PB91-127506

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PREFACE.

During the last war, the Ordnance Board tiet up a Sub.Com~itt~ of th.e _~mollr
IJiereing Projectile Committee. It was known as the Armour PlercUlg ProJ~nle Co·
ordinating Sub·Committee, and its functions ~'ere to review and co·ordinate the .various
investigations being carried out in connection with tHe attack of armour. Alter the
war, this Sub·Committee continued in being with a reduced scale of activity. In order
that the results of war· time work might be made more conveniently a.ailable to those
working in the same field in future, it appOinted a Report Sub· Committee, charged with
the duty of preparing, in book. form, a digest of the knowledge which had been accumu·
lated.
The composition of the Report Sub· Committee, which included the authors of all
sections of this .olume, is shown below, followed by some relevant information abont
each of the memberll.
Dr. R. Beeching (ChairTTUln).
Mr. C. A. Adams (Sec,·etary).
Dr. J. -n'. lIaccoll.
Dr. D. G. Sopwith.
Dr. C. Sykes.
C. Svkes. Ph.D .. D.Se .. F.lnst.!' .. F.R.S., now Director of Research. Tho,. Firth
alll! John Brown Ltd., Brown·Firth Research Laboratories. who wrote the Foreword.
wa~ Chairman of the A.P.P. Co·ordinating Sub·Committee from it!!' inception in 1941
to HaG. Be held. at the same time. the posts of Superintendent of the .Metallurgy
Department at the ~ational PhY!!'ical Laboratory and Superintendent of 'If:rmil131
Ballisticl!i in the Arwamentti Rel;earch Department. In this dnal capacity, he was inti·
mately concerned with tile de\'elopment of !!'olid steel shot. heavy na.al A.P. shell.
cored projectiles and armour plate. He was primaril~' responsible for the introduction
and use of calihration ~bot for firin~ trials. anl! played an important part in introducing
cored projectiles into service during the war.
R. Beeching, A.R.C.S., B.Sc .. D.l.e., Ph.D .. who prepared Chapters 1 and 5. was
first concerned with A.P. shot while in tlle Re8earch and Development Laboratory of
the ~ond Xickel Co. In 1!:l-13. he transferred to the Armaments Design Department.
and was for some time, Superintendent of Shell Design. He was associated with the
clesign of many armour piercing projectiles. with the development of high .elocit.\'
cored projectiles and witb the production of heavy A.P. shell at R.O.F. (CaroonalU).
He became Chairman of the A.P.P. Co·ordinating Sub·Committee in 19-16. ,
D. G. Sopwith, D.Sc., Wh.Sc., A.~.I.Mech.E., now Superintendent of the Er::~iDeer·
ing- Division, ~ational Physical Laboratory. who wrote Chapter 2. was Secretary ·of the
~P.P. Co·ordinating Sub·C{)mmittee from its inception until 1946. He was responsible
for the analysis of an extensive series of firing trials, made under closely controllHi con·
ditions in a special range at the X.P.L. and designed to elucidate scale effect and the
effect of plate hardness. He also did much to rationalize the use of penetration formula>.
C. A. Adams, B.Sc., }'.lnsLP .. who prepart!d Chapters 3 and 4, was in the Terminal
Ballistics Branch of tbe Armaments Researcb Department, and did a great deal of
investigation by means of small scale trials. in connection with which he developed and
employed variolls high·speed photographic techniques. He contributed greatly to onder·
standing of the penetration of complex targets. and cap stripping. In 1946. he became
Secretary of the A.P.P. Co·ordinating Sub·Committee.
Dr. J. W. Maccoll, Superintendent of Theoretical Armaments Research in the Arma-
ments Research Department, was not directly responsible for preparing anV' one E€Ctioll
of this volume. but gave helpful advice and criticism throughout. Much" of the theo.
retical work on the mechanism of penetration was carried out under his supervision.
He wali: a member of the A.P.P. Co·ordinat·ing Sub· Committee from its inception in 1941.

Ordnance Board Pres~.

March. 1950.
[ i J

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 OONTENTS

FOREWORD
C. Sykes

Page
~OUE. .L'\D ARMon PIERCING PROJECTILES PruOR TO SECOND WORLD WAR
(1939/45 \ [xiii]
S"U1OI.A.RY OF AC"ll'i'l1'lE8 OF THE A.P.P. CO-ORDINATING SUB-COMKI1TEE [xiv]
PRoBLEMS YET TO BE SOLVED [xvi]

CHAPTER 1

THE ~ODES ~D MECH..A5ISM OF PLATE PE~ETRATION

.AND OF SHOT FAILURE
B_Beeching

L INmOIi1:CTION 1
1.1. TYllical plat~ da.mage (Homogeneous armour) : normal attack ... 1
THE )GCllA....nsM: OF PLATE PENETB.ATIO~ AND FAILURE: NORMAL A.TTACK 2
2.1. Plates of semi-infinite thickness ... ~ \.
2.2. Eat~s of normal thickness ... 3
~.21. The formation of a bulge on the back face 3
~.22. Plug formation 4
::.23. Failures peculiar to rolled plate 4
~.24. The formation of la.mina.r cracks 4
~.25. Star cracking after la.min.ation 5
2.26. DiBcing 6
3_ RESll'!'!A_!'iCE TO PE~TB.ATION AND ENERGY ABSORPTION: NORMAL ATrACK 1
3.1. :t.oergy for perforation 8
~_ .ANGLE ATIA.CK 9
4.1. The effect on hole and plug form ... 9
4_2_ Reaction on the shot ... 10
4.3. :he effect of shot head shape 11
5_ F AlLa.E8 OF SHOT •.• 12
5.1. The occurrence of shatter failure 13
5.2. The mechanism of shatter fa.i.lure 13
6. FACE B.AlUlENED PLATE ••• 14
':. CAP ~£nON 14
8. F AlL-c-.u'.8 OF ARMOUR PIERCING SHELL 15
8.1. :aea.d failures of shell 15
8.2. 3a.se damage to shell 16

[ iii ]
 CRAPTER 2

PENETRATION FORML'LE.

D. G. Sopwith
Page
1: L'fl"BODUCTION 17
Ll. Factors in.olved in formullll 17
2. FORXULE BASED ON THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS .•. 18
:!.l. The formula. ~I =KI/I (~o): dimensio~ aspects 18
t') " Theoretical derivatioWi of the form of 4> (=1/10) for normal attack 18
2.21. COWitant resistive pressure ... 18
2.22. Poncelet theory 18
2.23. Shearing or punching 20
2.24. Plastic deformation theories 20
2.26. Pseudo-elastic deformation theory ... 21
2.26. Combinations of abo.e theories '" 21
3. EllPIBlCAL FORMS FOR FCNCTIO!'l 1/10 22
3.1. Correlation of OOWlta.nts with properties of plate ... 23
4. TRE NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY FORML"LA FOR NORMAL ArrACK 23
u.. Effect of size of shot ... 23
42. Effect of hardness of plate: optimum hardness ... 24
4..3. Limits of applicability and accura.cy of equations 25
5. EnECT OP ANGLE OF ATTACK 25
6. ImN PLATES 26
7. FACE HAB.DENED Pu'TE AND CAPPED PROJECTILES 27
\
8. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF FOR~ ... 28
~.1. Fonnule and tables for A.P. shot up to 6 inches against homogeneous
armour of 200 to 400 Brinell 28 ......
~.2. Formulre and tables for other cases 28

CHAPTER 3

THE STRESSES IN PROJECTILES WHEN PENETRATING STEEL

C. A. Adams.

1. L'I'TBODUCTION 31
2. DEPENDENCE OF PROJECTILE STRESSES ON HEAD B.ESIBTA...'iCE 31
2.1. Estimate of head resistance from plate hardness ... 31
2.2. Estimate of head resista.nce from penetration fonnullll 32
3. !!!EA.sUB.EHENTB OP PLATE lLESIBTA...'iCE IN STATIC P~CBlNG EXPERIMENTS 33
3.1. <nneral results established by sta.tic punching experiments 33
.3.2. Detailed results of static punching experiments ... 34
4. DEPENDENCE OP STATIC B.EBISTANCE ON PLATE H..UI.DNEBS AND THICKNESS 35
5. DYNAMIC IdEASUlLEMENTB OF PLATE RESISTANCE 39

( iv ] .
 Page
6. THEOREl'ICAL WORK ON THE RESlST..L.'1CE TO PE:'oiETRATION .•• 41
6.1. Pressure required to expand a hole in an infinit~ medium 41
6.2. A..n.aJ.ysis involving the Theory of Elasticity 42
-;'. MODIFICATIONS TO THE FORCES ACTUiG O!'i' THE PROJECTILE DUE TO DYNAMIC
. EFFECTS 42
7.1. Kinetic energy of the target 42
7.2. Cavitation 44-
.5. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH REQUIRED L.... ARllOL"B. P!E1lCDiG PROJECTILES 45
8.1. ~trength required to withstand the retardation on impa{lt 45
8.2. Factors other than retardation affecting strength and hardness requirements 47
8.21. Elastic propagation of stress in the projectiles 47
8.22. Dynamic component of resistance 47
8.23. Dependence of yield stress on rate of strain 47
8.24. Three dimensional distribution of stress in the projectile 49
~. STl!.ESEES GE..'\"'ElU.TED IN THE OBUQUE ATTACK OF ARliOUR 50
9.1. :Yotion of the projectile through the plate 50
9.2. Bending moment and shearing stress in a. rigid rod 50
9.3. Q-J,alitati"e distribution of stress in a projectile attacking a plate obliquely,
and its relation to projectile design 51
9.4. T!leoretical and empirical investigatiollS of oblique attack 51

CHAPTER 4

COMPLEX TARGETS

C. A. Adams.

53
GE:-'~ CO:'\:;IDERATlO"S AFFECTIl'iG THE 'l"SE OF SPACED ARMOUR 53 ,
.:.. YAW CJ.USED BY PRELImNARY TARGETS A..'i'D ITS EFFECTS ON PE!'i'ETRATION 54:
3.1. ! aw development and yaw prevention in relation to aircraft targets... 55
3.2. Ya.w development and its effect on critical .elocity in naval targets 55
!.. SPACE:l ARliOUR AND CAP·STRIPPING 56
4.1. B:eakage of armour· piercing projectiles by thin plates 56
4.2. Removal or breakage of armour.piercing caps 57
5. ,ApPLlC.l.TION OF SPACED ARMOUR TO LA..."iD VEHICLES 57

CRAPTER 5

CORED PROJECTILES

R. Beaching.

L L'i'TROXC'l'ION 60
THE P6C'!CIPLES OF CORED SHOT DESIGN 60
3. T1J!o;Gs::E...""\ CARBIDE AS A CORE MATERIAL 61

[v]
 Page
•. TTI'EB OF CORED PBOJEO'l'II.F,B .•• 62
4.L Composite rigid projectiles ... 62
4.2. Squeeze· bore projectiles 62
4.3.. Sabot projectiles 62
. U. Comparison of performance of A.P.C.B.C. and cored projectiles 62
5. SPEcIAL CRAlUCTERISTICS OF PLATE PENETlUTIOli BY CORED PROJECTILES 63
5~ Cavitation 64
6. ~rION F01U[ULE FOB COKED PRO~ 64

APPENDIX 1

BEFEBENOES

A":lbreviations used in List of Papers rec.eived by A.P. P. Co·ordinating Sub·Committee

Dt of Papers received and summa.rized by A.P.P. Co·ordinating Sub· Committee '
E-:-pplementary references ... '" 65

[ vi]
 FIGGRES.
FIG. 1. Photograph of front petals.
FIG. 2. Phot.ograph of sheared oil front petals.
FIG. 3. Back view of a plug hole.
FIG. 4',
FIG. 5:j Typical discs.
FIG. 6. !. fta.ke from cast armour.
FIG. 7. Diagram showing front petal formation.
FIG. 8. Diagram illustrating shear stresses causing plugging.
FIG. 9. Displacement of plate mat.erial to form a back bulge.
FIG. 10. Diagr&m showing back petal formation.
FIG. 11. Photograph of section of plate showing lamination and disc formation.
FIG. 12. Photograph of section of plate showing lamination and back peta.lling.
FIG. 13. !:lode of formation of laminar cracks.
FIG. 14. .1lte.rnative way of viewing laminar crack formation.
FIG. 15. Dia.grama.tic section of a disc.
FIG. 16. Changes in ilirection of the tensile stress causing the separation of a disc.
FIG. 17. Plug produced by attack at 30°.
FIG. 18. !:lode of plug formation in angle attack.
FIG. 19. Two stages in perforation:lot angles of 45° to 55'.
FIG. 20. 1'uming of shot during perforation in angle attack.
FIG. 21. Forces acting on the shot during penetration at angles around 30°.
FIG. 22. Diagram of stages in ricochet.
FIG. 23. Effect of head form on ricochet.
FIG. 24. :M:ultiple spark photographs of ricochet.
FIG. 25. Diagramatic section of a shatter dent.
FIG. 26. A performance chart showing regions of shatter.
FIG. 27. The mechanism of shatter.
FIG. 28. Va.ria.tion of optimum plate hardness.
FIG. 29. Variation of critical velocity with plate hardness.
FIG. 30. !:lean pressure during penetration as estimated from ~.P.L. formula.
-FI G. 31 . V. anation
.,
0f Maximum pressure W1'th tId , for 4 c.r..
Brinell hardness h punch es.

FI G. 3_.
<)V ana
. ti on 0 f Maximum
B' 11 h pressure
dn Wl'th t'd
I , for 1,,,,
• c.r..
h punc hes.
nne ar ess '
FIG. 33. Va.ria.tion of Ma.ximum pressure with t/d, for 1·4 c.r.h. punches.
I,Brinell numbers specified for each observation).
• .u.ea.n
FIG. 3..,. U"
resnIts f or th e vana
. t'iOn 0 f Maximum
B' pressure 'th d d '
nne II har dn ess Wl tj, an companson
with mean pre881lre8 estimated from K.P.L. formula..
FIG. 35. Diagram of appara.tus used for base-retardation measurements.
FIG. 36. Dependence of minimum tip hardness of projectile on hardness of target.
FIG. 37. Diagram illustrating the assumption made in the analysis of the stoppage of a
moving cylinder by a rigid target.
FIG. 38. Multiple spark photographs showing the turning of a. 2-pr. proje.ctile during
perforation of a thin plate.
FIG. 39. Reactions in a rigid rod subjected to a force at one end.
FIG. 40. Variation of bending moment and shearing stress along a rod free at one end.
FIG. 41. Increase in projected &rea. due to yaw.
FIG. 42. Influence of ya.w on t.he change in presentation caused by impad forc€s.
FIG. 43. Multiple spark phot<lgraphs showing yaw development as a result of penetratiun
of aircraft skin.

[vii ]
FIG. 44. ~ultiple spark photographs of the penetration of aircraft skin by a bullet to a
design which prevents yaw development.
FIG. 45. Multiple spark photographs showing the resultant transverse rotation of a pro-
jectile aftei passage through an oblique plate.
FIG. 46. Multiple spark photographs on model scaJe of a shell toppling against an armoured
deck after traversing three prelimin.a.ry decks.
FIG. 47. .!.rditron flash photographs of the effects of thin plates on 2-pr. capped projectiles :
(a) ballistic cap deformed; (b) piercing cap detached but unbroken; (e) piercing
cap disintegrated.
FIG. 48. .!.rditron flash photograph of 6-pr.: displacement of cap.
FIG. 49. .!.rditron flal!h photograph of 6-pr.: two simultaneous views from different a.spects
showing breakage of piercing cap.
FIG. 50. Effects of deviation caused by first plate on the angle of atta.ck of the second
plat~ in oblique impacts on spaced armour.
FIG. 51. The form of hole produced by cored shot: (a) when no cavitation occurs, (b) with
cavitation.

[ viii ]
 TABLES.

TABLE 1. Constants for use in N.P.L. Penetration Formula.

TABLE 2. Values of functions in modified de Marre Formula.

TABLE 3. Static observations on pressures during penetration, with comparisons of calcu-

lated and observed criticaJ velocities.

TABLE 4. Values of plB at tld=l, estimated by correcting values observed in the neigh-
bourhood of t/d=1.

TABLE 5."1
>~easurements of plate resistance from retardation observations.
TABLE 6.~

- T ilILE 7. Dynamic compressive yield stress, as measured in the Taylor test, compared
with static yield.

TABLE 8. Comparison of thicknesses of plat~ perforat~d by full-calibre and sub-calibre

projectiles.

[ h 1
 SYMBOLS.
The syr.bols in general use and, in some cases, the units commonly adopted, are given
below. 'Wbt:..P"E! variation from these symbols is made the text provides the necessary defini-
tions. In e&.OeB where there is often va.ria.tion of the UD.its according to the a.pplication no
specification :.3 given here. The part of the text concerned,will in these cases define the units.
In particula: a note is given when ' g I enters a re1a.tion for conversion to some given set of
practicaJ. UIl!:8.

Pao.1EcTILL
d = diameter in inches.
With these definitions W and M are numerically equal. Both
.Jl =ma.sa in ~bs.
W = weight ~ lbe. wt.
A =projectbi area.
} are given beca.ose their dimensions diiIer, and each symbol ia
frequently used.

p=density. .
l = length of head.

PLATE.
t = thickneu in inches.
pl =densitI.

w =-i-d't D: =weight of displaced p\si.te material.

f = Rtres8 8O..'Ociated with resistance offered to penetration.
f .. =yield 6~SS in compression.
f • = ultima;.: tensile !tre8!.
q = effectin shear strength during penetration.
So=yield !;-;ress in shear.
S,. = fracttL.""e iltres8 in shear.
E e = critica:. energy for perforation.

C{)~DITlO!,:5 OF AT'IACIL
1:",,= etriki.I:.f ,elocity in f.e.
Cl. =reBidua;. velocity in f.B.
r = critical .elocity in f.B.
,,=inlItanu..o.eous ,elocity.
a= angle 0: a.ttM:k= a.ngle between initial direction of motion of projectile and normal to plate.
I = elope ()~ iine relating 1:oz a.nd t)ll, i.e. "0· = t)1+l1l l l •

FORCES.
F =maxir=JID force opposing penetration.
F =mea.n ~rce opposing penetration.
STRESSES.
? =pressu.~ resisting penetration.
1'0 = value 'jf p assumed in " consta.nt pressure" theories.
P=ma.:x:.iI:.um value of p .
. ~pl ul
'---2g = (:c':::lponent of pressure assumed due to dynamic effects.
'! may be regarded as the "drag coefficient" during penetration, giving
ypl ul
P=P. +--'
2g.

ELASTIC ':O!'OSTANTS.
E=Yo~! modulus.
a=POisil(\:l's ratio.
[ xi ]
Preceding page blank
 FORE\VORD

ily Dr. C. Hykes, F.R.S.

ARMC'::U A...'W AIUJ.Ol.iH-l)IEllCI~G l'ROJEX.'TlLEl5 l'lllUII TO Wom.o WAR II.

Prior to the ~ttOI1(l World War, t!XlJe1'ience in the use of al"lllour-viercillg projectiles
wa.s iil..ulost exLasively cOlltilled to ..\aval warfare and kllowletige of arwour and arwour·
pieh:..iJJg lJl'oje.:tilel!! del"eloIJetl against this bat:kground. There watl, inevitauly, cow-
lJetitiye deyelo~'ment of arwoUl· and /'lhot and suprewacy passed back and forth between
defence and ar:a.ck. To understand lhil!l competition fully it is necessary to realize that
not only did ;;izes of gum; and lJrojectiles increase to keep l'a(:.e with incre-J.setI in
thick.nel;S of ar:nour, uut also there was 0. continuous struggle to iwpro\'t~ the quality of
armour, to gel the greatest protection from a. giyen weight, and to improve the quality
of projectiles·to give the greatest arwour penetration with gunlol of liwited size.
Saval armo'11" start.ed to come into genera.} use around 18(j(), when the adoption of
bpherical, cast·iron, shell rendered wooden ships yery vulnerable. To count.er tbis type
of projectile, ;;..lips were titted with a belt of wrought iron plates, which broke up the
spherical sheil.. As a COli sequence, spill-stauilized, ogiml headed, cylindrical shell or
shot of chilled ';ast·iron were developed.
Following ttis, ships were al"moured wilh cOlDpound armour of wronght iron plates
fa.ceO. with st~l, then \I·ith hOlDogeJlt'Oussteel plate!!!, and a corresponding de,elolJment
was ihe use of ha.rdened steel shell.
To defe.a.t tl." hardened, forged steel shell, armour plate was caruurized and chilleo.
on tb.e outer :.!.ce, and this led to the titting of shell with piercing caps. Such caps
were. in the t..-st plac.e, ma.de of mild "t.eel and were of various forms. Agaiwt ea,rly
forD..!...!; of face·::'J.l"I.lelled al·wow·, amI at llligles uf aLl.ack near normal, they pre,ented
breaJ.i-up of tho: shell head by the hard face of the plate.
Fc.rther iWI :orelllents in (jualit.\· of face-hardeneu arwour resulting from the UF;e of
high alloy stet:i plat.es. together with an increase in the importance of angles of a.ttack
oth~ than nc,:wal a~lUted with changes in Saval tactics, led to the adoption of
.arious forms 'if hardeneti steel penetrating cap and also to a reduction in the length
of t.!:e shell he;.d. Thus. uetween the wars, the shell in use by the major !\a\ies of the
word ha.d all .ievelupeJ to a rather t;iwilar form, the shell bodies being about 3 to at
ca.lit·res long, -ith an Ogi\"ill head of allout I·! c.r.h. and wade frolD heat-treateti, fairly
high carbon, ::":~h alluy sted. In general, theF;e shell were fitted with a steel piercing
cap, having a:')Ut a tenth of the weight of the shell body, and were al~o fitted with a
long ballu.tic:ap, to improve the enernaJ form of the shell from the point of yiew of
air :-esistance.
The shell t..:-iles were very hard at the point a.lJo. their hardne&! was graded down
from the poi!.: to the bas.e, the preci!,le ha,rdness layout varying quite considerably
betTeen differ~t countries Wid dilferent makers in anyone country. This gradillg of
the body harc..:leSl! was held to be necessary to prevent break·up of the shell during
perforation of ~lat.e at angles of 30 degrees or so, and wati also an aid to wanufacture,
as it permitted machining of the base end of the shell after heat-treatment .
.Bc-tween tht: 11:114-18 and 1~ wars, increasing importance was attached to the
futu...·e role of the tank and all leading nations de.elolJed anti·tank, armour· piercing
proi~tiles to :;'.~p pilc.e with the deyelopment of wore hea,ily armoured fighting vehicles.
Even so, hov;~7er, the thickn~selol of armour involved were relatively small aud su("h
al'Dlo-ur could .~ se,er 11, reasonably slllall wen )ons. Therefore, while '~
there \\"8.8 a.pp~iation of the advantages of pro ucmg goo qu y shot to give high '~.'
efficiency We&J"JIlS in terms of the ratio of their penetrative performance to their weight, ;.
the na.tural to-.lldency was to develop guns and projectiles which ea~ily outmatched
e.ristiDg &rmoc-. For this reason the quality of anti-tank A.P. projectiles WIl8 not so-'
seve...-ely t.esteO iJ.6 it waf! t.o be later.
T'!:.e war lee: to a. rapid progre~~ive increase in armour thicknesF; on tanb, with the
resul~ that ea/_.i generation of gun and projectile pasF;ed through a· pha!;le where it was
pre8E:D.t.ed witt an increasingly difficult task. Under these c.onditions it was of vital

[ xiii ]
Preceding page blank
impor..lllCe to achie\'e the higheHt pos!lible penetrative performauce from a given \n~apoll,
which necessitated improvementls in shot quality and design. "C'p to that time the
de,el(,~'ments in both Xaval and Land ~el'Vi<:e armour and armour·piercing projectilet;
had :r:.ainly followed naturally from developments in steel making and treatment anLl
had Qt:;>ended upon only !Superficial understanding of the met'hanisIU of armour pelletra·
Hon. However. as the problelllH of the 1939-45 war developed in rapid I'u('ces~ion, a
better '1llderstanding of the process of armour penetration became inereal'in!!l,v ne<'Ni!'an·.
As a ei>nsequence, in 1941, a !>mall ('Qmmittee - the Armour Piert'illg l'rojedile
Co·orcinating Sub-Committ~was set up by the Ordnance Hoard, with the following
terms of reference ~
"To review and co·ordiuate the im'estigations being carried 011t by grollps of
scientista in connection with the attack of armonr: to make recommendations
·~ncerning their scope and progress; a.nd to report to the Boa·rd.·'

Sl.'YMARY ()lo' AC'TI\'lTll!:lO OF THE A.P.P. C{)'OHDI!IOATI:-;G Sl·B·<"'.oMMI'I"l'EE.

