method with heat exchange, both methods do not represent
the same identical patterns of measurement.
Audit in the Direct & Indirect Method for the same boiler be performed to check the difference. If the difference is >
2% then it may be understood that the 3T deviation has occurred and the boiler fans either by operational settings
or by replacement need correction.
In many plant operations the CV of the fuel or the fuel quantities are adjusted in general so that both methods
represent identical value. Such practices need to be eliminated and real issue with the fans and fuel density
should be addressed
Boudouard Reaction
Institute of Combustion & Power Plant technology, Stuttgart, Germany has published credible information that in
excess Oxygen, excess carbon, excess nitrogen, excess carbon dioxide environments, endothermic Boudouard
Reaction gets induced. All these environments exist in the Boiler as excess O2 is maintained in the stack, excess
carbon dioxide as the reaction progresses.
Boudouard Reaction hitherto understood to be created only in excess carbon & positive pressure environment is
now a reality in boiler combustion environment and the differences between Direct Method & the Indirect Method
can be credited to this reaction, as energy is sucked out.
Air TPH
Many fans are equipped to measure air delivery quantities through Aerofoils and the OEM’s provide information
regarding the Air TPH operation that would be required at different loads. Though this information quite accurate

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regarding the Air TPH, the information is not accurate considering the air resistance offered due to fuel density,
Wind Box. For example if the WB is higher than required level, lesser air will enter the combustion zone as air
resistance has increased and vice versa.
The criticality of the fan is in its pressure and associated volume and not the volume alone. The Air TPH is always
measured at the outlet of the fan & not at the inlet of the combustion chamber. Say if the WB is high, then air flow
into the boiler becomes lower, as air resistance has increased. Similarly if the WB is low, then air flow into the
boiler becomes higher as there is lesser resistance from the WB. As decrease or increase of WB influences the air
velocity into the furnace, the ID fan load would become lesser if the velocity increased and vice versa.
Therefore Air TPH should be checked with respect tomotor load Amps, pressure and not the aerofoil alone.
Prepare a chart for what motor load Amps, how much fan delivery pressure should be and how much Air TPH
should be delivered. Verify the curve given respective to the fans.
For example
36 Amps, 700 mm pressure, Air TPH 105
30 Amps, 540 mm pressure, Air TPH 80
The WB can be decided after this chart is ready
If the fan aerofoil shows higher or lower Air TPH which does not match to the chart values, by either pressure or
volume or both or by Amps, the fan can be treated as away from its design specification.
Remedies for Fans
1) Conduct realistic audit in the Direct & Indirect Methods and check for differences whether it exceeds 2%, this if
identified will reflect directly on the fans
2) Ask the OEM what the fuel density is considered during the boiler design to identify problems with fuel density
3) Prepare the chart for Fan Load Amps, for corresponding Fan pressure, for corresponding Fan Air TPH and
cross verify whether the installation is matching to the respective calculations
4) Seal all air leakages before testing the fans
4) Conduct test block for the fans in the next shutdown and also verify the drawings vs. air duct dimensions
5) Seek 3T operation solution
6) Instead of 2 x 50% or 2 x 60% capacities, Boilers tend to work more efficiently with 1 x 100% or 2 x 100% or 2 x
120% (standby fan) if the pressure and volumes are right
Results of such audits: Case Studies:
1) A 10 TPH boiler which was designed both for rice husk and coal indicated a difference of 9% in both the
methods. Replacing the PA fan with higher pressure of 250 mm improved the efficiency by 6.5% and reduced fuel
consumption.
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2) A 20 TPH boiler was designed for Indian coal of density 0.9 and imported indonesian coal was used with
density of 0.73. PA fan pressure was corrected as per density, increased WB operation resulted in fuel saving of
>15%, increase of Direct Method Efficiency from 65%to 78% and Indian & Imported fuel mix was advised to keep
the density at 0.8 & higher
3) A FBC 22.5 TPH, having FD fan delivery pressure reduced by over 30% resulted in similar increase of air
volume. The boiler worked at 70% efficiency in the Direct Method where as the Indirect Method showed it was
functioning at 83%. Upon asking the fans were having mismatching tongue clearance right from the beginning and
the fans were never checked in 20 years
4) A Stoker 25 TPH boiler, the Direct Method Efficiency increased by 7% and saved 9.7% fuel after the SA
pressure was corrected
5) A AFBC boiler 93 TPH capacity, was installed with FD fan which is delivering 40 % higher Air TPH at 40%
lesser air pressure, was advised to replace the FD fan as per its original specifications
6) A CFBC boiler 420 TPH boiler, having problems with air ducts, which were unstable and vibrating heavily at
65% load of the fans, was advised to replace the ducting, therefore the boiler was operated at lower WB pressure
losing Direct Method efficiency
7) A Stoker boiler 22 TPH boiler, the FD fan design air pressure of 180 mm was delivering only 80 to 100 mm
pressure, as the ducts were over sized. This boiler worked with only 62% efficiency in the Direct Method
8) A PF boiler of 2000 TPH capacity, the installed PA flan did not match to the original specification and the Direct
Method Efficiency by clients own records was 72%
Most cases which are identified either have problems with the fan pressures or fan volumes or both together with
ducts. The remedy is identification which is very easy with Direct Method tests. If the Direct Method Efficiency is
low then it means either the operational deviation (boiler operates in 1 of the 26 methods) or a fan deviation is
present.
Advantages of identifying fan / duct issues and their corrections:
1) All issues in combustion zone, operational problems in the furnace, erosion etc. can be sorted out which is not
possible with incorrect ducts & fans
2) Boiler saves valuable fuel by implementing 3T operation solution lowering costs of Steam and power
3) Boiler can function in high efficiency till the end of its operational period
4) Longer life of tubes and lesser erosion
If the boiler combustion zone gives frequent and regular challenges, boiler operates at lower efficiency in the
Direct Method, this would mean that there is a issue with the PA, FD or SA fans or air ducts
Fuel density impact
If a boiler is say designed to handle Indian Coal which has density of 0.93 to 1.1, firing lesser density coal say 0.7,
will increase coal injection velocity for identical fan pressure and vice versa. Therefore purchasing fuels should be
selected more as per suitability of density first and CV next. Therefore a practice should be included in all the
plants to measure the fuel density to know whether fuel density is also impacting the fan / boiler performance

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CONCLUSIONS:
The fans criticality is in their functioning as per assigned design values of air pressure, air volume and motor Amps
load for designated fuel density. Any deviation should be identified, corrected or fan replaced. Similarly for all air
ducts. This would ensure easy 3T tuning and high boiler efficiency in the direct method saving costs and resources
REFERNCES:
[1] RV Ramana Reddy, Manager Dr. Reddys Labs Ltd., Pydibheemavaram

[2] Dr. Ram, Head Energy, SPB Ltd., Erode

Improving Boiler System Productivity through an Innovative strategy
of using Environmental Stack monitoring data
M A Patil, Director, FICCI
ABSTRACT
Typically, in most coal fired Power generating boilers, rotary Jungstorm Honeycomb type Air Pre Heaters (APH) are
installed for pre-heating combustion air. By design, there are about 5-6% leakages of air from FD fan to the flue
gases, through various sealing arrangements. However, in practice, in most boilers, the leakages keep increasing
with time, year after year, as the APH ages. Due to increased leakages in APH, the Forced draft (FD) fan consumes
more energy to deliver more air. As this additional volume of leakages needs to be extracted out by the Induced draft
(ID) Fan, the ID Fan also consumes more energy. This leads to higher Auxiliary Power consumption for the boiler
system. Also, the boiler cannot be loaded closer to Full load steam Generation due to in-sufficient combustion air
supply, due to increased leakages. This ultimately leads to higher heat rate. On the other hand, by analyzing the
recorded data in the control room, the leakages in the APH cannot be precisely estimated or calculated. So, the
realistic adverse impact of increased air leakages in the APH on the overall productivity of the boiler system and
associated monetary losses are not available. To quantify the losses in APH, an innovative strategy of using
environmental stack monitoring data was used during an energy Audit done by FICCI on a 460 TPH coal fired boiler.
The data has been interpreted, step by step, using a “one page schematic model of the entire boiler system”, which
provides bird’s eye-view and a holistic picture, which makes decision making easy. The paper explains this
innovative strategy with the help of a real life case study. This can be potentially followed and applied by many
Thermal Power Plants across the country to reduce their auxiliary power consumption and heat rate.
BACKGROUND
The Thermal power plant (TPP) and captive power plant (CPP) segment is a large industry segment in the
country, which is predominantly based on coal as fuel. Typically, for recovering waste heat from the boiler
flue gas, most boilers have an economizer followed by an Air Pre-heater (APH). Majority of these boilers
have rotary Jung storm Honeycomb type Air Pre Heaters for pre-heating combustion air. By design, there
are about 5-6% leakages of air are inherent from FD fan to the flue gases, through various sealing
arrangements.
In this case study, it is a 460 TPH Boiler, along with an Economizer, an APH (with 2 passes, A & B), and 2
ESPs, 2 ID Fans, 2 FD Fans, 2 Primary Air (PA) Fans and a common stack. The industry was unable to
generate more than 80% of full load steam, due to shortage of combustion air. To overcome the problem,
they also installed one more PA fan, it still could not supply required combustion air, but the Auxiliary power
consumption went up.

Typical Technical specification of a 460 TPH boiler available from Technical Diary is as below:
% Share wrt FG
Description Unit Value Qty FD, PA Breakup
Total flue gas quantity TPH 632 100%
Total Combustion air TPH 572 90.5%
FD TPH 383 60.6% 383
TPH 160 25% 85.9%
PA - To APH 160 543
Miscl Air TPH 29 4.6%
Other unaccounted air TPH 60 9.5%
Interpretation of Data from Technical Diary:

The interpretation of above values reveals the following important aspects.
• Total Combustion air quantity is about 90% of the total flue gas quantity, Out of which about 60%
is FD air,25% is PA air, balance 15% is misc or unaccounted air.
• Fan capacities are over-sized, ID fan by 91% over-sized, FD by 26%&PA by 73%.
Conventional Energy Audit of Boiler:

Typically most energy auditors cover the following aspects:
• Calculation of Boiler efficiency by indirect method
Efficiency = 100% - %losses
= 100 - (loss in dry flue gas + loss due to formation of water + loss due to
Moisture in fuel + loss due to moisture in air + Loss due to
Conversion of C to CO + loss due to radiation & convection + loss

Due to unburnt in fly ash + loss due to unburnt in bottom ash)
• Performance evaluation of Fans - FD, ID, PA (mostly based on DCS data on FD Air TPH quantity)
• Leakages in APH (mostly based on DCS data on FD Air TPH quantity & O2% at APH Inlet
Conventional method to estimate Leakages at APH:
To estimate the leakages at APH, theValues consideredare

– O2% at APH Inlet (DCS value)
– O2% at APH Outlet (measured value by portable flue gas analyser)
– Combustion Air flow rate (TPH from DCS)
The Source of these values is mostly the DCS values. Sometimes, there is a question of reliability of this
data, especially FD air TPH, at partial flow. Most of the FD fans suck atmospheric air (without a filter like for
compressors) and hence substantial dust particles also enter the air, some of these dust particles may get
deposited on the aero-foil or orifice used in the airflow measuring instrument. Over a period of time of few
years, this dust deposition can disturb/change the flow readings shown as TPH values in the control room.
As regards to gas flow rate at APH Inlet, the Gas flow is derived from the DCS value of “TPH of airflow from
FD or PA Fans”. Sometimes, there is a question of Reliability of this data. It requires a Secondary Check,
may be by measuring actual Gasflow rate by Portable pitot tube & digital velocity pressure meter.
Method of estimating Efficiency of ID, FD Fans:
To estimate efficiency of a fan, the Values requiredare:

– Gasflow rate (Am3/hr at…degC)
– Static Pressure (mmWC, Inlet side + discharge side)
– Power Consumption (KW)
The accuracy of estimation of efficiency is based on the Source of above values, its Reliability. The DCS
value may provide KW and SP at APH inlet or outlet, but gas volume handled by the ID fan is mostly not
available on DCS. It should be supported by Actual measurements. So, conventionally, there are following
limitations to estimate fan efficiency:
• O2% at APH Outlet not available at DCS
• At times, No Porthole available, to insert flue gas analyser probe
• ID Fan Inlet & Outlet pressures not available
• FD fan – only discharge pressure available
With the above limitations, it becomes difficult to draw useful conclusions.

Process side Aspects of Energy Audit
The Focus of energy audit should be on “increasing overall productivity of the boiler system” and “To
optimise the boiler system”. This could be addressed by viewing the Boiler system as a process and
conduct the energy audit of the process
Preparation of Schematic diagram of Boiler system:
It is important that schematic diagram of the entire boiler system is developed on one page.It gives bird’s
eye-view at one glance. First develop the basic diagram (without any values). Subsequently, super-impose
values as and when to be interpreted.Each time super-impose only limited data at a time, interpret and
conclude, then go for next set of data

Basic Schematic diagram prepared for the Boiler System:
FD Fan A
APH A
ID Fan A
ESP A
Flue gas
TA
PA A
Boiler 1 Total Comb Air Coal Mill
ABC&D PA C
PA B
ESP B
ID Fan B
APH B
FD Fan B

Super-imposing more data on basic schematic diagram:
First, add the available design data from the technical diaryand from DCS.
Then add Actual measured data: Stack monitoring data, APH I/L, O/L data, ESP I/L, O/L data.
Need for Measurement of Actual Flue Gas Volumes:
• As regards to volume of Air or flue gases, the DCS data availability is limited only to “Derived Total
Combustion Air” for current boiler loading.
• There is hardly any “metered or measured” value of either air side flows (For FD & PA fans) or gas
side flows (for ID fans).
• It is therefore, measurement of actual gas volume was carried out at stack to evolve actual gas
volume & to further evolve/ back-calculate air side volumes.
Use of appropriate Methodology of Stack Monitoring:
Typical pattern of the Flue gas velocity at various points across the diameter of the stack is like a parabola.
Velocity is maximum in the center and it is almost zero at the outer surface of the stack. So, the velocity
needs to be measured at various points and the average is to be taken.
A scientific way is to measure the velocity pressure at a number of traverse points. The USEPA method
conforming to CPCB requirement needs to be followed. To begin with, following needs to be done :
• Measure stack/duct dia, porthole length
• Decide number of traverse points.
To determine the minimum number of traverse points required, the below Standard Protocol Tablefor fixing
Number of traverse points is used.
The minimum required number of traverse points (TP) is a direct function of stack or duct diameter.
For e.g. if,
Stack Diameter = 1 m
Then minimum no. of Traverse Points = 12

Steps involved in Measurement of Gas Velocity & Static Pressure:
• Insert the pitot tube at TP1, close porthole by cotton waste to avoid air leakage, let readings
stabilize, note down velocity pressure reading at TP-1
• Push the Probe further to TP-2 location , let readings stabilize, note down reading
• Push the probe to subsequent TP's, till last TP, note readings
• Now repeat the readings in reverse order TP4, TP3,TP2,TP1,,etc
• Calculate the velocity in m/sec at each TP
• Also measure Static Pressure at any one location
Case study Measurement of Flue Gas Volume:
Flue gas velocities were measured at stack at 10 traverse points. The measured values are given in table
below:
Measurements done at 10 Traverse Points
Multiple sets (3 Nos.) of measurements were done & an average has been taken to arrive at the most
representative values.
The measured gas velocity multiplied by the cross section area of duct gives the actual volume of Gas flow
at that temperature, mentioned as Am3/hr. For the purpose of comparisons, the actual volumes are
normalized to 25 deg C, which are given as Nm3/hr.

Avg Static Press. mmWC -5.2
Overall Avg m/s 26.0
Average flow m3/hr 900343
Normalised Flow Nm3/hr 667529
Gas Sample Gas Temp. Amb. CO2 O2 CO
Location Time ⁰C Temp. ⁰C % % ppm
Set 1 1145am 128.9 28.3 9.24% 11.2 2
Set 2 1206pm 129.3 31.9 9.99% 10.4 1
Set 3 1224pm 128.6 32.8 9.71% 10.7 0
Overall Avg 128.9 31.0 10% 10.8 1
Gas Temperature, O2% & Static Pressure at Various locations:
The values of gas temperature, O2% & Static Pressure at various locations of Pass A& Pass B are
given below (The APH has 2 passes, A & B):
Gas Sample Location Temp O2% Static Pressure

Degree C mmWC
Pass A :
APH Inlet 354 3.28 -50
APH Outlet 154.5 -219
ID Fan inlet 143 -257
ID Fan Outlet 141 10.8 -28
Pass B :
APH Inlet 343 3.32 -49
APH Outlet 154.5 -187
ID Fan Inlet 132 -275
ID Fan Outlet 130 10.8 -26
Interpretation and analysis of data for evolving energy audit findings :
Proper Interpretation of intermediate values of O2%, Temp and S.P. at various locations, like APH
Inlet and Outlet, ESP I/L & O/L etc& Stack monitoring data, like gas flow rate, temp, O2% is
extremely important.
Using Measured Stack data for Back Calculations:
Anything happening in the boiler is correspondingly reflected at stack in m3/hr, temperature & O2
% change etc. Vice versa, stack values can be reliably considered to investigate/ assess boiler

performance. Hence, these stack values are taken as firm basis, based on which, values at APH
Inlet are “back-calculated” with the help of O2% from DCS.
Back Calculated Gas Volumes at APH Inlet & Outlet
The summary of back calculated flows at APH Inlet/Outlet, ID fan Inlet / Outlet in both Pass A & B
of the boiler is given in table below :
Percentage share in gas volume at Pass A and Pass B based on Gas temperature
Instead of assuming 50/50 in Pass A& Pass B, a reasonable estimation based on temperature heat
balance has been done, which also balances the gas temperature at stack.The percentage share
of gas volume at Pass A and Pass B is estimated based on the Gas temperature at ID Fan A& B
outlet and measured flow at stack, in same proportion.Accordingly, the share of Pass A is taken as
52 % of the total gas volume measured at stack & Pass B 48 %.
Consolidated table of Gas Volumes & Leakages:
The consolidated table of gas volumes and leakages between boiler to stack is given below,

Table: calculated gas volumes & leakages in Pass A& B, at APH & ESP
APH ID fan %
APH Inlet ID Inlet
Parameters Unit Outlet outlet Share Stack
Pass A
Gas Temperature oC 354 154.5 145 143 129
Am3/hr 486332 486332 900343
Nm3/hr 200535.98 322450 348382 348382 52% 667529
Gas Volume
TPH 236.6 380.5 411.1 411.1 787.7
kg/sec 65.73 105.69 114.2 114.2 218.8
Measured O2 % 3.28 10.8 10.8
Total Leakage kg/sec 48.5
Nm3/hr 121914 25932
Leakage TPH 143.9 30.6
kg/sec 39.96 8.50
Percentage Share % 34.99% 7.44%
Pass B
Gas Temperature oC 343.2 154.5 133 131
Am3/hr 432669 432669 48%
Nm3/hr 184123.4 264232 319147 319147
Gas Volume TPH 217.3 311.8 376.6 376.6
Kg/sec 60.35 86.61 104.6 104.6
Measured O2 % 3.32 10.8
Total Leakage kg/sec 44.26
Nm3/hr 80109 54915
Leakage TPH 95 65
kg/sec 26.3 18.00
Percentage Share % 25% 17%
Total of Pass
kg/sec
A+B(existing) 126.08 192.30 218.80 218.80 218.80
The leakage in APH of Pass A is maximum (34.99% of the Pass A flow), followed by leakage in APH of
Pass B (25%). The leakage in ESP of Pass A is 7.44% & in Pass B it is only 17%, which is quite
satisfactory and acceptable.
Share of Leakages in Pass A &B :

Assuming same O2 % as stack in Pass A& Pass B fan outlets, the leakage share of Pass A works out to
48.5 kg/sec & of Pass B it is 44.26 kg/sec.These leakages would happen partially in ESP and partially in
APH, in both Passes.
Back calculating gas flow at APH I/L :
Based on O2% at APH I/L, the gas flow is back calculated from value at ID fan=value at ID fan*(21-
10.8)/(21-3.28). As the flow at APH I/L and ID fan are known, the difference between them is the leakage
volume. This leakage is partially at APH and partially at ESP.
Overall Leakage (from Boiler outlet to Stack):
The overall leakage from boiler outlet to stack works out to,
218.8 – (65.73+60.35) = 218.8 – 126.08 = 92.72 kg/sec,
Which is about 40% of the total volume & it is a substantial quantity
Estimation of Leakages at APH and ESP:
The O2% at APH O/Lwas not available, as there was no porthole. The challenge was How to estimate
leakage at APH And at ESP separately. So, a Comparison of temperature values at ESP I/L and O/L for
both passes were analysed which revealed a trend.
Estimation of share of Leakage in ESP:
The air leakage in both ESP (Pass A& Pass B) is estimated based on inlet & outlet flue gas temperature &
gas flow at APH inlet. The heat balance approach is adopted by assuming a natural temperature drop of 2
deg C across the ESP. The ambient temperature considered to be 30 C.
Estimation of leakages at ESPs based on temperature drops :
The temperature drop across ESP of Pass A is 10 o C, against 22 o C in Pass B ESP. Based on temp
drop & heat balance calculations, the leakages in ESP of Pass A works out to 8.5 kg/sec . The leakages in
ESP of Pass B are higher (18 kg/sec). All the ESP should be operated within 5 o C of temperature drop and
with negligible leakages (<3%) and could be taken as best practice.
Estimation of leakages at APH:
The balance (i.e. Total – ESP) leakages are assumed to be in APH. The leakage in APH of Pass A is
higher (40.0 kg/s) than that of Pass B (26.3 kg/sec).The consolidated balance of volumes in kg/sec at
various locations is given in the schematic diagram below:

Boiler - 1 CPP 2 consolidated Data on Schematic Drawing (values in red are flow in kg/sec)
FD Fan A
36.27 58.75 APH A 8.50
ID Fan A
22.48
Leakage = 39.96 Kg/sec
Boiler 1 65.73 105.69 ESP A 114.2
17.48
Total actual flue gas 126.08 23.72
quantity = 139 kg/sec 7.50 TA PA A 218.8
Coal Mill A 58.88 11.25
Total Combustion air 108.3 B C & D 30.3 22.80 51.38 PA C
quantity = 86% = 23.90
108.4 kg/sec APH B PA B
(FD+PA+TA+Misc Air) Misc Air (5%) ID Fan B
11.10
5.42 60.35
Leakage = 26.26 Kg/sec ESP B
15.16 86.61 104.6
36.27
51.43 18.00
FD Fan B
Fig: Measured/ calculated Gas/Air Volumes in kg/sec at various locations, showing leakage volume

Energy Conservation Measures Identified :
The various energy conservation opportunities were identified, as detailed below:
I. Energy savings in ID Fans after Leakage Reduction
Existing Scenario Proposed Scenario Both Fans

SP at
SP at Op Combin Opt Sav Annual Inve
Op Pow Payb
flow Temp ed ion Description flow ing Saving stme
Tempo er ack
oC Power No. s s nt
C
Rs. Rs.
m3/se mmW year
m3/sec mmWC kW kW kw Lakhs/ Lakh
c C s
yr s
Reducing fan rpm by
changing existing
direct driven
arrangement to fluid
coupling driven
135.09 239.0 1909 1 arrangement 121 300 570 769 184 60 0.33
Reduction in Fan
Power Consumption
135.09 239.0 1909 2 by adopting VSD 121 300 570 769 184 70 0.38
Replacement of fan
239.0 1909 3 impeller by new one 121 290 537 836 201 120 0.60
II. Energy savings in FD Fans after Leakage Reduction
Existing
Proposed Scenario Both Fans
Scenario
Powe Optio Saving Annual Invest Pay
flow Description flow Power
r n No. s Savings ment back
Rs. Rs.
m3/sec kW m3/sec kW kw years
Lakhs/yr Lakhs
Replacement of fan
50.79 355 3 46 145 210 50 70 1.39
impeller by new one

III.Energy savings in P A Fans after Leakage Reduction
Existing Scenario Proposed Scenario Both Fans

Combine Invest Pay
d Power Option Powe Saving Annual
flow Description flow
of two No. r s Savings ment back
fans
m3/se Rs. Rs.
m3/sec kW kW kw years
c Lakhs/yr Lakhs
Reducing fan rpm by
changing existing direct
22.70 1058 1 339 380 50 0.55
driven arrangement to fluid
coupling driven arrangement 16 91
Reduction in Fan Power
22.70 1058 2 Consumption by adopting 16 339 380 60 0.66
VSD 91
Replacement of fan impeller
22.70 1058 3 16 315 429 103 80 0.78
by new one
IV. Install an additional oxygen indicator at APH Inlet
As the Oxygen based control at DCS is of utmost important and calibration and reliability of this instrument
is to be ensured, it is suggested to install one more oxygen indicator as standby/alternate indicator at the
same location.
Consistent readings by both instruments would ensure the reliability. In case of difference in reading (over
1%), the calibration or correcting action could be taken timely.
V. Increase Steam Production at reduced heat rate
Reduced Leakage at APH could give “higher flow of more hot air” to boiler from FD & PA fans. This would
allow increased firing of coal plus increased “heat input in hot air”. Together, this can facilitate generate
“more steam”
CONCLUSION
To quantify the losses in APH, an innovative strategy of using environmental stack monitoring data can be
effectively used during energy Audit of coal fired boilers. The data should be interpreted, step by step,
using a “one page schematic model of the entire boiler system”, which provides birds eye-view and a

holistic picture, which makes decision making easy. This innovative method can be potentially followed
and applied by many Thermal Power Plants across the country to reduce their auxiliary power
consumption and heat rate.
(The paper is based on a FICCI report on energy audit of a coal fired boiler, explaining how FICCI
has applied its unique methodology to precisely estimate the flue gas side air quantities, the
leakages in APH, analysis of ID, FD a& PA fans and preparing schematic diagram of the entire
boiler system on one page giving birds eye view at a glance, which helps in understanding and
conceptualising).
********

IMPROVING BOILER RELIABILITY AND AVAILABILITY
Yashwant Ranaware,Thermax Limited Boiler & Heater Group ,Pune ,Maharashtra, India
ABSTRACT
Boilers can have efficient long life or they become useless and uneconomical to operate. How well the equipment
operated and maintained, the fuel being fired, and the type of service experienced, all determine the life of the
equipment and the need for carrying out major reliability and availability extension programs. To determine the extent of
work necessary for regaining new boiler life, the actual performance and reliability of the equipment must be
assessed,the existing mechanical condition of boiler components defined, and the history of problems – causes for
unreliability and performance deterioration should be known.
This paper deals with the various techniques used to evaluate the condition of the boilers, boiler components and there
by provides guidance for carrying out Reliability and Availability extension programs. The power plant boilers and
industrial boilers are designed conservatively with lot of safety factor in the design stage. By carefully assessing the
present condition of the boiler with the help of various NDT methods and metallurgical studies, the boiler can be
operated even after 25 years. These studies can help in planning for the replacements of the boiler components in
phased manner.
Some of these techniques, data have been developed by Babcock & Wilcox, USA. Thermax Babcock & Wilcox Limited
uses these patented techniques for remaining life assessment studies, carried out over last 15 years worldwide.
INTRODUCTION
A.NEED OR CONDITION ASSESSMENT AND REMAINING LIFE ANALYSIS
A large percentage of power, petroleum, and chemical plants all over the world have been in operation for
such long duration that the critical components of these plants have been used beyond the design life of 30 to
40 years. This percentage is likely to become even more significant during the next decade because of this
hiatus in new plant construction over the last several years. There is a strong desire on the part of many plant
owners to continue to operate for their plants for another 20 to 40 years.
Several studies have shown that the cost of life extension of a typical power plant may be only 20 to 30% of
the cost of constructing a new plant and thus cost saving can be done.
The purpose of life extension activities i.e. condition assessment and remaining life analysis is not to continue
the operation of the plant beyond its useful life, but merely to ensure full utilization up to its useful life. The
idea is to avoid premature retirement of plants and plant components, on the basis of the so-called design life,
because the actual useful lives often are well in excess of the design life.

CA & RLA study prior to retrofit is definitely the best tool available to justify the plant improvement projects and
an opportunity to identify the problems associated with boiler components. Refer Figure No. 1
Figure 1 : Plant age V/S Plant availability.
A.1 CONDITION ASSESSMENT STUDIES WHICH INCLUDES NDT METALLURGICAL

STUDIES HELPS IN KNOWING:
1. To plan for replacements and refurbishment’s of boiler components.

2. To set up proper inspection schedules, maintenance procedures, and operating procedures.
3. To optimize the start up and shut down procedures for boilers and thus resulting in increased
efficiency.
Life extension thus is really a predictive maintenance knowing when to take action to prevent unreliable
operation by undertaking preventive maintenance.
This paper deals with the methodology used for the CA & RLA of Utility boilers, Power boilers and Industrial
boilers. This paper explains the different techniques used to evaluate the remaining life of the boiler
components based on the Central boiler board norms and Babcock & Wilcox patented techniques.

B.INDIAN BOILERS REGULATIONS FOR BOILER TESTING
The component wise testing to be carried out is given in table 1 & 2. Table 3 is added exclusively for HRSG
boilers.
The boilers which are operating at a temperature of 400 Deg C and above including utility or industrial boilers
and all boiler parts operating in the creep range of the boiler shall be No-destructively tested as per the
Table1 after they are in operation for 1,00,000 hours for assessment of the remnant life of parts.
The parts of a boiler when it completes a life of twenty-five years are to be tested as per Table 2, for
assessment of the remnant life of such parts.
C. STEPS FOLLOWED IN REMAINING LIFE ANALYSIS
C. 1 INTRODUCTION
Boiler parameter study, drawing and design data study, Preoutage meeting, Outage site testing, Destructive
testing of tube samples, Remaining life calculations of boiler components based on all the results and data of
the boiler.
C. 2.BOILER OPERATING HISTORY AND DATA COLLECTION
As further explained in the paper the life analysis methodology; mainly based on corrosion, creep and thermal
fatigue principals, is structured in a multi-level approach where the final scientific approach is a mix of design,
operation & maintenance history in combination with quantified material characteristics.
Following points gives a specific plant history input so we complete design data with operating & maintenance
events, which are:
 For the operating part :
 The operating parameters like pressure & temperature

 Incidents, events of failure & repair statistics
 Condition of the plant facility by n° of starts/stops & service hours
 For the maintenance part :
 Review of component replacement & repair

 Review of component geometry
 For the inspection part :
 Non destructive testing results where the most important are :

• Wall & internal oxide thickness measurement by ultrasonic.
• Metallographic examination by replication
 Destructive material testing.
The results of the NDE & DE provide one essential input for the component integrity evaluation and life
assessment.
C. 3 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Non destructive examinations (NDE) are essential constituents of any residual life assessment Programme.
The objective of such assessment is to compare the current condition of the material of a given component
with its original condition to define the amount of deterioration of the component.
Three major questions have to be answered before starting NDE:
 When ?
 Where ?
 How?
The used inspection techniques depend on the given component, the location on the component, the damage
modes to be looked at and the material used. Some of the regularly used methods to establish the material
condition provide data which can be quantified in analyses whereas others can only indicate whether a defect
is present or not
NDE techniques adopted in the residual life assessment of power plant components can be broadly classified
as conventional techniques and specialised techniques. Conventional techniques include Visual examination
& Dimensional measurement using appropriate tools, Ultrasonic thickness gauging, penetrant testing and
magnetic particle inspection using wet florescent method.
Specialized NDE techniques include video probing using fibreoptics to assess the damage on the internal
surfaces especially for corrosion, erosion, cracks and the presence of foreign materials, in-situ replica
technique to study the material degradation and the presence of microcracks. Ultrasonic testing using high
frequency pulse and transducer for measurement of oxide scale on the steam side, ultrasonic method detects
hydrogen damage, boroscopic inspection. The specialised NDE techniques are discussed in D. 2.
C. 4. DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
The scatter band of material properties (creep strength) is an important source of uncertainty for the
calculation of the life expenditure. It may therefore be necessary to determine mechanical property values
from specimens of material taken from the actual components. Sampling may however not in any way
degrade the integrity of the component. Various sampling methods are used.
Destructive testing can have following objectives

 Verification of non-destructive examinations results (if no defects are found)
 Direct (quantitative) assessment of the degree of damage (structural & mechanical)
 Determination of component material mechanical properties (to reduce the scatter band)
 Post failure search for the damage mechanisms and propagation depth.
C. 5. REMAINING LIFE CALCULATIONS OF THE COMPONENTS BASED ON
TESTING RESULTS
The testing results and overall study of boiler data used to calculate the remaining life of components.
The In-situ Metallography gives the microstructure condition from which the degradation level of material is
decided. The Non-destructive testing methods put together give an overall condition of the boiler.
D. TESTS CONDUCTED DURING RLA
D 1. LIST OF TESTING AND SHORT DESCRIPTION
Testing Short Description
1. Visual Inspection. To check the condition of the pressure parts. The corrosion,
erosion, physical deformation, other abnormalities can be
identified.
2. Ultrasonic Thickness Gauging. For all the pressure part tubes, headers and drums. To check
the thinning pattern.
3. Ultrasonic Flaw Detection. To detect the flaws, defects in the material which cannot be
detected by Dye penetrant/ Magnetic particle testing?
4. Dye Penetrant Testing. To find the surface flaws.
5. Magnetic Particle Testing. To find the surface flaws/sub surface flaws.
6 Non-destructive Oxide Thickness This is ultrasonic specialized method for measuring internal
Inspection Service. ( NOTIS® ) oxide scale thickness of SH tubes and calculating its life with
the help of boiler data and software. This is Patented
technique by B&W.
7. Furnace Wall Hydrogen An ultrasonic testing technique used to detect the Hydrogen
Damage Non-destructive damage in the furnace wall where the heat flux is high. This is
Examination System. Patented technique by B&W.
( FHyNES ™)
8. Hone & Glow. For examination of cracks at the ligament locations in
headers. This is Patented technique.
9. Remote Field Electromagnetic This is Non destructive Eddy current based non contact type
Testing (RFET) of testing useful for the inspection of ferromagnetic boiler
tubes viz. boiler bank tubes and furnace wall tubes. This is

speedy technique, less surface preparation is required. The
specially designed probes can inspect the tube from inside
diameter as well as outside diameter. The technique can
cover complete thickness of tube for the inspection of wall loss
and pitting with accuracy.
10. Replication. To detect creep damage, microstructural degradation and
micro cracks in pressure parts, especially operating in the
creep range i.e. above 425 Deg C. Electropolishing method is
used for replication, the new VAPINE technique developed by
Mr. G. Venkataraman, which got international ASM award.
11. Fiberscopy. To inspect the internal condition of all the pressure part
locations which are inaccessible.
12. Hardness Testing. Field Hardness testing at the Replica locations and on the
drum ligament from drum inside.
13. Destructive Testing of tubes.
a) Visual Inspection. These overall results compilation and engineering data, boiler
b) Chemical Analysis operating history data is being used for deciding the Life of
c) Physical Testing furnace, Economiser and Superheater tubes.
d) Microstructure Examination
e) Hardness Testing
f) Internal scale Analysis
g) Percentage Weight loss
Please correlate IBR Table no. 1 & 2 and above table for detailed plan of testing.
D. 2. SPECIALIZED TETST CARRIED OUT BY TBW. (Patented Techniques by B&W,
USA).
D. 2. i) NOTIS® (Non-Destructive Oxide Thickness Inspection Services)
Boiler tube failures are the leading cause of forced outages among utilities. One failure can impinge on
adjacent tubes, causing numerous failures and increasing repair costs.
NOTIS® is a specialized technique developed to quickly and easily determine the remaining life of steam
cooled tube operating with high temperatures and pressures. This is microprocessor controlled UT technique,
which not only measures the thickness of the tube wall but also the steam side Oxide scale build up and
subsequently relates the scale thickness to operating temperatures and life remaining in the tube. Measuring
the oxide thickness is very important because the oxide acts as an insulating barrier, allowing the tubes to
operate at increasingly high temperatures thus shortening its operating life. Measuring the thickness of the
oxide layer is not only imperative for accurate remaining life calculations but it also indicates the potential for
exfoliation which can be damaging to the turbine.