At ~.b.e time When the 8ub·L'<lullllittee wSti formed, 11 considerable amount of im·esti·
gatior.al work had lx>en put in hand, both in the various re8ea.rch labora toriel! ~l!()('iate41
with tile Services and in industrial laboratoril'8, Thil> work wa~ redewed and tbe
meet~ of the Sub-C'ommittee were used as a, medium whereby the \'ariou~ illYe!ltigatorH
could ~a.miliarize themHelvet!1 with the work going on elsewhere.
AI~Qugh the Sub,C'OllllJlittee waf' primarily concerned \\ith the atta{:k of arwour. i.('.,
the pt:rformance of the projectile, it found immediately that to make an~' reliable
invesqation relatin~ to the behaviour of shell required a detailed knowled!!,e of the
behar:,)ur of tbe plate. Consequentl~·. ret<eaI"ch on both plateie' a.JHI projl'dile~ wa ...
co·orc.:..nated by the 8ub·l'ommittl'e practically from its inception.
In :;}41 eo good deal of empirical knowledge wail available 011 armour alld lIhel!. As
regar~ penetration of a·rmour, the De Marre formula, or olle of its ,-ariant!!, wal; 1I~,
and Milne very quh-kly collected together the mass of firing trial data available at tue
Ordnance Board and reduced it bv IItatistical methods into what is now known as tlw
Milne formula. (see Chapter 2). The bulk of Milne's data· referred to attack at an angle
of 30 ,:egrees.
S~ly, Stockdale, at the Department of Tank Det!ign, reviewed the data aecumll·
lated 'ill tank armour plates. generally for" normal attack." and proollt'ed a Ruitable
empir'.caJ formula to huudle the data. This formula ill different in form from Milne'."
but U 3imilar in ace uracy.
"-b.e both these formnla' .-en-ed their purpmie in allowing the beha.iollr of shot.
shell :.nd armour to be predicted with rea80nable a.ccura9, they had t'errain demerits.
The E.:lpirical C(lnstants could not readily be interpreted in terms of any known physical
prope.--ry of the plate. although it waa known that within certain ra,nges of hardne!ls
the e:-nsta.nts increaaed with ha·rdness. As regllJ'ds the shell, the formulre merely
recog-~ its weight and diameter a.nd did not differentiate between an a.nnealed shell
and & hardened shell. Finally, the formulle took no account of any sca.}e effect .and
there Tas no reliable information sa to whether such an effect did, in fact, exist.
Thf resistance of armour varies from plate to plate alld from one positioll 011 any
partinlar plate to another. Shell va-ry in quality. The firing test itaelf is generally
a. te~ to destruction, either of plate or shell, and it is well known that scatter in tests
of tb:..! type is high. Thus, it is not surprising that both the Milne and Stockdale
form~, applil'd intelligently. enabled the behaviour of armour plate to be predictl'd
withe the limits with wbich the plate C()uld be produced in bulk.
Hovever, from the point of vie",' of further developmenta, a much better under·
st,and.:..o.g was required. and it is the purpose of this book to record the progress made
in th~ direction. The major items of development proceeded as follows : -

Shot.
It ~ generally agreed that the production of !lhot a.nd IOhell of a cOJlsistent quality is
a. mo·:.il simpler proposition than the production of armour. Cleaner steel can be ut<ed
and t.::.e problems of segrega.tion are much e-doSier. At an early stage, then. the manufacture
of th~ ~o·called calibration shot was instituted. These shot were made under supervision
and "'~re subsequently spgregated into bat~hes of known nniformity of hardnl'!;!' gradient.
by a·~ electrical method. Such shot were reliable projectiles for proof of armour. and
consi·:erably reduced the variability in the firing·trial test,

[xiv]
 During ::.s passage through the plate the shot has to impose and withstand the very
::.igh stre;;;~ necessary to deform the plate material. In the case of uormal attack,
ilie stre~ in the projec.tile are primarily tnmpre~",iye, although tensile stress waves
occur by :-:rl.ection from the rear elld. .\t angles other than normal the stress dis-
;:ribution :.;J. the projectile is more complex, due to the um''Ymmetrical pressure on
:.he head. ~d tensile stresses are likely to be proullced by the applied l>ending moment.
Therefore. :he projectile should be of ,",uch a shape and of such a material that it has
adequate ~;~ngth to withstand the8e stre!>selS withuut appreciable deformation or fracture.
Hardness :..ayouts which ensured thi", were determined empirically, but better under-
i'La·nding I)f the stre!>ses set up in a proje<:·tile durillg pla{e perforation l>ecame increasingly
:lecessary . .J.S more severe performance requirementi;1 arose.
StreS&'~ calculated from the penetration formuhe are at lK>st "average," and do
:lot b>1ve t:"·t maximum stress. Two method!> Were explored to provide such information;
:he photopphic metbod......,by mean!! of which the retardation of the shot can be obtained
trom high ;;peed films covering the actual penetration. and the static penetration method
-in whicl:. the force necessary to perforate the plate uuder static conditions is determinM
using a !;;;lndard projectile and a press. This latter method was applied up to 2-pr.
~le. T~e results obtained were used to develop a reliable means of determining
:n.inimum n.ardness gradients for shot and shell. They were particularly useful in
providing -1 quantitative method for dealing with the effects of canty shape and size on
:.he perfo~ance of shell.
At an <-.irly stage in the war the phenomenon of .. shatter" was encountered. The
:erm is a; plied when shot failure occurlS at high velocities, with complete collapse of
:he 8hot. ~'hile, at lower velocities on tue sallle plate normal penetration may occur
without a.:.y shot break·up. This troullie led to the study of the inertia forces on the
head of Ire shot ariE;ing from the high velocity illuueed in the plate material during the
initial sl<:.~s of peuetration. The importance of such forces, especially with high velocity
carbide si.-lt, is now realized.
Shatter ;vas eliminated as a practical prolJlem 011 steel shot by the intl"oduction of
(.,apped Sl--jc. Although much empirical work was canied out with various shapes and
weights 0: cap, understanding of the lllechanism of cap action remains limited.
The "'-0.: saw the introduction of types of target which had received little previous
':ollsidera~~on; hi~h angle targetl', spate-plate tal"get~, etc. Such tal"gets accentuuted
pl"oblem~ issociated with t.:up-stl"ipping and ~·aw. ~luch information of a semi·quantita-
li\'e tYI* "'as prouuced regarding such problems, lly means of the high speed spark
photogra;:lY equipment.

PLc:~ penetration formu/re.

As alr-:-:uiy indicated, \3riability in normal supplies of armour and shot made it

impos;;it~~ to determine -which of the v.lriolll'i empil'il'al formulre was likely to be the
most rebi:lle. Omsequentlya detailed firing pl"ugramme was worked out usillg specially
manufac-:red armour plate and shot. in an endeavour to get maximum uniformity.
Four size; of projectile were used, approximately 0·3 inch, 0-5 inch, 1 inch and 1·56·inch
(2-pr.). 2d firing trials were carried out under laboratory conditions, using residual
.elocity ::.easurements for determination of critical Yelocity.
Such ~_als have been carried out undel" conuitions of normal attack and angle attack,
and the ~?roducibility of the results is far higher than that previously achieved in any
firing tri~is, and has justified the care and attention put into the work.
The r~!ollts give definite evidence for a scale effect, and enable its magnitude to be
aBsesseQ. In addition, the constants in the penetration formula finally chosen can be
estimate-:_ within certain limits, from the phy.;ical properties of the plate. Although the
reprodu<::~.Jility of the crirical velocity in these trials is high, values falling within
limits 0: :: 10 f.s., the .arious empirical formuLf:! still give equally good "fits" when
the app!':~riate constant!" are chosen. For a given sc~le of attack, in terms of the ratio
of shot "!iibre to plate thicknesE;. plate resistance is found to pass through a maximum
at a cer"l~n hardness le-vel. This hardness varies with the (shot calibre/plate thickness)
ratio.
[xv ]
 PZ{Jte qua,lity.
Armour plate can fail in a· variety of waytl, when attacked by a gh'en projectile
under standard conditions. It may plug, pt!wl U1" diloiC. The di!<{:ing failure is mmaUy
associated with a low penetration velocity, and i", all>O objectiunable fur other reason~.
There "-as very little authoritati,e information a\'ailable as to how the phy8ical propertie!;
of tile armour plate affected the method of failure. Thi!; problem was studied empirically
from the data proviued by metallurgical examination and physic-al testing of plates, aud
the conclusions correlated with the in"lestigatiolJ 011 plllte penetration nlready des<'ribed.
It "IOai! demonstrated that dil;cing depellul; lJotll 011 the" quality'" of the plate, i.e.,
fr~om from inclusions and marked directiunal properties, as well as on the actual
hardness.

PROBLEMS ):In' TO BE SOLVED.

Major problems in connection with the penetratiun of arwuur by a1"wour-luercing
projectiles yet remain to be solved. All of the8e are in"lolved in n more thorongh under·
standing- of the mechani8m of penetration, and some of them are of direct practical
importance in relation tu the improvement of "hot and armour performance.
It i8 necessary to find out much more nbont the way in whkh plate uwterial behan'N
under the peculiar conrtition of ~t~ssing and deformation which are indnced by the
penetration of shot. The mechanical properties normally me<l,",ured for I't~l al'e of wr.v
limited ,alue in thi", connectiOIl, and 11 ~ery big ).tep forwnr<l would be achieved by-
det~rm..iL.ation of the behaviour in !'hear of plate material uuder ("onditions wbere the
principai stresses were all compre8l!live. at higb rateN of strain. The effect of "tffl quality,
i.e ..• cleanliness alld directionality, on thi" bella\'iour i~ of partic'ular importaIlce.
Secondly. more knowledge is required of the streAA (listribution in projeetilel'l when
penetrating armour at angles other than normal. So far. nearly all attempts to mellf;Ul"e
or to calculate the stresses in a shot have been confined to the case of normal attaek. For
this case. relati'l'ely simple theoretical treatmellt" of the prublew ;:ive w.eful result!'.
but the importa.nce of stress data for angle attack is greater, and far lUor'e difficult to
obtain.
A third outstanding prohlem. to which referem'e ha.... a-Irendy heen made. i~ to determine
how a- p!ercing cap serves tAl prevent shatter. Po,."ilJle expianatiGIl8 .. u~~resr~ IO@ far
are:-
(a I. That the cap impart~ enough energJ to the plnte, to reduce the e/fe(·t,<; of the
inertia· of the plate material imruf"diately in front of the i"Lot. without
transmitt.ing great 8t.ress to the shot because of it", own break· lip.
(b·l. That the cap gives radial support to the !>hot hean .. hy- ril'tll(, of it.'4. own
strength or inertia. during the early stages of penetration.
HoweT€-r. trials with val'ious shapes of cap calculated to eliminate the "pDi"siLilit'l'
of one or other of these effects have failed to 8ubstantiate either explanation. It is
possible c.iat both play some part, but this has not been proved.

[rri ]
 CHAPTER 1.

THE MODES AND MECHANISM. OF PLATE PE~ETRATION AND OF

SHOT FAILURE.

By R. Beeching.

1. ISTRoDt:cno~.

'When a ~ armour·piercing shot or shell penetrates a plate, the penetration usu~lly

occurs in Cone of a few tluite characterhstic wavs tl.1e aetnal mode of failnre uependmg
of
npon the Iature of the plate. In the first part 'thi!. cbapter tile '{'3rioul> common mo~es
(}f penetration are described, and an explanation of the way in which plate properues
d.etermine :he llature of the penetration is offered. For this purpose the shot is considered
to be perfa:t and to suffer no fracmre or deformation, wbilt'. in tbe second part of the
ehapter, ty;>ical form I! of shot failure are described, and explained so far as is at present
bX>ssi lIle.
The quaity of arlllour plate must obrtously be assesr.ed pl'imurily in terms of its ability
to stop pi~rcing proje<' tiles, but an illlportant secondary requirement is tbat, whell
defeated, . ie plate shall not fail in sucb a way tbat fl'ngmellts be\:'ome detached and so
add to tht: lethality of the attack. Tilese two requil'elllents are not independent, since
both depe!.-i upon the mode of deformation amI fracture of tbe plate when penetrated,
although i: does not follow that the type of plate gi'l"iug tbe most desirable form of failure
offers the p-eatest resistance to penetration. This illter·relationship between resistance
to penetra:ion and mode of failure is considered fm·ther wben mechanism of penetration
is discus£!!od.
When c<:'tlsidering the varions types of plate failure it may prove helpful to ht>ar in mind
the obvio~ fact that complete perforation of a plate ('annot occur by deformation alone.
~ome fo~ of fract1lre must also occur, and the type of plate failure which takes place
is "ery laJ"~ly determined by the nature and position of the fir"t fracture.
The def.:·l"mation or break·up of piercing shot or shell sets a limit to armour penetration
perforID.al.'-~. Set-up of a projectile au imP,H:t incl'ea~es the striking energy necessary
for S1lCCe!!! against a given plate. while, in the case of shell, it may also cause a prema·
ture, low-)rder detonation. Break·up of a projectile, if it occurs before perforation is
~ubstantll.Jy complete, allW has the effect of rai8ing the striking energy necessary to defeat
any giTe!. plate. F1lrther, although break·up of ~hot on leaTing the plate may be
advBnta~"')Us and increase lethality, sl.1ell must relllain unuroken until detonated if the
explosiTe illing is to be effective. Therefore, a good criterion of quality for armour pierc·
ing proje:1:iles is ability to resist deformation or fracture while penetrating thick plate.
and it is joportant to develop the best possillle understanuing of the mechanism wl.1el·eby
these faii:.res occur.
It is nt': considered that the idea~ suggested to account for the various modes of failnre
of plate ·:r shot offer a. complete ('xplanation of the observed phenomena. Indeed, it
a.ppears uat, in view of the present lack of knowledge relating to the plastic flow of Uleta I!',
especiaUy at high rates of E:hear, a rigorous treatment of the problem is impos"ible. :Xe\,er·
theless, ~omplete as the~' are, these attempts to explain the mechanism of nriolls tYJle~
of plate :D.d shot failure are thougl.1t to be of ,"alne as a lIasis for considering the influence
of plate ~;ld E:hot properties on performance, and Dlay form a useful step towards mOl'C
complete ~eatment of the problem at some future date_
1.1. Ty]icallJlatc damage (holllogetleous armou/') : Normal attack.
For tb~ sake of !'implicity the whole of this section will be limited to consideration of 1he
phenollle:.a associated with normal attack. In a later ~tion, the dUIerences in behayiol1l"
rel'1lltin!: from variation of the angle of attack will be described.
When 1 shot is fired into a plate of about one calibre thickness or more. the front of the
plate ah:.ost inTariably has either the petalled appearance shown in Fier. 1 01' that shown
in Fig. ~: whether perforation is complete or not. " ,

1
 i1 the plate is thick enough to stop the s1l0t, the impression in the plate, beyond the
crater, is a mould of the shot form. On the other hand, if the shot perforates the plat~,
the last st.ages of hole formation may occur ill n "arifty of wap, giYing one of fc.:lr mam
types of back damage or, sometimes, a ('ombination of two or more of these.
:A plug of approximately IShot diameter may .,;bem· out, giving' a roughly ('Jlilld.rka~ hole
right through t~e plate and a slight lip on the uat'k face, ""It'h alS ~ha~ "hOWII 10 FIg. 3.
Alt.ernati,"ely, penetration Dlay prol"~u to the stage wbere the proJectile breaks through
the back of the plate and .fo!.ms .b_a~k pet.a~s .. Th~1Se are. l,o~lll.all'y larger .and fewer than
the front petals, and they may remain attached to.the plate 01' lireak away as they are bent
back by the shot. .
A third type of back damage OCCurlS with rolled plate and itO caused by the bl'eaking
awav from the back of thE' plate of a d~~.of. nU!tall}p to several calibrelS in diameter and
usu&uy half a calibre or so in thicknE'ss. Typical discs are shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
A fourth type of back damage w)lich. ll!a5·:oc~w·. ~s the. breaking away of irregular
fiak-a! from thE' back of the plate. This most commonly occurs with cast plate, and
Fig. 6 shows tile type of fiake which ma~' be detached. Thii!! is a rather exceptional
example, since in the case illnl'lt rated only one large, fairly symmetrical fla·ke was formed
and this relllai.lled ill one piece. It would ha\'e been more typical had it broken into
several· irregnlal' shaped pieces.

2. TID: lUlcHA.'IIlS.U 01·' PLAn: PE.\'grnATlO!ol A~D FAILURE. XORlllL A'ITACK.

All the phenomena. referred to in the previous section can be accounted for in terUlB
of plate properties, in a general way, although no strict quantitatiYe treatment has bt:eJl
found possible !W far.
2.1. Plates of semi-infi-nite thicknes8.
C<Jnsider a shot fired at normal agaiust the face of a seI.U.i·infinite mass of armour.
AB the head of the shot forces its way into the plate, auy element of the head surface in
con~t with the plate exerts <I.. cOlllpressive force 011 the plate. This force it! roughly
normal to the head surface at any part, because, as metallurgical examination of dam·
aged plates shows, a thin surface layer of plate either melts or is raiseu to such a high
tempe.rature that the coetlicient of ,friction uetween plate a'nd shot is likely to be low.
Thtll.. the forces exerteu on the plate by ·the !Sho"t may be resoh'ed into a forward, axial
comr<lnent, and equally distributed radial components. As a result of the radial load,
the ;'Late material shears o,"er a series of co·axial conical surfaces, cutting the plate face
at at:·proximately 45 degrees, as showll by the dotted lines in Fig. i. The shear stress
is gr<:atest O\'er the surface doselSt to the shot ogiye. Plastic displacement occurs there
first and then extends to surfaces further and further out as work hardening occurs, and
as tbe shot penetrates to a· greater depth. Due to the form of the ogive, and as a result
of tt.e radial ,'elocity ill1part!'!d to the plate material displaced by it, a raised collar
builds up I'ound the head, as shown a.t:AA..i,n Vig. i. ,This tends to split up into petals
unde: the influence of the resulting tensile stresses, as shown in Fig. 1. If, however,
the t·i.ate has rather less ductility and is incapable of 80 much deformation in shear,
shear fracture will occur o,er one of the conical surfaces, giring front damage of the
type !.hown in Fig. 2.
A~ penetration proceeus, displacement of plnte by the process ues<:ribed above'obnously
beco~es more difficult, since there is a rapid increase in the area over which shear mulrt
occur. if displacement is to extend to the plate surface. Examination of impressions
in thick plates suggests that the process of front petal formation has virtually ceased by
the t:.:ne the !;hot ogi\'e is l"ompletel.y immersed in the plate.
CIi,.ier thetie conditions, when bulging of the plate has ceased, if further penetration
ill to ()cCUI'. tlJe volume ofmatez:ial displaceu b~' the shot ogb"e must be a(,commodated
by ~b,tic deformation. The material immediately around the shot will ue deforllied
plastlr.ally, :J IIU will lJe reuucedin "olume ·by an amount corresponding to the elastic
part .)f the /lor r;liu. Therefol'e, a larg~ zone of pia t~ material surrounding the plasti.
call~' rleforl1lE'() zone llill"t also lJesubJecteu to elastIC compression. to account for the
full nlume of material di~placeu~ ~enetration under thE'1"e ('onditions has been treated
the~m·fitally ill ref~. '\:20, 243 al~d 289. While it represellts :,tn important part of the
pro("e;s of penet I'ahon 10 the ca!;e o( tUllgslell c.'lrbide corerl shot, where the thicknE'sseti
of plares peuetrated are lnrge in relatioll to (:.aliltre. it will be iilE'ell that the conditioDs
are I:I)t normally encountered in the attack of plate by steel projectiles. due to the
in.fI.ut:lce of the back face overlapping that at the front face. .
 FIG. 1.
Typical front petals and also the
beginning of a conical shear fracture
below the petals on the left.

FIG. 2.
The appearance of an entrance hole
from which the petals have sheared.
The polished appearance has been
destroyed by rusting.

FIG. 3.
The appearance of the back of a pln.te
from which a plug has been driven.
 ... ~ .... . .. ,...;.... ; . :~ ~ ~ '".
-,.,
....

..;
.. '..
.,:';'--
~ ' ..
. '-.

..... ...
~- ~-

FIG. 4.

,~

FIG. 5
Figs. 4: & n.-Two
- .t ypica-l di8cs.
...:5..
~
..:.:
-
FIG. 7

SHOWING THE MODE OF PLATE DEFORMATION

ASSOCIATED WITH TH E FORMATION OF FRONT PETALS.

,,
,
.'

;f.-O
~.2. Plate~ of normal thickness.
For reasons which will be<:ome apparent, steel projectiles are seldom employed against
~)late of more than two caliures thicknell!!, while plates of llluch less than one calibre are
~.() outmatched that they present a proulelll of relati,ely slllall interest. Ther!'!fore, plate
rhicknesses around one to two ralibres thiekness are of most general interest.
-Consider now what happens if the sellli·infinite plate is reduced to a thickness of the
:lOrmal order. Then, by the tillle the ~hot ogh'e is immersed in the plate, there will be
;;:hear st~s oyer roughly cylindrical surfaces co·axial with the prolong-ution of the
shot, as indicated in Fig. ~t, The'*l t!hear strel>ses will be a maximum o,er the inner
o;urface, where they will have a value :-
~ where T is the forward thl'ust of the shot
d is the shot calibre
t is the thicknef!ls of plate forward of the shoulder of the shot,
and the ~t:ress may be aE!snmed to fall off approxilllately inversely as distance from the
shot axis,
T
All the while the plate it! so thick that the shear stress 7Tdt does not nlll~e plastic
deformation, the· conditions will be similar to those in the semi·infinite plate. It is
interesting, therefore, to determine approximately at what plate thickness this eondition
is no longer satisfied,
Consider the state when the shot ogiye is just completely em ~ded in the plate, so that
:'f t is the full plate thicknells, then 7T~ =8 0 is the condition for plastic shear oyer the
,:ylindrical surface, where So is the yield point in shear of thp. plate.
If it is assumed that there is a normal pressure p all oyer the head surface, then
trd'
I=TP,
In ref~~nce 2!3 it is shown that the pressure p net'e"lo;aI'~' to ca Ill"e increase ill ca yit~·
~ize in an infinite ma8S of plate is from four to !>L.... timel" the yield point in compressioll
of the ma'erial which. in turn, is approximately twice '~o'
Hence .• f the lower ,alue is taken, the condition for the expansion form of penetration
. 7T~
is p =4 f. = S 8., while the condition for shear oyer the cylindrical lSurfac.e i" T = 4 p ~
7Td t So
or p=4t/d 8 0 =88 0 when ~ =2.
Theref.~re, the influence of the real' face will become illlPortant as I;oon as f i!'; less than
about 2d.
Thus, plates of normal thicknes" cannot be treateJ at; thoug-h of infinite tuicklle!'s at
any stag~ of penetration. Ollce the 8hot head is illlmersed in the plate, penetration will
proceed, :0 some extent at least, uy tbe forlllation of a bulge on the back face of tue plate,
2.~. The formatioll of a bl/lge on tile back face,
The fo~goillg picture is useful as a means of showing at what plate thicknelis tue in·
fluence 0: the back face becomes of importalll'e, but it i", over simplified by tile ae:sllmption
that the~ is a uniform pres!';nre all oyer the shot bead. It suggests tbat in plates of less
than twv ralibres thickness, penetratioll ue.'ond the frollt petalling stnge would OCCIlI'
by the f0f'ward displllcement of plate material by ,..hear m'el' tylindrical sllrface" onl.'.
In pract}~e, it appears that this proces" is accolllpanied u~' some sirleways di!'plarellH'nt
of plate !llaterial by the ",hot ogive, and that penetration prO<'eeds by a combination of
forwards and sidew3J's displacelllent of material by the head of the suot. The lllanner in
which tr.aterial is assumed to be displaced is illu"trated ronghly in Fig. 9, It iF: to he
expected. however, that us plate thkkne~~ is reduced, or as penetration pro~:el:'ds. the
tendenc:," towardt! forward rather than sideways dh;placewent of the plate lllaterial will
increase.
As pe:.etration pro("4~eJ", under tuet>e condition!' tlle lmlge 011 the back fa('e becollle"
more pr<)nounred and more !;barply curved over the apex, while increasin rr I"hear !'train
dewlops oyer the cylindrical surface which i" a pl'olongation of the shot <""hotl\". Vllder
thel"e ('or.tiitioJII'l, fracture ?f the :plate will nltilllatel~', o('cur in one of two way~, depend.
ing UPO~l tbe r~ate properhe~. Either a 8tar t'l';H'k Will (le,elop at, tue apex of the bulge,
due to t[e tensIle stresses set up tbere, or a plug of roughly sbot dIallleter will shear out.
t This II a. aimpli6ed pictare, but repreaeDta a. reasoDable approximatioD to the true ODe.
 The ftr.-t of these types of failure will be fuyoured by relati'l'ely good ductility under
shear st~s in the bulk of the plate, or poor ductility under tenl'ile stresses o'l'er the back
fa.c.e, while the second type of failure will be favoured by converse conditions-.
Once a crack has formed at the apex of the bulge on the back face, this is likely to
extend through to the head of the lihot alld 1'0 reduce the J'i~ridity of the plate in front of
the shot. Further penetration is then likely to proceed by the Uellding forwards and out·
wards of ;oetals, as illustrated in Fig. 10.