The data is fed into a computer program developed by B & W which considers metal loss due to erosion or
corrosion along with the increase in tube metal temperature caused by the insulating properties of the steam
side oxide scale build up. Temperature increases can accelerate the degradation or creep rupture failure
mechanisms experienced by the tubes. The program then determines the hours of remaining life in the tube
based on information in the B & W database for steam oxidation kinetics and for creep rupture of various alloy
steels. The remaining life of each tube and section inspected is then tabulated in a hard copy printout.
D. 2. ii) FHyNES™ (Furnace Wall Hydrogen Damage Non Destructive Examination
System)
Furnace tube failures are a leading cause of forced outages of older high-pressure boilers. Fatigue, corrosion,
erosion, wastage, overheating, or hydrogen damage may cause these failures. Of these failure mechanisms,
hydrogen damage is one of the largest causes of forced outages and may be one of the most difficult to detect
before failure occurs.
Tube failures are usually the first indication of hydrogen damage, which generally cannot be detected by
normal inspection. When hydrogen damage is detected it is frequently misreported as internal corrosion, weld
leaks, or caustic corrosion.
As for the Economiser, common inspection techniques also include visual inspection, UT for wall thickness,
fiber-optic inspections of tubes and headers for internal deposits, scale and water side corrosion as well as the
periodic tube sampling from the hottest input furnace zones for evaluating needs for chemical cleaning of the
boiler.
In addition to these commonly known techniques, B & W has developed and patented a fast, non destructive
examination which locates and maps regions of the furnace which have hydrogen damage before tube failure
occurs. This new service FHyNES is an easy, reliable method for locating damage which was previously
undetectable.
FHyNES spot-checks selected tubes in the regions of the furnace which are highly susceptible to hydrogen
damage. Once any indications of hydrogen damage are found, a more thorough examination of these areas is
performed by FHyNES to determine the extent of damage.
D. 2. iii) Hone & Glow
In addition, inspection of the tube hole, penetrations are required to determine if any fatigue cracking has
initiated in the body of the header. To detect cracks, the oxide is carefully removed to avoid the smearing over
of any shallow cracks. Then a high sensitivity dye penetrant is applied and the penetration is examined by
fiberscope. If any cracks are detected knowledge of length/width ratio of these defects gives a qualitative
measure of the degree of damage and projections for the remaining life of these components.
D. 2.iv) Remote Field Electromagnetic Testing

This is specially designed and latest technique for the inspection of boiler tubes.
Speedy and accurate inspection of ferromagnetic tubes like furnace wall tubes, boiler bank tubes, economizer
tube is major requirement in condition assessment of boilers. Normal eddy current testing has limitation for
coverage of complete wall thickness and permeability constraints. The specially designed probes of Remote
field technique overcome these constraints.
This is non-contact type of technique. Like ultrasonic testing, couplant and good surface finish is not required.
For external inspection E-PIT probes roll over the tube surface ensures speedy testing of furnace wall tubes.
The internal I-PIT probes have better fill factor, it ensures speedy testing of boiler bank tubes.
The technique is useful for inspection of defects like wall loss, external and internal pitting, and permeability
variation.
D. 2. v) Replication
High temperature stress can leave high-pressure headers and hot steam lines in worse physical shape than
you can imagine.
B & W studies indicate that, depending upon your plant’s operating cycle through the years and the constant
strain of expansion and contraction, the major stress points could be literally cracking open at the seams.
Field surface replication is a process that permits obtaining an image of a component surface with sufficient
retention of fine structure, to permit laboratory examination and evaluation, without having to cut out a portion
of the component. The evaluation of the grain size, precipitate spacing using both optical and electron
microscopy can establish presence of creep damage or microstructure changes and assist in understanding
service conditions.
A very thorough and accurate assessment by non – destructive and metallurgical analysis is the first step of
an overall condition assessment plan.
Our total service plan encompasses proven technologies like replication, ultrasonic testing and destructive
testing.
CONCLUSION
Extending the life of power plant components is the very best way to regain boiler reliability and availability
quickly at a fraction of the cost of building new generating capacity.
A comprehensive Life Extension Program which accurately establishes the existing condition of components
and projects how much life remains in those components is recommended for every plant over ten years old.
Today there are numerous new non-destructive testing techniques available which allows these projections to
be made accurately.

Knowing how much life remains in a component and then taking action to repair or replace it prior to failure is
one very essential factor for obtaining reliable operation from the equipment and increases its availability.

Energy Conservation in Boilers
P Anand Praksh B’Sc Chargewave Energykem Pvt. Ltd.,
Hyderabad, Telangana,
ABSTRACT
Energy conservation when discussed on the platform of Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method, the scope covers only
recoverable losses due to LOI and the unburnt carbon.
However greatest scope exists

1) when the Boilers are audited both by Direct & Indirect Methods, in parallel and steps taken to implement 3T in
operations
2) when Boudouard Reaction is further blocked or stopped during combustion by chemical interference
Combustion Thesis submitted by Dr. Almakdameh @ Institute of Combustion and Power Plant Technology, Stuttgart,
Germany ::
CO2 reacts with C during combustion which is the Boudouard Reaction (BDR). Web link is provided as under
http://www.ifk.uni-stuttgart.de/allgemeines/Veroeffentlichungen/Diss2009/DissAl-Makhadmeh.en.html
The above thesis provides

1. nature of combustion reactions &processes occurring in excess oxygen, nitrogen, Carbon dioxide, carbon
conditions
2. information that energy generated during combustion are not only exothermic but also endothermic, both exist in
combination
3. insight into no. of reactions occurring during combustion and how energy is lost due to endothermic BDR
4. inputs that carbon dioxide reacts with Carbon in the fuel during combustion which leads to endothermic BDR
5. information that Carbon is lost in the process which has never reacted with O2
6. 11% to 14% volume of Carbon dioxide reacts with identical volume of Carbon in ideal conditions
The above thesis also indicates the following

1. Boiler combustion reactions are not totally exothermic as thought earlier
2. 11% to 14% carbon which is reacting with CO2, can be made available to react with Oxygen, if the reaction is
blocked or stopped
3. Gaps between Direct & Indirect Methods of derivation is due to higher BDR energy suck due to poor operation
4. Reactivity conditions created byfan operations dictate the lowering or worsening of BDR
5. There is more energy to harness from fuels if the endothermic BDR is blocked which is higher than its GCV
indicated in the Bomb calorimeter. The reason is the revelation that 11 to 14% CO2 reacts with C even in excess
Oxygen condition
Energy conservation measures hence forth assume huge proportions with knowledge of BDR. This reaction removes 6000
Kcal / Kg energy. Therefore energy conservation by reaction management assumes greater significance than any other
conventional methods and provides far greater opportunity in lowering fuel consumption, lowering carbon dioxide emissions
etc.

INTRODUCTION
What if the BDR is higher than 11 to 14% ideal condition ?
Ideal condition means that the BDR conditions only occur to allow Max. of 11 to 14% CO2 + C reaction
Un-ideal condition means that the BDR conditions worsen and increase over and above 11 to 14%
How to detect Un-ideal condition & how to correct it ?

When the boiler displays a much lower efficiency in the Direct Method Audit compared to the Indirect Method, the
difference can be directly attributed to increased BDR conditions. The correction is to operate the boiler in 3T
equilibrium i.e. Turbulence, Time & temperature equilibrium, which will bring the worsened reactivity condition to
normal reactivity condition in the ideal range of 11 to 14%
The boilers can be operated in 27 different operation combinations of the fans and Wind Box or bed thickness. Out
of these 26 combinations do not produce 3T equilibrium in operations.
Worsened reactivity conditions created by fans and fuel cannot be detected in the Indirect Method, as it deals only
with heat absorption or heat exchange.
It is also noticed that irrespective of the Boiler Operation load & LOI, the Indirect Method indicates a very high
efficiency.
Methodology to detect BDR :
Institute of Combustion published the information when combustion reactions were frozen before their completion
therefore the observation of BDR could be made in several experiments. This also means if the reaction is allowed
to complete the CO2 + C → 2CO again reacts with O2 to become 2 CO2 and the process of the reaction cannot
be verified in the stack gases, therefore one may come to an early conclusion that this reaction is never occurring
in their furnace or the occurrence itself is quite negligible
The majority of the BDR remains hidden from detection means

1) CO visible in the stack gases is the unreacted CO, which has escaped the combustion zone
2) More CO is converting / converted into CO2 than what is observed / observable at the stack
If the above is true then

1) Boilers should consume more fuel as energy and carbon both are lost in the BDR
2) Boilers should respond by consuming lesser fuel if the reactivity conditions improve and BDR has any way
managed to become lesser than its earlier values
The only way to establish that BDR is active or over active is to conduct an fair Energy Audit in the Direct and
Indirect Methods and compare them.
Direct Method Efficiencies: For < 60% loads it is around 55 to 65% and will progress to reach highest level
(provided the BDR is in Ideal limits of 11 to 14%) > 75% boiler steam capacity and if the reactivity conditions are

worse, the Direct Method Efficiency will be lower even at higher steam loads. The examples given below are for
steam loads over 90%
Three processes are to be followed by which BDR can be blocked or arrested.
The first process is to perform a fair Boiler Audit by Direct & Indirect Methods and denote the difference.
The second process is to run the boiler in 3T condition, which brings the BDR back to ideal limits of 11 to 14%
The third process is to employ chemical interference to further reduce the BDR from its ideal limits and raise the
energy delivery of the fuel over and above Bomb Calorimeter values.
The author has verified the information that the thesis to be correct by auditing more than 80 boilers both in the
Direct & Indirect Methods and implementing solutions to block or stop BDR by employing 3T and chemical
interference.
Boiler Type & Indirect Method Direct Method Eff Fuel saved by 3T Saving by Total Fuel Saving
TPH Eff tuning chemical
interference
AFBC 20 TPH 81.78% 63% 15% 15% 30%
AFBC 90 TPH 82.8% 74% 6% 8% 14%
FBC 15 TPH 83% 65% 16% 12% 28%
Stoker 28 TPH 83.7% 66% 9.7% 14% 23%
CFBC 175 TPH 87% 56% 61% 12% 22%
There will be boilers where the fans or the ducts may not be matching to their design values, such boilers 3T
correction can only be done after setting the fans or ducts right.
Chemical interference is a process where in CO2 + C reaction time is increased and there by failing the reaction.
Issues with the Direct Method:
1) Fuel quantification is not accurate as per the infrastructure provided by the OEM or the current available
systems like the Belt Weighing systems etc. are prone to errors
2) Fuel sampling becomes difficult for huge volumes
3) Fuel quality and quantitative variations are present
4) Variation between actual quantity delivered and difference due to moisture evaporation, carpet losses and wind
losses
5) Methodology of fuel storage does not allow proper quantification
6) No compensation applied in fuel weight stored in bunkers due to density variations
7) Boiler Efficiencies vary as if operating boiler load is < 75%

Remedy
While the measurement of the fuel can be made as per arrived lots of fuel by trucks and separately stacking them
and not depositing them in a single heap. Follow FIFO for coal stocks. Employ fuel bunker weighing systems.
Stack say 500 tons or 1000 tons each per stack. Sampling from belts more frequently say once in 15 minutes or
30 minutes will resolve issue with sampling. When there is moisture evaporation, the lesser quantity of fuel will
contain the CV unless there is a VM loss during storage.
Ash reconciliation methods also can be employed, where coal measurement is impossible, as ash outgo is always
measured accurately.
Why Direct Method:

Even with the problematic issues in measurement faced with the Direct Method, it is more accurate in detection of
BDR occurrence in the Boiler operation and worth the exercise. The Indirect Method does not provide flexibility in
BDR measurement or correction.
Key differences between Direct & Indirect Method
Parameter Direct Method Indirect Method

Energy Representation Heat Generation Heat absorption
Reaction Efficiency of C & O2 Effected Not Effected
Energy generated is fuel CV x Fuel Yes Assumed to be 100%
Qty
BDR Energy loss Not represented, is detectable Not represented, is undetectable
How to detect BDR is active in the furnace
Conduct a Direct Method test with measured fuel for at least 72 to 96 hours, bunkers full before and at closing,
measure steam output. Calibrate Steam meters for accuracy.
If the difference between Direct & Indirect Methods is around 2%, the boiler operations are good and if the
difference is > 2%, seek a 3T and a chemical interference solution to resolve the issue.
Current practices: In many locations, the fuel CV or fuel quantities are adjusted to match Direct & Indirect
Methods to represent near identical values. Such practice will not allow any truthful approach about BDR or its
resolution or bring down fuel or CO2 emissions.
Solution: Clients & Energy Auditors must insist Direct & Indirect Methods as a practice of Audit always, even
when the Boiler is newly commissioned. This method will identify all errors with fans, ducts, operations, severity of
the BDR which will not allow the boiler to function in high efficiency in reality. Instead of relying on solely the Loss
method, it is advisable to practice both and resolve the issues.

Boilers where the Direct Method audit or values stand corrected or adjusted to suit the Indirect method derivation
block all further opportunities, work on high imaginary boiler Efficiencies which are far from reality. Therefore Boiler
Audits have to include Direct & Indirect Methods and realistic approach only would resolve the over consumption
of fuel or CV.
CONCLUSION
A progressive boiler user who is looking for long term benefits of lowest cost of steam, lowest CO2 emissions
therefore can employ the 3T & chemical interference procedures to save maximum fuel, which provides the
highest energy conservation drive till date
REFERENCES
[1] RV Ramana Reddy, Manager Dr. Reddys Labs Ltd., Pydibheemavaram

[2] Dr. Ram, Head Energy, SPB Ltd., Erode

USE OF 700° C TECHNOLOGY FOR THE CARBON FREE POWER
R.G.PRAJAPATI, DEPUTY ENGINEER,
GUJARAT STATE ELECTRICITY CORPORATION LTD.,WANAKBORI,GUJARAT-388239,INDIA
1. Introduction
2. Feasibility of technology and operational necessities
3. Status of the technology and its future market potential
4. How the technology could contribute to socio-economic development and environmental
protection
5. Climate Change
6. Financial requirements and costs
7. Cycle design optimization
8. High temperature material
9. European Conference for AD 700.
10. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change concerns and the rising price of coal are driving the power generation market toward more
efficient cycles than the conventional subcritical steam plant. Steam turbines (STs) need to operate at
substantially higher pressures and temperatures in the supercritical (SC) and ultra-supercritical (USC)
domain. The SC steam plant design is rapidly becoming the preferred option for many owners, given its
cost-effective use of coal, an abundant domestic fossil fuel. Concurrently, there is an ongoing push to
reduce stack emissions of all pollutants and to capture CO2. The future will, without a doubt, lead to the
increased use of USC technologies. While the definition of SC conditions is straightforward, the meaning of
USC is subject to interpretation.
To provide a clear understanding of the goals of this paper, the three types of plants are defined below:
SC is a thermal cycle with a main steam temperature of less than 1,112 °F (600 °C) operating at
pressures between 3,208 and 4,000 psia.
USC is a thermal cycle with a maximum steam temperature greater than 1,112 °F (600 °C) operating at
pressures higher than 4,000 psia.
Advanced USC is a thermal cycle with a steam temperature of 1,300 °F (705 °C) or greater.
A summary of the performance of the different PF power plants is presented below:
Steam cycle Subcritical Supercritical Ultra-supercritical Ultra-supercritical

(best available) (AD700)
o
Steam conditions 180 bar (540 C) 250 bar (560oC) 300 bar (600oC) 350 bar (700oC)
Net output (MW) 458 458 456 457
Net efficiency (%) 40.2 42.0 43.4 45.6
CO2 emissions 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.73
(t/MWh-net)
Pulverised coal power plants account for about 97% of the world's coal-fired capacity. The conventional
types of this technology have an efficiency of around 40%. For a higher efficiency of the technology
supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal-fired technologies have been developed. These technologies can
combust pulverised coal and produce steam at higher temperatures and under a higher pressure, so that
an efficiency level of 45% can be reached (ultra-supercritical plants). Supercritical power plants have
become the system of choice in most industrialised countries, while ultra-supercritical plant technology is
still in the process of demonstration. Supercritical and ultra-supercritical plants are more expensive
(because of the higher requirements to the steel needed to stand the higher pressure and temperature)
but the higher efficiency results in cost savings during the technical lifetime of the plants.
While SC technology development continued in Japan and Europe for a number of decades, a concerted
large-scale effort to reintroduce it in the US has occurred only recently. An example of this effort is EPRI’s
Coal Fleet initiative, which is designed to assist with the deployment of higher efficiency, lower emissions,
CO2 capture-ready SC and USC plants. To compete with alternative solutions for coal utilization (i.e.,
IGCC), SC and USC plants must achieve net plant efficiency (based on higher heating value [HHV] of the
fuel) greater than 40 percent without significantly increasing the plant’s capital cost.
The initial step in this development process is thermodynamic cycle optimization, followed by an effort to
increase ST overall efficiency by improving the high pressure (HP) and intermediate pressure (IP) modules.
Higher steam temperatures in particular as well as increased steam pressure, will significantly improve
thermal cycle efficiency. Rather than ST technology dictating the selection of the temperatures and
pressures, cycle optimization is governed by coal properties and the effect of aggressive/corrosive coals
on the materials selected for the boiler and other internal components. If the coal contains deleterious
components, then thermal cycle optimization should focus on pressure than temperature.
Equipment manufacturers also continue to aggressively pursue upgrading the low pressure (LP)
turbine, which, in many cases, accounts for 40 percent of the power generated by the turbine. One of the
development objectives is to increase the size of the last-stage blade (LSB), which could reduce the
number of LP modules and boost the power output at lower condenser pressures.
On one hand, the trend in advanced ST design is to achieve greater standardization in the number of
modules and their sizes as a means of reducing cost and accelerating schedule. On the other hand, the
only way to improve thermal efficiency is to custom-design the blading of each turbine module, with the
exception of the last three stages of the LP section. These approaches can be accomplished only by using
highly computerized methods of design and manufacturing.
Producing electricity in coal power plants can take place in a number of ways with varying degrees
of efficiency. In conventional coal-fired plants coal is first pulverised into a fine powder and then
combusted at temperatures of between 1300 and 1700oC. This process heats water in tubes in the boiler
so that it becomes steam at a pressure of around 180 bar and a temperature of 540oC. This steam is
passed into a turbine to produce electricity. Pulverised coal power plants account for about 97% of the
world's coal-fired capacity. The average net efficiency (energy produced minus energy used within the
plant) is around 35%, which means that 35% of the energy in one unit of coal is transferred into electricity.
Pulverised coal power plants can have a size of up to 1000 MW and are commercially available worldwide.
Figure : Lay out scheme of supercritical pulverised coal plant for electricity production
Over the years, improvements have been made to make the technology more efficient, including
measures to minimize emissions of SO2 , NOx and particulates and application of advanced steam cycles
that allow for greater plant efficiency. An example of this improvement is the ‘supercritical’ pulverised fuel
(SPF) technology which can reach efficiency levels of up to 45%. Further improvements can be made in
ultra-supercritical plants, which are still in the phase of research and development but which could be
deployed in the market around 2020. An example of a research project on this technology is AD700, which
is supported by EU equipment manufacturers and several end users. It has been the subject of a significant
EU cooperative R&D programme involving 39 companies from 12 Member States.
The eventual efficiency level that can be achieved depends on whether hard or brown coal (lignite) is used
and on the quality of coal (e.g. high vs low ash content).
2. FEASIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND OPERATIONAL NECESSITIES:

Early supercritical steam-cycle plants in the USA and Europe in the 1970s had problems with operational
flexibility and maintenance, but these problems have nowadays been largely solved. The technology is
now considered reliable and economically viable. The main technical challenge with supercritical plants is
that the higher steam pressure and temperature require components (superheaters, headers, water
tubes, steam chests, rotors and turbine casings) which are produced from nickel-based alloys.
Nickel is an expensive commodity so that for an increased use of SPF at lower costs further developments
are needed in new steels for water and boiler tubes and high-alloy steels that minimize corrosion.
Another operational aspect which would support the market penetration of supercritical and ultra-
supercritical plants is the development of advanced control equipment and procedures (i.e. expert
systems, condition monitoring) to operate a plant more flexibly.
With respect to developing countries with a high coal consumption, such as China and India, SPF
technology transfers could take place by the sale of equipment, licensing, joint ventures, co-operative
production, subcontracting of the manufacture of components, and co-operative research and
development (Beijing Research Institute of Coal Chemistry, 2000). Possible forms of co-operation between
industrialised and developing countries in this context could be selling licenses to developing countries,
mounting joint ventures, and agreeing co-operative production.
3. STATUS OF THETECHNOLOGY AND ITS FUTURE MARKET POTENTIAL:

As explained above, approximately 97% of global coal-base power production capacity is based on
pulverised coal combustion. Improvement of this technology can take place in different steps. Many
conventional pulverised coal-fired power plants have been improved by upgrading the system so that
emissions of several pollutants could be reduced, but the efficiency gains are minimal as the heat rates can
only be improved at existing plants by 3 to 5%-points at best. This is because the heat rate is primarily
dependent on unit design, specific fuel type, and capacity factor, and because the plant design cannot be
changed once built.
Supercritical and ultra-supercritical pulverizing coal technologies have been identified as major measures
to achieve efficiency increases. In most industrialised countries, supercritical plants have become
commercially viable, with capital costs only slightly higher than those of conventional subcritical plants,
but with significantly lower fuel costs due to increased efficiency. Presently, over 500 SPF plants are in
operation worldwide, including a number in developing countries. Most of the new power plants in Europe
and Asia are equipped with supercritical coal-fired technology and in China this technology has become
the standard on all new plants of 600 MW and more capacity).
In this scenario, ultra-supercritical steam cycle technology components that can withstand steam
temperatures of 700oC and up to 300 bar pressures are presently in the process of Research and
Development. By 2020 cost-efficient plant design could be demonstrated, after which the technology
could be deployed in the market with an expected global capacity of over 100 GW by 2025. In the
commercialization phase, ultra-supercritical coal plants would be applied with a capacity of 550 GW by
2050 .
Nowadays, ultra-supercritical plants are operation in Japan, Denmark and Germany, whereas the 4x1000
MW Huaneng Yuhuan power plant in Zhejiang Province in Eastern China is the world’s largest coal-fired
plant using ultra-supercritical technology. China had more than 18 GW of supercritical unit capacity
installed in 2006.
The stimulation of SPF plants in developing countries could partly be supported through the Clean
Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol (CDM). In September 2007, the CDM Executive Board
decided to make supercritical coal-fired power plants eligible under the CDM. When the business-as-usual
practice in a country is subcritical coal-based power plants, the introduction of supercritical power plants
would ceteris paribus reduce GHG emissions.
4. HOW THE TECHNOLOGY COULD CONTRIBUTE TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The main environmental benefit of the supercritical technology is that it uses less coal per unit of power
production in comparison with subcritical coal technologies and thus results in lower pollution levels.
Individual cleaner coal technology ‘components’, such as flue gas desulphurisation (FGD), low-NOX burners
and gas reburn technology, can be retrofitted to existing conventional plant to reduce emissions of SO2
and NOx. The addition of such abatement technologies could extend the life of existing plants.
Environmental benefits can also be achieved by increasing the thermal efficiency of electricity generation.
A next step in the development of coal-based power production technologies would be carbon capture.
5. CLIMATE CHANGE:
In September 2007, the CDM Executive Board decided to make supercritical coal-fired power plants
eligible under the CDM. When the business-as-usual practice in a country is subcritical coal-based power
plants, the introduction of supercritical power plants would ceteris paribus reduce GHG emissions. As
shown in the table above, CO2 savings could be significant when increasing efficiency of coal-fired power
plants. An efficiency improvement from 30 to 45% would bring about a 33% decrease in CO2 emissions. As
two-thirds of all coal-fired plants are over 20 years old with an average efficiency rate of below 30%,
replacing this capacity with supercritical and ultra-supercritical plants could contribute significantly to
global GHG emission reduction.
The final decision of the CDM EB, which took the shape of approving a supercritical coal-plant
methodology for baselines and monitoring is directed to greenfield fossil fuel plants (e.g. new plants, no
retrofits of existing plants), and could thus also include natural gas-fired plants. However, in order to limit
the applicability of the methodology and the scope for these projects, it was decided that the
methodology can only be applied in those countries which generate more than half of the electricity using
coal or natural gas. In practice, this limits this type of projects to China, India, and South Africa.
Moreover, within these countries the number of projects is also limited since the baseline for the GHG
emissions in the absence of a CDM coal-fired plant (or gas) project must be determined using the data of
the 15% most efficient coal-based (or gas-based) power plants. Therefore, if 15% of the most efficient
coal-based power plants are CDM projects, then a new CDM coal-based power plant can only generate
credits if it increases its efficiency even further so that it can reduce GHG emissions below the benchmark
or baseline.
6. FINANCIAL REQUIREMENTS AND COSTS :

It is difficult to determine a general cost figure for a supercritical power plant because of the high number
of variables involved: location of the plant, domestic fabrication or import of components, construction
time, separation of cost and price, environmental protection measures taken as part of the plant, etc. A
study by IEA Coal Research, in collaboration with Sydkraft Konsult and the US Department of Energy,
modelled the competitiveness of various coal-based power generation systems (Scott and Nilsson, 1999).
All inputs to the model were selected to form a common set of ‘base assumptions’ on matters ranging
from costs of finance to steam conditions to coal type and price. The outputs allow a range of clean coal
technologies to be compared.
The report concluded that SPF plant costs are comparable with subcritical PF boiler technology. However,
overall economics are more favorable because of the increase in cycle efficiency. In a typical case, fuel
costs account for 60-80% of the total operating cost of a PF power plant. In the example above, an
increase in cycle efficiency from 38% to 46% would result in an annual coal saving of 300,000 tonnes
(17%). At a nominal coal cost of € 45/t, this would represent a saving of around € 15 million per year. This
saving can more than offset the slightly higher capital cost of SPF technology.
Economic performance is also influenced by other factors, such as plant availability, flexibility of operation
and auxiliary power consumption. Its operational flexibility makes SPF more favorable than subcritical PF
plants. The SPF boiler design is inherently more flexible than drum designs due to fewer thick section
components, which allows increased load change rates. Typical average availability is 85%, but with
appropriate design and materials, a plant availability of over 90% is achievable. Therefore, SPF boilers
would improve plant efficiency, so that fuel cost savings and lower emissions for each kWh of electricity
can be generated.
7. CYCLE DESIGN OPTIMIZATION:
This analysis identifies optimized cycle configurations and steam conditions for coal-fired power project SC
and USC designs that will yield the best overall ST efficiency. For a predetermined plant net power output
of 600 MaW, nominal matrices of thermal performance and differential costs were developed by varying
the main steam pressure and the main/reheat steam temperatures. The pressure range was set from
3,500 psi (240 bar) to 4,500 psi (310 bar), and main steam/reheat temperatures from 1,000 °F/1,000°F
(538 °C/538 °C) to 1,300 °F/1,300 °F (705 °C/705 °C). The heat balances were developed for a variety of
pressure and temperature combinations using commercially available simulation programs. In addition to
the ST, the boiler and other major equipment, namely the boiler feed pump and condenser, should be
considered in overall plant evaluation because their capabilities also affect the selection of steam
conditions for a specific site.
The optimum approach is a thermal cycle design that incorporates significant increases in both main steam
pressure and temperature. A key aspect of the design is the determination of the enthalpy end point (EEP)
or moisture level in the exhaust of the LP turbine. A thermal cycle design that incorporates significant
increases in the operating pressure of the ST without comparable increases in temperature can lead to an
EEP in the wet zone of the LP exhaust greater than the average of 10–12 percent. Similarly, a thermal cycle
that significantly increases the steam temperature without corresponding pressure increases can lead to
superheated steam at the EEP during part-load operation. In addition, this thermal cycle does not take full
advantage of the cycle capability, resulting in less-than-achievable cycle efficiency.
The investigation would not be complete without an evaluated cost, which includes the capital cost and
the benefit attributed to the heat rate improvements. The study matrix was based on four pressure levels
(3,500, 3,700, 4,000, and 4,500 psia [240, 255, 275, and 310 bar, respectively]). Four combinations of main
Delta HRT vs Delta NPHR

Basis 1050/1050F
1
-100 -50 0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
-0.5
Delta NPHR %
4500
-1 4000
-1.5 3700
-2 3500
-2.5
-3
-3.5
Delta Re heat Steam Temperature
steam temperature (MST) and hot reheat temperature (HRT)—1,000 °F/1,000 °F, 1,050 °F/1,050 °F,
1,100 °F/1,100 °F, and 1,150 °F/1,150 °F (538 °C/538 °C, 566 °C /566 °C, 593 °C/593 °C, and 621 °C/621 °C,
respectively)—were considered for each pressure level. The throttle pressure of 3,700 psia was considered
the base case. As indicated in Figure 1, an increase in operating pressure without a respective increase in
operating temperature is counterproductive. The best results are achieved at the highest pressure and
temperature (4,500 psi, 1,150 °F) an improvement of 0.39 percent compared with the base case.
Figure . Pressure and Temperature Impact on STG Heat Rate
Delta Throttle Pressure vs. Delta NPHR