2.:!!. Plug fornuztion,

A matter of obvious importance in relation to plug forwation is tile question as to how
far the ping will move forward before shear fracture occurs. In the past, this problem
has been dealt with by making arbitrary assumptions about the distance which the plug
mo,,'es through and the shear load necel!sary to cause the movement. A more reasonable
treatment than this is possible, even though simplification is necessary.
If the formation of a plug of a full plate thickness is considered, then the shear
stresses r.arallel with the shot axis would be expected to fall off roughly inl'ersely as
distance trom the axis, outl!ide a radius d/2, since the total forward thrust to be sup-
ported re.:nains constant and the area of any cylindrical surface of equal ehear stress is
directly.;:,roportional to itM radius. For the present purpose, it is al'!Oumed that there
ie no shear stress inside the surface of radills d/2, although this is not likely to be strictly
true for normal head shapes.
Unless the shear deformation extends through a shell of finite thickness, fracture
'Would be ~xpected after infinitesimal plug movement, even though the material had high
ductility :n shear. Therefore, pla!Otic shear cannot be limited to the surface over whieh
shear stress is a Q:Ul.X4n~, and the question as t{) how far the plug moves becomes one
of decidq how widely plastic deformation extends.
If the J:,i.ate material work hardens so that the fracture stress in shear divided by the
yield stre!B in shear is .\, then the yield point will just be reached at a radi"us { A,

when she.;.r {aHure occurs at a radius:. Therefore, it is to be expected that a cyUn-

drieal ZO~e of internal radin" ~ -and external radius ,,; will be plastically deformed,

th e d egr~ 0f d e{
orma '
t IOn .
varying f rom a maximum
- at a I"a d-IUS 2d ' d.
t 0 zero at "2"

Hence, t:'e forward movement preceding shearing ont of the plug will depend upon the
work har~ening J)f the plate material.

2.:"'3_ Failures peC'Uliar to rolled plate_

So far. the plate has been regarded as isotropic, uut rolled plates seldom are, on
account <:..: their tendency to have planel; of weakness par,lllel with the surface. If !Ouch
planes of weakness are sufficiently pronounced, laminar cracks may form in the plate
during ~"~letration and lead to dil'cing failure" of the type already descriued, or to a
modified :orm of back petalling failure. The at>sociatioJl of such cracks with discillg
failure a:.d with the modified type of back petalling failure is illustrated hy Figs. 11
and 12 r~pectil'ely.

2_2~_The formation of l{lminar cracks.

It is e~dent that the presence of laminar weaknesses in a plate cannot pre'l'ent the
processe~ 'Jf failure already described by increa~ing the resi~tance of the plate to failure
in these -a'l'8. Since thev do affect the mode of failure. howe'l'er. the\' must do 1;0
by causiq t'he interventioil of some other form of breakdo"'n which alter", the mode of
deformar~,jn and affects the stresses which develop_ Moreover, it is not uncommon
for the s:.me plate to fail by plugging in rome parts and by discin .. or star crackinfY
follo';ling iamination in other parts, and !>inee when a plug i!O drhen ;'ut it normally ha~
a- length ·)f from half to two-thirds the plate thieknesl', it is evident that the event
preventirc~ plugging must occur at an early stage in shot pentration_

• This i& !llToe out b,. the fact that some plates giving s1.ar cracking failures can be made to gir-e plugging
failures by ::lachining 011 the oxide embrittied back face.
FIe. 8.

SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION OFTHE SHEAR STRESSES

ASSOCIATED WITH "PLUG FORMATION.

THE LENGTHS OF THE PAIRS OF ARROWS INDICATE

THE INTENSITY OF THE SHEAR STRESSES.

,,
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
.(\ I
, ,," , t I
I
,, I
I
,,
I
vf dlt. I I
I ' I
,,
'I I ~
I
,
........
,I .. ...
I
( I I
I f
I I
"1 I
I
I
I
I
-T
I
I: I
I
I

0 C
FIG.S

SHOWINC THE PLATE DEFORMATION ASSOCIATED

WITH THE FORMATION OF A BACK BULGE.
FIG. to
SHOWING HOW THE METAL REMAINING IN FRONT OF THE SHOT

WILL TEND TO BEND WHEN ONCE A STAR CRACK HAS FORMED.

 FIG. 11. (x i).
~ 'section through a plate from '\\"hich a disc was about to
become detached.

FIG. 12. (x i).

A section through a plate which has failed by back
petalling after laminating.
 This eveor :..s the formation of one or more laminar cracklS in the layerlS of plate in front
of "he shot. ..-ith a eon~equent reduction in illS rigidity. ""hell the plate hdalllinated in
this way it ~ellds to ~ha\'e aB a pile of dise!!, dalllped ruund their uuter edge, and
thE.refore ha.~ a lower rigidity than a lSill~le diaphr-dg'lll of the !SUllle total tilickness. As
3 result, the ,ayers of lllateriul in frollt of tile shot teJld w relreat IJefore it more easily
uy bending. lnd so the tendency to plug forlllation is reduced.
The mal1Il",r in which the lalllinar crackB form is not fully established, though the
f:k( that thy do form in parts of the plate not yet penetrated has been shown by
~t ioning p~ially penetrated plate~. One view is that they are formed by tile tensile
stress wa.~e "li'hich returns from the uack face after the initial compression wave has
reached it. This explanation could in any case apply only at a time at which the
disnlacemenr due to the reflected wave exceeds that due to the tontilluation of the pressure
well-e, or in opproximate terms. after the peak resistance hal> Ueell lla~. The alternative
view that la:uinar cracks re.;ult from the deformation!> of the plate associated with the
for-mation of the back bulge !SeelllS more !.'Utisfuetory. This l>eCond mechani!>m mny be
viewed in t:i;her of two ways, one of which is reprelSented in Fig. l::i and the other in
Fig:. 14.
Shear will occur over the surface of the cylinder ABC D shown in Fig. 13 and this
cylinder ms! be regarded as being pushed through the I;urrounding material. If there
a.re planes (ol weakness parallel with the plate surface. the forwurd lllovement of the
cylinder will tend to separate the plate iuto layers, in much the same way as a rough,
tig-btly fitr~ plug pushed through a hole in a pile of plates clamped round the edge
would cau"*,, the back plat~s to bulge a,way from the others.
In the nE~hbourhood of the cylinder ABC D , where the !i:hear stresses are high,
there will l~ correspondingly intense shear streSlSes parallel with the plate suI"faces,
a.nd it is nc'": quite clear to what extent these' Ilbear stre!>ses c:.-ontribute to the initial
for-ma.tion 0: laminar cracks. It does 8eelll certa.in, howe'fer, that once a crack extends
31!! a cOlllple:e ring round the embryo plug-. it extends outwards mainly as a result of
th~ conceDL""oltion of tensile stress over its outer edges. This extension continues
un til the C:-lck perimeter is large enough to redure the tensile stress across it to a.
va2ue below che strength of the plat~ in a diredion perpendicular to the plate faces.
Ou the othe: hand, the extension of the cl-..lck inwards, into the wne in front of the shot
wh,ere there ,ire rompressive stresses through the plate, may occur at a latp.r stage as
a. result of siear stresses prod uced by the stretching of one layer with respect to another
as they are ~nlged forward by the shot.
Fig. 14 r~~'resents an aIternati'fe way of Yiewing this process of crack formation. If
3. shot wer!; :ired illto a pile of plates clamped round the edges, the plates would be
e~ted to ':,ulge in the manner illustrated, with consequent r;eparation. A single plate
would be eI:;~ted to behave in a similar ma,nner if it had sufficiently pronounced laminar
weAkness.

2.25. 8tar cracking after lamination.

Beferenc~ ias already been made to the way in which lamination might increase the
te~dency to ~I)rm a rear bulge on a plate, while reducing the tendency towards plugl"ring.
A.e a result. :.he presence of laminar weaknes!> in a plate may encourage a back petalling
type failure.
The variO-:3 layers of pIa te will tend to fail in the !>a me way as a pile of thin plates.
Tt.ey will t.: bulged in the direction of motion of !.he shot and the metal over the shot
noo>;e will ~ chinned by stretching radially and by romprel'sion betw~n the nose of the
sh·Jt and th~ next layer. This pro('ess may continue for each successive layer, including
th: b~k Ol!~. and give rise to a star cracking failure and finally to complete back
pE':.B lling. :-'lis stretching and thinning of successive layers is well shown in Figs. 11
and 12. ,
On the oti~r hand, since the last Inyer is le8s adequa;t~ly supported than !.he preceding
la:-ers, it if Jot remarkable that it may fail in a different way. -Whether it does so or
no,t dependi 'lpon it" thickness, npon the extent of the laminnr era-eking. and upon the
te~ile stre!_Tth of the main bulk of the plate in directions paraUel with the face, as
co.::npared -v-=,h the tensile strength of the surface layer.

6
 . 2.26. Disc-illg.·
The lag; layer of a laminated plate will bend like a dreulH!' dia~hragw claml'ed
.uound th~ ed"e alld loa-ded at the centre. It wiii, tllerefure, bend with c·. uouu> clln-a·
:ure of the for"m shown in section in Fig. 1:i. Cun..;elluently, there will ue radial telll',i1e
~resses se-: up round the edge of the inner faee aud uver tile cellt)·!! uf tile uutel' face.
The thiIw~ the layer in relation to the diameter of the laminal' crack, the lesloi pro-
l::;ounced "'11 be the curvature round the ed;;e ill relatiun to that at the centre. Con-
~uently. che less severe will be the radial Ioitreloi~ at the ed~e in rel~tion to ~Ilat at the
,:-entre ane the more likely h~ the plate to fail by ~tar crat:klllg, llal'tH:ularly if the back
:ace is em:lrittled. On the other hand, if the layer is thick in relatiun to the diallleter
,:of the lalLinar crack, the tensile Ioitresses at the centre will be small tOUlpared with the
stress at ;ie edge, which results from the combination of the radial tensile stress due to
":lending ~d the tensile strelSlS perpendicular to the plate face due to the forward thrulSt
,:.n the di..: as a whole, as indicated in Fig. 1:i. In thiloi carse a crad.: ilS likely to furm
:irst roun,i the periphery uf the laminar crack, and, except in·so·far as it is affected by
:he anisoi::'opy of the plate, it will tend to start towards the back face with a. slight
outward bclination as Rhown.
As the '~rack extends toward!! the back face and the thickllelSs of metal remaining
-:mcrackea is decrea,*,d, tbe local concentration of ten8ile stress over the edge of the
-::rack and in a. direction perpendicular to the plate face will tend to increase, while the
:-adial 8tr-:-osS will de(:tease. Then·fore. the direction of the resultant stress, wbich will
:-emain E'C'lal in magnitude to the tensile strength of the !>teel. will !'wing progressively
cowards tie normal to the plate face, as cracking prOt:eedlS. ThilS process, considered alS
occurring in stages, il; illustrated in Fig. 16.
Suppo~ the radial component t{) be J,'" and component of stress pel'pendieular to
Lhe plate :ace to be y, when the crack starts. Then the crack will ha.e a direction pf'r·
pendicula: to R,. When tile crack has reached a, the radial stress will have decreased
to x, and che other component will have increased to Y2 and the craek will proceed in a
direction ;oerpendicular to the new resultant R2 and so on for further stages c and Ii.
In practi·:e. the process is continuous and tbe crack takes a curved path of the form
shown in ?igs. 4 and 5.
As the ,:rack nears the back face, a stage ilol reached at whicll the shear stress round
:he edge .:.{ the diS(: and perpendicular to the pIa te face exceeds the shear strength of
Lhe platt' :naterial. Therefore, the final separation of the disc ()('curs by shear failure
.and the t :ight sheared edge, 8ho,,"n at A in Figs. 4, and 3, is a characteristic feature of
discs.
Cast ur-:lOur dOt's not display the laminar weakness which may oc{:ur in rolled armour,
uut may :a.e a gl:'ueral low h·vel of elongation under tenlSile stres!> due to intergranular
weakne",,, ')r inclusions. Thus, it is not uncommon to find cast armour which is quite
as ductij~ as tolled armour when subject to ehear stre~ses in the absence of tensile
·:tres~. l,c: which is capable of little elongation in tension. ThiIO combination of pro-
perties ~""J.ds to fayollr star cracking and hack petalling, but may cause flaking' if the
internal .. eakne8s of the plate is too pronounced.
ThE' w.z:" in which flaking occun: iIO he!;t seen by analogy with diio;dllg. _h ill the (,H!;e
of rolleo. )late, anuular cracks ma~- be IStarted in u cast plate by incipient pluggillg.
Since th~.:e are no preferential planell of weakne"s, howeyer. the cracks do not spread
out"\\ard~ parallel with the plate face. IIlIOtead. they proceed towar;ds the back face in
the sam~ "ay al< the edge craek on a disc ill rulled plate. bllt with "-reater initial out-
lrard inC':':nation due to the high eomponent of stress pitra11el with t1l; shot axh;. WbE'n
no secoTJ.:~ry hr!'~k.nJl 0('cnr8. this result8 in a flake of the form shown in Fig'. H,
althol1g-h. III practIce. further hreak-up usually occnrs due to the brittle nature of l'lates
which fa::':' in this way .

• A disu~tion has ~o made between discing and flaking (page 2 aod Figs. 4, 5, & 6). This dis-
tinction h", ~n found UBeful iD practice, but the nomenclature is not uniform in the literature of the
subiect. ~f! terms may sometimes be found to be illter~hanged. In particular, in reports of trials aD
'tank armOlO' it will be found that the term "Bake" is applied in cases ill which " disc" would be ulled
according .1 the pr~nt. definitioDS.

6
FIG. 13

SHOWING HOW THE FORWARD SHEARING TO FOkM A ciACKBULGE

WI LL SET UP TENSILE STRESSES OVER THE EDGE OF LAMINAR DEFECTS

B
I
I

l~ .:
----"-------1-4 ~~t-----------
----- ---~--t~l f-}------ -----
----------~+
.
~
P ~!
rc-------O
FIG. 14

SHOWING HOW ~CLOSE PACKED PILE OF THIN PL ..TES WOULD DEFORM,TO

IND'ICATE
. WH ERE TENSILE STRESSES MIGHT BE EXPECTED IN A SOLI 0 PLATE .

..

--------
----........:;-::..=:- - ---- --- - - - ---
-----------,
-~-=------

b . It-
FIG. 15

SHOWING THE VARIOUS STRESSES WHICH EXISI AT THE EDGE

OF A DISC, BEFORE THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL

, CRACK STARTS.

TENSILE STRESS :JC IS DUE ro BENDING OF rHE DISC. AND Y IS

THE TENSILE STRESS OVER THE PERIPHERY OF THE LAMINARCIlACIC.

~,,
rIG. 16.

THE 01 RECTION OF THE RESULTANT TENSILE STRESS ACROSS THE CR~CK

AT ANY STAGE IS REPRESENTED BY Rn AND THE STRESSES DUE TOBENDING
AND TO THE TENDENCY OF THE REMAINING UNCRACKED LAYER TO MOVE
AWAY FRO~ THE LAYERS ALRE"DY CRACKED.ARE REPRESENTED BY
X "'HD Y RESPECTIVELY. THE CRACK WILL TEND TO PROCEED AT RIGHT
ANGLES TO THE RESULTIl.NT STRESS AT EVERY STAGE.

. /

BACK FACE OF PLATE

 3. RESISTA.'\CE TO PE..'\SI'RATlO!II A..'';O E.'-:ERGf ABSORPTION: NORllll. A'ITACE:.
'fhe~ are two dilferent ways in which a lllate may defeat a shot. It lllay offer ISO llluch
l·esilStalll"e tu penetration that the shot is over· stressed and breaks up, or it may Udorlll
ill sudl a way that all the shut energy is aLsol·Leu before perfOl'ation occurs. While the.;e
1 \\'0 eifeu.!! al'e related, lJ~ause energy aLlSOrptioll is the space integl'al of the rcsi!;tillg
fOl·ce, it uut:'s lIut follow that a plate which gh'es a high peak resistallce to penetratioll
;,:i,·e", the highest energy absorption on perforation.
III a later chapter:, reference wiU be lllade to the deterlllination of the load lleces"<.lry
lUI· jll'lIl'tration, b." mean" of static pUllching te",ts. and by retardation measurelllent!! 011
1'I'Ojl~'til!:'!!. It is illteresting to note, however, that a u~f\J.I estilUate of the load nel'e~~Il'y
for penerrJtion lllay be made uy assuming that a plug of shot diallleter and of full plate
Thkkne.-" is driren out of the plate. Thi" would be expected to give a high value for the
peilk IUild. since ",ome ea!;ier form of penetration might prevent the ue\'elopment of the
suear stre;s llece"83ry for plugging, but it is found to give load!; corresponding clm.;ely
with those determined by the the other methods. If this lllechanism of penetration i"
assumed. the mean axial cOlllpres!;ive stress P oyer the crObS sectional area of the plug is
g-iYeIl uy the expression
d' =TTdtS
TT-P
4
4tS
orP=-;r
,,'hel'e ....: !;; the ,",uear !;trength of the plate material.
Thll!'. j,)r a !Shot penetrating a plate having a shear strength of 40 tOilS per "'Iuare iudl,
,'url'p!"illOlJ(ling to a hardness around 300 B.H.N., the mean cOlllpressive !;tress over the
plug ~t!t)n woulU ue expected to have the folJowing values for plates of the thicknesses
shown : -

,P=Mean oompre8llive Observed

Plate I stress over the vaJues
thickness ' cross sectional (static
in calibres &rea of the plug penetration)
tons/sq. in.
0.75 120 117
100 160 149
1'25 200 173
1,5 240 192
1,75 280 209
2-0 320 224

In the :~"t roluu\II are shown approximate mean ralues taken from the static pUlll:hin;,;
le~t re"u:rs shown in Chapter 3.
As wil! be seen, the agreement for plates of moderate thicknesses is very good. while.
il!"i might Le expected, the e!;timated value!> tend to lie high for plate thicknesse!> aroulld
:.:! ('nlibre;o, This is due to the fact that appreciable shot penetration oceurs before pIli;.!'·
du~ starr!! ill plates of this thi~knes", so that the early stages of static penetration ill'C
t'ilsier th:J.n they would be if a full thickness plug were formed. In the case of dynlllllie
penetraTion. however, a considerable increase in plate resistance mU!;t be expected (IUI'ill!!
the eilrl,t" !'tageR of penetration, due to the inertia of the material displaced. This is
partieulilrl,r the case with thick plates which must always be attacked at high velocitie!>
if perfoTCItion ill to ue achieved. Therefore. the simple method of e!>timatillg the maxi-
mnm thr'l>lt between plate and shot appears to be a good basis for design, and .has been
used for :hill purpose for some time. FrolU the values of P,. the mean compressive stress
pi over any transverse section of the projectile at and behind the shoulder may be calcu,
lated uy means of the formula
l _ pW - W jU
P- ----w- TTrP
where p1 is tbe stress over tbe section
W is the projectile weight
to is the weight forward of the section
A is the area of the section.
3.1. Energy lor perfOl'QtiOff .
. ~ uC only d~s the a~umption that perforatiOiI tH.'\·ur~ by tbe fOI'wa lioll of a plug uf
fnll ?Late thiclmeSti permit the calculation of a good approxiwation tu tlIe wGlxiwuw l:OW'
pres.·we stress impo.,;ed upon the shol, uut it al",u alluw!! the l"Gllt-nlntioll of tbe ellcr;!y
eXpe:lded by the !!hot in perforating tbe plate. ThiN leads to a penell'uiiull COI'wula Ix'ar-
ing .ome similarity to those a.lready in UMe, anll gives Hllue!! for ellel'gy absol'plioll of tbe
rigb~ order. It is considered, bowevpr, tbltt it!! real value is that it demollNtratel'S the
depe~dence of plate perforwanee ou a eowplex of wet:hanit:.al propertieloi W()fe deal'ly
than other lines of approach adopted so far.
8u?po8e the stl'eM and strain to be uniforw O\'er cylilldrical shells eOllcl'fltl'k will! tbe
ShOT ms, and let 8 and 8 be the shear !itret'!i and ",hear stl"lfiJl, ~I'('•.'tin~l~·, at a di"tmll'e
,. fro::! the axis. Then S=F(r) where the form of P il!l 1I0t lIet'et;~lrily knowlI, bllt iN Ioillt"h
that B decreases with increase in r.
U the stress-strain relationship for the plate material ill repl-e"t!nletl by 9 =/(8). if
the Jo:d'lx 0 relates to the values of Sand 9 at the yield point. alld if the elasTit: work priol'
to yitld is neglected, the ",-ork per nnit volume in a thin /She)) of radius r is gb'en by
o
I
e= SdO
90
S
I
e= SP(SJdS=I(S)-1(80 )=1[F(r)]-I(So)
8.

where 1= I SP(SJdS.