Basis 3,700 psia
0.3
0.2
0.1
,% 0 1000/10
R 00
H -0.1 1050/10
P
N -0.2 50
a
tl
e -0.3
D
-0.4
-0.5
-300 -200-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Delta T hrottle Pressure
A similar analysis was conducted for the MST and the HRT. In the first case, both the MST and the HRT
were varied simultaneously; in the second case, only the MST was varied; and in the third case, only the
HRT was changed. The temperature of 1,050 °F/1,050 °F was considered the base case. However, for the
4,500 psia case, the analysis included the higher MST and HRT temperatures of 1,300 °F.
In the first case , the heat rate was about 2 percent worse for the lowest temperature values (1,000
°F/1,000 °F) and improved by nearly 3 percent for the higher temperature values of 1,150 °F. When the
temperature was further increased to 1,300 °F/1,300 °F, for the 4,500 psia pressure, the trend indicated an
improvement of nearly 7 percent from the base case.
Next, comparisons were made for individual changes in MST and HRT. The main and reheat steam
temperatures of 1,050 °F/1,050 °F were considered the base case. An increase in MST of 100 °F (55.55 °C)
from the base case improves the heat rate by nearly 2 percent. Again, a temperature increase of 250 °F
(121 °C) above the base case for the corresponding 4,500 psia main pressure yields a heat rate
improvement close to 5 percent. As expected, the impact of increasing only the HRT by 100 °F improves
the net plant heat rate by only 1.25 percent from the base case. When the HRT is increased by 250 °F, for
the 4,500 psi case, the improvement in heat rate is approximately 3 percent.
The cycle optimization analysis indicates that the higher the main steam throttle temperature, when
accompanied by a corresponding increase in main steam pressure, the better the cycle efficiency. An
increase in reheat temperatures also improves the cycle efficiency, but to a lesser degree. However, it is
recommended that this type of analysis be performed for each specific site condition. It is also interesting
to observe the slightly different approach taken by different manufacturers in terms of power generation
split between the HP, IP, and LP modules. For an EPC contractor, the inlet and outlet steam flow, pressure,
and temperature conditions of the HP, IP, and LP stream are important for the sizing and support of the
interconnecting elements (pipes, headers, bypass valves, and so on).
8. HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIALS:
The high thermal efficiency of the SC and USC steam power plants cannot be achieved without the use of
new alloys with higher creep strength and improved oxidation resistance. More than 20 units are in
operation worldwide with main steam temperatures of 1,080–1,112 F (582–600 C) and pressures of
3,400–4,200 psi (234–290 bar). Operation above 1,000 F was possible due to the continuous
development effort to improve the 9–12 percent ferritic steels (T91/P91, T92/P92, T112/P122), as well as
some advanced austenitic alloys (TP347, HFG, Super 304).
While the most severe requirements to withstand SC and USC operating conditions apply to boilers,
significant constraints are also relevant to STs and interconnecting hardware such as main steam pipes,
valves, and so on. It should be noted that the high temperature strength of ferritic steels (P92, P122,E91) is
equal to that of the low-end austenitic alloys, but their resistance to oxidation is lower.
A major problem associated with the use of P91/P92 materials is the need for quality control at the
manufacturing facilities. In project execution, the quality of the welding and post-welding treatments,
particularly in the field, continues to be a concern, requiring that the treatments be monitored closely.
Major initiatives to develop suitable materials are underway in the US, Europe, and Japan. The European
material development program AD 700 (named for its target of achieving 700°C [1,292 °F] as the MST)
includes research institutes and several major ST manufacturers, including Siemens, Ansaldo, and Alstom,
which are actively collaborating on this effort, despite being fierce commercial competitors.
Attaining USC main steam conditions of about 1,300 °F and 5,000 psia (345 bar) is possible only by using
nickel and chrome-nickel superalloys (e.g., Inconel 740), which exhibit the mechanical properties needed
for these high temperatures and pressures.
To minimize thermal and operational stresses, HP sections of USC equipment use triple-shell construction
(see Reference 2). With this type of arrangement, the outer casing is not subject to elevated temperatures
and can be constructed of traditional CrMoV material. The nozzle box is exposed to the highest pressures
and temperatures and should be made of forged 12CrMoVCbN steel.
Another important criterion in material selection for stationary vanes relates to the material used for
packing castings, which must be similar to the rotor material to match its thermal expansion
characteristics.
The choice of material for bolting appears to be relatively easy. The major requirements are high
resistance to stress relaxation, thermal expansion compatibility, and low notch sensitivity. As with ST
rotating blades, the experience accumulated from the use of identical materials in large industrial gas
turbines operating at high temperatures is also relevant for these applications.
The status of material development for ST parts used in various high pressure and high temperature
applications is given in Table .
Table . High Pressure and High Temperature Materials for HP Turbines
Component 1,050 °F 1,150 °F 1,300 °F 1,400 °F
Casings CrMoV (cast) 9–10% Cr (W) CF8C-Plus CCA617
(shells, valves, 10CrMoVMb 12CrW (Co) CCA617 Inconel 740

steam chests,
CrMoWVNbN Inconel 625 CF8C-Plus
nozzles)
Nimonic 263
Bolting 422 9–12% CrMoV Nimonic 105 Nimonic 105
9–12% CrMoV 12 CrMoWVNbN Nimonic 115 Nimonic 115
Nimonic 80A In 718 U700,U710
In 718 Waspaloy U720
Rotors/Discs 1CrMoV 9–12 % CrWCo CCA617 CCA617
12CrMoVNbN 12CrMoWVNbN Inconel 625 Inconel 740
26NiCrMoV11 5 Inconel 740
Hynes 230
Nozzles/Blades 422 9–12% CrWCo Wrought Wrought

Ni-based Ni-based
10CrMoVNbN 10CrMoVCbN
Piping P22 P92 CCA617 Inconel 740
It should also be emphasized that these materials must be introduced in association with rigorous
analytical prediction tools as well as comprehensive, large-scale testing programs. Without convincing
validation methodologies to predict the life expectancy of critical components, the equipment will be
introduced to the market very slowly.
Composition of AD 700.
Element Ni Cr Co Mo Other
Material
A625 63.5 21.5 0 9 Al, Ti, Nb
A617 52 22 12 9.5 Al, Ti
AC263 51 20 20 6 Al, Ti
A740 50 24 20 0.5 Al, Ti, Nm
Sanicro 25 25 22 1.5 0 W, Cu, Fe
While the design of the full-scale demonstration plant for AD700 technology maximizes the use of
the 9-12chromium ferritic/martensitic steels, there was also the need to consider the materials
required for operation above the approximately 620° temperature limit of those alloys. As a result,
development and qualification work was established for two new alloys: an austenitic steel from Sandvik
(Sanicro 25); and a nickel-based alloy from Special Metals, Inc. (alloy 740). Additionally, within the
German MARCKO Program, similar qualification work has been undertaken on the nickel-based alloy
617,intended for boiler tubes and steam lines. In fact, preliminary code approval has been available for
this alloy since the beginning of 2004 from the Germany Notified Body. As a fall-back position (should there
be problems with Sanicro 25 or alloy 740), an existing nickel-based super alloy (C263) has been included in
the program. In addition, despite its lower creep strength, alloy 617 also is a candidate for thick-walled
sections The criterion set in the AD700 Program for alloy strength is 100 MPa creep strength for 100,000
hours at the temperature of interest, so that sufficiently thin-walled pressure vessels can be used
with the expectation of minimizing thermal fatigue problems.
9. European Conference AD700 - Advanced (700 °C) PF Power Plant: A Clean Coal
European Technology
In 1998 started the ambitious AD700 - Advanced (700°C) PF Power Plant project. The overall purpose of
this project is to prepare, develop and demonstrate the next generation of pulverized coal-fired power
plants featuring advanced steam parameters. It has a great importance for the future use of coal as fuel
for power generation .The application of newly developed nickel-based super alloys is to bring the live
steam temperature up to 700°C compared with 600°C for the best plants currently commercially available.
Hereby the efficiency can be increased from 47% to 55% resulting in a reduced fuel consumption and CO2
emission of almost 15%. The plant will have an output within the range 400-1000 MW and therefore its
output will be appropriate for utility-scale electricity generation.
The new AD700 technology of coal-fired power plants supports the aim of the Kyoto-protocol to reduce
the CO2 emission in a mid-term perspective under the target for a secure and stable energy price.
Counting a total of 40 parties from 10 European countries, the project is heavily industry-oriented as two
thirds of the participating companies are developers and suppliers of power plant equipment such as
turbines, boilers, pipes and materials. Utilities and institutes for materials testing constitute the remaining
participants. The future perspective is that the coming coal-based expansion of generating capacity in
Europe and overseas (China, India, etc.) can be supported by offering a well-known technology with a
hitherto unseen efficiency.
The AD700 project is divided into four phases. Phase 1 started 1998 and contained feasibility studies,
material development and necessary testing programs. The present, Phase 2, is a continuation of the
material development and component design and testing programmes and started the basic design for a
full scale test facility.
Materials Development in the European AD700 Program
The graph above shows the relationship between power plant efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions. As
efficiency increases, specific carbon dioxide emissions decrease from 1100g/kWh at 30% net plant efficiency
to 650g/kWh at 50% efficiency. This equates to a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions of 41%. Coal
consumption is similarly reduced and clearly illustrates the benefits of efficiency increase with regard to
potential environmental protection.
R & D Programme
A Major R & D programme was established comprising of 6 phases of effort that started with a conceptual
feasibility study at the beginning of 1998. The table below shows a breakdown of the 6 phases.
It was recognized that high temperature materials were the key to the successful development of AD700
technology. Due to the extended timescales required for materials testing, validation and qualification the
programme was launched with Phase 1 comprising a conceptual feasibility study (Phase 1A) and an
investigation of materials property requirements (Phase 1B).
Phase 1 of the programme attracted 40 participants from 10 European power generators, manufactures of
power plant equipment, and material suppliers. The programme was industry-focussed and funded in-part by
the European Commission.
Following near-completion of Phase 1A, phase 2 was initiated in 2001 with 34 participants from across
Europe. Phase 2A focused on taking forward a number of boiler design concepts, while Phase 2B continued
the laboratory testing and evaluation of new high temperature materials. By 2004, the third phase, entitled
COMTES 700, was progressing with the aim of pilot-scale testing of key power plant components at a
commercial scale.
The Phase 4 pre-engineering study for a full-scale demonstration plant was scheduled for Autumn 2006.
Boiler Materials
In parallel with an ongoing R&D programme aimed at the development of a high temperature, solid solution
nickel alloy (Alloy 617) for application to both pipe work and superheater tubes, the AD700 programme
investigated precipitation-hardening nickel alloys (Alloy 263 and Alloy 740).
Collectively, this group of 3 alloys offers a range of new possibilities to the boiler designer. Alloy 617 was at
the time considered to be the easiest to fabricate as it does not require a precipitation-hardening heat
treatment, while the precipitation Alloys 263 and 740 offer superior creep and corrosion resistance
respectively.
The high cost of nickel, however, prohibits its extensive use in tubes, and so the boiler materials programme
also set out to develop a high temperature austenitic steel with average stress rupture properties of 100MPa
following 100,000 hours operation at 700°C. The austenitic material developed, Sanicro 25, has been
successfully produced in commercial quantities and is has undergone extensive testing as part of the phase 3
programme.
Turbine Materials
As with the boiler materials group, the aims of the steam turbine materials group were:
to identify suitable high temperature alloys

to demonstrate prototype manufacture and welding; and
to define properties and allowable stresses
Alloy 617 Full Scale demonstration Valve produced by Goodwin Steel Castings Ltd (UK)
Most of the alloys investigated had previously been used in other industry sectors such as aerospace and gas
turbines but required further development of AD700 technology application. Nickel-based Alloys 617 and 625
were the main candidates for many turbine components and their characterization in terms of creep,
creep/fatigue crack growth, low cycle fatigue for castings, forgings and welds was successfully completed.
Candidate alloy test specimens for material testing were produced by Goodwin Steel Castings Ltd in alloys
263, 617, 625 and 155.
Due to difficulties experienced with the castability of Alloy 617, most of the effort has been focussed on the
casting of Alloy 625. After a selection period, then two full scale demonstration valves were produced.
Both 617 and Alloy 625 have been successfully forged and considered suitable for HP and IP rotor forgings.
Welded rotor manufacture will be a key feature of AD700 turbine technology. Prototype joints have been
manufactured successfully by welding 10% Chrome steel to the nickel-based alloy. Moving and stationary
turbine blade production has been explored both by the machining and investment casting manufacturing
methods. Bolting materials have been identified and characterised. Solid particle erosion is a known potential
problem for turbine blades and the application of a protective coating has also been demonstrated.
Boiler and Turbine Design
Within the boiler design activities, potential cost savings were identified by considering shortening the main
and reheat steam lines using two novel arrangements. Firstly, a twin tower or inverse two-pass boiler design
was considered, in which firing takes place in a first tower, with the hot combustion gases moving down and
across to a second tower. The final superheater and reheater are arranged at the bottom of the second tower
with outlet headers located close to the turbine. The arrangement minimises the thermal movement between
boiler and steam lines providing a significant reduction in the length of steam piping to 25m and 30m for each
string of 400 MW reference plant. As an alternative arrangement, a horizontal boiler concept, designed with
the outlet headers on top of the boiler was considered. The low height boiler design arrangement resulted in
a similar shortening of the steam lines to around 35m to 40m for each string of a 400 MW reference plant.
In total, 10 boiler concepts with different boiler arrangements (tower type, two-pass, inverse twin tower and
horizontal furnace), different power outputs (400 MW net, 1,000 MW gross), different process cycles (single
reheat, double reheat) and different firing systems (tangential firing, opposed wall firing) have been
investigated. Turbine designs are based on relatively conventional turbine architectures to ensure high levels
of reliability. In order to minimise the use of nickel alloy components, reduce cost, and accommodate the
limited supply capacity, new turbine designs will incorporate welded rotors and castings, with nickel alloys
restricted to the highest temperature regions only.
Phase 3 - COMTES 700
The basis of the current phase of AD700 programme, COMTES 700, is a general technical concept for a
Component Test Facility (CTF) which allows the testing of plant components at an affordable cost.
COMTES 700, started in 2003, represents the third phase of the AD700 programme and is an agreement
between a group of suppliers and generators on the requirements of a comprehensive testing programme for
materials, financing possibilities and political constraints. The overall objective of the project was the design,
manufacture, erection and operation of a facility that allows the testing of the following plant components.
The above image is a flow diagram of the CTF which is installed in the coal-fired power plant Scholven F
located in Gelsenkirchen Germany.
The steam flow of 2,200 t/h produces a net output capacity of 676 MW. The steam for the testing purpose of
the CTF (12 kg/s) is taken from the inlet header of the superheater (SH1) and is led to the evaporator panel,
where it is heated to 600°C. Steam is further heated in the test superheater to 705°C before entering either
the high pressure bypass test valve, or being cooled and mixed with the main superheater steam (SH 4). In the
first case, the steam, after leaving the high pressure bypass test valve is cooled and passed through the re-
heater (RH 1) outlet header.
TURBINE INLET VALVE:The Component Test Facility (including the Goodwin alloy 625 valve) is installed in the coal-
fired power plant “Scholven F” located in Gelsenkirchen (Germany). The valve casting has been in service operating at
705’C, and in 2009 was taken off line for performance inspection after 20,000hr operation.
Fully Machined Alloy 625 Turbine Inlet Valve Casting Produced by Goodwin Steel Castings Ltd
(UK)The extended testing of key components is to enable performance data (manufacturing,
bending and welding) to be gathered on a range of advanced materials including T24, HCm12,
TP310 N, HR3c, Alloy 714, Alloy 617 and Alloy 740.
The driving force behind the COMTES 700 project was a grouping of European power generators collectively
known as the EMAX Power Plant Initiative. From this group a consortium was formed to support the project
with a substantial financial contribution. Members of this consortium are EDF (France), Electrabel (Belgium),
Elsam (Denmark), EnBW (Germany), PPC (Greece), RWE (Germany) and Vattenfall (Sweden/Germany). The
project is steered by the COMTES700-partners consortium and co-ordinated by VGB.
Project Participants
The AD700 Programme overall has involved numerous participants from across Europe. They include
companies specialising in the supply and development of power plant equipment, material testing institutes
and major utilities.
Participants
The AD700 Programme Phase 2 project participants are listed below:
Tech-wise A/s
ALSTOM (Switzerland) Ltd
ALSTOM Power Boiler GmbH
ALSTOM Power Ltd
ALSTOM Power
Ansaldo Caldei
Ansaldo Ricerche
Babcock-Hitachi Europe GmbH
BOHLER Edelstahl GmbH & Co KG
Burmeister & Wain Energy A/S
Cantro Sviluppo Materiali S.p.A
CESI Spa
Doncasters FVC Ltd
EDF R&D
EDF-SEPTEN
Eindhoven University of Technology
ENEA CRF
Energi E2 A/S
EPPSA
Fortum Power and Heat Oy
Goodwin Steel Castings Ltd
GRUPO EDP - Electricidade de Portugal
10. CONCLUSION :
The conventional types of this technology have an efficiency of around 40%. For a higher efficiency of the
technology supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal-fired technologies have been developed. These
technologies can combust pulverised coal and produce steam at higher temperatures and under a higher
pressure, so that an efficiency level of 45% can be reached (ultra-supercritical plants). Supercritical and ultra-
supercritical power plants have become the system of choice in most industrialised countries.
For carbon free and biofresh atmosphere, we have to go for
# Adopting Super Critical technology and working for Ultra Super Critical Technology.
# Putting efforts for inducting Clean Technologies
# Revising its energy mix by including non-fossil fuel based generation such as those from hydro, nuclear
and renewable energy in its portfolio.
References :
(1) http://www.vgb.org/en/research_project220.html
(2) http://www.dongenergy.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/NEW%20Corporate/PDF/Engineering/
45.pdf
(3) http://knol.google.com/k/supercritical-coal-fired-power-plant#>
(4) http:www.ad700.com
(5) https://projectweb.elsam-eng.com/AD700/default.aspx
(6) http://climatetechwiki.org
ABOUT AUTHOR:
Mr. R.G.Prajapati obtained Bachelor of Engineering degree in Mechanical from S.P. college of Engineering ,
Visnagar, Gujarat in the year 2006.
He joined GUJARAT STATE ELECTRICITY CORPORATION LTD. (earst while G.E.B.) in 2007 as Junior Engineer,
promoted as Deputy Engineer in 2011.He has been working as Boiler Erection Engineer in 800 MW Thermal
Power Plant. He has 10 years of experience in boiler operation, maintenance and commissioning of 210 and
500MW .He is certified Boiler Operation Engineer and Energy Auditor.
Energy Conservation opportunities for Industrial Boilers in Textile
Industry
Mohammad Abul Hasan Khan
Butwal Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Chamber Street,
Butwal – 8, Rupandehi, Nepal – PIN - 32900
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the findings of a boiler efficiency improvement study carried out in a textile mill as part of an energy
audit performed in 2016 on the request of the owner. The textile mill is situated in Kathmandu, capital of Nepal. The
causes for poor boiler efficiency were various heat losses such as losses due to unburnt carbon in bottom ash, loss due
to dry flue gas caused by the ID fan, radiation losses due to poor/no insulation, etc. After the analysis of the heat losses,
their causes, and opportunities for improvement, a set of recommendations was made to the plant management in order
to increase the boiler’s efficiency. Further to the implementation of these recommendations the plant observed a
remarkable increase of the boiler efficiency from 35.43 % to 64.44 %. The implementation of the recommendations will
result in annual savings of NPRs 576,000 which is almost 42 % of the previous annual expenditures on the rice husk for
the boiler. In addition, the payback period for the investment was expected to be very short, i.e. less than a year.
Keywords: Energy conservation, Boiler efficiency, Boiler heat losses
INTRODUCTION
Textile industry is one of the growing sectors in Nepal. The textile industries require a large amount of energy both
electrical and thermal energy for the processing. In Nepal, almost all the industries get the electrical energy from Nepal
Electricity Authority (NEA) but also have to maintain captive power generation in case of load shedding hours using
Diesel generator (DG) sets. For the thermal requirements of the industries, they rely on boiler technologies to fulfil the
process requirements.
In the recent years, the considerable rise in plants using process heat such as textile mills, pulp and paper, sugar mills,
etc.have resulted in enormous increase in capacity and number of process heat boiler installations in the industries of
Nepal. This growth is creating a tension on the fuel market prices, especially rice husk, increasing the production costs
for the industries and generating a need for energy efficiency and improved operating procedures. However, most of the
industries in Nepal are not operating their plants in an optimized manner and the general awareness on energy
efficiency is very low. In this context, Shree textile industry took the initiative to carry out energy audit and efficiency
analysis of his plant to assess the various heat losses and causes of poor boiler efficiency.
Zeitz [1] has explained various heat loses in boilers, that are heat losses due to unburnt carbon in bottom ash, heat loss
due to dry flue gas, heat loss due to formation of carbon monoxide, heat loss due to radiation and convection, heat loss
due to blow down. BEE Book 2 - Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities [2] has explained about boiler and combustion
along with the energy conservation opportunities in the boilers. The proper combustion is accomplished by controlling
the “three T’s” of combustion which are (1) Temperature high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2)
Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and (3) Time sufficient for complete combustion.

DETAILS OF THE CASE STUDY
The energy audit has been performed at Shree textile industry of which the boiler section was a part of the energy audit.
After the audit and calculations, the efficiency of the boiler was found to very poor as 35.49 %.
On the basis of the energy audit conducted and the analysis of the various heat losses, the following energy efficiency
improvement and energy conservation recommendations were proposed.
EXCESS AIR
The boiler has been operating at 187% excess air level and 13.7% oxygen in the flue gas which is on very high side. As
the boiler has ID fan and FD fan whereas the ID fan is larger in comparison to the FD fan. The velocity of the flue gas
was observed to be very high resulting in excessive loss of the heat in the dry flue gas with stack temperature of 445 ºC
and above. The oxygen level in the flue gas for rice husk as fuel is 6-7% to operate boiler at lower excess air (around
40%-50%). It is recommended to reduce the speed of the ID fan using by changing the pulley of the ID fan motor from 6
inches to 5 inches. The reduction of the air flow will increase the time for the better combustion and to transfer heat to
the water for the steam formation.
In addition to the speed reducing recommendation, it is also recommended to relocate the ID fan close to the chimney
after the ash collector. It will reduce the load on the ID fan as well as prevent the ID fan from chocking.
Figure 2 – Existing uninsulated Boiler

Figure 1 – Layout of the boiler installation in the plant
with economiser and ID fan

Table 1 – Results of Energy Audit Calculation before implementation
Heat Losses due to % age loss

Dry flue gas 35.15 %
Moisture from burning H2 10.89 %
Moisture in fuel 2.48 %
Moisture in air supplied 1.09 %
Unburnt carbon in ash 1.08 %
Radiation and Convection 13.82 %
Efficiency = 100 – total losses = 35.49%
INSULATION
During the audit period, it was observed that the boiler and economizer surface was not insulated at all. The surface
temperatures were measured to be 150 ºC and 103 ºC for the boiler and economizer respectively. The uninsulated
surfaces contributed in a significant amount of heat loss in the form of radiation and convection which was calculated to
15.7% out of the total heat input made to the boiler. It was recommended to insulate the boiler surfaces as well as the
economizer with proper insulation material. The temperature of surface of outer skin should not be more than 50 ºC.
RICE HUSK STORAGE
The rice husk storage is a major part of the boiler section which was located near to the boiler. It was found that the
husk fed to the boiler was partially wet due to leakage in the roofing of the husk storage after rain few days before the
energy audit. It was recommended to change the metal (steel) sheet with fibre glass sheets which will last for years as it
is rust proof.
UNBURNT CARBON IN ASH
The bottom ash from the boiler was found to be containing quite a significant amount of unburnt carbon through the
visual inspection as shown in the figure below. It was observed that insufficient time for the combustion of the husk
resulted in the significant amount of unburnt carbon content due to the higher air draft created by the ID fan. It was
recommended to reduce the speed of ID fan by changing the pulley of the motor.
Furthermore, it was suggested to perform an ultimate analysis for the bottom ash.

Figure 3 – Bottom ash containing
unburnt carbon
TRAIN PLANT PERSONNEL REGULARLY
The plant personnel are the end operators for any plant. It is very important to train the operators for the energy
efficiency issues to conserve energy hence the cost incurred on energy. It is suggested to create awareness on energy
efficiency and energy conservation and especially boiler operators need training in energy conservation areas for the
boiler.
IMPLEMENTATION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS
i. Based on the energy efficiency recommendation made for the conservations of energy in the boiler, the plant
management has changed the pulley of the ID fan motor to reduce the speed of the fan which in turn resulted
in proper combustion and reduced excess air.
ii. Because of the reduced speed of the ID fan, the flue gas losses have reduced from 35.15% to 15.92% and
boiler efficiency improved by 19.23%.
iii. With reference to the recommendations made to Shree textiles, the management has insulated the boiler and
economizer surfaces that resulted in improvement in boiler efficiency by 7.93% as the heat losses reduced
from 13.82% to 5.89%.
iv. Based on the recommendation made for the relocation of the ID fan, the management of Shree textiles
committed to relocate the ID fan after the ash collector to prevent the ID fan from chocking.
v. Based on the energy efficiency recommendations, the management has changed the damaged sheet of the
husk storage.
vi. Based on the recommendations, the owner of the industry agreed and committed to provide training to the
plant personnel on energy efficiency and energy conservation opportunities in the plant and especially in boiler
section.

RESULT
The energy efficiency of the boiler was found to be 35.49% during the performance of the energy audit. The reason for
the poor boiler efficiency was found to be various heat losses. The amount of heat losses were calculated and then
various recommendations were made to the plant management for the implementation to improve the boiler efficiency.
The plant management had implemented some of our recommendations immediately within a week such as insulation
of the boiler and changing the pulley of the ID fan motor to reduce the fan speed. After the implementation of few
recommendations, the boiler efficiency assessment was conducted again and the boiler efficiency had increased from
35.49% to 64.44% (Table 2).
Table 2 – Results of Energy Audit Calculation after implementation
Heat Losses due to % age loss

Dry flue gas 15.92 %
Moisture from burning H2 9.58 %
Moisture in fuel 2.2 %
Moisture in air supplied 0.89 %
Unburnt carbon in ash 1.08 %
Radiation and Convection 5.89 %
Efficiency = 100 – total losses = 64.44%
i. By reducing the speed of the fan, the excess air was controlled that resulted in the improvement of the
boilerefficiency form 35.49% to 54.72%.
ii. The insulation of the boiler and economizer resulted in the improvement of the boiler efficiency from 54.72% to
62.65%.
iii. The insulation of the steam pipes will further enhance the boiler efficiency.
iv. As a result of the implementation of the few recommendations made to Shree textiles, the total monetary
savings of NPRs 576,000.00 (representing 42 % of cost reduction on annual rice husk consumption) could be
achieved.

Heat Losses
40
35
30
% AGE HEAT LOSS
25
20
15
10
0
Dry flue gas Moisture from Moisture in fuel Moisture in air Unburnt carbon Radiation and
burning H2 supplied in ash Convection
Before Implementing Energy Efficiency Measures After Implementing Energy Efficiency Measures
Figure 4 – Comparison of various heat losses
CONCLUSION
The energy audit at Shree textile industry resulted in tremendously positive gains.By implementing the
recommendations of the audit the efficiency of the boiler can be improved from 35.43 % to 64.44 %. In terms of the fuel
savings, the plant will save 72 tons of rice husk per year that worth NPRs576,000.00 (representing 42 % of cost
reduction on annual rice husk consumption). Shree textiles have already started implementing the recommendations
made after the energy audit and are strongly recommending the energy audits to Nepalese industries.
REFERENCES
1. R. A. Seitz, Energy Efficiency Handbook, Council of Industrial Boiler Owners (CIBO- Burke VA), pp. 25-65, 2003.
2. “Energy performance assessment of boilers”, Bureau of Energy Efficiency. pp. 1-22
3. “Energy Efficiency Improvement Strategies for Industrial Boilers: A Case Study”, Rahul Dev Gupta et. al., Journal of
Engineering and Technology, pp. 52-56
4. “Research paper on Analysis of Boiler losses to improve Unit heat rate of coal fired thermal power plant”, Aacharya
Chiraget. al., IJAERD, Volume 1,Issue 5
5. “Energy Performance Assessment of Boiler at P.S.S.K. Ltd, Basmathnagar, Maharashtra State”, Sachin M.Rautet. al.,
IJETAE, Volume 4, Issue 12

EFEECT AND REDUCTION OF ALKALI DEPOSIT IN BIOMASS POWER
PLANT
Vikram Sachdeva*, Pankaj Arora*,
*STEAG Energy Services India Pvt. Ltd., Noida, Uttar Pradesh,India
ABSTRACT
Alkali in the ash of annual crop biomass fuels creates serious fouling and slagging in conventional boilers. Even with the use
of sorbents and other additives, plants can only fire limited amounts of these fuels in combination with wood. Sintered or
fused deposits were found on grates and in agglomerates in fluidized beds. Potassium sulfates and chlorides were found
condensed on upper furnace walls where it mixed with fly ash Convection tubes were coated with alkali chlorides,
Carbonates and sulfates mixed with silica, alumina and complex silicates from fly ash or fluidized bed media. Deposits were
evaluated using elemental analysis, X-ray diffraction and other Mineralogical techniques. These analyses have advanced
the understanding of the role of Minerals in the combustion of biomass, and their occurrence in bio fuels. Deposits occur as
a result of the boiler design, fuel properties and boiler operation. The limited furnace volume and high furnace exit gas
temperatures of most biomass boilers promote slagging or deposits from those bio fuels that contain significant amounts of
potassium or sodium, sulfur, chlorine and silica. All annual growth, whether from urban tree trimmings, annual crops or their
residues, or from energy crops, contains sufficient volatile alkali to sufficiently lower the fusion temperature of the ash so that
it melts in combustion, or the elements vaporize and condense on boiler tubes and refractories. Deposits observed in this
project are consistent with all known mechanisms for deposit formation: particle impaction, condensation, thermo phoresis
and chemical reaction. Particle impaction was the dominant mechanism, especially on cross flow tubes, followed by
condensation on water walls and chemical reaction. Analysis by scanning electron microscopy showed that compounds
containing potassium, sulfur and chlorine were the principal bonding agents in most deposits and were usually associated
with fuel blends containing annual growth materials such as agricultural crops and residues. Most deposits occur during
post-combustion and cannot be predicted solely by analysis of the fuel composition.
INTRODUCTION
The use of green energy sources, e.g., biomass (agricultural residues, Rice husk Cotton stalk, Mustard stalk etc )
substituting for fossil fuels has attracted increased attention because of the necessity to reduce the environmental
impacts of traditional electricity and heat generation from fossil fuels, as well as the depletion of these resources
and the soaring prices of fossil fuels. However, large-scale utilization of biomass for power/heat generation is
facing some technical challenges, not only the availability and affordability of biomass feedstock, but the ash
deposition/corrosion issues in biomass-fueled boilers.
Agglomeration is a major problem in straw combustion in a fluidized bed. This paper presents the results of rice
straw combustion experiments carried out under different operating conditions in a bubble-fluidized bed (BFB).
The influences of bed material size and type, feeding mode, temperature, and fluidization number on
agglomeration were discussed, and the mode of alkali accumulation in the bed was analyzed. The results
indicated that low bed temperature, short fuel in-bed residence time, high fluidization number, and small bed
material particles are conducive to agglomeration prevention. Successful extended combustion in a small BFB

and in a bench-scale circulating fluidized bed was carried out without agglomeration under selected parameters.
This work suggests the possibility for combusting high-alkali straw using fluidization technology
Biomass fuels usually contain high levels of alkali/alkaline metals, in particular potassium, and high chlorine
content, as well as low sulphur concentrations, which make the deposition of corrosive ash in biomass-fired
boilers a more severe issue than that in traditional coal-fired boilers. In the past decades, extensive studies have
been conducted on the influence of biomass fuel characteristics on flyash deposition and the deposit-related
challenges in biomass-fired boilers, technology development for ash deposition monitoring and analysis,
understanding of mechanisms and chemistry of fly ash deposition, and technology development for reducing fly
ash deposition and corrosion in biomass-involved combustion processes.
Case study 1: Photo 1- The Super heater coils distorted due to

spacer / support clamp corrosion Failure
Photo 2- Ash deposition over secondary Super heater.Tube

showing corrosion when the ash is removed.
Photo 3- A portion of secondary super heater was cut & cleaned. The tube
revealed under deposit external corrosion. There is no sign of overheating.
However loose iron oxide was seen inside the tubes.

Photo 4- Ash deposition seen in primary Super heater. Since the DESH outlet
temperature is 285 deg C, the steam temperature at last stage of primary super
heater must be higher and thus attracting ash deposits.

Photo 5- Pealed of metal exhibiting yellow, green and blue is appearance similar to
what was experienced at other biomass power plant.