Sine"! the volume of an elementary ('ylirulrkal /Shell i", :.! 7f r tdr, tlIe tot,tl ",tmill elle1"g~'
E is g?;'en by
r1
E=27ftU r I [F(rlJ dr-iI(S,l (r12-r02) ]
To
where P, is the shot I'adius and 1', is the radius oUlsil.1e whieh 110 pWf'tic uefol'watioJl
occurs. ?rovided deformation within the plY#' if' neglected.
If r::'~ specific aSRumptiol.a; are made tlIat : -
(i). The stress-Iltrain curl"e is llilelll',
(ii). The stress is inl"ersely proportional to the radial distance for values greater
than "01
th 8-f(S)-.J. is -8 0 where r/J is the strain at the stress S, which causes
en - - '1' S, -80 shear fracture

and S=F(r)=S, ~ at the moment of plug separation.

r

Iffilce 1= f8P(S)d8=8,~80 (~)

and 1 [Per)] =2(8,~8o) (s~ror .
E = 27ft{4> ,
8 .tro'
2(88'-8.)
log..2. _
e r.
r/J8 o'
4(S,-80 )
(rl'-roS)}
If the vit'ld ratio
• f!..F
~
= l
~
and iince To = 2t!
E = rrt4KP8o {,\_I k>g'\ _ '\+1}
"'\-1 2

8
 Therefore. Wlce a shot must have at least this energy for perforation, the relationship
far bare per-oration ~omes
i Wt;2=k t d 2

or ~~ = 0 1 ~
where (Jl = '1T,pSo (~ log.\- ,\+1) 2240 x 32,2
2 .\-1 2 12
= 9440 <pSo(~IOg.\- .\+1)
.\-1 2
W is in lb.
t)in f.s.
t and d in inches
and So in tons per square inch.
If .\ = 1 -:- p., and if p. <1 and terms of higher order than p.2 ure II eg-Ieded , the form·
ula may be written as 0 1 b. 944O.p So (p.+ 'iJ
It is of interest to compare this relationship with the lllollifi~tl de ~arre fOl'IllUlu,
1lOhich is in general nse in this country, namely
7 = 0(~)l'43
The oniT difference in form is the ablSence of the index 1·43 in the formula deriycd
f-:-om the ~snmption of perforation by plugging. The appeal'allce of this feature in
;:.b.e empiri,:al formula is, no doubt, accounted for by the fact that as plate thickness
i.:l.creases. :here is a progressive increase in shot penetration before plngg-ing- startlS.
Although '.hls halO the effect of reducing the load necessary to cause plugging, it hus

w:
an even ~ter effect corresponding to an increase of <p in equation (4) aoo\'e, so that
v.·ill i.end to increase more rapidly than -~.
Althoug: no reliable data defining the behayiour of armour plate Hteels under shear
~ss are lovailable, reasonable assumptionlO lead to values of Cl of the the same order
cY! C.
Thus, ii :t is assumed that
So =30 tons per S4luare inch }.\ -1,33
S,. = 40 tons per square inch -
aud tp =:i (correlOponding to a reduction of area ill tell IS ion of w per cent.)
then Cl f:::.. 0'32 x 10'.
This va:1e of G l is calculated on the assumption that the perforation occurs by the
:ormation of a. plug through the full plate thickness, without any prior penetration of
:he shot :<:ad. Therefore. it h; to be expected that it will ag-ree be!>t with observec.l
-:-alo.es for olunt headed shot attacking plateK of 1 calibre or leIS!> in thicknel"s, since the
.!.I!!l!IUlDed t"JDdition!! are then more clo:-;ely sati:-;fied. For gouc.l ogiyul headec.l ~hot. of
::"4 c.r.h .. 'lblo;eryeO values of C are around 1 x 10", while for flat headed shot values of C
around 0·: )( 10' are ob~erved.
It is of :.ntere!St tAl note aIM>, that if plugging oc('urs in the manner supposed, the lip
~ormed rt''lDd the bole, or the back face, should have a. width

~('\-1)
Thus. i! ~ =1'33, the lip width is Q'li d, and. as will be seen from Fig. 3, the lip width
:'5 of thili- ,)rder witb plates of about 1 calibre thickness.
As alre!dy mentioned. the value of this derivation of a penetration formula lies. not
in its US€ ~o pr£'dict shot performance. for which existing empirical formulre are bett£'r.
bo.t in th;, demonstration of the way in which plate performance depends directly upon
:ield Eltre!M in Rh£'ar. and strain at fracture. and also depends in a more complex man·
ner upon yield ratio. ,
4. ANGLE ATTACK.
4.1. T'M ~.fJect CIfl hole and 11lug form.
So far. j} this.chapter, only normal attack of plate~ bali: been de!l<:ribed. '('nc.ler Sernc£'
conditio!:.!. bowe>er, normal attack of armour ilS fSeldom pos~ble and it baH now be<:ollle
enstom.a-:; to carry ont development trials, to test plate or shot performance, with angles
of [l! :ack of 30 degrees or more. This section will be devoted to a· description of the way
ill w-i.ich the mode of deformation and failure of plate" is affected by increat!e in the angle
of a::-..ack. In this section, unless otherwi,,;e mentioned, shot with a 1'4 c.r.h. form
are (":·nsidered.
At ,mall angles of attack, little change CM.'curs in the mode of plate failure. The bole
in rh-: plate u811alIv has a· direction intermediate between the direction of attack aDd the
n'ormti, and the other main characteristics such as plugging, dit!Cing, back petalling, etc.,
l'ematl the same. At angles of around 20 degrees to 30 degrees, however, some diffen!llces
becone apparent.
Thf plate thickness which can be uefented by a given shot decreaseR with incr"'ealle in
..:i1gle of attack. As a result, failure bv plugging tends to be. wore common than bat'k
petalblg at angles of attack of 30 degrees or lllOrf', in plate!; free from !lerious laminar
wen.kr.:ess, ..iDee at these a·ngles the attack is, in practice, likely to De made against relatively
thin p:.ate5 and such plates tend to plug. Moreover, ,,'hen plugging occurs at these angles
it i!l r.mal1y found that the plug is of the,.;hape Ilhown in Fig. Ii. It is roughly elliptical
in section, with a minor axis equal to the /:hot calibre, and with a major' axis slightly
b'1'eate and lying in the plane of attack. The manner in which Fluch a plug forms is shown
diagn.:nmatically in Fig. 18. AI! this IlboWH, the plug shears out over snrfaces whicJa are
roughly perpendicular to the plate face, but whil-h "how a curf'atnre due to the tendeney
of the ;>lug to have a hingeing action abont the end furthest from the shot point.
The :ad that the plug forms uy Iolheal'iIlg' in a uirection roughly perpendicular to the
plate :!ce is of interest, ~ince it might therefore be expected thnt only the kinetic energy
a~iL~ed with the normal component of velocity of the shot would be effective. This
does. i.::;, fact, appear to be the caHe, Flince a penetration formula of the form : -
WVI cosl8 =
d3
(! )1.11
C d
where i is the angle of attack give", the be"t agreement with obl!erved results for ang1eB
from 0 ~egree to 30 degrees.
As tt.~ angle is increalled further, the wajor :Ixis of the plug telldH to increa.se in length,
and it :.;1 found that tbe shot performance falls off e'-en more rapidly with 8 than iIil
"ugge~-'d by the formula abo,e. ThilS may be due to the fact that the f!heared surface
of the; lUg is increased in area by the increase in the major axi".
At aL?les of the order of 45 degrees to w degrees. perforation of the plat~ appeaJ"8 to
OCcur i.: two !!taget!, as i11u~1ra ted ill Fig. HI. Fib;t, a plug is driven out of the plate
ae; ISbo'll":l in Fig. 19(a), and then a wedge I;hal'ed ..;ectiull of plate is removed from the side
of the iole, af! shown in Fig. 19(b). The e"idence /Supporting this conclusion is that
"hots s-I.:iking at a velocity !!lightly below the critical velocity produce only the first stage
of daw4'e and do not pass through the plate, while, after the plate has been completely
defea~:" the wedge "hape<l piece of plate already referred to may often be recovered.
Since l:.is two-stage penetration obviou!'ly involyes uneconomical expenditure of energy,
it is nOi mrprising that shot performance at these angles is relati,ely poor.
Ar~b:tgheJ' angles, uDleM tbe plate is very thin, shots ricochet withont perforatiou. ,(.
The anf.e at which this occur!' can be altered to sorue extent by change of hea<l shape, .
as also ~an the Iltriking en£'rgy necel>l>ary for perforation at !Swaller angles. This will
be disct:.!8ed further in a later ~tioll ..
4-.2. &:v.tion on the 8hot.
The r~tiQn on the shot is naturally more ('omplex in the ease of ang-Ie attack thaa
when t1~ shot strikes the plate normally. "-hen the ogive enters the plate, it tirllt of
all expe!"'.ences a greater thrust on the side away from the Hormal, both becanse a greater
8re:\ is i.r: contact with the plate, and. becau~e displacement of plate material on that side
of the h~ld is more difficult [Fig. 20(a». Consequently, the shot experiences 8 turning
moment vhich causes it to s'\\ing away from the normal.
As peL~tration proceeds, a stage is reached' at which the plug begins to shear out, and
8S a. reSl:.: the thrnst of the side of the ogive remote from the normal is decreased, wbile
th~t on :ie other I!ide of the head becomes relatively high [Fig. 20 (b)]. Therefore, 8t
thl@ 8ta,,,-<- the shot I'tWrts to swing bark to~\'ard!; the llormal and continue!; to do i;O U
the shot ::Joves forward nnti] rotation in stopped by the shot bOOy striking the side of
the hole. UI fllustrated in Fig. 2O(c). .
It is mr. at present pos~ible to determine the F:treAA F:y;;tem Flet up in a shot during angle
attack 'Ir'-h any rertainty, bnt it may be of interest and of "ome value to diElCu~s wIiat
:night be ~pected.
1Q
 · ."1':./;.~ .•.'f,
," .". "J'

'~"': ~."~ ":~"

'. . ~

FIG. 17.
Two views of plug produced by attack at 30 degs.
-- FIG. 18.

SHOWING POSITION OF THE SHEAR FRACTURE

, CAUSING
o
PLUG FORMATION IN 30 ATTACK.

iENSIlE FRAC:TURE FREQUENTLY OCCURS AT A.B. DUE

I
TO HI~GING OF THE PLUG.

,I,
,
,
, I
,
:
,,, ,,,
, I
,
I \ A
I ~~

"- ~------
~---------
 FIG. I~.

TWO STAGES OF PENETRATION AT

AHGL.ES OF 45· TO 5S~

-----
.....

I I

________________ I
I
~---------~~I
I
I
_____________________
(4) .

~
,,
, I
, I

,',
" ,,
I

-------Z~,'!
. (b) ----iL
___~
}
 FIG. 20.

SHOWING TURNING OF THE SHOT OURING

PERFORATION IN ANGl.E ATTACK.

(a.)

----~,----------~---------

(C)

I b - tJ
 Com;,jer the t"a.Se of a shot which has penetrated a plate at :m ue;;rees, to tile poillt
where ,.!lear fr.lCtare to form a. plug Ilas not quite started, and ig:nore, for the sake of
simplic:cy. the t<m.all turn away from the normal whkh would already have oc.(:urred.
Sow cc,Jsider the resultant forces on the two parts of the head on either "ide of a plane
througD the shot axis and perpendicular to the plane of attack. Let these l>e referred to
HS tlid~..! and B, as in Fig. 21. Then it it> to be expected that the re"ultant force on side
A will ~t approximately along Llf. while that on "ide B wiiI act along' PQ. ~loreo\"er,
since tl:.e area of head in contact with the plate itl greater on "ide B, al,..o \)e{:aut'e the platt'
on side B is les& free to deform, the magnitude of the resultant thru!<t on "'ide B will
be grea.;er than on side A. Hence, tile resultant thrust on the head as a whole might
be expo;.:ted to act a10ng OD, which will not coincide "'ith the uxi!!l of the shot, or pass
thrOUgL the CG of tbe IShot, nor is it lik.ely to be perpendicular to the plane of the plate
face FG. As a remit, tbere will be a turning' moment on tbe shot, of magnitude OR x ('D,.
and tbe-e will be a sbear IHrest! over the plane FO.
The {,Dmpressive stress perpendicular to the face FO will not be uniform, but will tend
to be h.:.ghest on side B. Furtber back in the !!lhot body, however, (his IState of affair"
will be reversed, and the compressive strest! on lSide A will be grpater than on side B, due
to the &dded e6eet of bending I!!tre!i~s. Even so, howe'\"er, it is dOl1btful whether thi:.
produeet a. tensile stress on side B anywhere in the forward part of the "hot body. It
appean.. tberefore, that at angles of attack of 30 {Jegret'8 or sO. up to the !>tage of plug
forman·)n, the main etIeet of angle is to gh'e a non·uniform di,..tribution of compressive
stress u the forward part of the shot. This may have the effect of illl're:l"ing the maximum
compr~ve stretM set up in the shot, for a given thicknelSs of plate, but it is unlikely
that te:.~le stresaes are produced, unless the I!!hot deforms plastitally.
Wh~ shear fracture occur~. so that the plug ill free to move, the I'e~ultallt for(·e on
side B "rill be greatly reduced. The compressi'\"e stress across the face F(i will tllen be
small fWd the shear stress over tbis face will hecome relatively large. .-\ )~o. a lth all I-! It
the th.."""lBt along LM may be ",mall compared with the earlier ,·alue of (m. it is likel.\"
to ha'\"-!- a greater turning moment on tbe shot, due to the greater magnitude of CE a~
compa..~ with CD. Therefore. when tbe plug !Separates, the shot is likdy to sllffel' 1I
greater a.ngular acceleration towards the normal tban tbe original atteleration a way
from ::. Moreover, since the axial compressive stresses will largely disappear. the
ben~ stresses are likely to give an a.ppreciable . tensile strel's in the forward part of
the sh0~ body on side A. which may pm;sibly cau~ tensile fradure in some ca>:es.
FinaJy, when the forward part of the shot passes throu~h the hole formed in the
plate. ·.he angu]ar velocity of the Elhot will be destroyed rapidly b,\' impad of the shot
body &f'a.inst tbe sides of the hole, a.s fOhown in Fig. 20 (c). The hending stres,;es imposed
by Hill sudden retardation are likely to Le greater than tho:,e assodated with either
the in:':ial turn away from the normal or sub"equent swing ba(·k. It is probable, too,
that tU tensile I!Itres!'les produced in the shot body on side .-\ by this violent anglllar·,
retarub<:ion are responsiule for many of the observed cases of shot break-up at angles of
30 de~s or 80.
To ~iuce the tendency of A.P. projectiles to fail under the influelll'e of tensile "tre","es
prodm::d by the bending moments set up during angle a t.ta.ck , it is usual to reduce the
hardn~s of the body progI'es~iYelr from shoulder to baiOe. As explainPd in Chapter 3.
tbis C&.:. be done in such a ,,-ay aEl to mah·h the fall off in axial compre8si\"e stress. while
giring loD. increased resista·nce tofailQ.!:e.. uuder tensile stress.
s 4.3. Tte effect of skot head shape.
Rea..: shape has a pronoullced ¢ect on shot performallte. So far, in this Chapter,
consi<i~tion has been limited to shot of around 1·4 c.r.h. form. since this has beell
genera2y adopted as the most I>3.tisfadory compromise for angles of attaek around
30 d~s. However, there is no one bead form which is best for all ('onditiOIlS of
attack ;Ind it is of intere!;t to ton sider the effect of chan:;es in bead !'bape all ~hot
perfonaDce a:"rainst various thicknessefol of pIa te and at various angle;;. In genera I,
these ~ects may be explained quite sutit;factorily in the light of the mechanism of
penetruion already postulated.
The ·)bser'\"ed factj; are that blnnt heads perform better against thin plate;;, while
longer leads give better fl(>rformam'e again8t thick plates at normal. but not at :Jng-Iel<.
Witl plates of around olle calibre or le~s in thickness. penetration tend." to o("('lIr It.v
the fO:-::lation of a plug of full plate tbickne,,;1_ Therefore, ellerg.'\" expended in dridllj!'
a- pom:~ bead into the plate, before a calibre diameter plug can form, is largely wa8ted.
Hence it "Would be expect~rl that blnnt headed shot would ;;ll('ceed at lo"\\pr ;;triJ.inj!'
veloci::.....s. As already !;tated, this is obsen-ed to be the case and fiat fronted "hot will
11
!Oucceed a.gain.st thin plates, with striking energy only -about half tho.t necessary with
ogival headed shot. As plate thickness is increaBed, however, the load necessary to
produce s plug of full plate thickness becomes greater than the force nece!lsary to caul1le
penetration by radial displacement of plate material and, as a result, it is found that
more pointed shot, which fa·vour this mode of penetration, perform better than blunt
~hot. Moreover, a6 plate thickness incre8Bes, the shock loading produced in blunt
hea.cl.ed shot becomes so severe that the shot break up. Thus, for normal o.ttack of
pl.a.tes of around two calibres thickness, head forms of 2 c.r.h. or even more pointed
forms are found to be better tha.n a. 1'4 c.r.h. shot.
As a.ngle of attack is increaBe1i, there is a progt:essive tendency to favour short head
forms. This is 80 for two main reasons. Firstly, the turning moments exerted on a
shot during angle a.ttack are increased. by increase in head length. Secondly, thE.'re mnst,
in practice. be a reduction in plate thickness a.ttacked, as angle is increased, if succesl1l
is to be achieved.
At angles of 60 degrees or so, ogival headed projectiles fail against quite thin plates,
due to the fact that the turning moment on the shot is so1tident to cause ricochet in
the manner shown in Figs. 22 and 24. This tendency to ricochet can be reduced and
the angle at which it Ol'curs can be incre!W!ed by the adoption of a suitable fiat fronted
head form, such as that shown in Fig. 23 (b).
Consider the case of a. fiat ended cylindrical projectile striking a plate at 8 large
angle as. illustrated ill Fig. 23 (a). Then, a~ the edge of the flat front penetrates the
plate, it is to be expected tho.t there will he a reaction of the pla.te on the shot appro:d·
:!l.&tely in the direction AB a6 shown. If the shot length is not more than about 3 to 4
c-alibres, then the reaction AB is likely to faJl between the pla.te and the C. of G. of the
~.hot, so that there will be an overturning moment rather tho.n & couple tending to tnrn
the base of the shot down on to the plate. Moreover, by suitable adjul'1tment of the
gjz.e of the liat front, in the manner shown in Fig. 23 (b), it is found possible to prevent
Either skidding or toppling of the projectile and so make penetration potIsible at higher
angles.
Moreover. such shaping of the head tends to make the shot penetrate in such a· manner
tho.t it U8eS all its kinetic energy, rather tho.n only that al!sociated with the normal
C':OmponeDt. and 80 improves performance even a·t rather lower angles where ricochet
Tould not occur.
5. FllLmm8 OF SHOT.
In this ~dion the failure!; of Il·rmour piercing shot will be dealt with first and the
Clore difficult problem of shell failure will be considered later.
It is very common for A.P. shot to break up 011 pa&ling through a plate. Provided
~.iis break·up does not raille the rritieal velocity ut which the shot ill able to defeat a
~ven thitl.::nel'18 of plate, and provided a· reaHOnable proportion of the I1Ihot pa88e!! through
::.be plate, this is not considered to be a disadvantage. In fact, a spray of fragments of
5.bot may b€ more lethal than one unbroken projectile. .
Shot break-up, with no a.pprE.'(.'iable effect on the c.ritical velocity for penetration, may
occur with normal or angle attack, but becomes more common as the angle of attack
increases. There seems little doubt that the most usua.! cause of shot break·np, with
g"X)d qualiry shot, is the illlposition of bending F;tre!llleS during penetration at angles
o·ther than normal. Since there js Ulmally no appreciable change in critical \'elocity, it
c:a.n only b€ a.ssu.med that the Flhot break-up occurs when the plate has been holed or
Then hole formation is nearing completion. It hal'1 already been BuggeF;ted that the
bending stresses impmaed upon the shot by striking the sides of the hole are the most
severe of those imposed during attack, at angles up to 30 degrees or B(), and it appears
tbat these are the usual causes of break-up.
Another cause of break up, wbich might be expected to operate during normal attack,
a.s well a~ during angle attack, iR the formation of a tensile I!Ttrel'1s wave by a sudden
~lease of rompressive stresses in the shot at the time when the plug separatell. Such
a mechanism might be expected to operate even more effedh'ely if It shot were fired into
~ thick plate at a. velocity too loW' for success. !lince the compressive streflS would be
l"E:lea4>ed very Iroddenly when the shot came to rest. Therefore. the fact that shot often
rebound bJ'Qi;:en from a plate which they will penetrate unbroken at a "lightlv higher
v"£-locity lends support to this explanation of shot brenk up. •
80 far, re-ference has been made only to formA of Mhot break-up which do not affed
perlorma.nce_ There are, however, other form!! of ~hot break-up, and of shot deformation,
which occnr with poor shot or under f!1evere ronditioll!'l of attack. and which ha\'e 8n
8.jverse affect on performance. The most serioul1l of these_ is shatter.
 FIG. 2/.

SHOWING THE NATURE OF THE FORCES ACTING

ON THE HEAO OF A SHOT DURING PEN ETRATION.

•
F/'G. 22.

STAGES IN R'COCHET.
 FIG. 23.

EFFECT OF HEAD FORM ON RICOCHET.

(a. )
 FIG. 24.
lIultiple spark photographs of the ricochet of a model shot.

J;;'_O
5.1. The IJecurrence of sh4tter failure.
III th~ early part of the last war, shattel" of armour pi~l"cillg shot presellted a very
~rioU!, p:'1Jblem. It was found that there wali a limit to the ext~nt 10 which perfurlJlanc~
could be incre3.tied by increaliing Jo;hot \"t~locity, becam;e, abo\"~ IiUllle limiting velocity,
e,·en gooa quality shot were found to sutler break up at liuch all eurly lilage of penetration
that there was a marked adverse effect on performance. Thi,,; form of failure was known
as ,. I;har:er " and UISe of the term still persists even though it is now thought that it
suggests a fah;e explauation of the phenomellon.
Agai.Da thick plate at normal, shot usually start to shatter at velocities Ql'OuOO 2000 f~1L
A~ plate thiekne8lt is reduced, below about two ca1ilJresy the velocity at which Sht1ttet .
OCC1ll'1l teIl.da to increaae, while it falls fairly rapidly with increase in angle of attack.
At 30 d~ for example, shatter may occur against thicker plates at velocities 8&..
low 3S ~2400 Le. .
Againgf relatively thin plates; for which the critical ,·elocity.of the shot is well below
the !Shatter velocity, shatter doe" lIot matter much. All that happens is that, when the
shatter .~locity is reached, the hole in the plate tendt> to be larger in "ize thall the shot
section 3.:ld of irregular shape, while the shot emerges from the plate in many !;maU
froigWenu instead of being whole or in a few large pieces. Against thick plates, on
the other b.and, the shatter velocity is less than that necessary to defeat the plate. It
is thell ('Jund that instead of a "hot producing an imprelSSion of its own shape in the
plate. it produces a shallow impression, !;lJlooth round the outliide and l'ough ill th~
middle. These impressioml, like mo!;t of the forms of plate damage produced by A.P.
shot att.:;-<!k, are quite consistent in appearance, and a section of a typical shatter
impression is shown diagramatically in Fig. 25. When this type of shatter damage
occurs ttl? !>hot fail to penetrate the plate at l"elocities at which they would normally be
expected :0 succeed. Only when the shot velocity is increa~d considerably is it possible
to hole t.:.e plate, and then the hole has a ragged appearance characteristic of success
with 8ha:1:er.
Again!>. plates of a certain limited range of thickne8s, for which the shatter velocity is
not muck greater than the critical velocity for success without shatter, it is found that
shot will smcceed without shatter over this Ilarrow range of ,elocities. At the shatter
velocity ~!J.e shot fail to penetrate, and only by a cOllsiderable increase in velocity does.-
it again ~me possible to bole the plate•.
Fig. Y, presents the resultB ot (1 trial carried Ollt with 2·inch A.P. "hot agaillst
!!everal tiicknesses of plate. This shows how "hatter affects performance.
;).2. TM mech4n4sm of shatter failure.
Recon·:y of fraglllents of 8hattered shot shows that shatter is a failure of the f01""·<lru
end of ..ie shot, since the rear half of the shot is quite frequently recol"ereu whole,
while tht forward end is usually broken into many pieces. Also, the break up of the
forward ~nd of the shot re!;uits predominantly from brittle tensile fracture,
Wb.en .. shot fa·ils to perforate a phlt~, uue to shatter. the imprel'-sion produced in the
plate is :ormally quite shallow, and is usually rather Ie,")' than the "hot bead length in
depth. IJit' proves that the break IIp must occur at a wry early stage of penetration,
which. i:: furn, confirm!! the 'Mew that a shatter i!< e"'l'entially a head failure.
The l~::)!Iile stre!>Ses whith cause !>hatter of the hpad might be a direct result of the
impact. ~lthough it is not oUl"ious how they would <lI'i"e. or they might result from
pla.stic 0~Qrmation of the lihot by the axial compressil"e stresses. The second of these
PQssibili~~8 is considered -to be the true cause of shatter.
Consic.....r first the case of a shot striking the plate normally. It has already been
mention~ that, under these conditions, both retardation observation!3 on shot and static
punc~ tests show that the compressive stresses around the shoulder rise as the heau
becomes ':mbedded in the plate. If these stresses are higher than the compre!>sive yield
stress of ~he shot in the shoulder region. then set·up of the shot is to be expected. This
will est,a;..lish hoop tensile strains of con~iderable magnitude~ and since hard shot steel
h(1s rirtCllly no elongation in tension, longitudinal cracking of the shot will result.
After th~ had happened, complete break·up of the forward end of the shot il'i likely to
follow. nth the resultR illustrated in Fig. 2j. Fragments of the shattered head are
embedd~ in thp centre of the impresllion. giYinl! the characteristic jagged surface. while
mnRbroo::lill~ of the re~t of the ~hot scoop!'! off the surrounding part of the plate and
leaves it -nth a smooth, r.:he~red appearance.
In orc.":r that the dependenre of r.:hatter npon r.:trildlll! velodry and plate thickne"~
may be aderstood. it is necessary to take into account the inertia of the plate material
displaceQ by tbt! shot nose.

13
 Th~ precise magnitude of this effect would be difficult to establish, due to the complex
manner in which plate material is displaced, but as a weallt! of showing the order of the
eiIecL it is not uureuto'Onable to suppose that a "oluwe of plate equal to the volume of
the sE.Qt head is given a velocity of the order of !.tali that of the shot during a penetration
of one calibre depth. Then, if the shot is aSlSuwed to iwpart this energy uniformly

.-
dllI'i.t.z one calibre of tr-dYel, the resulting pressure over the shoulder section would be
f)~: X 'IT~ X 12 pounda.ls per square inch,
where V iI. the volume of the shot head in cubic ~chel! (which it! 0'48 d' in the calle of a.
1'4 c-"'.h. shot) and p is the density of the plate in lb./cubic inches=O·283.
He:J.ce, the increase in axial pressUl'e which wiJ;(ht be expected to result from inertia
is of the orde1
6 x 0'48 x 0'283 VI
poundals per square inch
'IT
or
6
32 x 2240 x 0'48 x
0'283 v
= 3'62 x 10-' rr tons per square mch.
'IT
.
Tt'lS, for a striking velocity of 2500 f.s., the pressure due to inertia alone might be
expected to be around 25 tons per square inch.
It 'rill be seen, therefore, that the axial preslSure set up in a shot will be appreciably
affe<:':M by the inertia of the plate material, and thilS effed increal'e14 rapidl~- with inueaF;e
in smking velocity t'J since it varies as va. MOI'eover, it has already beell !lhown that the
com~ssive stress set up in the !lhot will increase with plate thickness, up to a thickness
of ::!-,~alibres or so, above which the initial stagetl of !)enetration are not a.iIected by tht'
pr~ce of the back face. Hence, if shatter re'mlts from l>et-up of the shot under the
infiumce of the axial compressive "tress, this form of failure would be expected to Ol'c~
at ..~ocitie8 a.bove some critical value, and this shatter velCX'ity would be expected to fa~
with increase in plate thickness, up to thickues~ of the order of 2 calibres, a.nd then..
remain constant. This is, in fact, observed..
A; angles other than normal, up to 30 degrees or so 1I.t lell~t, the lU{!(:hanism of sha.tter
is C<T:l.8idered. to be essentially the F!8.me_ As hat! already been pointed. out, however, the
compressive stresses in the region of the shot t!houlder are likely to be non-uniformly
disttibuted snd to ha.ve a higher maximum value. Bence, shatter tends to occur at lower
velocities_
Tie foregoing hypothesis as to the mechanil>w of .. hatter leads to the couclUlsion that
-the ~ndency of shot to shatter ,,'ould be decrea~d by in('reasing their shoulder hard-
ne~ and compressive strength. On the other hand, if shatter were due to the dire(·t
esta.:'lishment of tensile stresses 011 impact, without prior set-up of the shot. it would be
expeeted that the tendency to shatter would be reduced by reducing shot hardness and
I!O ~~reasing t~nsile strength and ductility. It is found that increasing hardness reduces
the ~endency to shatter, which supports the hypothesis presented.
6. F AClD-lIARDE.."W PLAm.
b order to reduce the effectiveness of A.P, projectiles. by cansing early break-up,
arm'jar is sometimes face-hardened, either by flame hardening or by carburizing. Such
a.rmDar is very commonly used for the main armoar belt of warships, and less often for
anwured. fighting vehicles.
T!e hardened layer is usually around I to ! of the total plate thickness, and has a
ha.r..:ness of the same order as that of the usual steel armour piercing projectiles_ When
fired a.g&inst such armour, steel projectiles fail in much the same way a.s when they
sha.r..er against homogeneQus plat~, and it is likely that the mechanism is' much the same.
~u~ to the very high yield point of the hardened layer of the plate, the compressive stres8('11
lD t:e shot would be expected to reach hi~h values at an earlier stage of penetration and
at 10 ?Oint further forward in the head. Hence, it appears probable that the failure occnrH
at a.1 even earlier stage in penetration than normal shatter, and the effect in shot perform-
a.n~ is even more ma.rked.
7. CAP AcrIO:\.
"W"Den face-hardened. plate was first used for warships it was found that shell could be
preTl!nted from breaking up on the plate face by fitting a steel cap oyer the shell head. In
thedrst plaee, for attack of plate at angles near the normal, these caps were of "oft
stet::. Later for attack at larger angles, caps with hardened fronts were used. These
W~ found to offset the effect of the hard face yery satisfactorily, Finally. when
sha.:ter was experienced with anti-tank A.P. projectiles, this trouble 'also was overcome
by ~tting shot with piercing caps.

14:
 FIG. Z5.

SECTION OF A. TYPICAL SHATTER DENT

SMOOTH SH EARED SURFACE A B AND CD

WITH JAGGED AR.EA 'AND EMBEDDED

SHOT FRAGM ENTS IN CENTRE.

A D

----~~------~~
FIG. 26. A PERFORMANCE CHART SHOWING REGIONS OF SHATTER.

3800 !- EXPERIMENTAL FIRING RESUL TS WITH

I CINCH S Ih.Zoz. SHOT (aaLLL,ss4' 1'
I .\' / AGAINST VARIOUS PLA TE THICKNESSES at 40.-
~I
3400 +- )(
G X )( X X X 100 <:> Failure wilh"uf 81ra~,.,
~I
SUCCflSS •• .,
~I •
)(. Fail'll'e willt $Ira~,-

3000 ~I SUCC~S& . 'J

.-... ~I Q PerFtjrati.,,-3/tol'otlf*/
~
iii
0 IX 80 ..;
E:
•
••• • ~
~
...... 2600
, I

u \ Iq
() '':t""
\ :I('
...::...... OJ
..~
;: 2200
\,j
\ ~
~
....
..... .\ X X 71. ~ (
~
~

'"
\
. . \
J'
'-"
1800 • 166
• • ••• \ • •• •• •
~
6) (j) \\- ... 150·5
• \
P",lial ShaUll'
....,
'-400 .

2600 3400 3800 4Z00

 FIG. 27.

TH E M EC HAN ISM OF SHATTER.

and
(0.) Shot &/,.;i:t$ s/a'~
to penelnle.
( b) Shot sets up by sheaI'0"" CDnica"i
surfaces~ then splits longdudinalfy.
CracKS ex/end int~ !he h~ad.

(C) Shot hur'S4 anti ~'ODm3 out.

d &I»ultit'- Fragments of n""e
Mgin fo ~",ad.

(d.) Furthe, musJ"."oming of shol SCDOPS out a

Mal/ow /mp,e5s;on as indl"c4fed by dol/ed line.
Fragments ,,; I'ID.e leFt embedded. 8Q$e 01
shot CJ:Jmpl.fe.J bur with /DngllUdlna/ splits.
 In ;;;pite of the suc.cessful UFOe of piercing ca}J~, the manner in which they operate has
never ~n fully explained. \,"hen u:sed against face· hardened plate, it appears probable
that the cap operates by cracking up the hal'uened face, uy virtue of its own energy, and
does IIvt trallismit much ~hock to the ~hell heau due to its own break·up. It may be,
ahlO, that the ISkirt of the cap, which ilS normally left soft on large shell, gives some support
to-lhe he~d of the projedile during the critical early stages of peuetration.
The aetion of cap!l u8eU against homogeneoUl; arwour to prevent 8hatter is, perhaps,
even wore difficult to explain. It hat! ueen found tha t the effectivene8s of the cap is not
,ery I'eDsitive to variatiom; in shape or hardneSt;, and it appears probable that the main
effect of the cap is to overcome sowe inertia of the plate, lllat.eriai. by expending its UWIl
ener!:,'"Y while breaking up, and so reducing the load on the projectile itself. This is
!argely an unsupported suppolSition, however, and further investigation will be necessary
to elucidate the mechanism of cap action.

8. FAILURES OF ARMOUR PrERCrXG SHELL.

Armour piercing shell sulfer much the same types of failure as A.P. !Shot, with the
main iliJIerence that form!S of brea·k·up and damage which are unimportant with shot, so
long a8 they do not raise the critical velocity, are important in the ca!;e of shell because
they prevent satisfactory detonation of the filling.
Armour pie!'cing shell, particularly the larger ones, are usually treated to a lower
hardness level than shot, although the genel'al forw of the hal'dness ~radient from nose
to base is much the 83me. Some redudioll in hardness would, in any cat'e, be necessitated
uy the fact that steel!> of lower intrinsic harOne!Ss are used and by the tendency of fully
hardened large 8hell to crack. Quite apart from this, however, lower hardness levels have
been a.jopted to iwpro\'e the I'esil>hlllce of the !;hell to failure under the influence of benu·
ing !;tresses and !Side blows. As alreauy mentioned, there is some doubt as to
whether appreciable tensile stre ... seo; are set up in thl' forward part of a projectile when
penetrating plates at angles up to 30 ueg-reel< or folO unless plnstic deformation in com·
pression O(·tUl"S tirst. Therefore, there is lOowe doubt as to whether the hardness of large
shell has not been lowered too far.

8.1. H ~ad failw'es of shell.

Pierc~g shell suffer heau failures akin to !'hatter failures of shot, except that, because
they generally have lower hardness anll greater ductility, wore pia!'tic deformation pre·
eedes fratture, the break·up is not so cOlllplete, and ul'ittle tensile fracture is not as pre·
uomillant or obdous. ~e\"el·theles". it appears probaule that the mechanism of failure is
tSiwilar and that the baliic calise of failure i!; set·up under the intiuence of axial compressive
!>I rt'-l'!>eE.
In this connection, it is of interelOt to see whether the compressive stresses to be expected
are of the right magnitude to eause set·up. Laq;e piercing shell, as at present produced,
will nonnally just defeat a 1 calibre thick fal"e·hardened plate at normal, or a 0·85 c.alibre
thicknt'SS plate at ao degrees. COllsider tbe case of normal att~lck, and suppo!'t' for the
prel<ellt that. the shell cap ju ... t smashes the hardened faee, leaving the shell to defeat the
remaillillg thicknetis of plate (approximately U·S caliure). Theil, if the plate has the
nOI'llla] hal'unes" level arollnll :::!30-:!liU ll.H.X. with a ... hear strength of around 33 tons
per Sljuare ineh, the pressure I'Oet up in the shoulder tSection of the shell would be expeded
to be around 80 tOilS per square iJl(·h. since the head is ahout a quarter of tbe total shot
'Weight. n'hen attacking the thinner plate at 30 degreelS, compressive stresses of the
same order would be expected.
Hillc(:o many heavy shell have shoulder hardnesses around 360 B.H.X., with a corres·
punuin;; yield ill towpnri!o;on around (i.,}-70 tons per square inch, these must suffer some
set·up 1;-hen tired again!>t the targets considered. This set·up is limited by tbe fact that
the period of o\'erstressing is short and the rela ti\"e mo\"ement of parts of the shell on
eitber side of the overstressed se<'tion is limited by their inertia. Therefore, provided
the sh(:oil has adec}llUte transverse ductility. it will not break up, although some energy
will be wasted in setting Ill' the shell with a consequent raising of the critical velocitv.
Produt'!ion of sllf"Cef"Sflll shell of this type requires a car~ful balance between shell set·
up. con [rolled by compressive strength, and trans,erse ten8ile elongation.
In ::'e light of the for('g'oing argument. it might he concluded thnt shell should be
III.Hle barder ill the !o1holll(ler region. It does not follow, however, that the likelihood
of !lht'!.l urenk·up will be redllct:'fJ pl'ogre~i\"el~' h:v increa!'e in shoulder hardnes8. since
the re<:']ction in the ability of the steel to endure ten:o:ile strain may be reduced more
rapidly than the set·up of of the shell. On the other hand, if the shell hardness in the
• IS
shoulder region is increased to a level where the compressive strength is high enough to
f':event plastic deformation, no hoop t~nt;ile stresses will lie produced and low tensia
~!)ngation may no longer matter. It would appear that a compret;t;ive yield of arollDli
SO to 85 tons per square inch is Dooes~al'y to ell sure this, or a shoultlcr hartlne!;t; of ul"oulill
~5(\ B.H.N. It is, in fact, found that shell of this wean t;houltler hUI·dnel>s will l~rforw
,"eli, if produced by methods which give a surfa~ hardness rather lower than the hanl-
Ilt1!S over the middle of the transverse ",ootion. Shell of the same mean shoulder hanl-
IlESS, but prodnced by other methods, have not so far been successful. It is not knoWWl
lOhether this is fully accountt!d for by the pre~nce of the softer skin, but it is of interet(
to note that if there is still B()me small ",e1·up ill ~eh /o:hell, tbe bigher duetility of t_
soher surface layer would be an adYantilge, !;illee the greatel!lt trallt;verl!'e elollgatioll occw.
in the surface layers.
82. Ba8e damage to shell.
Piercing shell are also subject to two other comillon forms of damage. These 1.1.0 not
a.pprooiably atIect the ability of tbe 'ISbell to perforatt! the platt!, lIut prevent e.tfectift
dp-onation.
When shell are fired at angles of 30 degrees or more, the turning of the sheD
~ it paases through the plate caul>es it to suffer side blows towards the rear end, ab a
re.--ult of striking the sides of the hole (lSee Fig. ~O). This may sometimes cause the shf.'H
to split longitudinally, caUI>e a tramlverse c~ck, tear off the whole hase of the shell, or
C~l'lse croshing or ejection of the bal;(! adapter which carries the fUlle. To reduce tbe
liktlihood of splitting, sht!U are normally made quite soft towards the lJase, with hard-
ne..i8 around 2.'50 B.H.N. Thi~, however. encourages rather than prevents deforwation.
To reduce the likelihood that the adapter will lie squee7.ed out or crushed enough to
da:J.age the fuze, it is usual to fit larger "hell with a "relieved adapter." This is
ro:~hly cup shaped, with a truncated conical external surface, and a fiat base into whicll
th: faze is screwed. The cup has an external thread towards the lip, and is screwtd
in:.o the shell, forward of the shell base, so that the fiat base of the adapter is roughly
in ,he plane of the shell base. Due to the form of the adapter, this leuves a spa(~
berTeen the rear part of the adapter and the shell wall, with the re!;ult that a side blo..-
on ~he base of the shell heuds in the shell wall without crushing the fuze. Alt;o, becuulIe
th: adapter is screwed in forward of the shell base, it ilS not necessarily removed e'ft!8
wh:n part or whole of the shell wa.ll is torn away round the driving band groove .
..1D alternative line of approach would be to attewpt to prevent the turning of I be
sbo, and B() eliminate the dawaging side lIlows on the lIat'e. It has already been pointed.
out that the redUction of head length. or e\'en partial trullcation of the head. !>eM'''-
thi. purpose, and trials with t;hell of this type p;how thenJ to suffer little or no crushiu«:
of :3e base, In general, howe\'er, the adoption of lIlunt ileHd forw tendlS to illcrealle
inc:-ienee of failure lIy loss of the adapter by u different wt'(:huuit;w,
I: is quite common for shell to lo!'e their adapters without sutIering lilly buse damage,
otb~!' than B()me evidence of shearing of the threads holding the adaptt!r. This form of
faU-:re is not fnlly understood, but is thought to be due to the violent elastic recovery
of -"'::'e shell as the first pressure wave return!; from the base as a tensile wa\'e. in the
sa!!;.;: way as a blow on one end of n. bar will throw otI a mass iu contact with the other
end. This new is supported by the fact that the phenomenon is found to occur more
fr~:ently with blunt headed shell. No real cure has yet beeu found_

J8
 CHAPTER 2.

PENETRATION FOR MUL..E.

By D. G. Sopwith.

1. ISTRODUCTION.

III ordf'! to be able to design an armoured structure to withstand specified conditiulIlS

of attack. or an armour· piercing projectile to defeat under specified conditions a gh'ell
armoured structure, formuL.:e relating the velocity required for perforation to the
:-elevant ~rticulars of the plate and shot are required. Such forwula:~ are generally
:-eferred :0 8.8 "penetration formulre," although that term refers more logically to
formulre giving the depth of penetration for velocities insumcient to giV'e complete
perforation.
The ter.n .. perforation" can be defil~d in many ways, according to the st<l!!e at
.. hich deicat of the plate is con8idered to ha\'e occurred, Tbus the" ballistic limit"
·Jf a platt:- is that velocity above w-hich a :dven !o:hot will produce a cracked bul;.:-e aut!
:-oelow wh).~h it will produce an uncracl;.ed -bulge. The" critical velocity" used in this
chapter, !::owever, is that c-Orresponding to exact perfol"dtion with no residual velocity
after the ahot has perforated the plate, i,e.~ the miniwum velocity at which the shot
~ clean through the plate.

:".1. Fac;r.trs inoolt:'ed in formulm.

The fal :ors inv<ll,ed relnte to the !lhot, tbe plate alit! the condition of attack, nllt!
;woe as fo~,)ws;-

(a). 8Mt.
Diameter d.
M8088 M (or weight TV).
Form Tbe length of the shot is given iwplil'itly by lV, the ratio 1\'/d J
(sometimes called the "ealilJre uensity") beillg a COli·
venienl index. The head form is usually spedfied lly its
c.r.h. (calibre radius head), i.e., tbe radius of the ogi,e in
terms of the diameter or ralibre of the shot. For WOlSt
A.P. ;;hot thi ... i ... about 1'4: for "'UHloll arms it is u~u,llh" much
greater, but in tlailS chapter attelltioll will be confill{,u: unlel'fS
otJ;l.erwi.~ !o:tated, to uncapped unjacketed shot 01' shell

having a c.r.h. of about 1'4. ; does not alford any direct

indicatioll of the lellgth of a ISh ell , 011 :l('(,OUllt of tile presellce
of the eavity. Length ill itself, hO~'erer, has little or no
effect on penetration.
Bh-ength The strength of tbe shut oL\"ioll~ly enters into the problem;
as yet no sattHfactory method has been devi~ for predicting- ....
the perforation of a shot which breaks up or defol'mH blldly. '"'
(b). Plate.
Thickness t.
Size Above 8 rea.r--olUlble lIIinimum. CH!o:e'" below wbiclJ al't~ of little
interest, area of plate has little or no effect.
Strength f. For the moment the precise meaning of the term strenrrth
will not be rlefined. It can, hO"·I"l"er. be specified by
a
quantity f having the dimensions of a IStress.
17
 (C). t'ollditi0n8 of attack.
Velocity ~triking velocity 1'n'
Ret>idual velocity VI'
Critical wlocity t' (for exac:t perfOl'ation, i.e., value of Vo for
which VI =0).
Angle 9 (mea~ured between the line of tiight aild the normal to the
plate).
2. FORYUL..E B.\::IED 0:-< TIDJOH~'Tl\.·AL CQ!'iSID~HATlUNS.

::!.1. The formula ~:I = K~ (~, 9) : dimen,yio1lal tupect.

The wai.u yariaules are thut> M, d, I, I, v aud 9. Diwelll!!ional analysis gives the non-
dllut:llsional forw8 9, tid, Mv 2 /fd', which tmgget>t a formula of the form : -
Mv21Id"=~ (t/d, 9)
It will be noted that Mv 2 on the L.R.S. ill twice the kinetic energy of the shot. For
com-eniellce we may use weight W ult>tead of ma88 M and take f over to the R.H.S.,
givillg : -
lVv'/d'=KI/l (t/d, 9) (1)
where K=fg (and U·=Mg).
The function W,·2/d' is referred to in r.~.A. a~ the" "'pecific limit energy."
ne proulem now berome!! that of defining- tbe form of the func-tion ~ of t/d and
&, and of relating the eoefficiellt K to the known properties of the plate.

2.:!. Theoretical derit;atiofl8 of the form of tP (=tPo) lor nOf'11Ull attack.

C.jn~idering first the ca~e of normal atta(:k (9 = 0) the function I/l \)e(:ome8 a function
of T d only:-
tP (tId, 0) =.po (tId).
Y.tl'ious a8sumptions way be made ll!; to the relSit>tance offered by the plate to the passage
of :.he shot; each a!!sumption lead!> ill general to a different form of the function tPo'
2.21. Constant resistire lireSlJure.
Robin8 and Euler (A5), about 17-12-4::;, a-slmmed that the resit>tive pressure P against
the ~hot was constant, equal to Po' The total resistance is then Pu A = i d 2 po (A = projected
art'".l of shot) and the energy absorbed in perforation id2tpo whence Wv 2 /2g= i d tpo or
2

g
ll.'v' /d' =1T : o (tid) (2)

ISO
..
that K= 1T! Po,.po (tld)=t/d· .

I t may be noted that if p is not constant, Po =;g ~2~1 is its mean yalue. Thil!! is an
inci!.X of plate performance which has been used to a considerable extent in U.S.A. Its
,abe is of the same order as the Brinell or diamond pyramid hardness (expressed in the
sac.e units+) of the plate, but the ratio of Po to ha.rdne~8 riE:es with t/d and falls with
in~-ease of B or H (B = Brinell, H = D.r. hardnel!!s number). The former fact shows that
p is not constant.
2.22. Poncelet theory.
Poncelet (1829) (A5) assumed that 11 =a + bu 2 "'here a, b are constants and u is the
in.,~ntaneolls velocity of the shot. If a is put equal to Po and b in the form ,.. plj2g (pl
=censity of plate material) § so that P=Po+ i'p~UI, this is equivalent to taking an addi·
. h i' as" drag coefficient."-g This theory has been elaborated and
. a1 dr ag term, WIt
110::\'
recent treatment on similar lines may be found in Refs. A 18,' 42 and 2G!. '
• Care ia n_sary ...-ith regard to units. If, as is usual, W is expres£ed in lb., " in f.s., t /d in inches anel
P • ..l tons per 'lIquare inch, '1 must be taken as Jl!'2 (f.s.'»( 2240 (Ib./ ton) )( 1/12 (ft. I in.) =6020, giving 1Tg
= .....50. 2
• 30th Brinell and diamond pyramid bardnesses are expressed ill kg.lmm.' (1 kg_lmm.'=O·635 ton/in.').
! } IS inserted to convert the stresses to practical units of weigh!; per unit area.
 The eq:.a.tion of motion of the shot is : -
. du
Wu= Wu d:c = -A (a+bul)g

where A. = projected area of part of shot inside plate.

oX = penetration of nose.

e
H ence--
9
-Mf -a+bu -f
t)l

- - - Ad.r=volume of plate material dit;placed.