Photo 6- Tube bearing, rough and graters after the deposit is removed. It is typical
of chlorine corrosion taking place under the deposit.

1.1 Influence of Biomass Fuel Characteristics on Ash Deposition during Combustion
Understanding the fuel characteristics is necessary in studies on ash deposition as the fuel characteristics would
affect fly ash deposition behaviors during combustion and play an important role in optimizing combustor/boiler
design for enhanced combustion efficiency and less operation problems, especially when biomass is used .The
fuel characteristics of biomass are very different from those common fossil fuels, including moisture content, ash
content, calorific value, and alkali/alkaline earth metal content, etc. compared to coal, biomass fuels usually have
much higher potassium (K) concentration and moisture content, as well as a lower sulfur component. In
herbaceous plants such as straw and energy crops, significantly high chlorine (Cl) concentrations are very
common. The distinct features of biomass fuels do not only influence combustion, but also significantly change
ash behaviors.
Firstly, the elements (e.g., K, Cl) in high concentration in biomass are mainly in the form of water soluble inorganic
salts, and principally as the corresponding oxides, nitrates, and chloride, etc. , which could be easily volatilized
during the combustion, leading to high mobility for alkali materials and, hence, high fouling tendency. The is
compared the ash deposition behaviors of three sorts of feedstock—straw, peat and bark with different chemical
compositions. They found that straw presented higher fouling propensity than peat and bark, because of the large
amounts of water soluble compounds found in the straw. The highly active alkali/alkaline metals (e.g., K, Na, Ca)
and Cl contents may easily form vapor phase chloride compounds/ions, and then, deposit and form a sticky layer
on the heat exchanger or heat transfer surfaces because of the low (<800 °C) melting points of these chloride
compounds (e.g., 770 °C for KCl).
Subsequently, more inorganic particles in fly ash will have a high tendency of adhering to the particles in the
existing layer, resulting into the ash layer growth. Moreover, some biomass fuels contain substantial amounts of
silica, e.g., the silica content in rice straw is typically 10 wt% of dry biomass weight.
Silicates associated with alkaline/alkaline metals could melt or sinter at 800–900 °C, which can take place in
either the solid phase or more commonly the vapor phase, via fly ash during combustion processes [19]. The
produced alkali silicates and mixed alkali and/or calcium chlorides/sulfates tend to deposit on reactor walls or heat
exchangers surfaces, causing fouling/corrosion even at a low fusion temperature (<700 °C) [20].Additionally, the
existence of heavy metals such as Pb, Zn and in some solid fuels (Recycled tires) may also influence the ash
melting behaviour as well as fouling and corrosion processes on furnace walls and in the combustor via reaction
with Cl to form gaseous compound during the combustion process, and eventually, form aerosols and
agglomerate or condense on fly ash particles upon cooling down of the flue gas.
1.2 Challenges with Ash Deposition in a Biomass-Fired or Co-Fired Combustor
Ash behaviors during combustion are closely related with the characteristics of biomass fuel (e.g., high K, Cl and
moisture content, low S content, etc.), which usually lead to greater ash related challenges for almost all
combustors/boilers when firing or co-firing biomass materials, particularly for boilers fueled with some herbaceous

materials like straw and wheat straw. Some major negative impacts of the increased ash deposition by biomass
combustion/co-firing on the efficiency and operation of a combustion system can be summarized as follows:
(1) Decrease in the combustor utilization efficiency. The increased ash deposition as well as the changed
properties of the ash deposits containing low-melting compounds such as K, Na, S and Ca would form a
kind of coating on the bottom ash particles, which is partly in a liquid form, and begin to bind the particles
together like glue ,leading to agglomeration of the ash particles in the combustor. Bed agglomeration
would eventually cause de-fluidization for a fluidized bed combustor, which would hence result in greatly
reduced combustor utilization efficiency. Moreover, deposition of fused or partially fused ash deposits on
the heat exchanger surfaces will retard the boiler heat transfer, leading to a decline in the combustor
thermal efficiency, and its capacity too.
(2) Damage to the combustor equipment Ash deposits may grow to the extent that the flue gas flow through
the boiler may be restricted, often by bridging across the steam tubes and tube bundles. This could cause
mechanical damage of the combustor components and boiler equipment, and more importantly, the ash
deposits are associated with corrosion at high temperatures. Even for large pulverized fuel furnaces, the
ash deposition on burner component and divergent surfaces could result in interference with the burner
light-up and operation. Again, the accumulation and subsequent shedding of large ash deposits on the
upper furnace and the steam tubes surfaces could restrict gas flow and thus damage the components of
the combustion system.
(3) Maintenance problems. Severe deposits, on steam tubes, in hoppers and on grates (for grate boilers)
would require premature shut-down for maintenance. Unplanned outages for off-load cleaning are
required for removing the ash deposits. For example, severe slagging occurring in a full-scale boiler
caused the system shut-down undesirably after only weeks of operation burning straw pellets. Moreover,
the build-up of accumulations of ash deposits on heat transfer surfaces also leads to increased combustor
exit gas temperatures, reducing the boiler efficiency.
The apparent mechanisms of fouling deposit formation on boiler surfaces include Condensation of inorganic
vapors, inertial impaction and sticking of particles,Thermo phoresis and possibly electrophoresis, and chemical
reaction The order in which these occur, and the relative rates, are important to the Morphology and mechanical
properties of the deposits. There are three principal
Undesirable effects of deposits:

1) Deposits retard the heat transfer and lead to an eventual decline in boiler efficiency and capacity if they cannot
be removed according to the design assumptions for the boiler,
2) Deposits can grow to the extent that flow through the boiler is restricted, often bridging across tubes and tube
bundles, and causing mechanical damage.
3) Deposits are associated with corrosion. Deposits which are less tenacious and easily
(e.g., by soot blowing), represent less of a problem to facility operators than those which are hard to remove,
and require shutting down the boiler for cleaning.

Photo 7: The ash fouled at pendant SH seemed to melt and drip from here. It is possible
that the ash lumps found in bed ash were originating here.

2.1 PROJECT FORMULATION
Firing or co-firing high-alkali (K/Na) herbaceous biomass fuels such as switch grass and wheat straw would lead
to severe problems of slagging and fouling on boiler surfaces, and the chlorine compounds in volatile ash would
result in corrosion of heat transfer surface inside the boiler . Various technologies for reducing ash deposition as
well as corrosion have been studied.
These include:
Addition of so-called combustion additives such as sulphur or SO2 and Al2O3/SiO2 CO-firing bio-fuels with low
fouling-tendency fuels pretreatment of the feedstock to reduce the alkali metals, and modification of the boiler
(e.g., modification of the re-heater and super-heater in order to allow for larger spacing, more soot-blowing and a
decrease in the live steam temperature to less than 500 °C, etc.).The first two ash-deposition tackling
technologies as mentioned above (which are the most widely studied) are reviewed and discussed in the following
sections.
Co firing with high ash coal:-
Firing ash coal along with biomass will help to modify ash chemistry. When the ash begins to condense, the acidic
ash particles work as nuclei.[2]This avoids the depositing of KCL & NaCl over tube. Thus acidic ash particle
perform the cleaning action on KCL & NaCl deposits and preventing buildup. This action cannot be done by soot
blower.
Reducing the proportion of Sodium/Potassium content in ash by fly ash addition.
The biomass fuels typically contain large amount of sodium & potassium. With mixing of fuels that contain
silica/alumina we can control the ash fusion/slaging/fouling temperature of the ash. In microscopic levels not all
constituents of ash melt at the same temp. It is the low melting temp. ash constituents melt first & trap the other
part .if the proportion of silica & alumina part is raised. We can control the overall slagging/fouling pattern. The
same phenomenon occurs in coal-biomass cofired FBC boilers. Indian coals provide this advantage unlike low
ash coals. In co firing ash compositing gets modified. These ash constituents modification can be varied by
injecting coal based power plant fly ash along with biomass fuel. There may be a possibility of the reducing fouling
nature of ash in the final SH section. Coal ash of Indian coal from power plant would have high silica &alumina &
the ash, the ash chemistry modification would be easier with as low as 10% ash by weight to present fuel. The fly
ash injection process must be commenced immediately after the replacement of new SH coils, after 6 months we
need to assess the corrosion damage. The ash modification may prevent/reduce the formation of KCl & NaCl
which is the main factor foe chlorine corrosion. Adding fine sand also should help to modify the ash deposit
content.
Fouling by purely sodium based biomass:-
As the coils are replaced new, do not commence the use of chlorine based fuels immediately. We

Can allow deposits on the SH tubes with purely sodium based ash for few days. Fuels such as coffee husk & GN
shell would help to foul the SH tubs with sodium based foulants. Sodium silicates will be the first deposits content
in that case. Rice husk mix will also help in building ash layer that is free of later we may start using the
combination of fuels with chlorine containing fuels. The soot blower in final SH area must not be operated. The
chlorine corrosion is more when its partial pressure is more than the oxygen at the base metal .i.e. Fe. If we build
up the non chlorine ash layer then the chlorine may not be able to diffuse easily in to the oxidizes iron.
2.2. OBJECTIVES
1. To reduce/Prevent the alkali deposits and ash/slagging material from the super heater and economizer of boiler
in biomass power plant.
2. To enhance the efficiency of boiler.
3. To reduce the fuel loss.
4. To increase the steam/fuel ratio.
3.1. TESTING
Although addition of combustion additives would solve ash-related problems to some extent during biomass
combustion/co-firing, selection of the most optimal additive to achieve the best efficiency while keeping a low extra
cost and avoiding materials handling risks and possible environmental issues is still challenging. Co-firing biomass
with low fouling-tendency fuels would be an effectively alternative measure for preventing ash deposition by
utilizing fuels of either low ash-content or abundant ash-deposition-retarding compounds. For instance, co-
combustion of straw with coal was proved to be an effective way to avoid the sintering problems associated with
the problematic straw combustion. As kaolinite and other aluminosilicates are abundantly present in most coals, it
is likely that an alkali absorption mechanism is active during the co-combustion. Moreover, some biofuels such as
sewage sludge contain different aluminum silicates, silica and alumina, which could increase biomass ashes
sintering temperatures and reduce their fouling deposition in various studies.
Fly ash is injected through the fuel feeder.Flyash is fed with dosing system at one hour interval
With amount of 100 KG which is our hit & trail method. It works which help to reduce the temp. of flue ash temp. at
Heat Exchanger.
3.2 Results and Discussion
Above discussion increase the boiler efficiency, by reducing the alkali deposits at heat exchangers. With the
increase of deposits at heat exchangers, reduce the heat transfer rate and consequently there is a loss of heat
and fuel efficiency.
Unhealthy Parameter shows the heat transfer rate of PSH I/L, PSH O/L, SSH I/L, SSH O/L, ECO O/L TEMP.
Which keep on reducing while flue gas temps. at resp. heat exchanger is keep on increasing.

Unhealthy Parameter Healthy Parameter
TIME
Sr. No. Parameter Unit 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00
1 MSP KG/CM2 65 64 63 62
2 MST Degree C 455 456 453 456
3 PSH I/L Degree C 250 255 286 288
4 PSH O/L Degree C 350 335 404 407
5 SSH I/L Degree C 357 348 408 410
6 SSH O/L Degree C 400 401 456 458
7 Furnace Temp. Left Degree C 915 930 862 870
8 Furnace Temp.Right Degree C 910 925 766 778
9 PSH flue gas Temp.1 Degree C 800 812 717 719
10 PSH flue gas Temp.2 Degree C 803 818 672 679
11 SSH flue gas Temp.1 Degree C 700 695 630 633
12 SSH flue gas Temp.2 Degree C 690 698 686 680
14 Eco O/L flue gas Temp. Degree C 400 405 317 320
15 APH O/L Flue gas Temp. Degree C 240 250 218 221
16 Eco O/L water Temp. Degree C 200 190 239 230
This can be clear from the healthy parameter, after addition of additive heat transfer rate of PSH I/L, PSH O/L,
SSH I/L, SSH O/L, ECO O/L increases and temp. Of furnace, flue gas temp. at PSH,SSH,ECO,APH
Decreases and consequently efficiency increases.
It is clear from table 2 and Graph that after certain limit there is a straight curve which shows the optimum level.
From above table, it is very clear that alkali deposition at heat exchanger reduces by addition of additives.
Weight IN Kg
Sr. No. Parameter Unit 150 100 50
1 MSP KG/CM2 65 64 63
2 MST Degree C 455 456 455
3 PSH I/L Degree C 285 287 255
4 PSH O/L Degree C 408 409 375
5 SSH I/L Degree C 405 407 365
6 SSH O/L Degree C 454 460 430
7 Furnace Temp. Left Degree C 850 850 875

8 Furnace Temp.Right Degree C 840 845 875
9 PSH flue gas Temp.1 Degree C 720 715 780
10 PSH flue gas Temp.2 Degree C 690 670 725
11 SSH flue gas Temp.1 Degree C 639 633 680
12 SSH flue gas Temp.2 Degree C 680 677 690
14 Eco O/L flue gas Temp. Degree C 320 317 345
15 APH O/L Flue gas Temp. Degree C 220 218 230
16 Eco O/L water Temp. Degree C 245 250 230
900
800 PSH I/L

PSH O/L
700 SSH I/L
SSH O/L
600 Furnace Temp.
Primary flue Temp.1
500 Primary flue Temp.2
SSH flue gas Temp.1
400 SSH flue gas Temp.2
TEMP. in degree Eco O/L Flue gaTemp.
300 APH O/L flue gas Temp.
Eco O/L Water Temp.
200
100
50 100 150
Weight in KG
PSH-Primary Superheater, SSH- Secondary Superheater,APH-Air Preheater

Photo 8 & 9: The picture at economiser banks. No severe fouling seen. But the tubes
are covered with a layer of deposit.

Photo 10: The picture above PSH. There is no blocking of passage.

Photo 11: The LTSH coils are seen in between the staggered coils. The tubes are clear of
blockages. But deposits are there. Running on 100% coal / high percent of coal, for 24 hrs
would clean up the boiler.

CONCLUSION
Co firing of biomass with coal is an ideal way to make use of biomass that is available near the plant location.
Addition of fly ash from coal fired boiler or fine sand addition can also modify the behavior of deposition and
modify Boiler designers should review the location of superheater to avoid corrosion problems.
As per our above experiment we can improve the boiler efficiency by increasing the heat exchange within the heat
exchangers (Primary super heater, Final Super heater Economizer, Secondary Super heater also).It is very clear
in the graph plotted between Temp. and flash quantity that after optimum point there may be temp. Difference at
heat exchanger is very less.
Addition of fly ash in boiler through feeder remove the sticky layer of deposits at heat exchangers which increase
the heat exchange rate and thus less consumption of fuel is required hence less investment at fuel.
High heat transfer with less consumption of fuel increase the high steam to fuel ratio which increase the boiler
efficiency and less investment at fuel increase the plant efficiency. Depositions removal at heat exchangers also
provides the boiler to run long run and less shut down period. It is very clear from the table that water temp. At
economizer, superheater (heat exchanger) increases.
Co-firing of high ash coal is expected to change the ash chemistry. The alkali percent in fly ash would reduce as
generally Indian coals have more silica and alumina. Leaving the silica that may be consumed by the alkalis,
remaining particles have high melting points. The mix is seen to clear the deposition. This is being experienced
since the last start up, as the mill rejects are being co-fired. The mill rejects being high in ash content are
preventing the deposit build up. Yet when the boiler was shut, there was a thin layer of ash layer over the tubes.
See photo in annexure.
Mixing of fly ash from coal fired boilers would modify the ash chemistry. The fly ash to be mixed should not be rich
in alkalis. It has to contain more of alumina. When we mix more quantity of ash, the deposition on tube is seen to
reduce to a large extent because particles are available for adhesion.
REFERENCES
[1] Applied Energy, Chunjiang Yu, Jianguang Qin, Hu Nie, Mengxiang Fang, Zhongyang Luo
[2] Baxter, L. Biomass-Coal Co firing: An Overview of Technical Issues. In Solid Biofuel for Energy Sami, M.; Annamalai, K.; Wooldridge,
M. Co-firing biomass fuel blends. Prog.
[3] Grammelis, P.; Skodras, G.; Kakaras, Effects of biomass co-firing with coal on ash properties.
[4] The Handbook of Biomass Combustion & Co-Firing; Loo, S.V., Koppejan, J., during co-firing biomass and coal in a fluidized-bed
combustor.

Feasibility Study for SOx, NOx and PM Control Mechanism
Rakesh Kumar Lenka.Author,
Odisha Power Generation Corporation Limited, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751023, India
ABSTRACT
Coal is the primary fuel for electricity generation in India and its usage is continuously increasing to meet the energy
demands of the country. With over 60% of total installed capacity thermal power stations are potential contributors to
emissions leading to substantial damage to environmental ecosystems. The objectives of this paper is to study various
available SO2, PM and NOx control technologies to achieve the required level of SO2, PM and NOx meeting the
stringent norms recommended by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) for future thermal
power stations.
During this evaluation, various SO2, PM and NOx control processes were reviewed and compared to determine .the
most advantageous system to meet the MoEFCC norms. This paper discusses the technical suitability and relative
costs of these technologies for application for both design coal and worst coal.
These emissions which include nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), and particulate
matter (PM) are released whenever fossil fuels are burned in the combustion chamber of a steam generator.
Emissions from thermal power plants are influenced by many factors. CO2 and SO2 emissions are influenced by the
chemical composition (particularly carbon and sulphur content) of coal and the coal usage per unit of electricity. NO
emissions are influenced by the excess air used during combustion and the coal usage.
Modernization with reduction in coal usage (kg/kWh) will help in reducing the national emissions. Quality of Indian coal
will remain same but with the improvement in combustion technologies, adopting innovative emission control
mechanisms the SOx, NOx emissions can be reduced.
Keywords: SOx, NOx, PM, combustion, MoEFCC
INTRODUCTION
Emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants are increasing in India with the increasing demand for
electricity. The aspiration for rapid economic growth leading to rapid industrialization coupled with accelerated
urbanization and mechanization of agriculture has been responsible for this increasing demand of electricity
ever since the independence. In India abundant supply of coal locally and sustained high prices for imported
natural gas and oil make coal-fired generation of electricity more attractive economically. Coal is
approximately 90% of the total fuel mix for electricity generation.
Coal and lignite based power plants have more than 60% of the total electric power generation capacity in
India. However, relatively lower calorific value, coupled with high ash content and inefficient combustion
technologies aggravates emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants from India’s coal and lignite
based thermal power plants. Main emissions from coal fired and lignite based thermal power plants are CO2,
NOx, SOx, and air-borne inorganic particles such as fly ash, carbonaceous material (soot), suspended
particulate matter (SPM), and other trace gas species. Thermal power plants, using about 70% of total coal in
India, are among the Large Point Sources (LPS) having significant contribution (47% each for CO2 and SO2)
in the total LPS emissions in India.

In continuing efforts to safeguard the environment and reduce emissions from power sector, India has made
the following commitments in 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 21) held in Paris,
France from 30th November 2015 to 12th December 2015.
• India intends to reduce the emissions intensity of its DGP by 33 to 35% by 2030 from 2005 level
• To achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based
energy resources by 2030 with the help of transfer of technology and low cost international finance.
• Introducing new, more efficient and cleaner technologies in thermal power generation.
Further to reduce emissions from thermal power stations,Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC) issued a notification (S.O. 3305 (E) on 7th December 2015), that sets new standards for air
emissions and water consumption for the coal-based thermal power units with the primary aim to minimise
pollution. These standards are proposed to be implemented in phased manner. The new emissions standards
include not only stringent limits for Particulate Matter (PM) emissions but also include stringent limits for
oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and mercury (Hg) emissions. Table- 1 depicts the new
emission limits specified by MoEFCC. The present installed capacity of coal based thermal power plants is 1,
85,177 MW as on 31.03.2016 and 72,355 MW is under construction which is likely to be affected by the new
norms.
Table-1 MOEFCC Notification
TPPs installed after 31st

TPPs installed before TPPs to be installed
Emission Parameter December 2003 and upto
31st December from 1st January 2017
31st December 2016
Particulate Matter 100 mg/Nm3 50 mg/Nm3 30 mg/Nm3
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 600 mg/Nm3 for units 600 mg/Nm3 for units 100 mg/Nm3
less than 500MW less than 500MW
capacity capacity
200 mg/Nm3 for units 200 mg/Nm3 for units

500MW and above 500MW and above
capacity capacity
Oxides of Nitrogen(NOx) 600 mg/Nm3 300 mg/Nm3 100 mg/Nm3
The new standards are aimed at reducing emission of PM10 (0.98 Kg/MWh), Sulphur Dioxide (7.3 Kg/MWh)
and oxides of nitrogen (4.8 Kg/MWh), which in turn help in bringing about an improvement in the Ambient Air
Quality (AAQ) in and around thermal power plants. The technology employed for the control of the limit of
sulphur dioxide-SO2, Nitrogen Oxide-NOx will help in control of mercury emission (at about 70-90%) as a co-
benefit.
SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS FROM COMBUSTION PROCESS IN A TPS

SOX FORMATION
The combustion of fuels containing sulphur (LDO, HFO and Coals) results in pollutants occurring in the form
of SO2 (sulphur dioxide) and SO3 (sulphur trioxide) together referred to as SOx (sulphur oxides). The level of
SOx emitted depends on the sulphur content of the fuel. Typically, about 95% of the sulphur in the fuel will be
emitted as SO2, 1-5% as SO3, and 1-3% as sulphate particulate.
PARTICULATE MATTER (PM)
Emissions of particulate matter (PM) from combustion sources consists of different types of compounds,
including nitrates, sulphates, carbons, oxides and any uncombusted elements in fuel. Particulate Matter
emissions generally are classified into two categories, PM and PM10. PM10 is a particulate matter with a
diameter less than 10 microns. PM emissions depend on the grade of fuel fired in boilers.
NOX FORMATION
The principal nitrogen pollutants generated by steam generators are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen oxide
(NO2), collectively referred to as NOx. The majority of NOx produced during combustion is NO (95%). Once
emitted into atmosphere, NO reacts to form NO2. It is NO2 that reacts with pollutants to form ozone. In
industrial boilers, NOx is primarily formed in two ways: thermal NOx and fuel NOx.
Thermal NOx is formed when nitrogen and oxygen in combustion air combine with one another at high
temperature in a flame. Fuel NOx is formed by the reaction of nitrogen in the fuel with oxygen in combustion
air. The most significant factors resulting in NOxemissions from Steam Generators are flame temperature,
amount of nitrogen in air, excess air level and combustion air temperature. Flame Temperature primarily
affects thermal NOx formation, the amount of nitrogen in fuel determines the level of fuel NOx emissions.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES AVAILABLE
The Control technologies for SOX, SPM and NOx are listed in the section 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 with a description of
the technology which includes information on the working principle, retrofit considerations, pros and cons of
the technology.
1.1 SOX CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

1.2 A number of post-combustion flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems have demonstrated SO2 removal
capabilities for use downstream of a PC fired boiler. Many different FGD systems either are currently in
use or are available for full-scale utility application. The following are the generally applied FGD systems
as identified in below sub sections.
1.1.1 WET LIMESTONE BASED FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
Wet limestone-based FGD processes are frequently applied to pulverized coal fired boilers that combust
medium-to-high sulphur coals. Typically, the wet FGD processes on a pulverized coal facility are
characterized by high efficiency (> 98 percent) and high reagent utilization (95 to 97 percent) when combined

with a high sulphur fuel. The ability to realize high removal efficiencies on higher sulphur fuels is a major
difference between wet scrubbers and semi-dry FGD processes. It is well known that SO2 removal
efficiencies for wet FGD systems are generally higher for high sulphur coal applications than for low sulphur
coal applications, for the fundamental physical reason that the chemical reactions that remove SO2 are faster
if the inlet SO2 concentration is higher. The absolute emissions level becomes a limiting factor due to a
reduction in the chemical driving forces of the reactions that are occurring. Thus, the calculated removal
efficiency of the various types of wet scrubbers declines as the fuel sulphur content decreases.
In a wet FGD system, the absorber module is located downstream of the induced draft (ID) fans (or booster ID
fans, if required). Flue gas enters the module and is contacted with slurry containing reagent and by product
solids.The SO2 is absorbed into the slurry and reacts with the calcium to form CaSO3.1/2H2O and
CaSO4.2H2O. SO2 reacts with limestone reagent through the following overall reactions:
SO2 + CaCO3 + ½H2O → CaSO3.½H2O + CO2

SO2 + CaCO3 + 2H2O + ½O2 → CaSO4.2H2O + CO2
Figure 1.1-1 Process Flow Diagram of a Spray Tower Wet FGD System (Source: Alstom)
1.1.2 AMMONIA BASED FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
In the Ammonia based Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) process, aqueous ammonia is used as the absorbent
to capture the SO2 in the flue gas and the ammonium sulphite ([NH4]2S04) solution formed is oxidized to
ammonium sulphate solution by air introduced into the absorber. Makeup water is added to the absorber to

keep the scrubbing liquor diluted. Finally, the flue gas passes through a mist eliminator to remove any
droplets. The ammonium sulphate solution is concentrated by the heat from the flue gas, and the yielding
ammonium sulphate slurry is sent to the ammonium sulphate system to get dehydrated by a hydro cyclones.
After being dried by a dryer, the ammonium sulphate is packaged into product bags by a packaging machine.
The by-product of the ammonia-based process is ammonium sulphate, which is a saleable fertilizer. The
entire process unit consists of Flue gas system, Absorption-recirculation System, Oxidation Air System,
Ammonium Sulphate Post-treatment System, Absorbent System, Process Water System, and Maintenance
blow down system.
1.1.3 SEA WATER FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
Seawater has high natural alkalinity and can effectively control SO2 emissions without supplemental reagents.
The flue gas to the sea water FGD plant is picked up from the duct downstream of the ID fans to the stack
inlet. The flue gas is merged at the downstream of ID fan outlet and the merged flow enters into the FGD
absorber. In the FGD absorber/ tower, flue gas (generated by the power plant) and the liquid absorbent (the
circulating seawater downstream from the condenser) encounter and chemical reactions occurs so that the
SO2 in gas is converted into bisulphite ion HSO3-and then it is partially oxidized to sulphate ion SO42-. The
efficient contact between liquid and flue gas is very essential to ensure that the contained SO2 in flue gas is
absorbed efficiently. The treated clean flue gas passes through the absorber and is emitted to the ambient
from the stack.
1.1.4 SEMI-DRY FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
The semi dry FGD process uses calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH) 2] produced from the lime reagent as either a
slurry or as a dry powder to the flue gas in a reactor designed to provide good gas-reagent contact. The SO2
in the flue gas reacts with the calcium in the reagent to produce primarily calcium sulphite hemihydrate
(CaSO3•1/2H2O) and a smaller amount of calcium sulphate dihydrate (CaSO4•2H2O) through the following
reactions:
SO2 + Ca (OH) 2 → CaSO3•½H2O + ½H2O

SO2 + Ca (OH) 2 + ½O2 → CaSO4•2H2O
Water is also added to the reactor (either as part of the reagent slurry or as a separate stream) to cool and
humidify the flue gas, which promotes the reaction and reagent utilization. Significantly less water is used in
these semi-dry FGD processes compared to wet FGD processes.
The semi-dry FGD processes offer benefits in addition to SO2 removal, including the lack of a visible vapour
plume and SO3 removal. Because the semi-dry FGD systems do not saturate the flue gas with water, there is
no visible plume from the stack under most weather conditions. Environmental concerns with SO3 emissions
are also reduced with the semi-dry scrubber. SO3 is formed during combustion and will react with the
moisture in the flue gas to form sulphuric acid (H2SO4) mist in the atmosphere. An increase in H2SO4

emissions will increase PM10 emissions. The gas temperature leaving the reactor is lowered below the
sulphuric acid dew point, and significant SO3 removal will be attained as the condensed acid reacts with the
alkaline reagent. By removing SO3 in the flue gas, the condensable particulate matter emissions can be
reduced. This will reduce the potential for any SO3 plume that may cause opacity in stacks.
1.1.5 MULTI POLLUTANT REMOVAL SYSTEMS
There are several systems that incorporate a wet FGD system as a part of a larger multi-pollutant system or
integrated FGD system. Emerging technologies are Powerspan Electro-Catalytic Oxidation Process,
Cansolv® technology, Power Integrated Emission Control System, Enviroscrub, Phenix Clean Coal, SNOXTM
Technology Description, Electron Beam Process ROFA-ROTAMIX (Mobotec), ROFA System, ROTAMIX ,
SOX-NOX-Rox Box (SNRBTM), ReACT™ process CEFCO process Airborne process.
1.1.6 FURNACE/DUCT REAGENT INJECTION
Two potential low-efficiency, low capital cost SO2 control options are furnace and duct injection systems.
Each of these two control technologies require either a wet or dry reagent such as sodium bicarbonate,
powdered lime, hydrated lime, lime slurry, limestone or magnesium hydroxide to name a few. This technology
is typically capable of removing between 20 to 50 percent of the SO2 in the flue gas and its removal efficiency
is highly dependent on the application, primarily the configuration of the existing ductwork and the flue gas
resident time in the ductwork.
Furnace injection can reduce or eliminate fireside slagging, fouling, corrosion and erosion problems in the
furnace. Other benefits in terms of various efficiency improvements include; savings through greater heat
transfer cleanliness, reduction of periodic air heater replacement, increase in overall unit reliability, boiler
cleaning costs reduction, and ultimately extending unit runs to the point where only scheduled outages are
taken. A fabric filter located downstream of the sorbent injection location will also improve sorbent utilization
as well as further lower acid gas emissions.
1.1.7 COAL WASHING
Pre-combustion control technology including fuel cleaning or treatment method can be considered for
reducing baseline SO2 emissions. One way of reducing SO2 emissions from a coal fired plant is to remove
the sulphur from the coal prior to the combustion process. The basic theory of coal washing is that pure coal
is lighter than rock or any impurities that are contained in the coal. Coal washing utilizes various techniques
such as high speed coal washes or agitating liquids to produce a separation of impurities from the coal. As a
part of this separation of impurities, pyritic sulphur will be separated from the coal product.
1.2 SPM CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
PM control technologies that are identified as available for SPM reduction are listed below with a short
summary of each technology in the following sub-sections:
1.2.1 EXIXTING ESP ENHANCEMENTS

After ensuring that the ESP equipment is mechanically sound, various upgrade technologies can be
considered to improve the ESP performance. Some of the measures that can be taken into account are
increasing the number of fields, combining ESP and FF technologies, coping with high resistivity by providing
more even current distribution through efficient discharge electrode deign, reducing ash resistivity by
conditioning with sulphur trioxide (SO3), moisture or other agents, optimizing rapping procedures and
reducing rapping losses, providing wider plate spacing and replacing weighted wire with pipes and spikes.
Some of the ESP enhancements measure is discussed in brief below.
• Improve ESP Plate Rapping Efficiency
• Improve ESP Electrical and Control System
• Install Collector Plate Alignment or Straightening System.
• Rebuild of ESP Structure
• Replacing last field of ESP with bag house.
• Replacing last field of ESP with Moving-electrode
1.2.2 DUAL FLUE GAS CONDITIONING
For most coal fired power boilers in India, the fly ash produced usually have high resistivity. The reason for
the higher fly ash resistivity in low-sulphur fuels is the lower concentration of ionic sulphur oxides molecule in
the flue gas that have high conductivity. This is not optimal for fly ash capture in an ESP and also limits the
boiler fuel flexibility as the ESP design is based on a limited range of fly ash characteristics. To improve the
capture of the particulate in the ESP and to overcome the limited range of fly ash applicability for capture in an
ESP, the flue gas leaving the air heater into the ESP can be conditioned by the addition of ionic compounds
such as sulphur trioxide and ammonia. Injecting a small amount of SO3 into the flue gas prior to its entry into
the ESP creates sulphuric acid (SO3 + H2O→ H2SO4). These compounds combine with the moisture in the
flue gas and are deposited on the surface of the fly ash particles. This will increase the conductivity of the fly
ash, therefore making it suitable to be captured (increasing the collection efficiency of the ESPs). Dual gas
conditioning refers to injection of both SO3 and ammonia independently.
1.2.3 PULSE JET FABRIC FILTER
Fabric filters are media filters that the flue gas passes through to remove the particulate. Each fabric filter may
have thousands of these filter bags. The filter unit is typically divided into compartments which allow online
maintenance or bag replacement. The quantity of compartments is determined by maximum economic
compartment size, total gas volume rate, air-to-cloth (A/C) ratio, and cleaning system design. Bag selection
characteristics vary with cleaning technology, emissions limits, flue gas and ash characteristics, desired bag
life, capital cost, A/C ratio, and pressure differential.
In pulse jet fabric filters (PJFF) the flue gas typically enters the compartment hopper and passes from the
outside of the bag to the inside, depositing particulate on the outside of the bag. To prevent the collapse of
the bag, a metal cage is installed on the inside of the bag. The flue gas passes up through the centre of the
bag into the outlet plenum. The bags and cages are suspended from a tube sheet.

1.2.4 GE MAX 9 HYBRID
The Max-9 electrostatic filter is essentially a high-efficiency pulse-jet fabric filter. However, it is useful to think
of the Max-9 as an electrostatic precipitator without collecting plates. When the dust particles are charged,
they are attracted to the grounded metal cage inside the filter element, just as they would be attracted to the
collecting plates in an ordinary precipitator. Since the particles are charged positively, they repel each other
on the surface of the filter, making the collected dust cake very porous. This results in a reduction of filter
drag at a pressure drop about 25 percent of a normal fabric filter.
Process gas enters the Max-9 from a hopper inlet duct. The gas then flows upward through the filters and out
through the top of the filters. The area above the tube sheet is a clean gas plenum. Compressed air pulses
are used to clean the filters. A brief, intense blast of air is fired through the purge air manifold; holes in the
blowpipes located above the filters direct the cleaning air pulse down through the filters. The cleaning
sequence is controlled by timers which trigger solenoids. The high voltage system operates at very low
current densities and at a steady state. There is no danger of fire caused by sparking, and the transformer/
rectifier requires no voltage control.
1.2. 5 MULTI CYCLONE
Multiple-cyclone separators, also known as multi-cyclones, consist of a number of small-diameter cyclones,

operating in parallel and having a common gas inlet and outlet, as shown in the figure. Multi-clones operate
on the same principle as cyclones - creating a main downward vortex and an ascending inner vortex. Multi-
cyclones, are more efficient than single cyclones because they are longer and smaller in diameter. The longer
length provides longer residence time while the smaller diameter creates greater centrifugal force. These two
factors result in better separation of dust particulates. The pressure drop of multi-cyclones, collectors is
higher than that of single-cyclone separators.Cyclone collectors are centrifugal collectors that rely on the
particle density and velocity to separate the fly ash from the flue gas. The particulate-laden flue gas enters
the top or the side of the cyclone.
1.2.6 WET ESP
A wet ESP is installed downstream of an existing wet FGD system where the flue gas is already saturated, so
the amount of added water is minimized. The particulate collection efficiency is enhanced by a lack of re-
entrainment after contact with the wet walls (as contrasted with re-entrainment due to rapping on a dry
electrostatic precipitator). Therefore, the wet ESP is well suited for fine particulate or acid mist applications by
reducing opacity, sulphuric acid mist (H2SO4) and other aerosols.
Several major hurdles exist with the use of a wet ESP. First, the flue gas must be saturated with moisture
prior to entering the ESP to allow the wet ESP to work correctly. This requires that a quenching system be
installed to add water to the flue gas to reduce the flue gas temperature to the saturation point or the wet ESP
needs to be installed downstream of an existing wet FGD system. Without the presence of a wet FGD
system, the wet ESP adds additional cost, increases water demand on the plant, and generates a visible
moisture plume at the stack outlet. The removed particulate would also be contained in a wastewater stream
that is generated by the wet ESP. In addition to this issue, the capital cost of a wet ESP is very high as

compared to other technologies due to the higher cost of the alloy materials required for the wet ESP. Higher
grade of material is required to withstand the highly corrosive conditions presented by the wet and acidic flue
gas stream.The WESP system may require continuous injection of dispersant into the system to help
eliminate scale formation within the module. The dispersant can be stored in a small tank and fed into the
flush water surge tank allowing dispersant to enter the modules through the spray levels.
1.3 NOx CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
NOx control technologies that are identified as available for SPM reduction are listed below with a short
summary of each technology in the following sub-sections:
1.3.1 OVER FIRE AIR
Over fire Air (OFA) is an air staging NOx reduction technique which is based on withholding 15 to 20 percent
of the total combustion air conventionally supplied to the high temperature zone of the furnace. OFA systems
reduce NOx formation by creating a fuel rich combustion zone, where the furnace temperature is hot. The
OFA is introduced above the main combustion zone (fuel is introduced in an oxygen-starved environment)
where fuel burnout can be completed at a lower temperature with fewer volatile nitrogen-bearing combustion
products. The performance which can be expected from a given OFA system depends upon a number of
factors. As the amount of OFA is increased, the stoichiometry in the burner zone decreases and a point is
reached at which CO emissions reach high levels and become uncontrollable. The point at which this occurs
can be boiler and coal type specific, particularly if a fuel is in anyway difficult to burn.
A fairly high level of unburned material leaving the burner zone can be accommodated by proper over fire
port design, where requirements call for rapid and complete mixing of the OFA with the boiler flue
gases.Greater NOx reduction can be achieved by aggressively staging the combustion. There will be a slight
reduction in effectiveness due to other factors but by limiting the O2 level as load is reduced, OFA systems
can be effective.The typical effect of OFA addition to a new or retrofit low NOx burner system is a further 10 to
20 percent reduction of NOx emissions.
1.3.2 NEURAL NETWORKS
Neural networks utilize a DCS based computer system that obtains plant data such as load, firing rate, burner
position, air flow, NOx emissions, etc. The computer system analyses the impact of various combustion
parameters on NOx emissions. The system then provides feedback to the control system to improve operation
for lower NOx emissions. With this combustion system performance monitoring equipment in place, it is
expected that sufficient information would be available to maintain the performance of each burner at optimum
conditions to enable operations personnel to maintain the most economical balance of peak fuel efficiency and
emissions of NOx and CO.
1.3.3 OXYGEN ENHANCED COMBUSTION
The current technology, as applied to coal-fired boilers, replaces approximately 5% - 10% of the stoichiometric
combustion air requirement with an equivalent amount of pure oxygen. This amount of pure air reduces the
throughput of combustion gases through the boiler by a slightly less percentage. For a 600 MW unit, 5%-

10% replacement of the combustion air represents very large oxygen consumption rates. To support the large
quantity of oxygen used in the process, an oxygen supply company would likely be contracted with to
generate the oxygen on site.Oxygen enhanced staged combustion serves to reduce both NOx and unburned
carbon through an increase in the local flame temperature for a given stoichiometric ratio. Theincrease in
temperature reduces NOx by driving the reactions towards the formation of N2 rather than NOx. The increased
temperature, when coupled with higher local oxygen inlet concentrations leads to increased devolatilization
rates, which in turn leads to less residual carbon that must be burned in the second stage, and less unburned
carbon in the ash.
1.3.4 NEW LOW NOx BURNERS
The basic NOX reduction principles for low NOX burners are to control and balance the fuel and airflow to
each burner, and to control the amount and position of secondary air in the burner zone so that fuel
devolatisation and high temperature zones are not oxygen rich. In this process, the mixing of the fuel and the
air by the burner, is controlled in such a way that ignition and initial combustion of the coal takes place under
oxygen deficient conditions, while the mixing of a portion of the combustion air is delayed along the length of
the flame.The net result of staged combustion is usually longer and/ or wider flames, due to this delayed
mixing process. This is also one of the main reasons why low NOX combustion is normally associated with
the potential for increased carbon in ash and higher CO emissions, as the combustion process begins to
encroach on cooled boiler surfaces. This is particularly true of wall-fired boiler systems, where, compared to
tangential firing, the combustion process must be confined to well-defined flame zones, and is less able to
make maximum use of the available burner zone volume.
1.3.5 BOILER TUNING
Boiler tuning consisting of air and coal balancing, boiler optimization package, and improved fuel fineness is
another way of providing additional NOx control. None of these provide large decreases in emission rates and
they are usually addressed with the installation of LNB and OFA.
1.3.6 NATURAL GAS REBURN
Natural gas reburning technology is one of the most common forms of fuel staging being evaluated for
implementation as a NOx reduction technology. The natural gas reburning process employs three separate
combustion zones to reduce NOx emissions. The first zone consists of the normal combustion zone in the
lower furnace, which is formed by the existing wall, tangential, or cyclone burners, depending on the furnace
type. In this zone, 75 to 80 percent of the total fuel heat input is introduced. The first zone burners are
operated with about 10 percent excess air (a 1.10 stoichiometric ratio). A second combustion zone (the
reburn zone) is created above the lower furnace by operating a row of conventional natural gas burners at a
stoichiometric ratio less than 1.0. This technology also has the potential for increased furnace corrosion
(especially with higher sulphur fuels) due to the reducing atmosphere in the lower furnace.
1.3.7 MOBOTEC
Mobotec provides a NOx reduction system that combines low NOx burner, over fire air, and SNCR
technologies into an integrated system. The system uses a modified over fire air system with improved mixing

characteristics achieved through adding a rotation to the over fire air. This system is called ROFA – Rotating
Opposed Firing Air.
Mixing and rotation prevents bulk laminar flow and enables the whole volume of the furnace to be used more
effectively for the combustion process. The ROFA swirl reduces maximum reaction temperature, increases
retention time, reduces NOx and other pollutant formation, burns out carbon more efficiently and increases
convective heat absorption, which in combination improves overall boiler efficiency. By mixing the fuel and air
more effectively ROFA allows the boiler to be fired with lower levels of excess air. This reduces heat lost
through stack emissions, improving boiler efficiency.
1.3. 8 RICH REAGENT INJECTION
Rich Reagent Injection (RRI) is the process of adding NOx reducing agents in a staged lower furnace to
reduce the formation of NOx. This is accomplished by injecting ammonia based compound into the fuel-rich
region of a furnace, where the reducing conditions and low oxygen levels in the lower furnace make RRI ideal
for NOx reduction. In the RRI process, reagent injection occurs at significantly higher gas temperatures within
the combustion zone of the lower furnace.
1.3.9 LOTOx
The LoTOx Technology is the low temperature gas-phase oxidation of NOx by ozone injection. In this method,
ozone is injected into the flue gas upstream of the wet scrubber. The ozone reacts with the NO and NO2 to
form nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5). The nitrogen pentoxide formed is soluble in water and can be removed from
flue gas using wet scrubber.The LoTOx technology offers high NOx removal efficiency with a reported
potential of 15 to 25 percent savings in capital cost over a selective catalytic reduction systems which are
commonly used for NOx control. The major drawbacks of this system are the lack of experience on utility size
units, high power consumption and the production of nitrates. Scale up from the small industrial scale to the
size required for 660 MW would be a significant technical risk.
1.3.10 THERMALONOx PROCESS
The THERMALONOx process is a two-step process for controlling NOx that once showed promise as an
emerging technology. The first step is the gas phase chemical reaction converting nitrogen monoxide (NO)
into nitrogen dioxide (NO2) through a compact gas reactor. THERMALONOxTM Process uses direct injection
of elemental phosphorus (P4) into exhaust gas streams emitted from fossil fuel fired combustion processes, at
121°C to 280°C.Despite the promising nature of the technology, full scale testing of this technology in 2001
indicated that the technology did not appreciably reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission levels on one of the
375 MW units.
1.3.11 NOxSTARTM
NOxSTARTM is the trademarked name for a NOx control technology that involves the injection of ammonia
and a hydrocarbon into the flue gas path of a utility boiler. The ammonia reduces NOx through a selective
non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) reaction, with the hydrocarbon minimizing the ammonia slip. This enables
higher reagent injection rates for NOx reductions nominally twice that achievable with normal SNCR

technology.NOxStar reportedly can be installed at less than half the capital cost of the most inexpensive SCR
system. The other advantage of NOxStar system is that the SO3 conversion is negligible, thus eliminating one
of the main drawbacks of the SCR technology.The major consideration for the NOxStar technology is that it
has not been installed on a system which has a capacity of more than 200 MW.
1.3.12 SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems are the most widely used post-combustion NOX control
technology for achieving significant reductions in NOX emissions. In SCR systems, vaporized ammonia (NH3)
injected into the flue gas stream acts as a reducing agent, achieving NOX emission reductionsThe NOX and
ammonia reagent react to form nitrogen and water vapour. The reaction mechanisms are very efficient with a
reagent stoichiometry of approximately 1.05 (on a NOX reduction basis) with very low ammonia slip (unreacted
ammonia emissions).
SCR systems have a variety of interfacing system requirements to support operations. These impacts
predominately relate to draft, auxiliary power, soot blowing steam, gas temperature, controls, ductwork,
reactor footprint, and air heater. The SCR system will impact the boiler draft system. Dependent on
arrangement and performance requirements draft losses can range from 4 to 10 mmwc. This can be
compensated with the addition of ID booster fans. If necessary, ductwork, and/ or boiler box reinforcement
need to be considered. In conjunction with the fan modification, the upgrade of the auxiliary power system
might be necessary. Auxiliary power modifications may also be necessary for ammonia supply system
requirements.
Figure 1.3-1 Schematic Diagram of a Typical SCR Reactor

1.3.13SELECTIVE NON CATALYTIC REDUCTION
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) is a commercially available technology to control NOx emissions
from fossil fuelled boilers. SNCR systems rely on an appropriate reagent injection temperature, good reagent/
gas mixing, and adequate reaction time rather than a catalyst to achieve NOx reductions.Under optimum
conditions, SNCR systems are capable of achieving NOx reduction efficiencies as high as 50 to 60 percent in
optimum situations (adequate reaction time, temperature, and reagent/ flue gas mixing) with ammonia slips of
10 to 50 ppm; lower ammonia slip values can be achieved with lower NOx reduction capabilities. Potential
performance is very site-specific and varies with fuel type, steam generator size, allowable ammonia slip,
furnace CO concentrations, and steam generator heat transfer characteristics.
1.3.14 INDUCT SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION SYSTEM
The SNCR/ SCR hybrid system uses components and operating characteristics of both SNCR and SCR
systems. Hybrid systems were developed to combine the low capital cost and high ammonia slip associated
with SNCR systems with the high reduction potential and low ammonia slip inherent to the catalyst of SCR
systems. The result is a NOX reduction alternative that can meet initially low NOX reduction requirements but
upgraded to meet higher reductions at a future date, if required.
Catalyst volume is strongly influenced by the NOX reduction required and the ammonia distribution. The
impact of catalyst volume on the design of a hybrid system is on the size of the reactor required to hold the
catalyst. If multiple levels of catalyst operating at low flue gas velocity are required, some modifications will be
required to the existing ductwork. If widening the ductwork cannot provide adequate catalyst volume, then a
separate reactor is required which quickly loses the capital cost advantage of a hybrid system.
1.3.15 MULTIPOLLUTANT CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
Multi-Pollutant Removal Systems like POWERSPAN Electro-Catalytic Oxidation Process, Enviroscrub, Phenix
Clean Coal, SNOXTM Technology Description, Electron Beam Process , ROFA-ROTAMIX (Mobotec) , SOX-
NOX-Rox Box (SNRBTM), ReACT™ process, CEFCO process, ECOTUBE, Biotechnological Denitrification
(BioDeNOx) and Airborne process are effective in removing NOx from the flue gas.
VALIDATION OF EMISSION CONTROL TECHNILOGIES
The technologies identified in Section 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 are considered as the available technologies for validation.
The available technologies are then screened to determine if it is technically feasible for application at the
source.In the process of eliminating technically infeasible alternatives, a demonstration is required to show
that a technology is not available or not applicable for application at the source. This demonstration is
performed when it can be shown that the technology is commercially unavailable and/ or there are irresolvable
technical difficulties with applying the technology. Other issues that determine the technical feasibility of a
technology are such as:
• Size of the Unit.
• Location of the Proposed Site.
• Operating Problems after retrofit of technology for thermal units in advance stage of construction.

• Space Constraints.
• Reliability.
• Adverse Effects on the rest of the facility.
Additionally, a technology is technically infeasible if its level of emissions control do not achieve the required
emission limit. Lastly, if there are multiple control technologies that have equivalent level of control, less
costly control technology is selected, therefore eliminating the need to evaluate additional, similar
technologies. Below Table 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 shows technical feasible control technologies.
Table 2.1 Technically Feasible SO2 Control Technologies
Technically
Technology Feasible and Remark
Applicable to TPS
Wet limestone based Flue Gas Yes Counter current Spray Tower being the most
Desulfurization (WFGD) widely used type of WFGD may be considered.
Sea Water Flue Gas No No sea water source near many TPS site
Desulfurization (SWFGD) location in India except few located in coastal
area.
Ammonia Based Flue Gas Yes Ammonia Based Flue Gas Desulfurization
Desulfurization (AFGD) (AFGD) may be considered.
Semi-Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization Yes CDS, NID and SDA being the most widely used
(SDFGD) type of SDFGD may be considered
Furnace/Duct Reagent Injection Yes Furnace/Duct Reagent Injection with Fabric
Filter downstream may be considered
Hydrogen Peroxide Scrubber No Technology has not been commercially proven
for larger size units
Multi-Pollutant Removal Systems No Only ReACTTM will be considered further for the
study as other technologies has not been
commercially proven for bigger size units.

Table 2.2 Technically Feasible PM Control Technologies
Technically
Applicable to TPS
Existing Electrostatic Precipitator Yes Only replacing last field of ESP with bag house
(ESP) Enhancements and replacing last field of ESP with moving
electrode may considered.
Dual Flue Gas Conditioning Yes Dual Flue Gas Conditioning may be considered.
Pulse Jet Fabric Filter (PJFF) Yes Pulse Jet Fabric Filter (PJFF)may be
considered.
GE MAX9 Hybrid No Technology has not been commercially proven
for similar size units
Multi-cyclone collector No Technology is not capable to control the
emissions of PM to the required target limit.
Wet ESP No Corrosion potential of the flue gas duct and
stack, high investment
Multi-Pollutant Removal No Only ReACTTM will be considered further for the
study as other technologies has not been
commercially proven for bigger size units.

Table 2.3 Technically Feasible NOx Control Technologies
Technically
Applicable to TPS
Over fire Air (OFA) Yes Provision already provided in recent Super
Critical Units
Neural Networks (NN) Yes Will provide maximum of 5-10% reduction
depending on NOx levels and hence may not be
considered for Indian Conditions.
Oxygen Enhanced Combustion No Technology has not been commercially proven
for bigger size units
New Low NOx Burners (LNB) Yes New Low NOx Burners may be considered.
Boiler Tuning Yes Provision already provided in recent Super
Critical Units
Natural Gas Reburn No Technology has not been commercially proven
Mobtech No Technology requires major boiler modification
and has not been commercially proven for
bigger size units
Rich Reagent Injection No Technology has not been commercially proven
for Pulverised coal fired units.
LoTOx No Technology has not been commercially proven
THERMALONOx Process No Technology has not been commercially proven
NOxSTAR TM No Technology has not been commercially proven
Selective Non Catalytic Reduction Yes Selective Non Catalytic Reduction may be
(SNCR) considered.
Selective Catalytic Reduction Yes Selective Catalytic Reduction may be
(SCR) considered.
Induct Hybrid Selective Catalytic Yes Induct Hybrid Selective Catalytic Reduction
Reduction may be considered.
Multipollutant Control Technologies No Only ReACTTM will be considered further for
the study as other technologies has not been
commercially proven for similar size units
ECONOMIC EVALUATION CRITERIA AND EVALUATION OF COST EFFECTIVENESS
The process of selecting the least-cost alternative is often complex; most alternatives have different design
and performance characteristics as well as different costs at various times. This section lists out the economic
evaluation factors that were used carry out the financial analysis to arrive at the most economical alternative.

After all the technically feasible control technology alternatives are identified the next evaluation process is to
determine the control effectiveness of each control technology. The control effectiveness is expressed in a
common metric based upon the amount of pollutant generated per unit of dry volumetric flow at normal
conditions and at 6% O2 (mg/ Nm3) and yearly rate (tons/ yr.) for each pollutant. Data for the control
effectiveness of a technology is technology performance data provided by manufacturer (usually in the form of
a performance guarantee), engineering estimates and demonstrated effectiveness of the technology at
another source. The most stringent level of control of each technology should be used for its control
effectiveness but less stringent levels of control can be considered due to permit requirements or based on
MoEFCC norms.
CONCLUSIONS
As there is no practical way to totally eliminate all emissions from fuel combustion, emission limits have been
established to limit the atmospheric pollution. This study provides through insight to available SOx, NOx and
PM control technology selection and validation conforming to the norms recommended by MOEFCC for
thermal power stations. There is a need to modernize India’s thermal power plants and reduce the coal usage
per unit of electricity generation (kg/kWh).
REFERENCES
[1] Ministry of Power, Government of India, Annual Report 2001-02 & 2008-09 (www.powermin.nic.in).
[2] USAID/TVA/NTPC, “Heat Rate improvement Guidelines for Indian Power Plants”. 2000.
[3] Visuvasam, D.; Selvaraj, P.; Sekar, S., “Influence of Coal Properties on Particulate emission control in Thermal Power Plants in
India”. Proceedings in Second International Conference on Clean Coal Technologies for our Future (CCT 2005), 2005, Sardinia,
Italy.
[4] Press Information Bureau, GoI, MoEFCC Dated 22-12-2015
[5]Boiler Emission Guide-Cleaver Books.
[6]All India Installed Capacity, CEA Report as on 31-12-2016
[7]Green House Gas Emissions from Fossil Fuel Fired Power Generation Systems-M.Steen, European Commission, Joint Research
Centre, Institute for Advanced Materials.
[8] Emissions from Coal Fired Power Generation-Workshop on IEA High Efficiency, Low Emissions Coal Technology Roadmap-29-
11-2011

ATOMIZATION OF FURNACE OIL - EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND
PRESSURE
Dr. B.K. Satis Kumar*, S. Sundar*
*Energy Management Team, Madras Fertilizers Limited, Manali,
Chennai
ABSTRACT
In boilers, heat energy is obtained in combustion chamber by burning fuel. The common liquid fuel is furnace oil and the
equipment used for burning fuel is burner. Oil is vaporized in the combustion chamber space in the instant of time available
and it must be broken into small particles to expose as much surface as possible for faster combustion and to meet the air
register demand. Good atomization quality is the basic requirement for good combustion. Hence, the efficiency of boiler
begins at the burner. This atomization process depends on two main factors viz. Temperature and Pressure of Fuel oil and
atomizing steam.
Key words: Oil atomizers, Preheaters, Burner Tips, Swirlers
INTRODUCTION
In boilers, the efficiency of fuel burning depends on good atomization which in turn depends on quality of fuel oil,
correct preheating temperature, pressure and correct selection of burner tips. Proper orientation of Burners makes
the flame pattern be well formed and not in contact with other components. Identical burner tips are to be used in
all burners at a time in a boiler. The significance of the above are explained with various examples in pressure
atomizer and steam atomizers.
HEATING LOOP
Delivers oil at required pressure and temperature to burners. The heating loop consists of a set of strainers,
pumps and heaters.
STRAINERS
It filters Sediments in furnace oil. Sediments in oil reduce oil flow & plugs burner tips, there by affects atomization
resulting in poor combustion. Sometimes leads to emergency shut-down of boilers due to low flow of oil. Pressure
gauge at downstream is mandatory to monitor strainer performance.
Strainers recommended microns 50/ 60 micron Tyler mesh.
PUMPS
Gear type pumps are normally in use. The viscosity of pumped oil is restricted by maximum allowable temperature
of the oil tank. This restricts the temperature of oil; hence higher oil viscosity will reduce the pump efficiency and

consumes more power. To overcome this problem two stage systems are used and lower viscosity will enhance
better atomization and also lowers the oil pressure at heater.
Oil tank > I stage pump > Heater > II stage pump >Burners.
Instead of using 100% capacity pump in single heating loop, 5 or 6 less capacity pumps can be used depending
upon load.
HEATERS
Electrical/steam heaters are in use.The extent to which oil to be heated depends on the oil quality. Oil pressure at
burner depends on its capacity and increases with boiler capacity. The heaters must with stand the oil pressure
more than the pump supply pressure.
Table 1
Boiler capacity t/h Burner oil pressure Ksc

( Conventional type)
120 20.4
220 35
410 and 1000 50
670 and 2000 70
Similarly 3 or 6 heaters can be used instead of one 100% heater. Depending upon load heater can be lined-up.
Viscosity of oil falls as temperature raises and nearly constant above 120 O c. Maximum viscosity for conventional
type burners is 25 centi stokes and for easy pumping is 350 centi stoke. Lesser viscosity facilitates better pumping
but delivers less weight of oil to burners. Hence optimum temperature is essential for effective atomization.
In steam heaters there are chances of steam entering and mixing with furnace oil due to tube leak in oil storage
tanks, which will affect the property of furnace oil in turn causing flame outrage, splutter firing, waste of fuel due to
slow/fast firing and corrosion in storage tanks/lines. So pressure indicator at the inlet of steam and temperature
indicator at the outlet of furnace oil /tank must be provided to monitor the performance of heaters.
OIL ATOMIZERS/ BURNERS
It consists of atomizer, air register, ignition apparatus etc. Tip of the gun is called atomizer. Good atomizing quality
is a basic requirement of good combustion. It splits oil into very small droplets for faster combustion and to meet
the air register demand.
Three types burners used for atomizing.
 Mechanical atomizer.

 Steam or compressed air atomizer.
 Rotary cup atomizer.
Mechanical atomizing burners are inflow and are universally used. No steam is required. Good atomization results
when oil is under high pressure (300 psi) and passes through a small orifice and emerges as a conical mist. The
orifice atomizing the fuel is aided by a slotted disk that whirls the oil before entering the nozzle. The amount of oil
burned varies with load and excess oil return to tank.
Steam atomizing burners are simple, less expensive than air atomizing burners and suitable for varying load.
They handle commercial grade oil. Required steam pressure varies from 70 to 150 psi and steam consumption is
0.4 to 0.6 kg/kg oil consumption. In a steam mechanical atomizer, the required oil pressure is lower than in
mechanical atomizer. Steam consumption is also lower than steam atomizer. There are 2 types, inner mixing and
outer mixing.
If the atomizing steam is super heated it is more likely to cause the fuel oil carbonizing, so saturated steam is
used. Saturated steam has a greater cooling capacity than super heated steam and controlling the firing rate in
the burner. Saturated steam has a greater amount of expansion when heated compared to dry super heated
steam. This expansion aides further atomization.
Air atomizing burners are used in small industries. Air at high velocity 70 to 100 m/s impact low pressure oil and
atomize it. The air pressure varies from 2 to 100 psi. Air pressure should be 10 psi for light oil and 20 psi for heavy
oil.
Rotary cup burners atomize oil by tearing it into tiny drops. A conical cup rotates at high speed about 3450 rpm.
Oil moving along this cup reaches the periphery where the centrifugal force flings into small droplets. It is suitable
for small low pressure boilers.
Case studies on performance of atomizers
1. A case study has been carried out in furnace oil heating loop in a fertilizer process plant.
Storage tanks and furnace oil heating system: One 2000 KL, and two 450 KL storage tanks.Day tanks 2 numbers
54 KL and 350 KL. Storage tanks supply oil to day tanks by common transfer pump and from day tank to boilers
by individual pumps. Thermal heating is used with saturated steam at 3.5 and 10.5 bar. Immersion type U bundles
and U tube shell and tube exchangers are in use.
Average furnace oil consumption per day is 350 KL. 3 days consumption Stock is maintained in storage tanks.
There are four boilers. Out of them One HHP boiler and two HP boilers are continuously in service. One
HP boiler is spare. Average day steam production is 4848 tons.

Average Furnace oil temperature at burner inlet is 123 O C.
Theoretical Energy required to maintained oil temperature from 50 O C to 127 O C.
Q = m C p (t 2-t 1) Kcal
m = 325500 kg/Day, Cp = 0.26 Kcal/kg, t2-t 1 = 77 O C
Q = 6516510 Kcal/Day (or) 27369342 KJ/Day
Average Enthalpy of heating steam = 2760 KJ/Kg
Required saturated heating steam= 9916 Kg/Day
Required HP steam= 9401*0.859=8518 Kg/Day
Require furnace oil=608 Kg/Day
Equivalent energy=0.608*9.55=5.8 G Cal/Day
Theoretical Equivalent energy per ton of steam production = 5.8/4848=0.0012 G Cal
Actual Steam consumption = 816 Kg/Day
Actual Equivalent energy per ton of steam production = (0.816*9.55)/4848= 0.0017 G Cal
The above study implies that attention to be given to the recommendations:
 Proper insulation of storage tanks, Day tanks, furnace oil lines.

 Periodically renew of pump suction strainers.
 Periodically check /calibrate temperature controllers.
 Periodically check steam traps performance.
2. In the steam atomizing burner over heating the fuel oil will cause the fuel to carbonize within the burner barrel
clogging the passage and burner tip. A performance study carried out by varying oil inlet temperature in a single
drum 110 ata boiler having four numbers of Steam atomizing burners. Steam to oil pressure difference & the feed
water temperature were maintained at 2.0 Ksc and 255 O C respectively throughout the study. The results are
tabulated in table 2.1 and the observations are narrated below.

Table 2.1
Load Oil Oil Air Feed water Atomizing Steam Evaporation ratio
TPH flow temperature Flow temperature steam to oil flow (Kg steam/Kg oil)
(Capacity (Kg/h) (OC) (Kg/h) (O C) pressure (Kg/h)
110 ratio
TPH) (Ksc)
98.8 7005 117 145000 250 2.0 98800 15.16
96.3 6295 126 140000 255 2.0 96300 15.30
95.6 6263 128 141000 255 2.0 95600 15.26
94.5 6159 124 142000 255 2.0 94500 15.34
94.4 6884 117 145000 240 2.0 94400 14.74
94.4 6842 133 143000 240 2.0 94400 14.83
94.4 6846 131 143000 240 2.0 94400 14.80
93.4 6140 130 141000 255 2.0 93400 15.20
89.2 6654 117 143000 231 2.0 89200 14.4
85.9 6308 115 142800 242 2.0 85900 14.6
75.0 5854 120 131700 238 2.0 75000 13.8
Based on boiler load:
 Below 90 tph, the evaporation ratios are below 15.