0016
'
t)o 0

I (a +
~ a+bt1
bt1ol) =2b
1
1 M
g ~ d't= WI/W
4 Y
where WI = weight displaced = i cPtpl
For exact perforation v 1 =0, vo=v, hence:-
a+lnl I a+lnl l
109. ~ =log. - - =yWI/W=log.s say ... (3)
a+lnIl a
This g:i~ .the following relafion between the striking and residual velocities:-
Vo'=tr+8V I I (4)
The ,a.l:ditv of thit! relation bas been firmlv established in the course of a considerable
number '...: residual velocity firing trials botb in this t'ountry and the U.S.A. (A45. ] 3::!,
153. 264 Uld 361). It forms the basis of the re!olidual \"elocity method of determinin!!
critical '.;.!ocities (..\.30, 150. 19; and 341), in "hich the residual velocity is obtainpd for
two or [D': t"e values of striking velocity and t' J 2 plotted against 1:0 2 , a straight line throu!!u
the point~ giving & at t: 1 2 =0.

The ene.-gy required for perforation is ~ (t'ol - t1 I ') = ~t11 +(8-1) M;II

This in~~ases with 1:1 the term (B-1) M t' 11 =,-1 ~ (t101-t12)
and so with t'o,
2 B ~
represent::..Jg the energy imparted to the piate, partly in moving the plate material later,
ally and ;:lrtly in act'elerating any petals, discs, flakes. etc., forced off the back. It "ould
tbus be t..-rpected that i' would increase l\ith increa>:ing amounts of back damage; this
bas been mown to be the carse (362),
Equatic:l (3) gives:-
a+ bvl B 2 B 3
- a - = ell = I+I I + 2 +31' ... i
where ' 1 = IOg.,=Y;l
,~ as l (1
31 + ' .. ,
'I +BII )
or t = b +2!
PI
Sinces l = yWliW = i' 1l'4- d2t; a=po; b=ypl
W 2g
t1~ = 2~0 i d't [1 +c J+~ ( c J) I. • • .]

Finally:-

~ = i Po~ ( 1 + c £.... ) (5)

'"Ypl
where c= 8W/IP
In pra,.?ce the term!; in (tld)2 alllI bi;.:her ill tue br<ll'ket ll\a~' bt· negleded. Tlli~
equatlOn ·:illers from the constant pre~"'ure t'qllutioll (::!) in the intI'oduction of the c tjd
;..erms, g:ir.ng

4>0=; (1 +c;), K being i Po as before.

19
 A", mentioned abo'\"e, the mean resistive pre~sure p is found in practice to increaee with
t/d and equation (5) can, by the correct selection of p. and c, be made to fit firing trial
remits with considerable accuracy.-
Tbll8, the Poncelet theory accounts satisfadorily for the li.near relation between strik·
ing and residual energy a.nd suggests a reasonable form for the function ,pD' Unfortun·
atel •. howeyer. the values of i' (" drag coefficient ") deriYed from the slope II in residual
vel~itv trials and from the variation of critical velocity with tid [i.e., from c in equation
(iJ)) m widely different; those derived from c are of the order of five times those derived
from I.

2.23. Shearin.g or pu.u.ching.

Fillbai.rn (l8Gl) put forward the following formula, lJa.sed 011 the arbitrary &$lump·
tiODb that failure occurred by the shearing out of a plug, and that the load required varied
linearly from a. maximum on commencement of shearing to zero in a distance equal to the
thic.i:ness of the plate. The maximum load is vdtq where q =shear 8trength of plate
malErial, and the energy absorbed iB~ -rdtq, whence : -
(6)

so that K =1TgQ, ,po ('/d)=(tjd)l.

11 v;iIl be shown later that a formula of this type, with t' v!!rying IW! tid holds for low
val>::es of tid (less than 0'4). Failure does not, however, take place by the simple meehan-
il;l1Il assumed, and little significance can be attached to the" !;hear strength" q.

2.24. Pla.'Jtic de/ormation theories.

Yarious attempts have been made to derive penetration formulre from analysis of the
plaruc deformation. These necessitate idealiring the ("onditions ~ as to render the
problem tractable mathematically. Thus Ref. A20 gives a method in which, by consider·
ing :he radia.l expansion of a small hole. expressions whoBe form is identical with tbat
for ~onstant resistive pressure [equation (2)J are deri'fed. The values of p. obtained
were : -
For thin plates p.=2f.. Ref. 5j corre<:ts this to 1'31 II'

For thick plates P.=!f.(1+10~(5_2~)fJ

=2·7 to 3·2 !.,-
where f 11= yield stress in compression
E=Young's modulus.
A calculation for thick plates of the 'falue of p. required to enlarge radially a cylin.
dr:':.al and a spherical hole, corresponding to limiting t:8.BeS {If very sharp and very blunt
shG-~ is given in Ref. 243. For no strain.hardening the results are : -

For shal'p shot p.= J3 f• (1+10~ 2(1~~fJ=3.3 to 3·9 f.-

For blunt shot P.=3~ fll(1+10g. E
(l+a)
f) =3'~ to 4'6 f
II
ll -
__

'The paper gi'fes formulre for 1). for any strel18·strai.n curve; at the high rates of strain
oO(,,!l1'ring in armour plate penett'ution, however, the yield and the maximum stress will
pr::.~bly .coinci?e so that ~10 strain·bardenin~ occurs and f 1/ v;ill be s.omewhat higher than
th~ I statIc) ultimate tensIle stress. Thus the value!! of p. gi'fen a.bove are of the order
of 3 to 4 times the ultimate tensile stress, i.e., of the same order as the Brinell or D.P.
ha:rineM (in the appropriate unit!;). This is not very surprising' since the firing trial is
in ~tIect, a high speed indentation hardnelS~ test carried to much greater depths than ~
et:nomary. -

• In uch case the lower nJ'IIe is for 1.,=90 t«ts/in.' and the lLiiher for '.=30 tons/in.'.
 A third theory of thi!'! type is dewloped in Chapter 1. This is the only theory so far
put forward ~bich indicates the part played by the ductility of the plate material. It
leads to
Po=qotP (~ log ~ _ ~+1)
~-1 2
vbere q,= shear stress at yield.
).qo = shear stress at fracture.
tp = shear strain at fracture.
Pllstic theory is not Tet sufficiently adTanced to enable Talues of ~ and tP applicable
to tbe complex stress· "ystem occurring in plate penetration to be obtained froll
wechanical t~!l, e.g., tension or torsion.
The theorie!l in this section. therefore, do not lead to a new penetration formula, bnt
to an explanation of the order of magnitude of the constant resisti'l'e pressure Po in
equation (2).

2.25. P1eudo·elcutic deformation theory.

Refs. 88 ar.-d 121 treat the problelll as that of elastic perforation of a plate haying a
reduced mou-::Jus of elasticity to lJe derived from COlllVaI"i"ull with firillg trials. The
analysis is cc:nplex, but leads to a formula of the form,

~I =K(~ + k)1 (7)

where K and,/,; are to be deriwd frOlll firing tdal resu!!s._ The theoretical values, ho\\,-
ever. lllUY he expected to give SOllle idea of their dependence on the properties of the
16 b-O'33l
plate. These: are K =15 gEl and k= d 'where : -

El = rednced modulus of elasticity.

b = height of bulge to commencement of cracking.
l =length of ogi,e of shot.

2.2G. ('ombi1lati01IS of aborc theories.

7he uboH :ormuhe can lie combilled ill various waYI>. Thus, Dahlgren Prolinl,!' Grounu
(350, 353) have suggested that the early stages of penetration lllily occur as in tbe cylin·
drical expamion solution above, the final stage (in ductile plate) o('curring by tbe beuding
back of a ~ries of sector· shaved petals. Tbe analysis indicates that for thin plates the
energy Tarle! as t~d; above a limiting thickness nd this applies to the last 1/d of the
thickness OILY, the earl~' 80lutioll applying to thl' front part of thickne!>s (t - 1/(/). Hem'e,
the total en~'"'g'y is :.d 2(t - lid) +P(IId)2d where:. and p are constants, i.e.,
Wv 2
- =ad2(t-ndH,8n2d3
2g

and ~:I=H(~ -a) ... (8)

"a
when H =2ga, a-- (a-{171.).

Ref. 152 ~rives this formula by using const.ant resistance [equation (2)] foUoweu hy
punching =~~llation (lJ)]. Here again the energy in the front (t - 11d) 13ries as (F (f - lld)
and that in -..ae rear f1d as (lId)2d. In this ca~, 11 is obtained by eqnating the luad ""t Po
in penetrati·:.n to that needed to shear the finallld, i.e., -rrd.ndq) so that n=}lo/-iq. The
re-;;ulting ~:etration formulu is, of cour~, the SUllle a8 (8) above.
--\. method pven in Ref. 139 has added to a con:o;tant resistance formula a term represent-
ing the ene:-rr absorbed in elastic vibration of the plate. The resulting equation is too
complex for normal use.
2l
 3. BMPIRICAL FOR:llS roM FU!\"CTIO!\" t/JO.
I~tead of derhillg the form of the function ,po theoretiealIy, mallY attempts hu"e been
mau'! to oeri"e it empirically from firillg nia} l"~~ults. Tllese wa.y Ue dirided into two
claSi€s-those giving a high degree of accuracy o\'el" a limited field and those ginng a
moo~ate degree of acruracy over a wide range.
Of the former, the linear relation between critieal velocity llnd thickness for a gi"en
shot and tvpe of plate--u!'ed for mallY years in this country ])y Fighting Vehicles (for-
merir Tank) Design Department (li9, 244) is a very con.enient and accurate one. This
give! : -

W;I=K(~ +kr (7)

as fc,r Refs. 88 and 121 aoo,"!!. Ref. 244 !'u:,;:;ep;ts a COllstallt ,'alu!! of k of O'U, ])ut tllis
,,-ill De showlI later to be incorrect. .
The second dass of empirical form uL-e , aiming ouly at giving a wodel'ate accuracy
over a wide range of diameter of shot, and tiJiekne!!'I" alld typE' of plate. usuall~' expl'ess
firinr trial results in the f01"1ll of a coefficient which nlries less with these ,'ariu])les than
doee -W"I
T ' Tlle r .. 8 Xavy U!SeS a f '
unctIOn F sue h t hat:-
.

.(9)

A~ nas been !'hown above, for constant resistiye pressure, F would be COllstant, In
certa.i..n cases this is nearly true, and in any case F varies much less than Wr2jd l •
D!, :Uarre. auout 1870, introduced formulte of the following type (expreseed in the
fom now unoer discussion) : -
W,,' to
7=Odb
Tb form has since that time been largely used, at first in de Marre's original form
with ~=1'4, b=1'3, C beiug expre~!;ed as the yalue for mild !iteel, 1';2., l'W4x10·. (TV
in Ib,. t; in f,s., t, d in inches) multiplied uy a coefficient varying with type of arlllour.
More recently, Milne and Hilll"hlitfe (::10, tili) !i;n-e pointed out that fOI" dimen~iOllul
corr~tness a and b Iilhould be e11llal and have modified the de Marre equation to:

l~~z =0 (tld)l.u (10)

In ~his form the equation lla~ ueen ver~' extellt;in'l~' Ulsed during the late war.
Th~ equations (9) and (10) should be looked upon I'ather as romenient lUetuods of
expr~sing firing trial results b.\" a single coeffiril'1I t t!ian of predicting accurately the
re~mh of firing a particular F:hot at a particular plate, ullle!<s the appropriate coeffi-
cient :I)r a very similar case iF: known. Thus. in the modified de Marre formula (10)
log,.', ma~' vary from 5';) to 6'5, corresponding to a more than thrf'efold variation in
critiw.l velocity. For a wore limited range. equations lUa.v ue deri'-ed empirically for the
varia·ion of F or C with t /d. Thus. for major cali])re 1\a"al projectiles, the "C.8. Nary
1931 ~enetration formula (390) was gi-nm in the form (for normal attark) :_

..F'=c1 U -0,45 r+Ct

Ag-illl. for 2'pr. shot, Milne and Hinchliffe (SG) gave (for uormal attack) :

lOgloC=5'99S+0'Z-17U-l) =a+~t (11)

Tb~ lleed for such expressions for the" constant" F or C in equatiolls (9) and (Ill)
show~ that at least two constants are necessary to represent adequately the results of
firin~ ·rials. One obnous possibility is to replace the exponent 1.43 in Milue aud Hinch.
liffe'~ :0rmula hya disposable index, giving:

~~ =01 (tId)'" (12)

Thi! form albo has \}een used by mUll,'\" im'estigators, e ..'!., O.C. Memo, n 23 lOS (1931)
giYes !.n analysis of bomb firing trials leading to the approximate .alue m=1'·7.
 Further empirical forms are suggested uy the theoretical analyses in the previous
~tion (the constant pressure and shearing theories each contain only one constant
and so are not suitable) as follows : -
Wv
--=,A
d3
2
-' ( 1+c-
d
t)
d (5)
=K(~+kr (7)

=H (~ - (I) (8)
where now ail constauts A, c, K, k, H, a are to lie derived from firing trial results. It
has been found (152, 364) that for a given series of results, i.e., for a given shot againilt
plate of 8 given type for valnefS of tid frow, say, 0'5 to 2, any of the formuIre (5), (7),
is), (11) and (12) can be fitted with a degree of accuracy comparable with the experi·
mental atturacy in the firing trialt'o Hence, the most useful type of penetration formula
...nil be that in which the constants call be best correlated with the properties of the plate.
3.1. Correlation of COl/stunts with p/"Operties of plates.
The fi.e formulre suggested above are : -
Wol
""'(ti""=,A dt ( 1+0 d') (5)

=K(~ +k)' (7)

=HU -(I) (8)

=c (£ t"where IOg10 C=a.+.s ~ (11)

=Cdtld)'" (12)
In the first three, tue derivation I>uggesls tuat the cOll",tallts .4.., K and II are likel~' to
\-ary with (he har<ine",,,, or ultimate tensile sU'ess of the vlate. whilst c, k and a depend.
:-ather on the ductility of the material. A I>eries of firillg trials on plates of ilrinell hard-
~es~S B of 2:>0. 3.)() amI -!,)O lind tjd=O'j':; to 1·8 "'a,, rep0l'ted in Ref. 1;)2, where all
analysis of the results is gil'eu aCl'oriling' to the above five forlDul<~. It was found. tllUt
whilst ef)uations (5), (8), (11) and (1:!) gave curves of ..:l.." H, C and a ilhowing a maximum
\!\ithin the range, with con8iderahle tlouLt as to interpolation between the hardness nllle!o<
':lsed. K was proportional to B. The~ trials, carried out ,,·ith model ~·pr. shot of O'29n
inch diameter (0'189 scale) were later repeated (Ref. ;jUO) with'shot 0'540 inch, 0'U90
i..uch and 1';)(3..) iuches uialllder (U'3-!;j, 0·u.;)3 aJlu tull ~~ale 2-pr.) and with plate'
of 300 Bri.neD. These confirmed the abo\'e conclusiuns alld. inuicated the prelSence of a
~ale or site effect, which will now be discust;ed.

4. THB NATIONAL PHl'SICAL LABoRATORI FOHMULA FOB ~OBYAL ATI'ACli~

4.1. Effect of si::e of shot.
Xone of the abo.e formula! indicates "pet"ifieally the existence of a !;{'ale eJJed, i.c" they
,.uggest that geometrically ilimilar IShot would. perforate plate of the sallle ratio f:'r! at
!he fS3me critical velocity t· . .\t the bl'ginlling of tIll' late war it was not kllUWII whethel'
or not thi.8 was the case, no sYlStematie trials on this issue havillg' been carried. 011 t in the
.~ years or so during which armour pierciug' shot had Ueen ulSed.. The !!eries of iI'jall<
describetl in the last sediou was consequently carried out at the KatioJlul PhYsical
Laboratory for the Ordnanee Board. for the dual pllrpot>e of clearing up this point (stale
,",lfect) and ascertaining the elfed of plate hardllel''''.
The results of the trials illdkatetl a detinite scale effect, the critieal \'elocitv r for a n-in!n
r 'd dec.rea.!ing with increase of diameter d. For two gh'ell diawetel'''' of ",hottue d.iIfCl':l·lIn·
tn t7 increaset.l with llal·d.lle!'t; B J Imt was illd.ependent of tlii. Analy"ing the re!;ult!',
Sopwith j3l31) found that they could lie represellted with a probable error of 21 f.s. or
1·3 per ceDt. by the following forllluia : -
I
Wt1 =(43'4..jB!.. + 747- 54000)'
d3 d Bo-B
"
=1630B[.!d +17·2- 1240 )'
Bo-B
(13)

-.lB .
 The symbol Bo in equation (13) denoteK a limiting hal'dne!;I' uepenuwg 011 the diameter
d of tbe shot. For the sizes investigated (0'189, 0'3-15, 0·633 and full scale 2·pr. shot)
it Wag found that it could be represented by the empi.rical equation : -
B 0 = 500 -160 loglo d/d 2 (14)
where d,=1'5G5 i.nch=diameter of 2·pl'. shot.
Equation (13) is of the form ~. =K G
+k r; as stated in the'last section K is pro-
portional to B. k, liB also stated above, is likely to be dependent on the dudility of the
plate :naterial. For a given plate quality, however; the ductility will itself be a function
of hardness B, as equation (13) shows; for other qualities of plate, the relation between
l' and B might he differ£'nt. It was found, however, that tbis equation, derh-ed from trials
on 3 per cent. chrome-molybdenum steel plate of ~30 to 4::10 Brinell, applied also to mild
steel 13(4) of 110 Brinell, so tbat the relation between k and B did not appear to depend
on composition of plate.
For two shot of the sullie lr ja l fired at plates of the sawe baruness nand thickne"s
l'atio tid the diJIerence in critical l'elocity due to difference in scale is gil'en by : -
54000
'D. -'D' = Bo' -B,/ (15)
";Wjd l (Bo' -B) (B o• -B)
where' and" refer to the respective sizes of the two shot.
In ;Jractice, two shot of different diametel'S will uliually differ somewhat in n-/d l and
tbe ci:ierence in (; will consequently Yary !;Ii;,;htly with tid. the difference being only in
part due to scale effect. The following" table sbows the predicted difference in t· due to
scale effect for "arious sizes of shot, all of Wld l = 0'G03, as used in the trials dis-
cus...<;tod. In the case of the scale mooel two pounders tbe experimental "alues are gil'en
in brackets; tbose for the G·pr., li·pr. and 3·i·illl·h guns are illustratil'e of that part of the
differo:nce due to scale effect only, the "l'alues in brackets being deri"l'ed from trials referred
to la·:er.

Diffe,'encc in critical t'c1ocity (f.s.) due to scale effect betlceell

t:ario1l8 sizes of sh ot alld 2·pr.

Brinell hardness of plate B

Shot Diame~r
d 200 250 300 350
ins.
':'189 scale 2·pr. 0-296 +88(90) + 120(1'-5) +20"2(110)
.:.34,5 scale 2.pr. 0·540 +63(60) + 94(105) +153(liO)
.:.-533 scaJe 2.pr. 0·990 +31(30) + ~(70) +81(105)
2.pr. 1·565 0 0 0
6·pr. 2·231 -31(-10) -50(-20) -93
17-pr. 2·98 -61(-60) -101(-90) -199
3·7.inch 3·685 -80(-40) -135(-100) -276

His table shows clearly the danger of using scale model results scaled up without
COJ'l"'!!C ti on .

4.2. Effect of kardne88 of plate: Optimum hardness.

Yarious .trials carried ou~ during ~he late war (e.g., Refs: 256,343) hal'e indicated the
fact chat, JIl general, there IS an optimum hardness of plate to resist a particular attack
du!":" <0 the fact that increasing hardness is aSSQ('iated with decreasing ductility. Of th~
pen":tration formul~ discusse~ abov£'( eguation (13) is the only one which take·s this into
aCC~''lnt. For maxImum t·, diJIerentiatmg the R.H.S. of equation (13) and equating to
zero. we have:-
t 2490 ";B
(10)
d (Bo-B)t
 Valoe! of optimum hardness calculated from equations (14) and (16) for values of tid
from 0·5 to 2 and for shot of the calibre!:! considered above are shown in Fig. 28. It will
be seen that the optimum hardness decrease!> with increasing diameter of shot and in-
creases ...-ith tid. The fact that the optimum hardness ,aries with tid meana that the
best hardness for a. plate of gi,en thickness cannot be settled without reference to the
Lvpe of a.ttack. Thutl, a 3·inch plate to gin maximum resistance against 6·pr. attack
will be 100 hard for ma.x.iruum resisi:ruJce to 3·7·inch shot; to illutltra·te this point lines of
constant thickness of plate have been included in Fig. 28.
Fig. ~ shOWil for t/a=0'5, 1, 1·5 and 2, the values of vvW/d J for hardness B=200 to
450 for 0'189,0'345,0'633 and full scale 2-pr. and for t}-pr., 17·pr. and 3'7-inch; on each
curve the optimum hardness is indicated by a circle. ' It will be seen that the curves
are fairly fiat, especially below the optimum hardness. Increased resistance to small-
calibre shot-say less than d = tlZ-is of little importance, since these shot are nnlikely
ever to perforate the plate; again, increased resistance to large shot-say over d = t-
will in general reljult only in decreasing the residual energy of the shot which will per-
forate the plate in any case. Hence, it is best to base the hardness of plate on a tid of
say l·a. This gives a-n optimum hardness of about 325 for GO mm. plate/2-pr. and 285
for 4tinch plate/H· Pl'. ; these may be taken as typieal conditions both as regards thiek-
ness, di.a.met~r and hardness at the beginning and end of the war of 19'J~. .
4.3. .Lt.d, of applicability GAd accuracy of equatiou. ~
Equa.tion (13), the a.uxiliary eqnation (14) for B., and the derived equations (15) and
(16) thus reproduce the main features obSt!r,ed in actual firing trials at normal, viz.,
the relation bet~.. een thickness of plate and critical velocity for a given shot [equations
(13) and (14)], the effect of size of shot [equation (15)] and the optimnm hardness
[equll.tion (16)]. They were deri.ed, as stated above, from firing trials with shot 0'200
to l·;)G.'i.inch diameter against 3 per cent. Cr.llo. steel plates from 0'5 to 2 diameters thick
and of Brinell hardliess ~O to 450; the cOl'l'esponding critical ,elocities were from 1000
to 3000 i.8. Subsequent trials with 0'2'.)6 inch shot against mild steel showed that the
equations also applied to a Brinell hardness of 110 for tid up to 3·4. In aJl these trials, .
the probable error of the critical velocity derived from equation a (13) and (14) was 21 f.s.
ar 1'3 per cent.
The ra.lue of lV Id' in the above trials was 0'603; ,ariona trials have shown that the
a!>snmplion that, for perforatiun of a gi.en plate, Wr;l is constant is accurate enough for
all pr-cktical purpo~s, at any rate for normal mlues of Wld J • The generalization of
the e\.j ~tion (13) to a general value of W /d' is thus justified. The trials now to be
descri~ contil-m this.
A very comprehensive f;el'ies of tiring tl'ials lwa ISillce been carried alit hy Fighting
YehiclE::! Design Department. 'l'bero:e were carrietl out with ().pr., 17·pr. anu 3·7·inch
I!<hot against 3, ;)i, 4t awl ()·illl.:h plate of twelve ui1fel'ent typelS (eompof;itions and steel
maker"., of ultimate tensile stress fl'um about 43 to 70 tanIS/in." (about ::!20 to ~O
Brinelh-about 1000 critical velocity uetermillations in all. E\.juatiollS (13) and (14)
have Ilt'en applied to the analy!>is of ther,.e rei"ults, ulSing a ratio of ultimate stress to
Brinell of 0·21. For 3 per cellt. chrome·lllolybdeuuUl steel from three makers the
devia.tion from the fopmula. W8.8 ral'ely greater than 2 per cent. in v. Fol' rn:her types
of steeL the deviation on the high side walS up to about 60 f.s. o,'er the whole range
of ulti=.ate stress and on the low siue frow GO f.s. (for 45 tonl>/in.=) to 100 f.s. (for
70 WL" in.2) with an occasional .alue down to 130 f.s. low at the higher ultimate.
One lilllitation, as mentiolled abo.e, is the lower limit of tid of about t. Later trials
"how th..at the formula holds down to tld=O'4, below which 1; is proportiollal to tid 38
in Seu:Jin 2.23. The quelStion of thin plates is considered more fully in Section 6.