 Below 75 tph it falls below 14.
 The optimum evaporation ratio is obtained between 94 to 98 tph.
Based on oil temperature: The optimum evaporation ratio is obtained between 124°C to 130°C. Above
133°C the atomization is not favouring to improve efficiency but it declines.
3. In another 54 tph high pressure boiler the performance of steam atomizing burner was studied by varying
atomizing steam flow and are tabulated in 3.1

Table 3.1
Atm steam Oil flow Atm steam Oil pressure Steam Atm steam Steam generation
flow (Kg/h) pressure (Ksc) generation Consumption (Kg steam/Kg oil)
(Kg/h) (Ksc) (Kg/h) (Kg steam/Kg oil)
525 3600 7.8 7 50800 0.146 14.11
550 3600 8 7 52000 0.153 14.4
575 3600 8.2 7 51500 0.159 14.3
Optimum atomization steam flow of 550 Kg/h enhances the atomization and there by improves evaporation ratio.
4. In a process condensate boiler, the performance study done on of high pressure oil jet burner with steam as
secondary source with different oil temperature. Steam pressure and feed water temperature were maintained
constant. The observations are tabulated in 4.1
Table 4.1
Oil Temperature Atomizer Steam to oil Del P Oil flow Steam flow Steam generation
(O C) (Kg) (Kg/h) (Kg/h) (Kg steam/Kg oil)
129 0.9 4650 52100 11.21
128 1.33 4754 53800 11.31
127 1.2 4695 53000 11.29
126 0.7 4650 52100 11.21
125 2.11 4827 54800 11.35
OBSERVATION
The above study reveals that the performance of boiler declines due to poor atomization. The following are
reasons for poor atomization.
 Improper atomization of oil

 Incorrect oil viscosity
 Water in fuel oil
 Burner tip partially plugged/poor flame pattern
 Above 133 O C oil temperature leads to carbonization

OTHER MODIFICATIONS:
1. Sizes of the Burners tips were changed to check the performance.
i. Sprayer Cap no. 8I-13/64-80&Mixing Chamber no.6MC-1/8A-3/4 - Recommended
ii. Sprayer Cap no. 8I-16-80&Mixing Chamber no.6MC-31-6-21/32- Not Recommended
2. Combustion Air duct was modified to change the flow distribution by introducing baffles along the air path. Size
of the duct also increased to enhance the air flow.
CONCLUSION
Proper atomization is imperative for effective & efficient operation of boilers. It can be achieved by gaining
knowledge on types of burners, familiarizing with their characters and by arriving an efficient point of Fuel-
Atomizing Ratio in Flow, Temperature and Pressure.
REFERENCES
1. P.Chattopadhyay. Boiler operation engineering question and answer. Pages 230 -427. McGraw -hill, Second
edition.
2. Antony.I.Kohan. Boiler operation guide. McGraw-hill, fourth edition 1998
3. MFL-Ammonia Plant Operating Manual

Optimization of auxiliary consumption in Power Plant
Bhawandeep Kaur, Amit Seth, Amit Hari,
Ashok Kumar , Abhishek Mahor t, R. Rajmohan
Development Environergy Services Limited
(Formerly Dalkia Energy Services Ltd) New Delhi, India
,
ABSTRACT
Setting up an independent power plant is for exporting maximum power to the grid. However, the fact is that almost 8 to
12% of power in coal & biomass based power plants and about 15 to 18% of power in Waste-to-Energy plants never
reaches the grid because it gets consumed to meet the demand by auxiliary loads of the plant. High auxiliary
consumption in power plants is mainly due to poor operational practices, deviations in design of the equipment and
sometimes due to ageing of the equipment.
There are a number of ways to optimize the auxiliary consumption in power plants. The solutions may be primarily
related to design and operation & maintenance. DESL has been involved in several auxiliary power consumption
reduction studies in power plants of varying capacity and the experiences would be discussed in this paper in form of
case studies. Some of the relevant cases would include the following:
• Opportunities related to operational changes

• Replacement of inefficient devices
• Installation of VFDs on various applications
• Application of automation systems
• Energy efficiency opportunities through design review, etc
Case studies on various kinds of power plants will be described focusing mainly on ways to reduce auxiliary
consumption.
INTRODUCTION
All power plants consist of auxiliaries along with the main power generating equipment [1]. These auxiliary
equipment consume power and sometimes the amount of power consumption is exceptionally high. The types
of systems that come under auxiliaries are as follows:
• Fuel Handling system

• Combustion air and flue gas systems
• Water treatment system
• Feed water system
• Cooling water system
• Oil systems
Various studies of power plants reveal that exportable power to the grid could be more if there is reduced
power consumption within the plant. Auxiliary power consumption directly affects the heat rate of the plant
which is a transparent factor that shows the conversion of input energy into the exportable power generated. It
is always desirable to minimize the auxiliary power consumption in the plants to optimise the cost of power
generation, thereby increasing profit with the same configuration. The auxiliary power consumption

optimisation can be done by way of operational changes, replacement of inefficient devices, installation of
VFDs on various applications and through design modifications, etc. A few such opportunities are being
described hereunder with suitable case studies wherever applicable.
OPPORTUNITIES WITH SOME OPERATIONAL CHANGES

Enhancement of efficiency of boiler through simulation tool COOPERE (Combining
Optimization of Processes, Energy Recovery and Exergy- based on Pro-Sim software)
COOPERE is an optimization tool in which the internal systems of a power plant can be modelled and
simulated through unit operations and designing the flow sheets according to the process. The tool uses Pro-
Sim software which performs the activities and operations within no time of convergence of complex reactions
in it. This tool can be applicable to all the industries and captive power plants. Also, the end user can optimize
and can get the idea about the in-efficiency of the system. Enhancing the efficiency of the boiler using
COOPERE is illustrated through a case study as below:
Steam generation in a boiler is through the combustion of fuel. During the combustion process, certain amount
of loss is inevitable in the boiler system, which ultimately affects the combustion efficiency. These losses may
be grouped as below:
• Dry flue gas loss
• Hydrogen loss
• Loss due to moisture in fuel
• Loss due to incomplete combustion (CO)
• Loss due to un-burnt
• Sensible heat loss form ash
• Radiation loss
• Loss due to moisture in air
The dry flue gas loss and the loss due to incomplete combustion may be inversely proportional; when excess
air is less, the CO generation may be more and vice versa. These losses due to dry flue gas and incomplete
combustion can be optimized using COOPERE.
The simulation focuses on the flue gas path to minimize the losses by splitting up of CO part from flue gas
followed by the oxygen part from flue gas after the CO splitter. The reason for splitting these gases is to
recombine and perform a re-combustion to completely convert the CO into CO2.The snapshot of the
COOPERE simulation is shown below.

Figure 1COOPERE operational simulation
Also, various cases were developed for different O2 % and corresponding CO ppm in the flue gas to find out
the optimum efficiency point for the boiler. This has been plotted and shown in the following figure.

Heat Loss in flue gas visa-via CO ppm & O2%
8000
Heat in flue gas (Kcal/kg)
7900
7800
7700
7600
7500
7400
7300
7200
7100
12000 5000 300 200 100
0.8 1 2 2.8 5
CO (ppm) & O2 (%)
Figure 2 Trend line for flue gas heat loss trend
The fuel savings resulting out of the operation of the boiler at optimum excess air is plotted below.
Fuel saving visa-via CO ppm & O2%

0.16
0.14
Fuel Saving (kg/s)
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
12000 5000 300 200 100
0.8 1 2 2.8 5
CO (ppm) & O2 (%)
Figure 3 Fuel saving Vs CO and O2 %
The COOPERE tool may be used in several such complicated process optimization exercises.

REPLACEMENT OF INEFFICIENT DEVICES
Energy consumption in pumps like boiler feed water pump, condensate pumps, cooling water pumps and lube
oil pumps in power plants account for a major portion of auxiliary power consumption. There are several
reasons for pumping system inefficiency which include improper pump selection, improper pipe design
(suction), cavitation effect, impeller erosion & corrosion, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the
pumping system efficiency at frequent intervals.
Pump replacement in WTP
During the energy audit of a thermal power station running on coal, the water treatment plant (WTP) was
studied. The water treatment plant consisted of various pumps for different applications. While performing the
energy audit at the WTP, it was found that a number of pumps were inefficient. Accordingly, a proposal for
replacement of old pumps with new efficient pumps was suggested. Simultaneously, the performance
conditions for present and proposed systems were assessed and compared to identify the techno-economic
feasibility.
Table 1: Pump comparative conditions
Particulars Flow Head Power Efficien New New Saving

(m3/h) (m) (kW) cy efficiency power s
(kW)
Softener pump 1 270 32 40 65.4% 75% 35 5.1
Softener pump 3 258 35 42 65.1% 75% 36 5.6
Filter back wash 79 22 10.7 49.1% 75% 7 3.7
pump
Degasser pump 66.5 38 14 54.6% 75% 10 3.8
Raw water pump 590 18 41 78.4% 75% 43

(WTP) 1
Raw water pump 307 18 38 44.0% 75% 22 15.7
(WTP) 2
Raw water 89 60 25 64.6% 75% 22 3.5

pump(CHP)
Total 37.36
The savings and investment were computed, which were as shown in the table below:
Table 2: Cost benefit analysis
Description Value
Power savings (kW) 37
Monetary savings (INR Lakh/year) 5.0
Investment (INR Lakh) 5.0
Payback period (years) 1

INSTALLING VFDs ON VARIOUS APPLICATIONS
The electrical power required for running a pump varies with the cube of its motor speed, resulting in large
energy and cost savings when the motor speed is allowed to modulate in response to the demand in variable
demand situations [2].
Principle: The affinity law states that the flow is proportional to the impeller speed at a specific point on the
pump curve. Head and NPSH are proportional to the square of the speed, while the power is a cubical
function of the speed. The hydraulic (pump) efficiency remains constant when the speed is reduced.
When the dynamic head of the system is reduced, flow will increase and the power consumption will also
simultaneously change. In case of Variable Frequency Drives (VFD), when the loading of system is down with
decrease in flow, the head and power will also change by reduced frequency. All points on the pump curve
will move along second degree curves with constant efficiency towards the origin of the co-ordinates when the
frequency is reduced.
Benefits:
• Controlled Starting Current
• Reduced Power Line Disturbances
• Lower Power Demand on Start
• Controlled Acceleration
• Adjustable Operating Speed
• Adjustable Torque Limit
• Controlled Stopping
• Energy Savings
• Reverse Operation
• Elimination of Mechanical Drive Components
CASE STUDY
VFDs Installation at pumps: It was observed during diagnostic study of a power plant that condensate
transfer pumps were operating at variable load conditions with throttling and recirculation. It was
recommended to install VFD and operate the pumps as per the demand. The cost benefit analysis of
installation of VFD is given in the following table.

Table 3: VFDs installation on pumps
Particulars UOM Value

Estimation of power consumption at rated speed and As is To be
flow
Rated kW (P1) kW 110 110
Rated flow (Q1) m3/h 243 243
Rated rpm (N1) rpm 2,965 2,965
Measured flow (Q2) m3/h 174.4 174.4
Q1/Q2 1.4 1.4
Power Consumption measured at measured flow kW 78.7 78.7
(P2)
P1/P2= (Q1/Q2)^3 X (Pump efficiency-Rated); as per
affinity laws
Power Consumption measured at measured flow kW 78.7 40.7
(P3)
Saving in power consumption kW 38.0
Operating hrs per day h/d 24.0 24.0
Operating Days per Year d/y 333.0 333.0
Average Saving in energy consumption per year kWh/y 303,869
Average Electricity Tariff INR/kWh 4.6 4.6
Annual monetary savings Lakh 14.0
INR/y
Estimate of Investment Lakh INR 6.2
Simple payback period months 5.3
APPLICATIONS OF AUTOMATION SYSTEM

Long periods of unsalable production (or power generation in case of power plants) during unit start up and
shutdown caused by reliability-related downtime events should be considered as the reduced efficiency of a
‘reliable asset.’ The efficiency of this virtual asset is proportional to reliability percentage, at plant, unit, and
equipment levels. A temporary de-rating due to a reliability issue will have energy efficiency consequences as
well. There is requirement of proper automation system to encounter these reliability issues.
There are certain control methods for the auxiliary systems like fans and pumps.
For pump flow control:
The process system will usually require variable flow rates from the pump. There are four common methods to
control the output of a pumping system: Throttling, Bypassing, On-Off, and Variable speed control.

It is worthwhile to consider specifying multiple pumps, each optimized for a piece of the load curve. This
design is efficient when VFDs are not used. Another energy efficiency strategy is to consider two or more
smaller pumps instead of one larger pump so that excess pump capacity can be turned off. If VFDs are
available to the designer, then one or more pumps in the system can have a VFD for top-end speed control.
The section on VFD Multi-Drive describes an efficient and flexible architecture for driving and controlling
multiple motors.
The advantages (right-sizing, reliability) of using multiple pumps must be weighed against some additional
costs; the extra equipment requires additional cabling, piping and space.
Pump automation is important to take advantage of the speed control provided by VFD-equipped pumps. The
applications are varied, but one common design uses signals from flow or pressure transmitters as input to a
feedback loop, which then modulates the output to the VFD. The desired flow or head set point is provided by
a unit-level control system. In head-controlled systems, differential pressure transmitters (PDTs) are
commonly used to provide the pressure drop across unit loads. For proper head control, the placement of
PDTs must span the target load plus the additional loads incurred by piping and valves. If the unit has a
common supply ‘header’ to supply multiple loads, then the pressure transmitters for this header should not be
located near any major load junctions. In some multiple pump systems, a VFD-driven pump is combined with
a constant speed pump. In these cases, automation can be used to provide additional flow control on either
(or both) sides of the constant speed pump’s best efficiency point. For low-flow control, when the VFD pump
approaches its maximum speed, a switch or signal will auto-start the constant speed pump. According to the
ISA guidelines (ISA 2005), extra increments of pumping capacity are started by pressure (when demand is
increasing), but stopped by flow (when demand is decreasing).
For fan flow control:
When centrifugal fans are required to operate at variable loads, the pressure and flow may be controlled by
one of the following methods like inlet dampers, inlet guide vanes, outlet dampers, two speed motor controls,
and variable speed control by VFD or hydraulic coupling methods.
For multiple fan systems in applications with very wide range of flow, it is worthwhile to consider specifying
multiple fans, each optimized for a piece of the system load curve, where they can operate close to their best
efficiency point. With two or more smaller fans instead of one large fan, excess fan capacity can be turned off.
One or more fans in the system can have a VFD for some finer degree of flow control. However, redundancy
is the more likely reason to favour pairs of fans in large applications.
Fan Automation:
Proper control of multiple fan arrangements is essential for realizing their full energy saving potential and to
avoid unstable operation due to interactions between multiple fans at low flows, especially for fans in parallel.
Isolation dampers between multiple fans in parallel may also be necessary to avoid air flow through inactive
fans. In fans with damper control, a flow cascade loop is typical, with the master comparing actual to
demanded airflow. The set point is sent to the cascade slave loop for comparison with a sum of the damper
position signals. Good fan flow control is very important if the downstream process is combustion, in which
case air supply will determine the intensity and the safety of the process.

Apart from the above automation, control system requires following components to operate the plant
effectively: Supervisory control and performance monitoring.
Supervisory Control: Supervisory Control (SC) is the highest level, providing feedback for such plant
management tasks as economic optimization, decision support, performance monitoring and load scheduling.
This level of control may have a rate of 15 minutes, hours or even days. SC relies heavily on a Human
Machine Interface (HMI) that can calculate and trend plant overall and equipment efficiencies. SC functions
also allow plant management to monitor plant performance, identify root causes and correct problems.
Performance Monitoring Systems: Performance measurement systems (PMS) do not directly control the
process, as the other systems described in this module. PMS use humans as the actuators by providing them
with analysis functions and large amount of historical data. If performance measurement is used regularly and
in a pro-active manner by the plant operators, it becomes a very effective nearly-closed-loop system to
optimize energy efficiency.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES THROUGH DESIGN REVIEW
Case Study-1
In one of the projects of DESL in a coal based power plant, the condensate generated was circulated through
condensate extraction pumps. The demand was fulfilled by two pumps of total capacity as per requirement.
However, on analysis, it was found that when two pumps were operating in parallel the operating point of the
pumps shifted resulting on lower efficiency. Flow is not sum of the flow of individual pumps, and this is
particularly applicable for centrifugal pumps. It was proposed to go for single pump which could operate at
higher efficiency, and the operation would not shift as much as in the case of two pumps operation when it is
operated at 80% of load. The specifications of the new pump are as per the following table.
Table 4: Comparative table for CEP

Description UOM Value
Old Pumps New
Pump
Flow Required TPH 265 290 560
Head Mlc 185 190 180
Suction Head Mlc 4 4 4
Head Required Mlc 181 186 176
Water Power kW 130.7 147.0 269
Pump Efficiency % 59.6% 70.8% 87%
Motor Efficiency % 95% 95% 95%
Motor Input kW 325
219 208
Power

Table 5: Savings with New Pump
Description UOM Value
Power with Existing kW 450
System
Power with New pump kW 325
Net Power Savings kWh 125
Annual Operating hours Hrs 7920
Annual Power Savings kWh 987,006
Power Cost INR/kWh 1.64
Annual Monetary INR Lakh 16.2
Savings
Pump with motor Cost INR Lakh 50
Pay back Months 37
Case Study-2
DESL has carried out several feasibility studies for introduction of HP heater in power plants to enhance heat
utilisation of steam that is being wasted in the condenser. Extraction from turbine is used for heating the water
in the HP-heater thus increasing the temperature of the feed water. This will reduce the condensing load &
heat rejected to the condenser. Heat utilisation in HP Heater will lead to reduction in fuel. Fuel reduction will
bring down the air supply for combustion; accordingly the Fan power will also have a significant saving.
Saving summary by installing HP heater in thermal power plants is tabulated below:
Table 6: Performance evaluation table
Particulars UOM Present Proposed
Feed water flow boilers t/h 654
Temperature of the feed water after de-aerator ⁰C 124
Pressure of hot water kgf/cm2 (a) 152
Enthalpy of hot water kcal/kg 127
Outlet temperature of feed water at economizer outlet ⁰C 169
Heat gain in Economizer kcal/kg 41.4
Enthalpy of VHP steam kcal/kg 809
Enthalpy of HP steam kcal/kg 766
Enthalpy of MP steam kcal/kg 725
Enthalpy of LP steam kcal/kg 676
Enthalpy of Condensing steam kcal/kg 551
Power from VHP-HP steam t/MW 20.5
Power from VHP-MP steam t/MW 10.7
Power from VHP-LP steam t/MW 6.4
Power from VHP-Condensing steam t/MW 3.5
Pressure of the MP steam kgf/cm2 (a) 12

Particulars UOM Present Proposed
Temperature of MP steam ⁰C 295
Terminal temperature difference (TTD) ⁰C 3
Drain cooler approach (DCA) ⁰C 6
Temperature of the feed water inlet to HP heater ⁰C 125
Temperature of condensate out from HP heater ⁰C 131
Pressure of MP steam kgf/cm (a)
2 12
Maximum temperature from HP-heater at outlet for the same pressure ⁰C 184
Gain of temperature in HP-Heater ⁰C 5
Temperature of the feed water to boiler ⁰C 130
Enthalpy of the feed water kcal/kg 132
Heat required in HP heater kcal/h 3,297,760
Enthalpy of steam in HP heater kcal/kg 725
Enthalpy of steam condensate after HP heater kcal/kg 131
Enthalpy transfer in HP heater kcal/kg 594
MP Steam required for HP heater t/h 5.55
Additional power generation MW 0.52
Enthalpy of the feed water to de-aerator from HP drain kcal/kg 131
Underline enthalpy of De-aerator kcal/kg 127
Reduction in required heat load at De-aerator kcal/h 21,196
Reduction in de-aerator steam t/h 0.04
Loss in power from LP BPSTG (Anti-regeneration) MW 0.01
Net gain in power MW 0.5
Net reduction in condenser steam t/h 1.8
Reduction in steam from boiler t/h 1.8
Steam raising t/t 13.1
Fuel saving t/h 0.14
Running hours per year h/y 8,000
Fuel cost INR/t 26,184
Monetary Saving Lakh INR/y 288
CONCLUSION
There are ample opportunities in a power plant for energy consumption optimization, which can be achieved
through design modifications and installation of energy efficient systems in place of in-efficient systems.
Various case studies pertaining to changes in operational practices, replacing in-efficient systems with
efficient ones, application of variable frequency drives, proper automation systems, etc were discussed and
the techno economics of each of the opportunities were shown to illustrate the attractiveness of such energy
optimization projects. These measures when implemented in a power plant will help to reduce the auxiliary
power consumption which in turn will help to increase the power fed to the grid and there by the profitability of
the operation of power plants.

REFERENCES
[1] Tejas N Raval, Dr R N Patel “Optimization of Auxiliary Consumption of Combined Cycle Power Plant” Procedia Engineering 51
(2013) 751-757
[2] Krutika Mokashi, Ms. S.V. Mogre, Kaustubh S. Kulkarni. “Literature Review on Variable Frequency Drive for Induction Motor”
IPASJ Volume 3, Issue 11, November 2015

Condensate Water Recovery in Boiler by Pressure Powered Pump
Package Unit
Jitendra Kumar Srivastava, Kajol, National Productivity Council, Delhi
ABSTRACT
Steam contains two types of energy: latent and sensible. When steam is supplied to a process application (heat
exchanger, coil, tracer, etc.) the steam vapor releases the latent energy to the process fluid and condenses to a liquid
condensate. The condensate retains the sensible energy the steam had. The condensate can have as much as 16% of
the total energy in the steam vapor, depending on the pressure.
This paper deals with the technique used to recover condensate by Pressure Powered Pump Package Unit. One of
highest return on investments is to return condensate to the boiler. As fuel costs continue to rise, it’s imperative to focus
on recovering condensate in every industrial steam operation
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR CONDENSATE RECOVERY
In today’s energy conscious environment, condensate has become a valuable resource that can be used to
significantly improve steam plant efficiency. Returning the highest possible percentage of condensate back to
the boiler offers an exceptional return on investment by helping to cut energy and maintenance costs. Even
recovering small quantities, such as the discharge from a single steam trap will, over time, result in a
significant saving.
Removing condensate from your heat exchange and process equipment not only improves efficiency, it will
also provide more stable operating conditions and prolong equipment life. Efficient condensate removal
prevents:
 Unstable temperature control

 Product quality problems
 Excessive corrosion of heating surfaces
 Water hammer
 Noisy operation
 Equipment damage
Every 6ᵒC. rise in feed water temperature results in 1% of fuel savings below is an illustration of the potential
savings of a 1000 kg /hr, 14 bar steam system with no condensate returned to the boiler plant:

Table 1 Annual Saving by Condensate Recovery
S.No. Description Value

1 Average steam flow (Kg per hr) 1000
2 fuel cost (Rs/ Ton) 4000
3 Operation (hr/yr) 7200
4 Operating steam pressure (bar) 14
5 Steam temperature (°C) 200
6 Steam total energy (hg) Kcal/kg 668
7 Makeup water temperature (ºC) 55
8 Makeup water BTU content (hm) Kcal/kg 55
9 Condensate return temperature (ºC) 100
10 Returned condensate energy (hc) Kcal/kg 100
11 Benchmark fraction of condensate returned (decimal percent) 0.8
12 Energy Loss / Kg of Condensate 45
13 Condensate Quantity , kg /hr 36000
14 Heat with Condensate , Kcal /kg 1.62
15 Monetary Saving by Condensate Recovery Rs /hr 1458.0
16 Annual Saving Lac Rs / Year 105
PPPU METHOD OF CONDENSATE RECOVERY
These are pumps which are used to pump condensate to the desired location and are cheaper to operate as
against electrically operated pumps which require special impellers to avoid risk of cavitations by condensate
and temperature limits of condensate to be handled.
Function of PPPPU: The Pressure powered pump package unit (PPPPU) is a skid mounted Assembly. The
receiver collects the condensate through a unidirectional DCV the float assembly rises with the level of the
condensate and at the predetermined level snaps a valve open to let in steam, while simultaneously a vent
valve gets closed. The steam pushes the condensate out through the outlet DCV which too is unidirectional
leading the condensate out to the desired point. Once the pumping is done the level of condensate falls and
the float drops down automatically closing the steam valve and opening the vent to vent out the accumulated
steam and allow the fresh condensate to enter and begin the next cycle. This is a maintenance free pump,
functions as long as there is condensate coming to the pump. Provided as a complete skid mounted unit, with
valves, strainers, DCV, condensate flow meter etc.
A PPPPU unit consists of following parts

1. A receiver
2. Inlet Isolation valve
3. Strainer
4. A body shell- containing a float mechanism which operates a set of motive steam / air inlet
5. Exhaust valves
6. Inlet & outlet disc check valve

Figure 1 PPPPU
The steam or air is used as motive media to operate the pump. Condensate comes into the pump receiver
from flash vessel or plant condensate header and is allowed to flow in to the pump body having float
mechanism by opening the inlet isolation valve.
In the normal position before startup the float is at the lowest position with the motive steam/air valve closed
and the exhaust valve open. When condensate flows by gravity through inlet check valve in to pump body, the
float will become buoyant and rise. As the float continues to rise, the mechanism link is engaged which
increases tension in the springs. When the float has risen to its upper tripping position, the linkage mechanism
snaps upward over center. The energy in the springs is released as the push rods moved upward, to
simultaneously open the motive steam inlet valve and close the exhaust valve. Steam flow through the inlet
valve increases the pressure within the body and closes the inlet check valve. When the pressure in the body
shell exceeds the backpressure in the condensate discharge line, it opens the outlet check valve and forces
out the condensate in the discharge line. As the condensate level in the pump body falls, the float is lowered
and mechanism link is engaged, which again increases the tension in the springs
IMPLEMENTATION
Feed water temperature to boiler is 35ᵒC in normal condition. Condensate water temperature is near about
80ᵒC. In case of pressure powered pump packaging unit steam condensate water has transferred from
production block to feed water tank of boiler at high pressure with peak temperature. Pressure Powered Pump
Packaged Unit is designed to pump condensate without electricity, using just 3 kg of steam per ton of
condensate. The Pressure powered pump can pump condensate at higher temperatures and pressure. These
two tables below summarize the increase in boiler efficiency by installing PPPU.

Table 2 Boiler Efficiency without Condensate Recovery
S.No. Description Unit Value

1 Feed Water Consumption KL 145
2 Steam Generation MT 140.8
3 Total Coal Consumption MT 32
4 Gross Calorific Value Kcal/kg 4100
5 Average Steam Pressure Kg/cm2 6.2
6 Feed Water Temperature ᵒC 35
7 Water Enthalpy Kcal/kg 35
8 Steam, Enthalpy Kcal/kg 676.5
9 Boiler Efficiency % 70%
Table 3 Boiler efficiency with Condensate Recovery
S.No. Description Unit Value

1 Feed Water Consumption KL 145
2 Steam Generation MT 140.8
3 Total Coal Consumption MT 30
4 Gross Calorific Value Kcal/kg 4100
5 Average Steam Pressure Kg/cm2 6.2
6 Feed Water Temperature ᵒC 80
7 Water Enthalpy Kcal/kg 80
8 Steam, Enthalpy Kcal/kg 702.4
9 Boiler Efficiency % 71%
As per observation of above tables boiler efficiency increases by 2%approx with condensate water recovery

CONCLUSIONS
The outcome of the whole work and studies made from the experimental data collected from the boiler are as
Follows
 Condensate water recovery approx 2% efficiency increase of boiler.

 Water consumption reduced 31 % after pressure powered pump packaging unit installation.
The Cost of 4-Pump = 25 Lakh rupees,
For implementation of the whole work there are also some expenses like fabrication so that Fabrication cost =
8 Lakh rupee
By the overall outcome we have Total saving = 55000 Rs/day
The installing coast is returned within two Years i.e. Payback period = 24Months.
REFERENCES
[1] Boiler Efficiency calculation report by super thermal power station.
[2] Chetan T. Patel "Efficiency With Different Gcv Of Coal And Efficiency Improvement Opportunity In
Boiler" International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology (Volume 2, Issue
5, May 2013).
[3] “Energy Performance Assessment Of boiler “, Bureau Of Energy Efficiency.PP.1-22.
[4] J. Spisak, M. Cehlar, V. Jakao, Z. Jurkasova, M. Paskova. “Technical and Economical Aspects of the
Optimization of the Steam Boiler”. Acta Metallurgica. Vol 18. 2012.
[5] Kevin Carpenter, Chris Schmidt and Kelly Kissock. “Common Boiler Excess Air Tends and Strategies to
Optimized Efficiency”. ACEEE Sumer Study On Energy Efficiency In Buildings. 2008
[6] Raviprakash kurkiya, Sharad chaudhary "Energy Analysis of Thermal Power Plant" International Journal of Scientific and
Engineering Research (Volume 3, Issue 7, July-2012)

AGING OF BOILERS & FAILURES
ABSTRACT
Life cycle of boiler components are governed by magnitude of stress , variation in operating parameters , chemical regime ,
during its service life and suitability of materials to sustain those conditions. The paper intends to dwell on the subject of
interface of metallurgy and water chemistry in the area of boilers. The subject will be elaborated through real case histories and
photographs during the presentation.
It has been experienced that, there is a considerable gap between actual need of a particular industry and selection of boilers.
These gaps are more pronounced in the selection of waste heat recovery boilers. In steel plant boilers use multiple fuels like
coke oven gas, Blast furnace gas, breeze coke and middling coal etc. Loading pattern of TG during operation of rolling mills
varies enormously which is analogous to requirement of steam into turbine which ultimately affects the firing mode of boiler
according to sudden variation of power demand.
Few boilers are designed for a calorific value of 3500-4500 Kcl/Kg, however due to shortage in linked quantity of coal opted for
an imported coal of calorific value of 5500- 6000 Kcl/Kg. During initial operation the owners find to economic with the specific
consumption of unit , however shortly realise that boiler is not provided with adequate effective plan area to cope with higher
heat release rate through the firing system or the burners.
Very often, sizing of DM plant is not able to cater for the seasonal variation of raw water in terms of TDS value and variation
in turbidity. This results into deviation in the chemical regime of boiler ends into internal deposits. At one cement plant
Deaerator was not anticipated during the initial scheme of power generation. Now it has been installed but damage is already
done.
In few cases, a carbon steel has been used in super heater coils which can only sustain a temperature of <400 0C. Ultimately
all the boilers had to be modified by use of better material of Chrome-Moly steel .In few cases, supplies of boiler components is
made by supplier for all the units to gather for financial considerations , by the time subsequent units are installed and
commission the components experience several weather cycles at the open storage yard .
In multiple units it is advantageous to interconnect all the main steam pipe lines and feed water lines for a flexibility of operation.
These gaps are more pronounced operation so that any boiler can be connected to any turbine. In one steel plant the
condensate was contaminated by leakage of cooling water at condenser. This resulted into contamination of feed water of all
the units. This resulted into failure of tubes in almost all the units. There were also many tube failures, however, more were
concentrated at the front wall kick off zone of a CBBC boiler. The paper deals with variety of problems which accelerate the
aging of boilers due to gap in understanding of design requirements, metallurgy of components and environment causing
failures.
Author(s):
Shashank Shukla, Director (Technical)

IRC Engineering Services India Pvt. Ltd.
Email: ircengg@gmail.com
Contact: 011-26468092

06-02-2017
AGING OF BOILERS AND FAILURES
By
S. SHUKLA- Director(Technical)
IRC ENGINEERING SERVICES (I) Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi
Introduction
• No boiler can ever be designed which will never fail.

• Life cycle of boiler is governed by magnitude of stress, variation of operating parameters,
chemicals regime during a service life and suitability of materials to sustain those conditions.
• The foundation for aging and failures is laid down during selection of boiler ,Shipping , Storage
and omissions during erection & pre- commissioning activities.
• There can be many reasons of failure, however, can broadly be classified as;
• a) Erosion, b) Corrosion, c) Creep & d ) Fatigue.
1
06-02-2017
• Constraints:
• Process people have focus on production targets & quality of products , however ,boiler
designers select a standard package ,accommodating into process requirement.
• It is not easy to customise a boiler to meet all the variations of process to match actual
requirements of steam at different points of utilization. Significance of PRDS , distance of end
point from boiler , insulation, vents and steam traps are often ignored and same is true about
selection of piping network.
Normal aging Process of boilers
GAP between boiler design & Rapid input of heat, mode of

steam utilization. A mismatch of steam production & its
consumption pattern .
Example:
i)Rolling Mill operation of Steel Plants.
ii) Operation of L.D. converters.
iii) Cement Industry heat emanating from clinker kilns
iv) Thinning rate high due to erosion
v) Wrong selection of material
vi) Accelerated aging of alloy steel Components due to
excursions of Pressure , Temperature & flow of
steam beyond MCR conditions- causing creep failures.
vii) CV of fuel not matching with max. design value
( Use of high CV Imported coal)
viii) Improper Sizing of DM plant exchangers due to
wide variation in TDS & NTU values over the year
causing early fouling of D.M. plant filters.
2
06-02-2017
Failures due to corrosion & blockage
i) Production of DM water is centralized and chemical

regime of boiler is controlled by operation personnel
resulting into deviations in pH & DO.
ii) Non availability of deaerators./ Failure of
condenser tubes effecting uncontrolled regime of D.O..
iii)Deviations during pre-commissioning activities.
iv) Sulphur content of fuel ( Petro coke)
v)Improper storage of components before erection.
vi)Role of quality personnel ignored.
vii Absence of a defined procedure & practice of
preservation when unit is out of service.
Inputs need specific attention during the design & selection of boilers
• Variation in fuel sources and quality including initial deformation temp. of ash.
• Heat release rate of burners
• Turn down ratio of burners and stability of flame at low load operation.
• Adequacy of EPA and anticipation of high heat flux zone of boiler furnace ( mainly in CFBC Boilers)
• Variation in the quality of raw water in terms of TDS value and NTU values.
• Requirement of continuous operation or intermittent operation.
• Inter- connection of multiple units. ( Merits & Demerits)
• Importance of Feed water pre-heaters, outages/bypass resulting into higher transfer of heat mass at
water wall.
• Quick fix practice of repairs & maintenance- due to higher stakes in production loss.
• Training & Experience of operating staff.
All the operational variations of production process need to be discussed & explained to
boiler manufacturer. Similar aspects to be explained to water treatment plant vendor.
3
06-02-2017
Need of cross discipline support

for the reliable operation of boiler
Fuel Technology & combustion.