5. EFFECT OF A~GLE OF ATl'ACK.

The description in Chapter 1 of the very complex moue of perforation of a plate by a.
projectile Btl'il.."i.ng obliquely sug~rests that it will be extremely difficult if not impossible
to ob~.n a. penetration formula for oblique attack at Ollce accurate and siwple. Kever·
tb.eless. formul:.e hare been obt/lined which gi,e a general iuea of the effect of anale.
As a arst approximation, the effect of oLliquity way be consiuered as being eqeui,alent
to inc~ng the thickness of the plate from t to t sec. (J, i.e., the thickness in the lille
of fligtr: this method has been Ilsed by Xa"\'al Research Laboratory, U.S.A. (A 13).
Alternatively, the velocity ~ may be resohed into v cos. (J perpendicular and v sin. (J
pe.·r.allel to the plate. the latter component being neglected. This method is used in the
modifi""i de Marre formula of ~Iilne and Hinchliffe, equation (10), (Refs. 50, 86) alld
and in the CS. Xavy F·function, equation (11), (Ref. 390); in both cases the general
form rEplaces v by v cos. (}.
 Both these methods are approximate only and tend to give too Iowa critical velocity
for ane:ies over say 20 degrees. This fact is realized in the two formuire just mentioned
(Milne and Hinchliffe and U.S. Navy), where the. su.bstitu~ion of t) cos. 8 for.v in the
formula is not sufficient to express the full varIatIOn wIth angle. Thus, MIlne and
HinchlJfe's full expression for 0 for the 2·pr. shot (Ref. 86) is:-
logu 0=5'998+0·227 (~ -1) +0'947 (1- cos. 8) (lla)
Various modifications have been tried in order to improve these approximations, e.g.}
2
t) cos 8 (Ref. 164) j
t (sec 8 +tan 8) (Ref. 148).
The!!e forms have only a limited range of application. It may be noted that if
W;I = C (tid).
1
[equation (12)] the use oi t) cos 8 corresponds to that of t (sec 8) II .. ~
t (see 1i)1.' for the modified de Harre formula.
The constants in penetration formulre for normal attack may be regarded as functions
of angli! in the general case and these functions may be plotted or tabulated, with no
attemp: to represent the va·ristion with 8 analytically. This procedure has been
adoptei in Refs. (j9 and ~44, where it is stated that no general formula is possible, and
in Ref. 366.
Finaily, these functions of angle obtained experimentally may be represented by
formub! frankly empirical. ThUll, the F function of Section 5 has been exprel'",ed (Ref.
389) &.* F = a + b cos 8, where a is a fUllction of tid and both a and b change their
values at 8 =44 degrees. Alternatively, F=a + b 82 has been used (Ref. 390). A
formuia of this type. derived from an extension to angle attaek of the firing trials
descrit~ in Section (j of this Chapter. is given in Ref. 437, this is as follows : -
.-::;:-----_"
:Yf o .
.,;.. : J
r--------S)lVVI = [43.4..jJJ 'sec i 8 + 916 _11800 _ 54000]1
Ii 65-8 Bo-B
For :lormal attack (8 =0), equation (13a) reduces to equation (13) except that the
(13a)

• ~~ ,.,t')Yo =~ ! middle term becODl\?1< 734 i Ilstead of 74,7; this corresponds to a constant difference of
: :'.' ) , 16 f.s. between the batches of plate used in the two series of trials.
~ The optimum hardness condition becomes:-
t 3 8- 2490..jB
iI sec 2 - (Bo-B)2 (16a)
The optimum hardness tunes (Fig. 28) are still applicable provided the abcissa is
t 3
taken r..s d sec. 2 8. The optimum hardness is found to rise with angle of attack.
Ang!!:s of attack exceeding 45 degrees will be considered in Section 6 •.

6.
,
THIN PLATF.S d see. 8 <0·4.
The!"! are comparatively little systematic data on the perforation of thin plates (tid
less tkn about t); such data are mai.nly for isolated cases of capped shell against face·
harde~'!d plate. If a single formula iii to t'o..-er all values of tid it is obviously neceHsary
that t" ~hould be zero for tid zero, i..e.} .p (0)=0. Some of the formuIre discussed in the
previo':.!! sections do not fulfill thi.s condition and so cannot be applied to thin plates;
The ~'lations necessarily represent an analytical approximation to the correct value and
some a:sagreement outside the fitt~ range is to be expected. It is, however, possible that
there li a change in mechanism of failure at some critical thickness, necessitating a changtl
of ~on:lula. I?rin~ trials aga·inst mild steel of low tid at Road Research Laboratory (82),
PrmC€-:Dn l:!mverslty and ~.P .L. (A 45, 364) indicated that least for this material 1;
was p!"'Jportlonal to tid (for tid less than about t); the Princeton trials (A45) and some
at ~.P.L. (3tH) showed that this was far from being the cab'e at higher tid, equation (13)
being ~pplicable to the latter. In order to obtain further data, the firing trials at N.P.L.
r~ferr,:,i to in sections 4 an.d 5 were extended to as Iowa value of tid as WIl8 practicable,
VIZ.) a:.out 0'2, correspondmg to a critical velocity t) of 400 to 500 f.s. The results (Ref.
437) O~ 3 per cent. Cr.Mo. steel plate (Brinell 250 to 350), confirmed the indica·tions on
mild F.eel. At low values of tid plugging occurred. and t' was proportional to tid equa·
tion j:3a) holding for higher tid; the intersection of the two lines was found to ~cur at
t see. 6 ., 0'4
d - .

26
 FIG. 28.
OPTIMUM HARDNESS OF PLATE FOR GIVEN SHOT DIAMETER.
PL.ATE THICKN ESS ANO THIC.KNESS-CALI BRE RATIO.

400

\/). 'Iv"
~
It)
\I
~
~ ..
~

Q
Qo: II)
"t II)
:t II.!
~
35,0 l(
~
...
~

o-s 1'0 1·5 Z'O

THICKNESS - CALIBRE RATIO tid.
- VARIATION WITH HARDNESS OF CRITICAL VELOCITY FOR
GiVEN SHOT DIAM ETER AND THICKN ESS-CAlISRE RATIO.

t500~--~~--~--~--~--~----~--~--~--~ ______

1000+---~~~-+--~--~--4---~~--~--~--4---~~

id. ·0·5

300 400 soo

B,.in~1I nQrd"oss 8.
FilII· ~'tI'. ""d ",lid" Z P,.. I'lllIdo' • 0·776
• " .. .. 6 P~. • 0·7"52
" .. " .. 17 Pr. .. • 0·801
" "to 3·7 In. .. • 0·749
 Thut'. if etlutltion (13&) is expte~ in the form : -
t
11="a +,8 (13b)

th~ hulds for a- >0'4 COlo! (), below which : -

t
11=(<1+2'5,8 sec. ()~ (17)

The accuracy of equation (li) is not as great as thut of equation (138) ; near the critical
thickness tid =0'4 cos () there is a slight ,. rounding off " of the transition from one line
to the other.
As the angle of attack increases, the i.lItercept term f3 in equation (13b) decreases, until
at ahout 45 debrr~s (the probable limit of applic.ation of the formula) it vanisbes.· In
this ease equations (13a) and (li) coiucide; at (j0 degreel!i the wbole of the relation between
c ano t. d wa~ found to be of the f01'1ll t; =c tid, tbe value of c beillg about twice that for
normal attack.
j. FA('I:;·HA.RD&'I,'I!Il PLATE AND CAPPIii) PROJEcr!LES.
'rile aoo.e discu~l!lion of penetration formul~ relatel!i almost entirely to homogeneous
platelS attacked by mOllobloc projectilel'l. In Sernce, f!We-hardened plate is used
occ.a!;ionally in armoured fighting vehiclel!i alld more frequently in ship armour. In order
to counteract the shattering effect 011 tbe projectile, the latter is prorided with a piercing
eap. Vdailed de~igns of eap and hardness lay-outs of plate differ so much that few
detailed cOllclulSions can be drawn.-ln general, it may be said that to a first approxi·
_mati on lhe ~p and the face cancel each other, and the case can be treated as monobloc
. Got c. homogeneous plate of the hardness of the main (back) pOrtion of the plate.
Shot firted with a piercing ear may encounter bomogeneous plate; in sucb eaSE'S tbe
critical .elocity i!;: increased. Thus, in Ref. 3GO, it was found that at normal the critical
yelodt~ again~t 2·pr. A.P.C.B.C. wu abont 100 f.s. higher (for f/d=O'j to 2) although
the ('arr~ !;:hot werE' 15 pel' cent. hec'lvier; thiF: difference reprel>ents the combined effect
of thE' l-';ercing and ballistic caps.
The e&~ of capped shell i~ of e.en gJ'e8tE'r cOlllplex.ity "ince. o~ing t(l the presence of
the can;y. the !;:treng-th of the shell be<'ollles of great important·e. Some typicc'll yalues
of log,oC in the lllorlified de Marre formula [equatioll (10)] are given below;t the!;:e all
apply tc. A.P.C. shell against C plate.

d tid () loglOC Rem&l'ks

ina. ina. degs.
15 12 0-80 30 <6-05
15 12 0·80 40 6·21
15 12 0-80 ~ >6·24
9·2 6 0'67 40 6·24
9·2 6 0-65 40 6-06
lI·2 6 0-65 ~ 6-06 Low coX.h. (0'57 and 0-7).
9·2 6 v·65 00 >6·25
HIO
6
5-25
12
4,-5 0·86
°
30
6-09 -!-0'07
6,13+0-06 ·
Sma.lI 8C&I.e tri&ls.

6·25
6·25
4,·5
4,
0·86
0-76
40
40
6·22+0-05,
6'18+0-01,
II Sma.ll
Sma.lI lO&le tri&!s.
8C&I.e tri&1s.
5·25 4, 0·76 ~ 6·25+0'01, I Sma.lI IIO&Ie t.ri.a.ls.
5·25 0·36 to 0·61 : 4,,5to/35 6·11+o-Wid I Sma.lI Kale tri&ls.
-0-30 00II ()
I
• The n.::e at (J at which f3 ulllshes mny be seen from formula (138) to depend to some exte_nt on scale of
attack ane ~late hardness, but () =45 degrees is a representative value for most practical conditions.
t Wonu:.ion lupplied by Ordnance Board.
 In the absence of a value of loglo C for a case
reasonably similar to the one reqaired,
it 'Irill be found that the aoove va1ues for angles from 30 degrees to 4:) degrees eo be
represented by : -
loglo C=6'5(j+ti -cos 6.
with an error of ±O'04 ('.e.~ ±5 per cent. in v) ; the error in the cue of loW" c.r.h. is ~.

8. PHAt."l'ICAL .APl'l.ICATIUN~ OJl' I·uull.1LM.

8.1. ,ormulm and wales fOf' ..A.P••hotup tu 6·inclt agaiu3t IWfII{JgCllOOIiIS fJrmfHIT..fI}
, fI)() to ¥JO Bnfl6Zl.
The basic formula. recommended V; equatioll (1&1) with the l.'OlllStallt 91U adjusted to
929 to agree l'ith the normal attnck l'eI!UltlS on the fil'",t batch of platelS, whil-h huve ~D
taten u standard. That is:-
Wt11 { - t 3 64000 1828]1
flI~ 43·4.JB ii 8ec'28+747~Bo_B-66_8

(F.B. 747-::~8 = ~29- !!~~)

ThiJ equation l1af: too WBny vuria lIle'" for ploUing to lie ui't'flll e:u'ept ill pUJ"ti~r
C808a, e.g.~ particular shot against particula!' plate or at particuio1tr augle (i.e.., "
function of t and 8 or B respectively). The formulu aud that derived from it for ..w
pl&t~ may be expressed for ease of computatiou thus:-

liT'¥. ( a} +b ) (8) 45°, ~ >h )

~Kc ~ (8)45 0 • ~ <,,)
where 0.=0.. 0. 1
b=bo-b l
c=a+ b/h
h=O'4 COB 8
K =F .j(W faa) o/(W /dB)

0. 0 . . 43'4 jB/(~)o
b ... (747 - ~)/j(~t
3
0. 1 '" sec. 28

bl ""I828/(65- 9)j(:at
Valo~ of If, a O} bOJ a lJ b l and h a.re tabulated in Table 1. K is a function of lr/~J,
(W/a·,. being standard WId' taken u 6'6, K thul! being a eorreetion fact()r for o~
va.lu~ of W /d'. a o is a function of B only, b. of 2 and Bo ~.e'J of d) and ~J b and h
are h"ctions of 8. I

In some utreme e&8eS (high angle, hardness and/or calibre) b will be found to lie
negame; in such cases it will probably be best to take b as zero.

8.2. FonntUa1 and table8 for other case8.

Fo: other cases, the modi.fi~ ~ Marre ~ormulu (10) may be used, provided a value tit
Cor ;,')gl. C for a. ~nably similar case IS known. Some vajut'1! 8l"e ginn in Section ...
For o:·mputation purposes the formula· may be expre&::ed :-
W t
loglO t/c:::t loglD C - t loglo dI +0'.115 logl~ II -loglo cos 8.
W ,
Va.lues of ~ llog,o (II' -loglo oos (J Uld O·71510g lo if are tabulated in Table2.

28
 T&lJle 1.
,"alaes of conlS~tH ill perforation formula fOl· A.P. suot v. homogeneous plate.

b. (f... )
d=l·incb 11.5.inch 2·5·incb 3·ineb 3'5.men 4·inen 14'6.inen I 6·inen I' 5·5·ineh ' 6·men
B.=531 503 I 467 455 1 445 I 435 rn' 419 413! 407
I I I
:: :1:1:
I
754 734 718 701 691 636 627
!iO 747 727 709 0693 680 621 610
740 718 700 68t 667 6M 640 627 616 603 591
733 709 689 ft70 655 640 625 610 595 584 571
7U 700 678 667 MO 625 607 591 574 562 540

717 689 8M 643 625 6Q7 tiS7 571 551 537 620

7CT1 II7S 652 6~ 6Q7 587 565 540 525 507 491
:70 697 8M 636 610 587 565 542 520 I 497 476 456
687 652 621 591 565 642 515 491 463 440 416
675 636 603 671 542 515 484 456 423 398 368
66.2 621 584 540 615 484 448 416 378 347 312
:)10 M9 603 562 520 484 448 tOi 368 325 i 288 252
1M 634. 584 537 491 448 407 368 312 261 i 216 163
617 562 (j(f7 456 407 358 301 2,52 181 ' 125 59
1033 599 537 476 416 358 301 %31 163 81 9
580 507 I 440 388 301 231 145 59
556 398 312 231 145 35
10::'8 632 347 !O2 145 35
502 288 163 35

li'l7 470 216 59

1:.!1 432 125

Wld l K h

:".l./inch' f.s. f.s.

(}O50 HJ95 o o 0-400

/)055 1-044 5 1·009 20 (}O398

0·60 1-000 10 1·035 43 0·394

(}oM 0-960 15 1·082 71 0-386

0·70 0-926 20 1·155 105 0·376

25 1·260 147 0·362

30 H14 201 0·346

35 1·643 274 (}O328

40 2·000 3i6 0-306

45 2·613 630 0·283

50 0·257

55 0·229

60 0·200
 Table !.
Values of function!! in modified de Marre_ formula..

__'_/d__
DiK._ I
i-_0-_7_IZ_dlog_"_i~:_ _ _W_ll1__--_'_--_'_Ioi_,_,d_-~--:..!_Di£'_._.•_
I I

0-2
0-3
(H
~:
1'716
1\ 1:
69
!,:: o-eo
:~:
0-111
21
19
17
0-6 1'780 57 17
0-6 1'842 47
0-7 1'889 42
0-8 1'931 36
0-9 1,967 33 , -loa:.. ooe 8 : Diff.
Hl o 30
1·1 (}{)30 27 o o 2
1·2 <HJ57 24 5 0-Q02 5
1·3 0-081 23 10 0-()()7 8
1-4 0-10. 22 15 0-015 12
1·5 0·126 20 20 0-027 16

1·6 0-146 19 25 0-Q43 20

1-7 0-165 18 30 0-063 24
1·8 0-183 16 35 0-087 29
1·9 0·199 16 40 0·116 35
2-0 0-215 15 45 0-151 41
2-l 0-230 15 50 0-192 49
2·2 0·245 14 55 0·241 60
2·3 0-259 13 60 0·301
2·4 0-272 12

30
 ClllPTER 3.

THE STRESSES 1:X PROJEl'TILEl'5 WHEX l'E~ETRATDiG STEEL.

By C. A. Adams.
1. INTRoDucrIO~.

Fro!!! Chapters 1 and 2 it is clear that while ~netration formula:- :"rive a value fUI' I he
minim'l.lD. energy required for l~netratioll of a given armour pIaU>, the success of the
projac:Je depend!; not only on its posl>ession of the required energy, but also on its auiJity
to witt5tand the 8tre~ses geuerated by the impact. For normal attack an estimate of
the oreer of the stress can be obtained from indirect experimental evidence and SOllle
iudicatous are available from theoretical considerations. For oblique attack, inforlllil'
tion fl"Jm either source is very scanty. In prattiee. more difficulties arise in de~ignillg
a projt-o~tile capaule of with"tanding- the cOllluined !;rrel'..;es arilSing in oblique attack, than
in ell~':Mng 'that there is sufficient 'I;trenglh to prevent set·up or fraeture from the axial
compr~sion due to normal attac,k. The knowledge ,,0 far obtained on the stresse'" to
whith :crojectiIes are subjeded on penetrating armour therefore falls ,ery short of that
requir~. XevertheJes8 it has a liRe, ~ince to BOme extent increase in strength under
compr~sion is obtained at the expense of resistanee under bending stress. Sinee it i~
eertair"':y necessary to ensure that sufficient compr!:'I'8ive strength exists, a workinl! know·
ledj!e C': the limits set by tbis ronsineration enables thp df'sign to give no more compres~i\'('
streng-:l than is essential, and 80 to increase resistance to failure under tr,lDsverse stre"'''es.

2. DEPENDE..,"CE OF PRomcTILE STRESSES 0:-; HEAD RESISTAl'Cfl.

The .tate of stress in a projectile which is penetrating an armour plate can easil~' he
found ~I) a first approximation, once the magnitude of the reaction at the head is known.
Xeg\e(''ing elastic effects, the instantaneouli: retardation at any part is the same throul,!'h·
out tb", projectile. The total foree o'"er any eros!, Ii:e(,tion is therefore proportiona I to the
produc: of the reaction at the head and the mass behilld the cross section. With the
assum~·;:ion of a perfectly rigid shot the important facts to determine are therefore the
magni7':ldes of the reactions at tbe head and their dependence on plate thickne!;s amI
qualir;. and projectile shape and velocity.

2.1. E Itimate of head resistance from pZ{l.te h{lrdne88.

An <.;.proximate idea of the order of the preSli:ure at the head ean be obtained from the
foll(J"_-:~ simple considerations. The ilrillell hardness n umbt>r :,rives a meali:ure of , he
pressl:..~ with which the material resists a surface deformation which is small in relation
to it!! :,nal thickness. If it is assumed that approximately the !;ame pressure would IJe
obtaiI!~i whatever the size or shape of the indenter. tben nel!leding any dynamic effed,
this it' :he pressure which would act on the head of a projectile until deformation of the
rear oi the plate provided a relief of stress. This is certainly an over simplificatiun. but.
i..f the M8umption is made, it would imply that the stress until back yielding occurs, i.e.,
the muimum stress approacbed in very thick plateli:, would equal the Brinell number.
The fa~t that the Brinell measurement i!; obtained uy dividing the resisting force bv a
curved area introduces a small correction whicb need not be taken into account in "the
preseD~ approximation. Since the units for Rrinell number~ are kgs. per square mm.
and 1 :q. per square mm. =:0·635 ton per square ineh tbe maximum prelSsul'es thus caku·
lated !:r the range of hardness levels likel:y to Otcur in armour plate are as follows:-
3.H.N. (kgs. per square mm.) 200 300 400
':Qrresponding pressure in Bemi·infinite plate,
tons per square inch 127 190 254
A1t€."'!latively, since the relation between Brinell number B alld ultimate teni;ile stl'en"th
f .. is. 7ery approximately, B=4'7 f .. o'Ver this range of hardness, the maximum press~re
P ann::pated in a very thick plate on this argument would ue : -
P= 3·0 f.. (18)

31
 Presllures of this order may be expected to act O'fer the tip of the projectile in the
initiul stage8 of penetration, and to be auglllented by any dynamic term in the rer;;istance.
It foHows that if the tip of the pr'ojet:tile is to withErand these pres>,ures it,., yield 8trength
must be at least three times the Illtimate st;nmgtl :)f the ·arget. 'I'he calculation, how·
t"'er ;n,es little guide to the maximum pre!;surell likely to lie reathed in any nos.,; section
uf the lJarallel body of the IShot. In the lirlSt plate, the iuuentation test allowr;; ISOllle back·
"'ard dow of the material towards the Ilurfate, and therefore meu~ures a prelSsure which
is le!'.s than that encountered deep ill the material (I'ee p. 41). Secondly, the stress gradient
in "'eneral reduce!' the stress towardti the rear of the projectile. Thirdly, in mOllt practical
applications the thickness of the plate will not he sufficiently great to justify the assump·
tion that, at the stage at which the head is completely immersed in the plate, the latter
is still oJfering a resistance unlllodified by distortion of the rear face.

2.2. Estimate of head resistance from penetr'ation formula:.

The mean resistance offered by a finite plate can be estimated very roughly by making
use of the fOl"mulre dil;culSI>ed in Chapter 2. These formulle give the energy E. in ft.
pnclli. required by a projectile of diameter d for the penetration of a pJate of thickness t.
If the reaction is regarded as starting when the projectile tip meets the plate and
end~ when the shoulder emerges, then neglecting bulging, the mean force F (poundals)
actin2 over the distance t + l (inches), where l is the length of the head of the shot, is
gi'fen- by : -
F{t + l) = Ee
12
The mean pressure p in tons per square inch over a section of diameter d inches is
thus : -
F 4 48E.
P = 2240g 1Tfi1 2240g. 1TcP (t+l)
or since E. = iMv2 = tIP (43.4..)B ~T 747 - ~:~~) I (Chapter 2, page 23)

- =1 _d_ (43.4 'B ..!.

93·3 g1T • t + l
P ..; d
+
747 _ 54000 )'
Bo-B
This equation embodies the" scale eJft'ct ,. a.!; discussed in Chapter 2. For the present
approximate purposes it il' sufficient to []s{' the \"'alue of Bo appropriate to the 2·pr.
scale. i.e., Bo=5oo. The equation then becomes:-
i = 1·064.10-4.
tid
1
+ lid
{43'4../B .!..+ 747 - 54000
\ d 500-B
)1 (19)

0'20B [t ]1 where 1 dependB on B.