-Emission of Heat & heat Flux
Metallurgy
– Knowledge , & behaviour of metals specially
during rapid heating & cooling of boiler.
Infusing Creep & fatigue .
Chemical Engineering
- Influence of Corrosion.
Water Chemistry
- Laxity in maintaining the chemical regime &
Defining Preservation Procedure .
CASE HISTORIES
Change to higher grade of fuel:

• Boiler designed for a CV of 3500-4500 Kcl./kg. being located at sea coast area used imported
coal of 5500 -6500 Kcl/Kg. CV .Resulting into frequent failures.
Selection Of materials:
• In a refinery WHRB ,15Mo3 material was used at super heater having a waste heat gas
temperature of 650 -700 0C. In another case of a 100 MW boiler , at convective super heater
same materials was used which had to be replaced by Chrome-Moly steels with some
modifications.
4
06-02-2017
Unit Capacity : 120 MW, Pressure : 96.5 Kg/cm2, Temperature: 341.2 0C

(at economizer inlet)
Boiler using a mix of bituminous and middling coal having a HGI value of
40-50.
Economizer bank is in two stages instead of three , comparing with design of
similar boilers . In this boiler ,115 coils have been accommodated in two stages
instead of 90 coils in three stages .This led to higher gas exit temperature and
crunch in passage to affect gain in flue gas velocity to cause erosion. Presence of
Higher level of dissolved oxygen also caused severe internal corrosion.
Demonstrates the location of water wall tube failure, which is outside the boiler firing zone .During
repair , the compensating bend became rigid and caused failures due to cyclic fatigue.
5
06-02-2017
The figure presents an improper maintenance inducting

rigidity to compensating bend at the water wall header.
Design Pressure Operating Pressure Design Temperature Operating Temperature

119.5 Kg/Cm2 113 Kg/Cm2 330 0C 2900C
6
06-02-2017
A Ligament Crack observed observed during fibroscopy of header
Capacity : 99 T/Hr
Pressure : 77 Kg/cm2
Temp : 520 0C
Date of Commissioning : February, 1989
Total Running Hours : 1, 32,798 hours
A defined crack observed during Dye Penetrant Test of weld joint of a HRH pipe
bend . Recommended for local repair & post welding S.R. as short term measure.
Replacement recommended during next planned outage.
7
06-02-2017
CASE: 1 (B)
A pronounced distortion and misalignment of coils observed at

Super heater –I (O/L) coils. Frequent failures encountered.
Unit capacity: 50 MW, Pressure : 115 Kg , Temperature : 540 0C

Running Hours : 300,000.
LOOP PIPES OF CONVECTIVE SUPER HEATER
(Swelling of .> 6.5% recorded suggests creep
found beyond limit of 2%.) Cracks detected at rear end welds.

RECOMMENDED FOR REPLACEMENT.
BEFORE REPLACEMENT AFTER REPLACEMENT
8
06-02-2017
METALLOGRAPHY
COMPONENT ( X500 magnification )

LOCATION Parent Metal
HARDNESS ( BHN) 196, 246 & 287
MICRO STRUCTURAL Microstructure shows a hot formation of austenized matrix indicating a defined
ANALYSIS segregation of alloy carbide particles inducing brittleness of the material.
LIFE FRACTION As per Neubauer-Wedel classification the component is in – IV, indicating a

used life fraction of 0.88.
RECOMMENDATION Remaining Life of the component is 40,909 hours.
Actual residual life may further decrease if start-stop cycles increase or

temperature excursions of Main steam pipe are frequent. Loop has been
recommended for replacement.
Internal corrosion –High level of DO- No dearator
9
06-02-2017
The figure represents a typical case of hydrogen Embrittlement of water wall tubes
affecting 114 failures in four boilers out of these 64 failure in front wall kick-off zone. .
High heat flux also identified in front wall . Problem was in prolonged condenser tube
leakages, Lower pH regime & failure of Deaerator baffles causing higher level of
dissolved Oxygen .
Figure- Debris of baffle trays lying in front of dearator man hole to suggest, TG -2 operated
with shattered baffle trays for some duration , till set of new trays were replaced.
10
06-02-2017
Fig. Demonstrates the extent of internal corrosion of condenser tubes and their partial blockage
Chemicals emanating from a cement plant kiln settle at the low temperature zone and block transfer of heat to
steam .The constituents consists of Cao turns into Calcium Hydroxide in presence of water and instigates corrosion
resulting into failure.
11
06-02-2017
Internal Corrosion :Presents the condition of inner surface of a water wall tube which has a
clusters of corrosion pits and trend of dislodging magnetite scales, forming inner surface
rings .
Internal Blockage :The figure demonstrates failure of platen

super heater coil of a newly commissioned boiler which
encountered , multiple failures due to blockage of super heater
loops. Deficit in pre-commissioning process & stress relieving
also noticed.
12
06-02-2017
Improper storage of components : Serious deviations

observed during storage of erectable material at the open
yard affecting corrosion of components before these are
erected .
Improper storage :Serious deviations observed during storage

of erectable material at the open yard affecting external
surface of the components.
13
06-02-2017
The figure demonstrates internal blockage of tube panels
Severe internal corrosion observed at the tube panels. A- potential cause of

corrosion failure
14
06-02-2017
Slippage of inspection during erection: Accumulation of erection

debries & foreign objects located in link pipe from down comer to
water wall bottom header caused major failures .
Capacity: 265 TPH

Pressure: 106Kg/Cm2
Temp: 485oC
Date of Commissioning: 08-02-1989
Total Running Hours: 1, 05,565 hrs
A sledge hammer left out since erection . Located during fibroscopy of

a header.
Capacity: 265 TPH

Pressure: 106Kg/Cm2
Temp: 485oC
Date of Commissioning: 18-08-1989
Total Running Hours: 93,574 hrs
15
06-02-2017
COMPACT SEPARATOR PANEL (LHS): STUB JOINTS AT THE HEADER

ARE COMPLETELY DETACHED DUE TO IMPACT OF EXPLOSION
upper & lower bank economizer skin casing & front supporting structure,
found blown off, affecting distortion of complete walkway and hand rails .
supporting structure recommended for replacement. Existing economizer
battery reused.
16
06-02-2017
HEAVY DEPOSITS OF DEBRIS & CONSTRUCTION WASTE FOUND INSIDE

THE FINAL SUPER HEATER INLET HEADER. ACID CLEANING & STEAM
BLOWING RECOMMENDED AFTER RESTORATION.
Boiler encountered an explosion causing distortion of ceiling water wall

panels, detachment of insulation & cladding etc.Recommended for
replacement of ceiling & water wall panels .
17
06-02-2017
THE MAIN BOXED COLUMN AND BRACING FOUND COMPLETELY

DAMAGED DUE TO SEVERE CORROSION OF ASH & MOISTURE.
AT ESP 1ST ROW MIDDLE BOX COLUMN FOUND SEVERELY CORRODED

AND VULNERABLE TO FAILURE.
Conclusion
1)Boiler Manufacturer & DM plant vendors to understand the process requirement
of main product where steam is used.
2) Adequate care needs to be taken during shipment , storage and pre-

commissioning
3) Cross discipline supports are essential to ensure reliability of boilers.
4) Utmost care is essential for the preservation during idle period of boiler
5) Role of Quality personnel needs to be appreciated during erection and

commissioning.
18
BOILER EFFICIENCY, AVAILABILITY AND RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT
THORUGH RENOVATION AND MODERNISATION-NEW APPROACH
ABSTRACT
BHEL had supplied and commissioned nearly 45 numbers of 200/210 MW LP units between January 1980 and January 1993.
All these units are performing well and serving nation all these years. These Units were designed for coal of calorific value in
the range 4000 to 5000 kcal/kg. The calorific value of currently available coal is way less and is around 3000 - 3500 kcal/kg of
original HHV with increased moisture content and ash compared to the original coal. Because of the deteriorated coal condition
and ageing of boiler components, the efficiency of these units was reduced. Also the exit gas temperature of these boilers were
found to be higher than the design exit gas temperature. In most of the old LP units the flue gas temperature at APH outlet is in
the range 160 to 170 oC against the design level of 140 oC. Because of the higher exit gas temperature, the boiler efficiency is
greatly reduced. Also the higher exit gas temperature which increases the flue gas volume. The increased flue gas volume with
additional ash content increases the flue gas velocity which leads to erosion of Economizer and LTSH coils pressure parts.
Additionally, higher flue gas exit temperature makes the ESP less effective in curbing the emission within the limit. Over the
years the Ash content in coal is also increased and these increases the burden on ESP. This shall result in difficulties in
meeting the current norm of emission limit which is more stringent. This necessitates installation of a bigger ESP which cannot
be located within the space available between APH and ID fan. Since ash content in coal cannot be lowered to a great extent,
flue gas quantity reduction and pressure part arrangement modification are the alternative solutions to reduce tube failures and
limit the dust emission. BHEL has come with innovative method of Back pass modification which shall eliminate all the problems
due to ageing and coal quality deterioration. Back pass modification is the technology that offers the utilities a viable option to
upgrade the plant performance. Additionally, back pass modification is coupled with benefits like less outage period and
immediate payback period.
Author(s):
P. Nagamanickam, General Manager Spares and R&M Busniness Group*
Email: pnm@bheltry.co.in
Contact: 9442631171
The corresponding author of this paper is ME (Design & Production of Thermal Power Equipment), NIT Tiruchirappalli. During a
career spanning over three decades in BHEL, he has played a key role in Field Engineering Services, catering to Spares
requirement of majority of steam generators provided in the Power and Industrial plants and Renovation & Modernisation of
Boilers of various types and sizes, suitable for different applications for Utilities and Industries. He has worked as a member in
the World Energy Council ECUC Team (Efficient and Clean Use of Coal), studied Power Stations in India, Indonesia and
worked in the Forum for efficiency and availability improvement. He has presented more than 25 technical papers in National,
International Seminars and in journals mainly in the area of Combustion & corrosion problems in boilers etc.
R.Sriram Senior Deputy General Manager Renovation and Modernisation Engineering*

*Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Tiruchirappalli
He has an experience of 28 years in the field of boiler technology. He graduated from Madurai Kamaraj University in 1986 and
then obtained his Master Degree in the field of Energy Engineering in NIT, Tiruchirappalli in 1995. He has served BHEL in areas
like Boiler Performance & Proposals Engineering and Field Engineering Services. Right now he is serving BHEL in the field of
Renovation & Modernisation of Boiler units of various capacities.
06-02-2017
Spares and R&M Business Group

BHEL, Trichy
WELCOME
Powering Progress... Brightening Lives… Touching Every Indian Home

BHEL, Trichy
Boiler efficiency, availability and reliability

improvement thro’ Renovation & Modernisation
1
06-02-2017
Total R&M
Why R&M ? and How ?
• Heat rate improvement
• Boiler Efficiency improvement
• Availability and reliability improvement
1. Pressure parts
• SH system
• RH system
• Eco System
2. Non-pressure parts
3. Fuel firing system
4. Upgradation of auxiliaries including Mills, Fans, APH and ESP
BoilerBoiler
R&MR&MRequirement areas
Requirement areas
2
06-02-2017
Objective of Total R&M
• R&M for Life Extension – 15 to 20 years

• Up-rating the generating capacity
• Improve the unit heat rate
• The LE program covers entire Power plant system
including Boiler & Auxiliaries, TG, BOP, Electrical and C&I
etc.
• Hence for this type of LE program time taken for
Execution would be around 10 – 12 months
Objective of Total R&M - Boiler
• Improvement in boiler efficiency

• Boiler MS flow increase
• Upgradation of mill
• Reduction in auxiliary power consumption
• APH flue gas outlet temperature < 140 0C
• Reduction in ESP emission level to 50 mg/Nm3
• Modernisation of C&I system
3
06-02-2017
Modification in boiler for achieving Uprating
• Mill capacity addition

• Fuel firing system modification
• SH Material up-gradation
• RH coil modification & Material up-gradation
• Economiser coil modification
• Safety valve redesign
Typical 200 MW / 210 MW

Boiler modification for efficiency, reliability and
availability improvement – Part R&M
4
06-02-2017
Part R&M
Why Part R&M?

• Efficiency and reliability improvement – with lesser Execution
time of < 3 months
• Involves any one of the sub-systems or combination of such
systems
1. Pressure part modification in appropriate area in boiler to improve

Efficiency
2. Retrofitting of state of art improvements
3. Fuel conversion like oil to gas and gas to oil
4. C&I R&M Towards DDCMIS retrofits, etc.,
Boiler Efficiency Improvement
 To reduce flue gas exit temperature, heating surface

area of economiser is increased by accommodating
additional bank of economiser coils.
 Steam cooled walls redesigned.
 Economiser redesigned
 LTSH redesigned alongwith inlet header
 APH is modified with 72 deg PA sector angle for
improving PA pressure to mill by reducing DP in RAPH
 By implementing the above modification boiler
efficiency increased and coal flow is reduced.
 Erosion protection measures also introduced to reduce
tube failures in LTSH and Economiser areas
5
06-02-2017
Part R&M package for improving efficiency, reliability and

availability
Advantages
 Efficiency improved by 1% ; Fuel consumption reduced
 Flue gas temperature reduced to around 125 deg.C ;
ESP effectiveness improved ; ID fan power
consumption reduced
 Erosion related tubes failure reduced ; Availability
improved
 Pay back period 5 - 6 years
 Execution period : 3 months
Boiler GA drawing with modification areas
LTSH
Eco.
Flue gas duct
RAPH sector angle modification
AIR DUCTS
6
06-02-2017
Typical Boiler parameters for 210 MW unit – Case study
MAIN STEAM Parameters Units MCR 200 MW Control Load 120 MW

Steam flow at SH Outlet t/h 680 420
Pressure at SH Outlet kg / cm2 (g) 136 132
Temperature at SH Outlet oC 540 540
Re heater parameters
Steam flow at RH Outlet t/h 560.7 376.4
Pressure at RH Inlet kg / cm2 (g) 26 16.5
Temperature at RH Inlet oC 328 293
Pressure drop in RH kg / cm2 1.76 1.2
Pressure at RH Outlet kg / cm2 (g) 24.24 15.3
Temperature at RH Outlet oC 540 540
Feed water & other parameters
Feed Water Temperature oC 242 220
Fuel Quantity t/h 96.6 63.7
Air quantity t/h 889 634.8
Flue gas exit temp at Boiler oC 145 122
Efficiency % 86.15 86.55
Performance comparison after modification – Case study
Parameter Unit Original After

Modification
MS flow tph 680 680
RH flow tph 560.7 560.7
SHOT Deg.C 540 540
RHOT Deg.C 540 540
Flue gas temp. at eco inlet Deg.C 474 459
Flue gas temp. at AH inlet Deg.C 384 304
Flue gas temp. at AH outlet Deg.C 157 126
Coal (HHV=5375 kcal/kg) tph 97.4 95.8
Boiler efficiency % 86.15 87.15
Coal saving tph 1.6
Coal Saving for design coal (HHV 5375 Kcal/kg) TPA 14016
Coal saving for current coal (HHV 3400 Kcal/kg) TPA 22157
Expected Payback period considering Rs. Years ~ 5 – 6 years
3500 / ton (Current coal)
7
06-02-2017
Modifications Envisaged
Economiser
 Redesigned to increase surface area.
 Redesigned as top supported.
 One additional bank added
 Plain tube in-line arrangement enabling provision of
cassette baffles
 Erosion shielding for straight portions
 All headers are redesigned viz, inlet, intermediate, outlet
headers
LTSH
 Inlet header, Outlet header
 LTSH coil (modular type)
 Coils redesigned to suit economiser hanger support.
 LTSH terminal tubes from LTSH coils to outlet header’s
stubs.
 SS Cassette Baffles are provided for all the bends in front
and rear side of both upper and lower banks
 SS Shielding for straight portions
8
06-02-2017
Steam cooled wall

 Height increased to accommodate more economiser
surface area
 Steam circuit is redesigned
 Roof and rear walls redesigned
 Bottom ring header redesigned
Soot Blowers
• Existing soot blowers relocated to match the redesigned
economiser
9
06-02-2017
Radiant roof skin casing

• Refractory and skin casing of radiant roof
Seal boxes, access doors
• Seal boxes and access doors added to suit the new coil
arrangement
Insulation
• Replacement of existing insulation of boiler components viz.
radiant roof, back pass SCW, & ducting of flue gas, hot PA and
hot SA under scope.
Buck stays
 Additional buck stay for one elevation. In remaining areas
existing buck stay beams reused.
 Loose attachment items like scalloped bars, stirrups, stirrup
connecting bolts to beams required for Buck stay re-fixing works.
Ducts & Expansion joints

 Hot secondary air ducting from APH up to inter connection.
 Cold secondary air duct from FD fan outlet damper to APH
 Hot primary air ducting from APH to damper
 Cold primary air ducting from damper after PA fan up to APH
 Flue gas ducting from eco outlet to APH inlet
 Expansion joints in the modified portion of ducting
Grills
 Material for provision of additional approach platform at
economizer and LTSH areas.
10
06-02-2017
Dampers
• Dampers at hot secondary air duct after APH
• Dampers in eco outlet to APH flue gas ducting.
Tri-sector Regenerative Air preheater

• Quantity : 2 Nos per Boiler
• Heater Size : 27.0 VIMT 2000 (72 deg PA)
Boiler Renovation & Modernisation
Conclusion :
The above modifications shall result in
• Boiler efficiency improvement of around 1%
• Enhanced Availability & Reliability of unit
• Auxiliary power saving due to reduced fluegas temp
leaving boiler
• ESP emission reduction due to lesser fluegas temp at inlet
11
06-02-2017
Thank You
12
KEY FACTORS FOR RELIABLE AND EFFICIENT OPERATION OF BOILERS
ABSTRACT
Advantage of using boilers with high pressures and Temperatures ratings in Co generation Plants have been realized by
various industries. For Sugar Industries it has taken manifold steps and have now started using pressure ratings of 125
Kg/Cm2 which is proving not only fuel efficient but with reduced specific steam consumption.
Real challenging still lies in maintaining boilers in good shape throughout operating duration to have efficient operation and to
avoid any kind of forced break down. It is thus important to understand common damage mechanism associated with various
kinds of pressure parts. It must be noted that such care must be in place since Erection of Parts if not during Manufacturing,
Transportation and Storage at site.
It is equally meaningful to have a specific checklist of various components of boilers which must be referred during any
stoppage of boiler. What to Check, Where to Check and How to check is still an area of dilemma for various O&M professionals.
Efficiency of boiler is a very generic phrase being used in Industries. Factors affecting efficiency must be known to O&M then
only corrective action plan can be drawn to mitigate that aspect.
This paper deals with all such kind of aspects which must be known to users of Boilers.
Author(s):
Arun Tewari, G.M- Engineering Services

Isgec Heavy engineering Limited
Email: atewari@isgec.co.in
Contact: 9910049818
The author of this paper is BE- Mechanical (1990 batch) graduated from Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi. He has
more than 21 years of experience in Boiler Troubleshooting, Research & Developmental projects, in-house & customer
trainings, etc. He has published number of articles in Sugar journals & Magazines on “Extending & Improving availability and
Efficient & Effective O&M of boilers, High Pressure Cogeneration boilers and SLOP fired boilers. Presently he is heading
Exclusive cell of Boiler Performance Review Committee (BPRC) of all types of boiler for their performance optimization at
ISGEC. Prior to ISGEC he worked with Thermax for 10 years.

2/6/2017
KEY FACTORS FOR SMOOTH

&
RELIABLE OPERATION OF BOILERS
Isgec Heavy Engineering Limited

Noida
1
Presentations covers
• Key ingredients for efficient
O&M
• Typical Issues being faced
in Various kind of boilers
• What to check
• Factors affecting efficiency
1
2/6/2017
Key Ingredients for O&M staff
Effective Boiler O & M
Knowledg
Attitude Comfort Records
e
Tips for Inspection
•What to inspect?
•Where to Inspect?
•How to Inspect?
•Is it safe to Inspect?
•How good /Bad things looks like?
•Recording them
•Deciding corrective actions
•Implementing them & Monitoring them
2
2/6/2017
 Skill levels of Operation and Maintenance
 Basic Knowledge of Boilers and its Auxiliaries
 Dangerous Aspects of Boilers
 Factors for efficient Operation
 Understanding of damage mechanism of

Pressure Parts
 Knowledge of various modern Non Destructive

Tests
Boiler
circulation
System
Concept of Understand
Various Expansion
Pressures concept
Basics
Temperature
Working
Limits of
principle of
various
Auxiliaries
metals
Boiler
combustion
& system
3
2/6/2017
• Engineering
• Manufacturing
• Storage
• Erection
• Operation
• Maintenance
Key Ingredients
• Correct Design
• Optimum Lay out to have less Pressure drops
• Care during Manufacturing, Transportation,

Storage
• Care during Erection
• 100% completion before Light up
• All Interlocks in Place before Firing
• Smooth Commissioning
4
2/6/2017
Key Ingredients
Stacking on
Plain Surface
with Equispaced
wooden Logs
beneath them
Storage End Caps are
placed
Pre
Identification
of Damaged
Parts
Key Ingredients
Insulation in
Safe Place
Rotating
Refractory at
covered place Storage equipment –
Rotation once
in 15 days
Safe Storage of
critical items
5
2/6/2017
Care during Erection
Alignments of Pressure Parts
Removal of Unwanted Erection Scraps in

Gas Path
Specified Weld Procedure and PHT
Understanding of Expansions,
Supporting and clearances
Hoppers/ducting free from Erection

Lugs/scraps
Correct Gaskets Usage
Safety Aspects
Isolate boiler
Gaps in system with
Platform others during
shut down
Know Ash is
dangerous
Safe Un-insulated
Vents and
drains
Unsafe
Overhead
termination of
beams and
Hot Water and
angles
Steam Line
Take care of
Ensure Work
Permit System
Safe Harmful gases
in the system
6
2/6/2017
Common Issues
AFBC & CFBC Boilers
Traveling Grate Boilers
Oil & Gas Fired Boilers

• Bed Coil • Unstable • Burner Non
Failures Steam Performance
Temperatures
• Combustor • Hot Spots
Tube Failures • Bagasse
handling • Cold End
• Refractory difficulties corrosions
Failures due to
Moisture
• Explosions
• Bottom Ash
Handling • Traveling
difficulties Grate Damage
• Explosions • Explosions
PREPARATIONS
• Safety Dress ( Boiler suit, Helmet, Eye Goggle, Safety Shoes,

• Knee pad , Safety Belt)
• A Power full torch
• Availability of drawing/relevant information
•A Scale and measuring Tape

•A pen with small writing pad
•A marker and Chalk
•A Camera with proper holding arrangement
• Boiler Part & ash in cooled condition

• Sufficient Illumination and proper scaffolding
• Electrical connection removed
• Boiler isolated from other system
Always have one companion with you to help in tough time
7
2/6/2017
Few Fundamentals
AVAIL EVERY OPPORTUNITY OF SHUT DOWN FOR

THOROUGH INSPECTION OF ALL PRESSURE PARTS,
AUXILLIARIES
 Make it habit to reach all critical areas in such shut

• downs.
 Use binoculars/ Drone to inspect unapproachable areas
 List , record all the findings at central place preferably with
photographs
 Send complete report to concerned
Few Fundamentals
Remember : Counting from Left to Right
Use Powerful Torch and Light Projection method

Remember : Counting from Front to Rear
Thickness Measuring Techniques
Gas
Remember : Tube may be having 10% more thickness than designed
8
2/6/2017
Four Common Enemies
CORROSION
EROSION OVERHEATING
CRACKING
What to look for
% of Quartz in Ash Impingement Angle

Gas at
turning Area
Bends of Combustor
Convective at non
Pressure studded area
Parts above KOZ
EROSION
Tubes
Tubes near
adjacent to
soot blower
Cage/Casing
Air heater at
cold end
Velocity of Gas
% of Ash in Gas
9
2/6/2017
Tips for Inspection
All areas
( whether Insulation
Buckstay Bolts
positive draft or including Tightness/
Negative draft) stiffeners Looseness
must be seal
proof
For erosion
Common Rules
Protection
Protection of
for all boilers Passage should
be Lug/Scrap/
Economiser,
foreign material
Superheater,
free
Baffles should be
installed
Understand
At all soot Expansion
blower areas, diagram and
Sleeves should ensure that gaps
be available are provided for
expansion
Tips for Inspection
Check FW pipe
Upon drying of Drum is free from
elevation and
surface- check for foreign material
hole orientation
corrosion/pitting
Drum Vortex breaker at

Check gaskets top of
Inspection downcomer
Condition of Blow
Check carry over
Check demister down pipe &
marks
condition Dosing pipe
10
2/6/2017
Tips for Inspection
Check refractory Look for first cut Check Gaps for

condition ash soot expansion
deposition profile
Check areas near

Fins should be Furnace SA/Grit refiring
smoothly
Inspection Nozzles for any
terminated
erosion
Inspect the wall

Ensure furnace is
Check areas near from torch light
free from any lug,
Fuel feed for any bowing/
scrap
openings swelling
Tips for Inspection
Check Gaps for

Check tubes for
Look for first cut between bottom
any
Ensure header’s support
ash soot bend and goose

Looseness/Tightness at
swelling/Bowing
deposition profile neck
cold/hot Condition
Check Sealing at
Super Check gap
Superheater heater between Top
penetrating area bend and roof
Inspection
Endure Goose Check alignment

neck is free from Check Spacer and gap along &
unwanted lug plate condition across the gas
scrap and its gap with path
side wall
11
2/6/2017
Tips for Inspection
Check Gaps for

Check cold end
Look for ash soot between bend
side tubes for
deposition and surrounding
corrosion
casing
Check exclusively Check area of coal

area near eco Economiser beneath Support
inlet header for any rubbing
Check integrity of Check alignment

Bend Protection and gap along &
Ensure no gaps in
baffle/Inner across the gas
casing i.e Leak
casing path
proof casing
Tips for Inspection
Check Gas inlet

Check cold end
ends for first 150
side tubes for Look for ash soot
mm for erosion (
corrosion deposition
Gas thru tubes)
Must ensure
Gap between end checking of area
tube and casing( Air Preheater where gas n air
Air thru tube) are at lowest
temperature
In case of SA/FD
partition, ensure
Perform leak test Checks sleeves at
that area is leak
of Tubes every soot blower area (
proof and
year Air thru tube)
partition is
installed correctly
12
2/6/2017
Key Ingredients
•Written and Well displayed SOP in Control room
•Actions on Emergencies are displayed.
•Written procedure during Shift Change
•Review of Operating Log
•Analysis of Fuel and Water
Unstable Operation-
Serious Damages
Unspecified and Unsized fuel feed

Wet coal and unstable combustion
Brisk Operation
Safety & Interlock Protections by passed
Inadequate air – Excess fuel feed
Inadequate purging before start / Re-start
Restarting without through analysis
Inexperienced operational staff & practices
Unstable trend of fuel flow vs (oxygen)
Un-evacuated Ash hoppers
13
2/6/2017
Tips for Efficient Operation
Direct Efficiency ======= Out Put/Input
Indirect Efficiency ======= (Input - Loss)/Input
or 1 – Loss/Input
Advantages of Indirect Efficiency measurements.

• No measurement of fuel,
• Only Few measurements thus measurement accuracies are minimum
• Idea on what is going wrong
Dry Flue
Gas Loss
Hydrogen Moisture
in fuel in Fuel
loss Loss
Losses
Unburnt
Moisture
Carbon
in Air Loss
Loss
Radiation
Loss
14
2/6/2017
Efficiency Concept
Losses TG ( Bagasse) TG ( Coal) AFBC ( Imp CFBC ( Imp coal)

Coal)
For a typical 3600 Kcal Coal, same rating boiler, back end temp,
Unburnt Carbon 0.68 1.71 3.00 1.50
Dry Flue Gas 5.21 4.27 3.39 3.69
Moisture in Fuel 14.21 4.00 1.67 1.71
Hydrogen in 8.51 4.05 4.02 4.04

Fuel
Moisture in Air 0.27 0.30 0.24 0.24
Radiation 0.27 .27 0.27 0.26
Total Losses @29% @16 % @13.00% @11.50
For every 20
Deg increase
in Back end
Temp
For every For every
3.5% 1% 25 %
increase in
increase in Change in
Moisture Efficiency Excess Air
For every
0.4%
increase in
Fuel Hydrogen
15
2/6/2017

• High Back end Temperature - Soot deposition/Internal scaling/ High Excess air
• High Unburnt carbon- Incorrect air fuel ratio/improper combustion
• High moisture in fuel – Source/Insufficient covered storage yard
• High Surface heat loss – Improper Insulation
• High Blow down loss – Set right water Chemistry
• Leaking Valves – Correct them
• Internal scaling/corrosion – Set right water chemistry/ Deaerator operation
• Low Feed water inlet temperature – Feed water as per design
• Leaking gas path & APH tubes – Set right them
• Operation at lower Loads – Low efficiency
16
MYTHS AND REALITY OF COMBUSTION
ABSTRACT
The paper is focused on “Theory of Incomplete Combustion of Fuel” (TIC). It is a general theory and it can be applied to any
type of fuel. In view of this, some of the current practices have been found to be lacking in meeting the challenges of fuel
conservation. This paper is presented so that it can help in changing them in such a way that they can lead to better utilization
of the fuel. The conclusions are based on observations collected over long durations.
Combustion practices that evolved over time have been evaluated for their efficacy. Along with that a number of conclusions
drawn so far have been studied. They have been studied from a chemical engineer’s point of view with a paradigm shift in
approach. In the opinion of the author, there are many aspects of combustion that need a fresh look and that has been done in
light of TIC.
An attempt has been made to explain a number of aspects of combustion that have remained partly explained or unexplained
till date. About twelve such points as mentioned below have been taken up for discussion in paper.
 Flue Gas Composition,

 CO2 Measured And Calculated
 Heat Loss In Unburnt Fuel As Against Heat Loss In Dry Flue Gases,
 Calculation Of Excess Air By Different Methods Etc.
 Prima Facie Judgement Of Combustion Based On Flue Gas Composition
 Tuning Practices
Author(s):
Pranav Shirishchandra Desai,
Email: pranavdesai10@gmail.com
Contact: 9223 216959
The corresponding author of this paper is B. Tech. (Hons) (Chem) (IIT – Bombay). Along with his work on TIC, he has also
gathered a lot of information on determination of Ultimate Analysis of fuel based on some of its physical characteristics. It was
necessary for his work. With all this, he has also developed an intelligent flue gas analyser incorporating algorithms based TIC
to achieve better fuel utilisation.Over the last decade he has given presentations at various workshops and seminars organised
by FICCI, NPC and IPCL.

06-02-2017
MYTHS AND REALITIES OF

COMBUSTION PROCESS
MYTH 1
THERE IS A ONE TO ONE CORRESPONDENCE
BETWEEN THE CONCENTRATION OF CO2 AND
CONCENTRATION OF O2 IN FLUE GASES AND
THEREFORE IT IS SUFFICIENT TO MEASURE ONLY
CONCENTRATION OF O2 IN FLUE GASES AND THE
CONCENTRATION OF CO2 CAN BE CALCULATED
FROM THAT OF O2.
REALITY
IN GENERAL, THE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN CO2
AND O2 CAN BE ONE TO MORE THAN ONE. ONLY IN
SPECIAL CASES IT CAN BE ONE TO ONE.
1
06-02-2017
TABLE – 1
(SAME CO2 CONCENTRATION IN THE GROUP OR PAIR)
Coal – (C – 0.4752, H – 0.0284, S – 0.009, N – 0.01,
O – 0.1053) – (ALL IN kg / kg fuel)
Sl. % v / v ON DRY BASIS

No. CO2 O2 CO
PAIR 1
1 09.7 09.6 0.020
2 09.7 10.0 0.040
PAIR 2
3 10.2 09.4 0.030
4 10.2 09.7 0.000
GROUP 1
5 10.4 09.1 0.030
6 10.4 09.3 0.040
7 10.4 09.4 0.020
8 10.4 09.6 0.010
PAIR 3
9 10.5 9.2 0.040
10 10.5 9.3 0.005
PAIR 4
11 10.8 9.0 0.000
12 10.8 9.1 0.000
GROUP 2
13 11.0 8.5 0.020
14 11.0 8.6 0.020
15 11.0 8.8 0.000
PAIR 5
16 11.2 8.4 0.010
17 11.2 8.6 0.000
GROUP 3
18 11.5 8.1 0.040
19 11.5 8.2 0.000
20 11.5 8.4 0.000
TABLE – 2
(SAME O2 CONCENTRATION IN THE GROUP OR PAIR)
Coal – (C – 0.4752, H – 0.0284, S – 0.009, N – 0.01,
O – 0.1053) – (ALL IN kg / kg fuel)
CO2 O2 CO
Sl. No.
% v / v On Dry Basis
PAIR 1
1 11.5 8.1 0.010
2 11.8 8.1 0.010
PAIR 2
3 11.2 8.4 0.010
4 11.5 8.4 0.000
PAIR 3
5 11.0 8.5 0.020
6 11.3 8.5 0.000
GROUP 1
7 11.0 8.6 0.020
8 11.1 8.6 0.020
9 11.2 8.6 0.030
GROUP 2
10 10.4 9.1 0.030
11 10.6 9.1 0.020
12 10.7 9.1 0.000
13 10.8 9.1 0.000
PAIR 4
14 10.3 9.2 0.025
15 10.5 9.2 0.040
PAIR 5
16 10.2 9.4 0.030
17 10.4 9.4 0.020
PAIR 6
18 09.7 9.6 0.020
19 10.4 9.6 0.010
PAIR 7
20 09.7 10 0.040
21 09.5 10 0.025
2
06-02-2017
TABLE – 3
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
(INTERESTING OBSERVATIONS)
Furnace Oil – (C – 0.84, H – 0.11, S – 0.04, N –
0.005, O – 0.005) – (ALL IN kg / kg fuel)
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
Sl. No. O2 CO2 CO
% v / v dry basis
Col. 1 2 3 4
SAME VALUE OF
CARBON DIOXIDE AND CARBON MONOXIDE
1 6.50 9.00 0.02
2 6.90 9.00 0.02
3 7.00 9.00 0.02
4 7.40 9.00 0.02
5 5.90 9.50 0.02

6 7.00 9.50 0.02
SAME VALUE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON

MONOXIDE
7 7.00 9.00 0.02
8 7.00 9.50 0.02
MYTH 2
WHEN CO2 IS MEASURED USING AN
INDEPENDENT PROBE, THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN THE ACTUALLY MEASURED
CONCENTRATION OF CO2 AND ITS CALCULATED
VALUE CAN BE DUE TO ERROR IN
MEASUREMENT.
REALITY
IN GENERAL, THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
ACTUALLY MEASURED CONCENTRATION OF CO2
AND ITS CALCULATED VALUE IS ALSO POSSIBLY
DUE TO THE FACT THAT THE COMBUSTION IS
NOT COMPLETE.
3
06-02-2017
TABLE – 4
CO2 CALCULATED BASED ON O2 IN FLUE GASES
FURNACE OIL: C – 0.84, H – 0.11, S – 0.04, N – 0.005, O – 0.005 (ALL In kg / kg fuel)
FLUE GAS COMP. CO2 DIFFERENCE
Sl.No.
O2 CO2 CO (CALCULATED) (Col. 5 – Col.3)
Col. % v / v On Dry Basis
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1.90 12.50 0.25 14.31 1.81
2 4.40 10.50 0.02 12.43 1.93
3 5.30 10.00 0.02 11.75 1.75
4 4.10 11.25 0.02 12.66 1.43
5 5.90 9.50 0.02 11.30 1.80
6 6.50 9.00 0.02 10.85 1.85
7 6.90 9.00 0.02 10.55 1.55
8 7.00 9.00 0.02 10.47 1.47
9 7.60 8.50 0.02 10.02 1.52
10 7.40 9.00 0.02 10.17 1.17
11 7.00 9.50 0.02 10.47 0.97
12 10.10 7.25 0.02 8.14 0.89
13 10.80 7.00 0.02 7.61 0.61
MYTH 3
THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN IN FLUE GASES IS AN
INDICATION OF COMPLETE COMBUSTION AND
THEREFORE THE CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN
IN FLUE GASES INDICATES EXCESS AIR WHICH IS
MORE THAN STOICHIOMETRIC QUANTITY.
REALITY
WHEN COMBUSTION TAKES PLACE, IT MAY NOT BE
COMPLETE. SO THERE IS SOME OXYGEN IN FLUE
GASES WHICH SHOULD HAVE BEEN CONSUMED BY
THE UNBURNT PART OF THE FUEL. SO PRESENCE
OF OXYGEN NEED NOT NECESSARILY INDICATE
COMPLETE COMBUSTION.
4
06-02-2017
DETERMINATION OF COMBUSTION AIR USING CORRECTED STOICHIOMETRIC AIR

AND NORMAL EXCESS AIR FACTOR
Fuel: Coal - C- 0.4752, H - 0.0284, N - 0.0100, S - 0.0090, O - 0.1053 (All In kg / kg fuel)
Flue Gas Analysis is not included here for the sake of clarity. Only Unburnt Carbon is used as the base.
SL. Unburnt O2 Not Used Air Not Used Stoichiometric Air Excess Air Combustion Air Error
No. Carbon Theoretical Actual Factor Using (TIC As
UC (ONU) (ANU) (STOI. AIR) (EA) (EA) TIC Base)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
All Parameters On Per Kilogram Of Fuel Basis Per kg fuel basis
kg kg Nm3 Nm3 kg kg kg % kg kg %
1 0.1560 0.4160 0.2912 1.3934 1.7973 6.0398 4.2425 100.89 8.5227 8.3353 -2.25
2 0.2277 0.6072 0.4250 2.0337 2.6231 6.0398 3.4167 89.43 6.4721 6.2297 -3.89
3 0.1738 0.4634 0.3243 1.5519 2.0017 6.0398 4.0381 80.65 7.2950 7.1281 -2.34
4 0.1403 0.3741 0.2618 1.2529 1.6159 6.0398 4.4238 92.87 8.5323 8.3772 -1.85
5 0.1506 0.4016 0.2811 1.3450 1.7348 6.0398 4.3050 98.70 8.5542 8.3772 -2.11
6 0.1971 0.5256 0.3679 1.7605 2.2707 6.0398 3.7691 95.04 7.3512 7.1281 -3.13
7 0.1403 0.3741 0.2618 1.2529 1.6159 6.0398 4.4238 92.87 8.5323 8.3772 -1.85
8 0.1700 0.4534 0.3174 1.5186 1.9587 6.0398 4.0811 78.95 7.3031 7.1433 -2.24
9 0.1128 0.3007 0.2105 1.0072 1.2991 6.0398 4.7407 78.94 8.4832 8.3772 -1.27
10 0.1162 0.3099 0.2169 1.0379 1.3387 6.0398 4.7011 80.57 8.4887 8.3772 -1.33
11 0.1525 0.4067 0.2847 1.3623 1.7571 6.0398 4.2827 83.15 7.8438 7.6928 -1.96
12 0.0879 0.2345 0.1642 0.7854 1.0130 6.0398 5.0267 81.68 9.1325 9.0470 -0.95
13 0.1171 0.3124 0.2187 1.0462 1.3494 6.0398 4.6904 79.18 8.4042 8.2938 -1.33
14 0.1137 0.3033 0.2123 1.0158 1.3102 6.0398 4.7296 77.58 8.3988 8.2938 -1.27
15 0.0768 0.2048 0.1433 0.6859 0.8846 6.0398 5.1552 76.86 9.1172 9.0470 -0.78
DETERMINATION OF COMBUSTION AIR USING CORRECTED STOICHIOMETRIC AIR

AND NORMAL EXCESS AIR FACTOR
Fuei: Furnace Oil - C- 0.84, H - 0.11, N - 0.005, S - 0.04, O - 0.005 (All In kg / kg fuel)
Flue Gas Analysis is not included here for the sake of clarity. Only Unburnt Carbon is used as the base.
SL. Unburnt O2 Not Used Air Not Used Stoichiometric Air Excess Air Combustion Air Error
No. Carbon Theoretical Actual Factor Using (TIC As
UC (ONU) (ANU) (STOI. AIR) (EA) EA TIC Base)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
All Parameters On Per Kilogram Of Fuel Basis Per kg fuel basis
kg kg Nm3 Nm3 kg kg kg % kg kg %
1 0.3427 0.9139 0.6397 3.0609 3.9479 13.6296 9.6817 48.94 14.4195 14.0576 -2.57
2 0.3325 0.8868 0.6207 2.9700 3.8307 13.6296 9.7989 50.00 14.6983 14.3291 -2.58
3 0.3469 0.9250 0.6475 3.0982 3.9961 13.6296 9.6335 33.76 12.8856 12.6325 -2.00
4 0.3796 1.0123 0.7086 3.3906 4.3732 13.6296 9.2564 44.83 13.4058 13.0723 -2.55
5 0.3630 0.9679 0.6775 3.2417 4.1812 13.6296 9.4484 39.07 13.1402 12.8484 -2.27
6 0.3507 0.9351 0.6546 3.1318 4.0394 13.6296 9.5902 56.72 15.0294 14.6120 -2.86
7 0.2877 0.7673 0.5371 2.5700 3.3148 13.6296 10.3148 9.95 11.3409 11.2004 -1.25
8 0.2148 0.5729 0.4010 1.9187 2.4748 13.6296 11.1548 105.88 22.9658 22.2244 -3.34
9 0.2749 0.7331 0.5132 2.4554 3.1670 13.6296 10.4626 92.66 20.1574 19.4974 -3.38
10 0.3569 0.9517 0.6662 3.1874 4.1111 13.6296 9.5185 26.51 12.0415 11.8410 -1.69
11 0.2804 0.7477 0.5234 2.5041 3.2298 13.6296 10.3998 24.26 12.9228 12.7394 -1.44
12 0.2434 0.6490 0.4543 2.1737 2.8036 13.6296 10.8260 50.00 16.2390 15.8725 -2.31
13 0.2873 0.7661 0.5363 2.5660 3.3097 13.6296 10.3199 54.41 15.9352 15.5363 -2.57
5
06-02-2017
MYTH 4
EXCESS AIR FACTOR CAN BE WORKED OUT ON
THE BASIS OF CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN IN
FLUE GASES OR CARBON DIOXIDE IN FLUE
GASES.
REALITY
WHEN EXCESS AIR FACTOR IS BASED ON THE
CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN IN FLUE GASES, IT IS
ALWAYS POSITIVE. SO WHEN THE SUPPLY OF
COMBUSTION AIR IS LESS THAN STOICHIOMETRIC,
IT WILL NOT GIVE CORRECT QUANTITY OF
COMBUSTION AIR.
Formula For Theoretical CO2: CO2t = 20.9*C/(C+2.3273*H+0.375*S-0.2966*O+0.0896*N) (%)
C – CARBON, H – HYDROGEN, S – SULPHUR, O – OXYGEN, N – NITROGEN CONTENT OF FUEL

(kg/kg fuel)
Formula For Excess Air Based On CO2: %EA = 7900*((CO2t - CO2a)/(CO2a(100 - CO2t)),
CO2a is the actual concentration of CO2 in flue gases (% v / v dry basis)
Formula For Excess Air Based On O2: %EA = 100*(O2a/21 - O2a),
O2a is the actual concentration of O2 in flue gases (% v / v dry basis)
Formula For Apparent Excess Air Factor (Assuming 100% Combustion) Using TIC:
Apparent Excess Air (AEA) = (C/(C+3*H+0.375*S-0.375*O))*(O2a - 0.5*COa)/(CO2a+COa),
COa - Actual CO in Flue Gases (% v / v dry basis)
Formula For Real Excess Air Factor (Assuming Incomplete Combustion) Using TIC:
Real Excess Air (REA) = ((((CO2a + 0.5COa + O2a) (F1) / (20.9 - CO2a - O2a – 0.6045*Coa)) – C) / F2)
F1 and F2 Are Factors based on TIC. They involve fuel and flue gas characteristics.
6
06-02-2017
TABLE - 4
A REVIEW OF EXCESS AIR CALCULTIONS FOR A COMBUSTION SYSTEM BY STANDARD METHODS
AND ALSO BY "THEORY OF INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION“ (TIC)
COMPARISON OF EXCESS AIR CALCULATIONS BY DIFFERENT METHODS
Furnace Oil – (C – 0.84, H – 0.11, S – 0.04, N – 0.005, O – 0.005) – (ALL IN kg / kg fuel)
FLUE GAS COMP. EXCESS AIR CALCULATIONS Real

Sl. CO2
O2 CO2 CO Based On AEA Excess
No. (Calculated)
O2 (Actual) CO2 (Actual) CO2(Calc.) (TIC) Air (TIC)
% v / v On Dry Basis % % % % %
Col.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1.90 12.50 0.25 14.31 9.95 24.34 9.22 9.88 -17.82
2 4.40 10.50 0.02 12.43 26.51 46.84 24.06 29.63 -13.12
3 5.30 10.00 0.02 11.75 33.76 53.87 30.41 37.48 -7.32
4 4.10 11.25 0.02 12.66 24.26 37.47 22.07 25.77 -6.53
5 5.90 9.50 0.02 11.30 39.07 61.64 35.03 43.93 -5.73
6 6.50 9.00 0.02 10.85 44.83 70.27 40.00 51.08 -4.09
7 6.90 9.00 0.02 10.55 48.94 70.27 43.53 54.23 3.14
8 7.00 9.00 0.02 10.47 50.00 70.27 44.44 55.02 5.13
9 7.60 8.50 0.02 10.02 56.72 79.92 50.17 63.25 7.21
10 7.40 9.00 0.02 10.17 54.41 70.27 48.21 58.17 13.99
11 7.00 9.50 0.02 10.47 50.00 61.64 44.44 52.13 16.46
12 10.10 7.25 0.02 8.14 92.66 109.87 80.42 98.54 43.05
13 10.80 7.00 0.02 7.61 105.88 117.14 91.43 109.13 63.06
FUEL: FURNACE OIL

COMPARISON OF EXCESS AIR VALUES
WORKED OUT BY DIFFERENT METHODS
120.00
EXCESS AIR BY “TIC” ASSUMING COMPLETE COMBUSTION OF THE FUEL 109.13
110.00
98.54
EXCESS AIR BASED ON O2 CONTENT OF FLUE GASES

100.00
90.00
91.43
80.00
80.42
63.25
EXCESS AIR (%)
70.00
58.17
55.02
54.23
52.13
51.08
60.00
43.93
50.00
37.48
50.17
48.21
29.63
40.00
44.44
44.44
43.53
25.77
40.00
35.03
30.00
30.41
20.00
24.06
9.88
22.07
10.00
9.22 LINE OF STOICHIOMETRIC AIR
0.00
DIFFERENT SET POINTS IN TERMS OF CO2, O2 AND CO IN FLUE GASES
7
06-02-2017
FUEL: FURNACE OIL

COMPARISON OF EXCESS AIR VALUES
WORKED OUT BY DIFFERENT METHODS
140.00
EXCESS AIR CALCULATED ON THE BASIS OF CO2 CALCULATED FROM O2 IN FLUE GASES
130.00
EXCESS AIR CALCULATED BASED ON CO2 IN FLUE GASES (ACTUAL VALUE)
109.87
120.00 117.14
EXCESS AIR CALCULATED BASED ON O2 IN FLUE GASES (ACTUAL VALUE)
110.00
105.88
92.66
100.00
79.92
90.00
91.43
EXCESS AIR (%)
70.27
70.27
70.27
70.27
80.00
80.42
61.64
50.00 61.64
70.00
56.72
54.41
53.87
50.00
60.00
48.94
46.84
44.83
39.07
50.00
37.47
50.17
33.76
48.21
40.00
44.44
44.44
43.53
26.51
24.34
40.00
24.26
30.00
35.03
30.41
20.00
24.06
9.95
22.07
10.00
9.22 LINE OF STOICHIOMETRIC AIR
0.00
FUEL: FURNACE OIL COMPARISON OF EXCESS AIR VALUES WORKED OUT BY “TIC”
ASSUMING COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
120.00
109.13
110.00
EXCESS AIR CALCULATED BASED ON “TIC” ASSUMING COMPLETE COMBUSTION
100.00 98.54
REAL EXCESS AIR CALCULATED BASED ON “TIC” ASSUMING INCOMPLETE
90.00
COMBUSTION OF THE FUEL
80.00
63.25
58.17
70.00
55.02
54.23
52.13
51.08
60.00
43.93
63.06
EXCESS AIR (%)
37.48
50.00
29.63
40.00
25.77
43.05
30.00
9.88
20.00
5.13
16.46
10.00
13.99 7.21
0.00
3.14
-10.00
-4.09
-5.73
-6.53
-7.32
-13.12
-20.00
-17.82
LINE OF STOICHIOMETRIC AIR

-30.00
-40.00
8
06-02-2017
MYTH 5
HIGH CONCENTRATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN
FLUE GASES INDICATES BETTER COMBUSTION
THAN THE ONE WITH LOW CONCENTRATION OF
CARBON DIOXIDE.
REALITY
THERE CAN BE INSTANCES WHEN WITH POOR
COMBUSTION THERE IS HIGH CONCENTRATION OF
CARBON DIOXIDE IN FLUE GASES WHEREAS WITH
LOW CONCENTRATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE THE
COMBUSTION IS BETTER.
MYTH 6
LOW CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN IN FLUE
GASES INDICATES BETTER COMBUSTION THAN
THE ONE WITH HIGH CONCENTRATION OF
OXYGEN.
REALITY
COMBUSTION THERE IS LOW CONCENTRATION OF
OXYGEN IN FLUE GASES WHEREAS WITH HIGH
CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN THE COMBUSTION
IS BETTER.
9
06-02-2017
MYTH 7
MAINTAINING LOW CONCENTRATION OF O2 IN
FLUE GASES WITH HIGH CONCENTRATION OF
CO2 IN FLUE GASES INDICATES BETTER
COMBUSTION THAN THE ONE WITH HIGH
CONCENTRATION OF O2 AND LOW
CONCENTRATION OF CO2.
REALITY
COMBUSTION THERE IS LOW CONCENTRATION OF
O2 AND HIGH CONCENTRATION OF CO2 IN FLUE
GASES AND WITH HIGH CONCENTRATION OF O2
AND LOW CONCENTRATION OF CO2 THE
COMBUSTION IS BETTER.
TABLE – 5
A STUDY OF FLUE GAS COMPOSITION (CO2/O2/CO) AND
HEAT LOSSES IN DRY FLUE GASES (DFG) AND UNBURNT CARBON (UBC)
Coal – (C – 0.4752, H – 0.0284, S – 0.009, N – 0.01, O – 0.1053) – (ALL IN kg / kg fuel)
DRY FLUE GAS COMB. AIR HEAT LOSS IN HEAT LOSS
Sl. % v / v ON DRY BASIS
VOL. VOL. DFG IN UBC
No.
CO2 O2 CO Nm3/ kg fuel Nm3/ kg fuel kcal / kg fuel kcal / kg fuel
PAIR 1
1 10.2 09.4 0.030 5.8879 5.9643 211 1232
2 11.0 08.5 0.020 5.4380 5.5148 195 1233
PAIR 2
3 10.5 9.2 0.040 6.4189 6.4950 230 912
4 11.5 8.1 0.010 5.8329 5.9099 209 933
PAIR 3
5 10.4 09.4 0.020 6.9376 7.0142 249 710
6 11.5 08.2 0.000 6.2896 6.3669 226 709
10
06-02-2017
TABLE – 6
A STUDY OF FLUE GAS COMPOSITION AND
HEAT LOSSES IN DRY FLUE GASES (DFG) AND HEAT LOSS IN UNBURNT CARBON (UBC)
Furnace Oil – (C – 0.84, H – 0.11, S – 0.04, N – 0.005, O – 0.005) – (ALL IN kg / kg fuel)
GCV – 10557 kcal / kg fuel
Vol. Of Vol. Of
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
Sl. UBF Comb. Dry Flue HLUBC HLDFG
No. O2 CO2 CO Air Gases
% v / v dry basis kg / kg fuel Nm3/kg fuel %
Col. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SAME VALUE OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND CARBON MONOXIDE
1 6.50 9.00 0.02 0.3796 10.1350 9.5275 29.07 6.28
2 6.90 9.00 0.02 0.3427 10.8990 10.2915 26.24 6.79
3 7.00 9.00 0.02 0.3325 11.1095 10.5020 25.47 6.93
4 7.40 9.00 0.02 0.2873 12.0455 11.4381 22.00 7.56
5 5.90 9.50 0.02 0.3630 9.9614 9.3539 27.80 6.17

6 7.00 9.50 0.02 0.2434 12.3061 11.6988 18.64 7.74
SAME VALUE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON MONOXIDE

7 7.00 9.00 0.02 0.3325 11.1095 10.5020 25.47 6.93
8 7.00 9.50 0.02 0.2434 12.3061 11.6988 18.64 7.74
MYTH 8
IN ORDER TO IMPROVE FUEL EFFICIENCY IT IS
NECESSARY TO REDUCE HEAT LOSSES. SINCE
HEAT LOSS IN DRY FLUE GASES IS THE MOST
CRITICAL LOSS THAT CAN BE CONTROLLED BY
TUNING, ALL ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID TO
REDUCE THAT LOSS.
REALITY
IN REALITY, FOR MOST OF THE FUELS, HEAT LOSS
IN UNBURNT FUEL IS THE MOST CRITICAL LOSS
AND THEREFORE ALL ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID
TO REDUCE HEAT LOSS IN UNBURNT FUEL.
11
06-02-2017
MYTH 9
IN ORDER TO IMPROVE FUEL EFFICIENCY IT IS
NECESSARY TO REDUCE HEAT LOSSES. THIS CAN
BE ACHIEVED BY OPERATING THE COMBUSTION
WITH AS LOW EXCESS AIR AS POSSIBLE SO THAT
HEAT LOSS IN DRY FLUE GASES IS VERY LOW.
REALITY
WHEN THE COMBUSTION IS OPERATED AT VERY
LOW EXCESS AIR, IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THE
QUANTITY OF THE FUEL THAT DOES NOT BURN
INCREASES AND THEREFORE THE OVERALL FUEL
EFFICIENY IS REDUCED.
TABLE - 7
CORRELATING HEAT LOSSES AND FLUE GAS COMPOSITION
Coal – (C – 0.4752, H – 0.0284, S – 0.009, N – 0.01, O – 0.1053)
(ALL IN kg / kg fuel)
Flue Gas Analysis Heat Loss Heat Loss

CO2 O2 CO UBC DFG
% v / v on dry basis kcal / kg fuel
10.2 9.7 0 508 268
10.4 9.6 0.01 35 300
11.5 8.4 0 83 269
11.6 8.3 0.01 24 271
12.0 7.9 0.01 -108 271
12.1 7.6 0.01 526 226
12
06-02-2017
TABLE – 8
Coal – (C – 0.4752, H – 0.0284, S – 0.009, N – 0.01, O – 0.1053) – (ALL IN kg / kg fuel) - GCV - 4905 kcal / kg fuel
A STUDY OF FLUE GAS COMPOSITION (CO2/O2/CO) AND HEAT LOSSES IN DRY FLUE GASES (DFG) AND UNBURNT CARBON (UBC)
(SAME CO2 CONCENTRATION IN THE GROUP OR PAIR)
Sl. % v / v ON DRY BASIS DRY FLUE GAS VOL. COMB. AIR VOL. HEAT LOSS IN DFG HEAT LOSS - UBC
No. CO2 O2 CO Nm3/ kg fuel Nm3/ kg fuel kcal / kg fuel kcal / kg fuel
PAIR 1
1 09.7 09.6 0.020 4.7531 4.8299 170 1841
2 09.7 10.0 0.040 6.4189 6.4950 230 1134
PAIR 2
3 10.2 09.4 0.030 5.8879 5.9643 211 1233
4 10.2 09.7 0.000 7.5475 7.6248 271 507
GROUP 1
5 10.4 09.1 0.030 5.4618 5.5383 196 1374
6 10.4 09.3 0.040 6.4189 6.4950 230 939
7 10.4 09.4 0.020 6.9376 7.0142 249 711
8 10.4 09.6 0.010 8.4428 8.5197 303 36
PAIR 3
9 10.5 9.2 0.040 6.4189 6.4950 230 912
10 10.5 9.3 0.005 6.8803 6.9574 247 711
PAIR 4
11 10.8 9.0 0.000 6.8613 6.9387 246 632
12 10.8 9.1 0.000 7.5475 7.6248 271 311
GROUP 2
13 11.0 8.5 0.020 5.4380 5.5148 195 1247
14 11.0 8.6 0.020 5.8603 5.9370 210 1044
15 11.0 8.8 0.000 6.8613 6.9387 246 573
PAIR 5
16 11.2 8.4 0.010 5.8329 5.9099 209 1004
17 11.2 8.6 0.000 6.8613 6.9387 246 513
GROUP 3
18 11.5 8.1 0.040 5.9073 5.9756 212 799
19 11.5 8.2 0.000 6.2896 6.3669 226 709
20 11.5 8.4 0.000 7.5475 7.6248 271 82
MYTH 10
OTHER THAN DETERMINING THE CONTENT OF
UNBURNT FUEL IN FLY ASH AND BOTTOM ASH
BY ANALYSIS OF ASH IN A LABORATORY, THERE
IS NO WAY TO DETERMINE THE CONTENT OF
UNBURNT FUEL IN A COMBUSTION PROCESS.
REALITY
BASED ON CERTAIN MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR
FUEL COMBUSTION IT IS POSSIBLE TO ACCURATELY
ESTIMATE THE QUANTITY OF THE FUEL THAT DOES
NOT BURN. THIS IS POSSIBLE IN REAL TIME
WITHOUT ANY KIND OF ASH ANALYSIS.
13
06-02-2017
TABLE – 9
GCV - 4905 kcal / kg fuel
A STUDY OF FLUE GAS COMPOSITION (CO2, O2, CO) AND HEAT LOSS IN DRY FLUE GASES (DFG) AND UNBURNT CARBON (UBC)
(SAME O2 CONCENTRATION IN THE GROUP OR PAIR)
CO2 O2 CO DRY FLUE GASES VOL COMB. AIR VOL HEAT LOSS IN DFG HEAT LOSS - UBC
Sl.No.
% v / v On Dry Basis Nm3/ kg fuel Nm3/ kg fuel kcal / kg fuel kcal / kg fuel
PAIR 1
1 11.5 8.1 0.010 5.8329 5.9099 209 933
2 11.8 8.1 0.010 7.5934 7.6703 272 -42
PAIR 2
3 11.2 8.4 0.010 5.8329 5.9099 209 1010
4 11.5 8.4 0.000 7.5475 7.6248 271 82
PAIR 3
5 11.0 8.5 0.020 5.4380 5.5148 195 1247
6 11.3 8.5 0.000 6.8613 6.9387 246 484
GROUP 1
7 11.0 8.6 0.020 5.8603 5.9370 210 1044
8 11.1 8.6 0.020 6.3536 6.4303 228 782
9 11.2 8.6 0.030 6.9764 7.0527 250 449
GROUP 2
10 10.4 9.1 0.030 5.4618 5.5383 196 1374
11 10.6 9.1 0.020 6.3536 6.4303 228 919
12 10.7 9.1 0.000 6.8613 6.9387 271 662
13 10.8 9.1 0.000 7.5475 7.6248 246 311
PAIR 4
14 10.3 9.2 0.025 5.4499 5.5265 195 1405
15 10.5 9.2 0.040 6.4189 6.4950 230 912
PAIR 5
16 10.2 9.4 0.030 5.8879 5.9643 211 1233
17 10.4 9.4 0.020 6.9376 7.0142 249 711
PAIR 6
18 09.7 9.6 0.020 4.7531 4.8299 170 1841
19 10.4 9.6 0.010 8.4428 8.5197 303 36
PAIR 7
20 09.7 10 0.040 5.4499 5.5265 195 1593
21 09.5 10 0.025 6.4189 6.4950 230 1134
MYTH 11
TUNING OF A COMBUSTION PROCESS IS AN ART
AND THEREFORE IT IS AN AREA OF SPECIALISED
DOMAIN.
REALITY
TUNING OF A BOILER IS SCIENTIFIC. BASED ON
CERTAIN MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR FUEL
COMBUSTION IT IS POSSIBLE TO ACCURATELY
PINPOINT THE CONCENTRATIONS OF CO2, O2 AND
CO IN FLUE GASES WHICH ARE TO BE MAINTAINED
FROM TIME TO TIME. THIS IS NO MORE AN ART.
14
06-02-2017
TUNING OF COMBUSTION
PROCESS USING “TIC”
TABLE – 11
GCV = 4805 kcal / kg fuel
A STUDY OF FLUE GAS COMPOSITION, AIR CALCULATIONS AND HEAT LOSS IN DRY FLUE GASES (DFG)
AND IN UNBURNT CARBON (UBC)
Flue Gas Analysis Real

Combustion Air Req. For Air Excess Heat Loss Heat Loss
Excess
Air Comp. Comb. Deficiency Air UBC DFG
CO2 O2 CO Air
% v / v on dry basis kg / kg fuel % kcal / kg fuel
11.5 8.4 0.04 10.0493 9.7815 -0.2678 70.33 65.79 -109 275
10.4 9.6 0.02 11.0365 10.8195 -0.2170 87.06 83.38 -79 301
10.2 9.8 0.02 11.0365 11.0203 -0.0161 87.06 86.79 -6 301
11.5 8.4 0 9.8104 9.8043 -0.0061 66.28 66.18 -2 269
10.1 9.9 0.03 11.1110 11.1160 0.0050 88.32 88.41 2 303
10.1 9.9 0.02 11.0365 11.1238 0.0873 87.06 88.54 31 301
10.6 9.3 0.03 9.9885 10.5689 0.5804 69.30 79.14 217 273
9.5 10.5 0.03 11.1110 11.7809 0.6699 88.32 99.68 224 302
15
06-02-2017
FUEL: FURNACE OIL

VARIATION IN
COMBUSTION AIR, AIR REQUIRED FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION
AT DIFFERENT SET POINTS
24.00
AIR REQUIRED FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION
20.9799
22.0988
22.00
COMBUSTION AIR
20.00
17.2508
17.2308
STOICHIOMETRIC AIR
16.7139
16.3812
16.2980
18.00
16.0758
15.9653
AIR – Nm3 / kg fuel
15.2090
15.1165
14.5281
16.00
13.6980
13.2899
12.3061
14.00
12.0455
11.6116
11.3288
11.1095
10.8990
10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
12.00
10.00 10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
10.5672
10.1350
9.9614
9.8770
9.7941
9.1804
8.00
8.6838
6.00
DIFFERENT SET POINTS IN TERMS OF CO2, O2 AND CO
MYTH 12
PRESENCE OF CO IN FLUE GASES INDICATES
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION AND ATTEMPTS
SHOULD BE MADE TO REDUCE IT. IT WILL
IMPROVE THE PROCESS OF COMBUSTION.
REALITY
HEAT LOSS DUE TO FORMATION OF CO IS
NEGLIGIBLE AND THERE IS NO SIGNIFICANT GAIN
IN FUEL EFFICIENCY WHEN IT IS REDUCED.
ONLY FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ITS EXPLOSIVE

CHARACTERISTIC, ITS CONCENTRATION SHOULD
BE MAINTAINED BELOW SPECIFIED LIMITS.
16
06-02-2017
TABLE – 12
GCV - 4905 kcal / kg fuel
A STUDY OF FLUE GAS COMPOSITION AND HEAT LOSS IN DRY FLUE GASES (DFG)
(SAME CO2, O2 CONCENTRATION IN THE GROUP OR PAIR) (CO DIFFERENT)
Sl. FLUE GAS HEAT LOSS IN
VOLUME OF VOLUME OF HEAT LOSS IN
No. COMPOSITION UNBURNT
COMBUSTION DRY FLUE DRY FLUE
%v/v CARBON
AIR GASES GASES
ON DRY BASIS
PAIRS IN TABLE – 1 Nm3/ kg fuel Nm3/ kg fuel kcal / kg fuel kcal / kg fuel
CO2 O2 CO
1 10.5 9.2 0.040 6.4950 6.4189 230 912
2 10.5 9.2 0.020 6.4303 6.3536 228 947
3 10.7 9.1 0.020 7.0142 6.9376 249 621

4 10.7 9.1 0.000 6.9387 6.8613 246 662
5 11.1 8.6 0.020 6.4303 6.3536 228 782

6 11.1 8.6 0.000 6.3669 6.2896 226 818
7 11.2 8.6 0.030 7.0527 6.9764 250 513

8 11.2 8.6 0.000 6.9387 6.8613 246 449
17
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16th National Workshop

TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS &

Central Boilers Board National Productivity Council,

TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS &

Central Boilers Board National Productivity Council,

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3. CFB TECHNOLOGY - AN OVERVIEW ON EMISSION MODERATION TO MEET NEW REGULATION by

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7. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN BOILERS BY REACTION MANAGEMENT by P. Anand Prakash,

9. ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDUSTRIAL BOILERS IN TEXTILE INDUSTRY by

13. OPTIMIZATION OF AUXILIARY CONSUMPTION IN POWER PLANT by Bhawandeep Kaur, R

16th National Workshop “Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Boilers”

18. MYTHS AND REALITY OF COMBUSTION by Pranav Desai, Freelancer

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16th National Workshop “Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Boilers”

Fig. 1.Co-firing plants in Europe.

16th National Workshop “Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Boilers”

REVIEW OF RESEARCH PAPERS ON CO-FIRING OF COAL WITH

16th National Workshop “Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Boilers”

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16th National Workshop “Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Boilers”

Different types of difficulties (challenges) can be faced depending on:

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ECONOMICS OF BIOMASS CO-FIRING SYSTEM

16th National Workshop “Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Boilers”

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 Operation Cost is too high

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[1]Energy manager magazines

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C R Subramaniam, Abhay R Patil

Thermax Ltd., Pune, India

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Fig.2 2 x 750 TPH PF Boiler installation by Thermax at

NOx Emission in PF Boiler

cannot be reduced which will

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The major advantage in CFB is acceptance of coarser particle (4-

Effect of CaO in NO formation

Fig. 6 Fuel NOx release

Description Indian Coal Indonesian Coal Lignite

Challenges in External DeNox Systems

Methods of SO2 control

Temperature Zone 800-900C 200-250C 180-200C 140-160C

MoEFCC Ministry of Environment ,Forest and Climate

Causes regards to air deviations:

16th National Workshop “Technological Innovations & Efficient Operations of Boilers”

Fan & duct conditions:

Fans Ducts Effect

Why are the fans having deviations?