= tid +lld d + k

It i:; oU'fious that this equation can Ue written in the form : -

-p = a ( ~ + ~) + b + tid ~ ld
whe~ a, band c are independent of tid. Over the range of tid of practiral importance
the e~ect of the last term, whieb il! negative, is small. p
is therefore apIJroximately
linear in tid, but tbe cur,·e belllllol upwards >'lightly as tid illcreal>es. Fig.::IO ",howlol P
plotu:d against tid for the values of B of 200, 300 and 400 and with Ild=1·07 (cOlTes·
PODding with a 1'4 c.r.h. projectile). It is noticeable that on the basis or this formula
the mean pressure at low values of tid «O·W approximately) is highest for the ,,"of test
plate IB=200) and lowe8t for the hardest (B=400). Further, the hardest plate (8=1100)
begiru to give a larger value for Ii than the intermediate plate (B=3OO) only at tbe
comtJiirath{'ly high ,alue of t/d:::::::1·3. Relllemberillg that forUlula (19) uses total energy
of perforation, and that examination of fired plates shows that the extent of petalling
or phgging is greatly dependent on hardness, it would be unjustifiable to a&;ume that
th~ ratio of maximum load t() p is the same for hard and soft plates. A higher ratio
will dearly exist in a harder plute where the reaction is spread over a I!horter dilltance
than t + 1 and a lower in softer plates where the bulge may give a total distance con-
siderably in excess of t + 7. The rela tion of peak pressure to mean pressure is so far a
matt€!' of speculation, but 011 the a.'!sumption that the factor is not greatly different
from :2 (as would be the case in a triangular force· penetration curve) when the plate is

32
 ARMOUR PLATE PENETRATION
I r I I J I I I I J I J I I I I I I T T I TA ~#
20to- I - FIG. 30 ":JOWl
19 J - ~ -
M[AN PRESSURE DURING PENETRATION _ ... -~- -- ---- --.'----'
18 J -
AS ESTI MATED FROM N.RL. FORMULA
V
17'0- I - ~
16,0 c- (PROJECTILES OF 1'4 C.R.H.) 1/ 00
15,0- c - ~.'l: _
IttF:- A·R·D. No. S.U I V ~
14 0
~ -'"
V
13 01- V / -
P ;12 v ./ ~ ~
TONSl ·z V
IIIN'11 0- / -
10'W
~,j
qr
- V V/ ~
~

I
9 ~I- ·-r
~
/
V~ V
8v
~V . -
1 01-
'£.
6v
V
~/
S 0- -
y,_'l-~ V
40 V /
y,"~'
V
3 01-- -
20 V
~
01- -
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
o 1)-1 0"2 0'5 (1-4 c).. d·e 0'7 &8 0'9 ';0 H 1;2 HI I;'" j;5 1;6 1;7 ':8 U 1;0 2·j 2~2 2;. 2-4 2-11 2-1 1'7 zoe 2;' .3~O
tId
moderately hard (B = aOO), the value of 190 tons per square inch for the peak. vressul't!
wo-uld be es~ted to correspond with a value of tjd of aoout 1·3. The stl"ess estimated
directly from the Brinell number was 190 tons ver square incb for a semi·inrinite plate.
The calcula::on thuefore ;h-es '~-lOthel" indication tbat the Brinell pressure under·
e.sti.mat.eB the resistance of a thkk plate. It is not to be ex pet: ted tha.t estimates of
ma:nmum.pre.sure as :! p,when p
is taken from these curves, will ha.e much signifi·
cance at high valnes of tid, (u) lie('aulSe formula (1!:J) bas not Ueen shown to apply to
values of t; d much in t'xcet!s of 2 and (b) be<:au!le p max. will obviously tend to approach
p ~hen tid i..; large. ~e"eI'theless, ill the reg-ion of ('d = 1'0 to 1-;j, where maximum
pressure may be expected fairly near the mid-point of Ilbe penetration, the estimatei:s
likely to be (·f the correct order. For this region it indicates muill.\um pre8sures from
about 120 tolla per square inch to 210 tOilS per square inch.

3. .MUSU~"TS OF PLATE RESIST.L"CE IS STATIC PUNCHING EJa'EIlu!E.'"TS,

For closer estimates of tbe resilStallce of a plate to IJenetratioll it is neces!>3.ry to
consider mo~ direct experimelltul measurements. The information on which most
rel..;;ance can De placed is ootained from sUltic experiments in which a _punch to the
COG wur of Ii.!l armour vierci.ng shot is pressed tbl'ough armour plate, the load alld
pe£!etration iJeing measured throughout the process. The extent to which load'penetra'
tion curves, :OOIS obtailoled under static conditions, represellt the cotl"esponding relatioll
under dynUI.D.ic cOllditiunlS cannot Ue fully known until reliaole measUl'ewents ha'-e ~Il
marie ot th~ forces actillg un a lihot wbell tired through a plate. Attemvts at such
W~bUI·emenl.b have lJeen made (see vage :3!J), liut the result'" are not yet sufficiently
8uOtstantiated to enable them to be used as a check against the ",ta-tic method. The
!>trUJ..ng fact about the result!> of the latter method is that mealmrements of the total
energy requi:ed tor penetration under static conditions agree within the limits of
experimenUlI error with measurements of the energy as obtained in firing triallS .
..lir.ilough thio agr~ment does not preclude the pos~ibility that diJferellces in the shape
of :·be load-fo:netration cUI'.es may exist in the two cases, it gi\'es some justification for
the use of tie static curves a!S Viorkillg hypothe!;es until further evidellC!! OeCOID!!S
available.
S.L Gellcrai rClSulta el!tublil1ited by I1tutic pU-lIc/tillg eXperi7/1.-Cntl1,
The resulu of static pUIII::hilig experiwenUs 011 arwour plate auu uther !Sled;;, "-ith
uiscussiorus u: th.eir siguitilAillCe ill relatioll to aJ'mUUI' plate pelletratiun in general, al'e
mawy giyeu III Refel'ew:es :!U, W, 1U1, 1.:!3, 1;)(j, 1~, 19U; 2tJ;j, :..197, :3:!.i, ~U, 37(j, 377,
~ and 439. From tue }JI'e~lIt a!Spect, nawely that of the stresses illdul:eu in the IH'U'
jet: we, the :.;., terest is primarily ill the pea.k loads founu uy this w.ethod, Before
Ii uCo·Ling and ·:jSCU!S.t>illg the!;e ret. uIts 60me general facts established by tile ill \·et.tiga tiull
are presenU!C:-
(1), If tie punl"h is llOt luuricated a signiticant proportion of the ~-ork perful'weu
i..ii !:itatic pUllching ilS expenued i..u oyel'comillg friction. This frittiollal
~ect is relatiyely unimportant in the cady stage.-;; of pelletratioll Lut
i.;lcreases the maximum load by 10 pel' cellt, to 45 per cellt, and IDay
D.creal;e the total work Lyall amuunt up to ;)() 1*" cent, The luLl'icallt used
>.as a thin tihn of soft solder (40 8n, 40 Pb, 2{J DO, The agreement oetw~n
'!::lergies for cowplete perforation ill t'latic aud tiring trlliL; refel'lS to the
~:atic results in which the luoricallt was used, The inferellce is tbat fric:tion
J:-~obably play" only a small pal't in dYllamic pt!Jletl'ation, This deductioll
~-annot be made with certaiuty: (a) lJecau;;e the .alue of the residual friction
"'nell the luiJ!'icaut iii used ill the 8taric expel'iment!i i", not known; alld
I ~i because the agreement hetweenstatk aud dynamic results, though highly
"'-.¥ge8tiYe, dOt!S llot pl'O\'e identity tn the processes, Xevertheless the
'(":.nclusion i.8 collti-istellt -with thl' following' factlS: (i), Firing~· with luuricated
~!lot (Rf'f!i. A as, 24.0) have failed to show any reduction in l'ritical velocity
1.: iu.iH-~tiouo, (ii). Frictioll of !;teel 011 steel uecreasel> as the speed of
lie 1Il0.wg paNS inci't!~!SeS, 'fhe empirical forwula J.L = O·~j (1 + 0'00441')
1+0-064 V
hIS been girell {Ref, 4-W) for the l'ar.iatio.ll of the coefficient ~f friction /1 in
':'::'e .dry slidil.lg of tlteel 011 ~tecl ~\-hel"e V ill .the relative velocity in metl'elS
• :..n Ref. 161 • reduction of about 12 per cent. cansed in aiticaJ velocity by lubrication Wall reported,
but; a.e firiDgs nre iu the low velocity range 200 to 300 i,8,

-~
 per secund. (iii). lletalluq~ical exawination uf holes waue in arwour
plate, uy tirwg, tShow the vretit'llCe of a thill. tSurface OW of wetal which
hatS ~ll l'ailSed to at leatSt h.JUo C. alII.! wluch hatS vrouauly acleu aM a
luuricallt during penetration. (Bef. 74) (iv). EXVt'l'iwt'UltS desigucd tu
deterwille the 101l1l of tSpiu uf a prujectile atter its IHlI;~ge through arwuur
indicated that frictional effect!; were relatively t;wall (Ref. ~).
(2). The qualitative behaviour of the plate is very t;iwilar in static aud dynamic
penetration for a given head t;hape amI c,lliul·e. "·hell uack petallillg OI."CUI"t;
uuder firing conditiont;, uack vetalt; Qf ide lit ica I tnJe OtTUr ill the t;ta t ic
case. !Similarly vlugging occurt; in the :-.awe cirl:uwt;tanl:elS ill the two nIseI!'.
Limited re!'ult!; on the 2·Vr. !;c,lle ah,o show that plates whith fail lJy dilSCing
under firing conditions, fail "imilarly U1Hlel' static telSt. The coronet form
of a. large numller of front petah; charucteristit of .. fired" holel'! it; not
reproduced in static trialt!, uut with guod luurication a ridge it; raitit'd
which approxiwates to the height anu "hape of the Uoundary of the front
petals. Anotber difference between the two l:aseli exists in tbe ,·oluwe of
metal undergoing plat;tic strain in the two Ci.lIOeS. (Ref. ;)8). Although tbe
voluwe affected is mUl:h larger in the static l:al>e it appears frow calculatiun
that the excess work thus expended iii relatively small.
(3) .. The representation of the resistance at; a cOl1stant prest;ure eljuivulent to that
given by a Brinell uuwller, for t;emi·infinite plate,., or for ",wall venetrations
into finite plates, it; not valid. For cunital Vllllches up to "houlder
penetration it is a good approximation. Fur ogiyal headed punthell the
pressure increases with increaeoing penetl·ation. In any case the equivalence
wou.ld not apply over a large part of the penetration, sinl:e uulging of tbe
rear face causes a departure from ISemi infinite conditions when the point of
the punch reaches a distance uf the order of ~ calibre from tbe rear face.
(4). The position of maximum load ,"aries ac('ordillg to the lihupe of the punch.
For sharp punches it occurs wben the point breakt; througb the real' bulge.
This condition corresponds with petaIling failure and penetration is not
complete until the shoulder has emerged frow .the bulge. For blunt pUllche",
which cause plugging, maximu,m resilstance occurs very ~hortly before the
plug shears. ~hearing commonly occurs in the range investigated. i.e.,
O·75<tjd<2·0, when the point of the punch is a little over half· way
through the plate. Yariation of maximum load for a gh·en head shape and
plate quality is approximately linear with plate thickllest; .
(5). .A. small difference in the work performed at different stages, bet~·een the static
and dynamic cafo;eS, is found by cOUlparil>ulI~ of tbe ellergieli required for
partial penetrations in tbe t\\"o caseIS. The!;e cUlllpal'isollS !"bow that more
energy is used in the dynamic calie in the early stages and le!;t; in the later.
Tbe di1Ierences are not large but are probably beyond tbe range of experi·
mental error and thus indieate tbe existence of a dynamic term in the
resistance- .
(6). As in firing trials, scale effect ieo found to be small. . Nevertheless it was
observable and agreed aF; regards total work. and mode of failure, with
the results found in the N.P.L. firing trials, wben tbe plates used in these
trials were penetrated sta tically.

3.2. DerlJ,ilea results of static punching experiments.

Since :he frictional resistance to an un.lubricated punch has been found to account
for a significant proportion of the energy absorbed in perforation, the numerical results
quoted l:~e ha,"e been taken only from the obsenations on lubricated puncbes. A sum.
~ary ?f :hese results is gi,"en in Table 3. T~e maximum stresses to whicb the projectile
1S s~bJe(·,e? are largely governed by the manmllm load, although the rate at which this
ma:nmll:::J. 110 reached must have a. secondary effect on the stress· distribution. In Table 3,
therefore. the values of the maXlIDum load are quoted. The close agreement in nearly

• The EDnenC8 of a dynamic term is shown independently of static experimenta by the fact that in
the linea.r relation tI,'=V'+IV,' between the squares of the striking, remaining and critical velocities
",', v,', r. the collStant , depart.s in general from unity. The partial penetration experiments show that
whether o~ aot ,= 1 there is a diJJerence between the static and dynamic forces at corresponding penetratiollS
but they Uo indicate that the diJJerenC8 is small. '
..111 ca~s L~meell ~llergies for perforation in the static and dynamic cases is shown in the
culuwlls D which the U'itical vdocity, deduced from the !!tatic energy, is compared with
the critiw velocity determined by firing trials. From the ohserved maximum load F,
a strel>d i' is obtained by dividing by the c:ros!!-sectional area of a body of the projectile
; 11' 4'/4). This value is quoted in the table, but it is not necessarily the value of any
stres!! elliting in the shot during dyllamic penetration. ~eglecting any fundamental
di.fferenc:~ in the load'penetration curve which may exist between the static and dynamic
casel>, ana also the "tress gradiellt in the latter calSe, maximum load may be reached
before tht- shoulder of the shot has penetrated the front surface of the plate. In these
condition!_ which will ari~e when the plate is thin or the head of the projectile is long,
the load liill be distributed over a smaller area and the stress at the head will be greater
than the 'luoted value. Presentation of the results in the form of stresses which the
load WOlL·j cause if acting over the full cross-section of the projectile is adopted for
twO r~80ns : -
(a't. It illustrates that tbe dependence of the stress on seale is very small.
(b I_ Because this dependence is small it is convenient in applications to calculate
from the !!tress rather than frow a load which varies according to the
scale.
Table 8.
~~.ltic obser-vations referring _to lulll'icated pnnches, with comparisons of
calculated and obser-ved critical velocitieli ..

F= Maximum load (tons). P= 4Fl (tons per square inch).

1I'd
In most cases the quoted figures are means from several observations.

P CritiC&! velocity
Head shape tjd B.H.N. F P
B St.a.tic Firing

ins. ; kgs.isq. mm_: lons lons,.q_ in. i f.s. f_8.

0-283 0-7S7 373 9-04 141·7 0-380 1523 1528
0-825 318 8-60 134-8 0-424 1548 1552
0-867 307 8·i3 136-9 0-446 r\.R. KR.
0-8ii 109 3-98 62-4 0-572 1115- 1225

1-024 263 9·02 141-4 0·538 1702 1693

1-028 352 10-86 170-3 0-483 1818 1779
1-046 30'2 9·89 155-0 0-:513 1761 1757
1-344 260 10-95 171-7 0-660 2034 2015
1-491 302 12·13 190·2 0-630 2237 2180
1·753 109 6-17 96-7 0-887 1745 1778
1-996 296 13-54 212-3 0-717 2680 2645
I-
2-()1l 323 14'55 228-1 0-706 2696 2620
2-102 112 8-22 128-9 1-151 ~.R. N.R.
2-632 109 7{)4 110'4 1-()13 2201 2345
3·505 109 8-34 130·7 1-199 2750 2816
0-785 0-721 295 51-()3 105·" 0-357 1391 1379
1-Q42 288 69·60 143·8 0-499 1675 1683
1-419 274 79·71 164-7 0-601 1982 2015
H19 286 84'73 175·1 0·612 2035 2038
1-426 291 84'56 174-7 0-600 2043 2051
1-565 0-714 271 180·9 W-O 0-347 1248 1314

• .Bending a.nd diahing oocurred in the static penetration.

35
 P
till
I··HR.-.1 !
l' p
B Static FiriDg

I} 71 5
kp./eq. . tom
UIHI 1 tont~:7~ i 0·365
La.
1291
f.a.
1311

:: I
I I
M'6C) JOO() I. I()I~ I 0·197 1218 lli6
o-m ,248 I 232':Z i 120-7 i 0-.a7 1~ 1440
loW O-~ 267 I !U6·6 121H i 0-4.98 lUG lUO
0-973 246 I U1-6 12.5-6 0-611 l.al 1453

0lt7t1
HHl
••
ZU
~'2
W-9
136-8
13%-5
0.487
(H67
lUO
1691
I·U9 273 27H 143·7 0·526 1747 1709
1·368 292 ~~J-Ij 167·3 0·573 1942 1947
1-622 290 346·4 ISO-I 0-655 2063
2~ 302 ~'4 Z20·6 0·730 N.R.
0-788 M2 0·68 113·7 0·332 1418
6.-0 212 4·23 86·2 0-407 1312 1350
0-988 307 6·85 119·2 0·388 1615 1557

H3l! :eo 7-<12 H3-o 0-650 IBM 1982

1-6M 112 "·76 97-0 0·&66 1611 1572
1·568 207 '7'64 163·6 0·742 1872 1892
2·220 217 ',39 170·9 0-788 2232 2289
2-286 321 11·82 240-8 0-'150 I 2606 2684
2'~ 112 0·82 118·6 1·059 2013 1989
(H :.r.h.. 1-.566 1-ol2 269 313 163 0·605
1-0 27'7 144 0·535
HI 266 138 0·612
o-e 1·269 173 323 168 0-115 I

H) n 160 0·686
2-0 276 144 0-&26
o-e 1-618 !90 376 195 0-172
1-0 366 185 0·838

•• Dti'END~ 0(1' STATIC RlIlSISTANCE ON PL.l'I1!l HARIlNESS AND THICKNESS.

U !D.aximom. load were eotirely determined by the thickness t of the plate, tlJe
diaA"cer d of the punch, and a single stress characteristic of the plate quality, and if
furt:er the Brinell number B were a direct measure of this characteristic stress, then it
is ~-i.ly seen from dimensional arguments that PIB would be a function of tid only.
The T3..lues of : ha.ve therefore been tabulated a.nd a plot of PIB against tid is shown in
Figs. 31 and 32.

36
 FIB. .II. ARMOUR PLATE PEN ETRATION.
MAXIMUM PRESSURE
VALUES OF BRINELL HARDNESS. FROM STATIC. OBSERVATIONS.
O·Z50 IIICIt dlam~te,. Punch. -4 c.r.1r
I'Z 1 - .__ .. _, ". __ .- --'-r -'-' _... ,..... .. .. 1 ...... -''''J''--- --'-:-r----
I I I "'---.-- I

>--
r-
QIIZ-

.112
t·o
I-- -
el2
~
0'8
6)~
8.07 ~31.·e3ZJ
~ ~
-
~
0'6
~ • ~e24r ---
~ -
~
~
0·4 GZIZ ~
~~307
I--
,....-°342 -
o·z .
r-- --
I I I I I I I I _L I -..l I
o0 O-~ 0'4 0" 0-8 1'0 I'~ 1'4 1'6 1-8 z·o Z·z z·+
/I_I.: AeD. us,· tid.
 ,·4 r---·'--T--T---r-T-·.-··-T---r---T---·'··· - '" r" . _.. , ..._-_., .._- -- r-'-" -, .. _. r---···· '· .. ···T ... "'.-1'-"- ~-. ,--.--- ---'rr- _. ----

FIG. 32.
f--- ARMOUR PLATE PENETRATION. -

VALUES OF MAXIMUM PRESSURE fROM STATIC OBSERVATIONS. -- ---- --

"2 . BRINELL HARDNESS ."2 .
f---
.
~.-
VARIOUS PUNCH DIAM ETE RS. ALL '·4 C.R.H.
• '211S J,:,a, dill. Ptmt:lr. + .711S t"ndt dill. Pwrch iii /·&66 inch dia. Amell. ~-
-- ~109
1-0 ----
f--- .JJ.-r. 9
1------- -- -- -
- - - Qlj

~
0·8 --- ......
-- ...
~B f--- .......... ...- ...... -- Ii)
~~ ,
1--- ........... l
~ 0'6 .,.'
e~

~ f--- /,,'
v
%09
~
~
G!J
-~ ----- -
/" fif6
v/" a : .
0·4 ,/
Vi
,/ ~
l- -
.'" +
.//.,V
0·2
~ .
-
.
oo W 0'2.
I 0·4
1 0·6
1 0·8
I I I 1·4
1 1'6
I 1'8
I 2'0
I 2·2
I 2·4
I 2'6
'·0 1-2 VeL
N./: A./l.D. 'U I.
 In Fig. 31, which refers to a punch of (: c·.r.h:, 0·250 inch diameter, the BrinellnUlllhel's
of the plate concerned are given against each plotted point. It is clear from this diagram
that P / B is not a. function of tid only. The poiJHS obtained from obseM"ation on mild
steel tB.H.lIi". ill) lie well ahove those for harder plates. A silllilar result is observable
in Fig. 32. To avoid confusion the Brinell IlUlllbers are given in this diagram only for
the lllild steel results, but it is again clear tbat for a given value of t/d the cOI'l'esponding
value of p:, B is greater for lllild !;;teel than for the considerahly harder arlllour steels to
"'hich tbe other results refer. It ilS fUl'ther appuI'ent that ulthough there is a tendency
for the points referring to arwoul' lliatc to group about H COllllllon curve it would only
be an approximation, even in thelle cases, to regard PIP as determined' entirely by tid.
Several possibilities arise from these oLsenatiollS : -
(a). It way still be true that P is a fUllction only of tjd and sowe single stress f
characteristic of plate resistance, which would again imply thut PI! is a
function of tid but f is not proportional to B. In this ca ..e, if B i~ a function
of f only, it should he pos!'liule to find a fum·tion F(B) of lJ such thut PIF(B)
plotteU against tid would give a uniform cun-e.
(b). P ma;y depend IlOt ollly 011 the IStress giYell uy the Drillell reauillg B iJllt also 011
some additional stJ'e!'s characteristic of tbe plu teo If the aduit iOllul stress
i!, capaule. of variation indepenuelltly of B, 110 method of plottin;.: will giye
the regular curve re11llired. sillce the IJlate propel·ties would ue illsllfticiently
specified.
(c). t and d may not be the only distances concerned in the deterlllination of P. For
exalllple, the hllige height Dlay ell tel' anu way "'\I'~' witll the qualit.,· of the
plate [this pos~iuilit.v is I;illlilar to those of (u) 01' (b) sillce height ratio CUll
depelld on u stre,.t; only if tbe co·etlkiellt!'l in the reliltioll have the uiweno;ions
of a stre8s], 01' the uiwellsions cOlll:el'llCU ill the lllu te IStruct ure lllay in-
fluence its ueha viour.
Case (~,. namely, the possibility that sOllle properly of the plute ill aduitioll to it!> lhiek-
neslS and hardness enters into the detel'minatioll of the WUXillllllll loau. is allllo!'t ct!l·taillly
true. F(,r exulllple, the waxiwlllll re",i!'h.lllce wight uepelH.l all tile extent of sbear
ueformatioll whieb can occnr between yield allu fral'tllre. (:'~ee Chapter 1, Pl'. ::; and 9.)
_\t heISt. the Brinell numuer can gi"e only an H"erage me,I!';Ul'e of tbe "tres!> ~train I'1lr,'e,
anu thiE' average refers to only one tn~ of ue!'ol·lllation. In the present cOIlIlt'{:tion the
possibility that some other" "tren;;th ., cO)H;tants intiuence the result~ cannot be ana·
lysed and the working assulllption must ue that unspe<:irieu plate qualities ha"e only a
!'econdary effect on the phellOlllell<1. Tilis u:,;:,;uwl'tioll i" P'IuiYalellt to liupl'o..;illg that
if the re,'lits were plotted in three uiwt'nsiollo; with P J 11 J anu t/d as ordinates tbey woulrl
all fall on some uni1lne surface. Altel'llatiYCly, P plotted against tiel 01' B when the other
qnality i~ constant would yielu a nni'l'le curve. The experimental points do not prodde
sufficiem results at constant tid or constant B to enaule a satj,,:facton- anah":.;is to ue
made on ;bese lines. A fairly farge nuwher of resultlS are availaule in tlie region t/d==l
and it iE' tbus pos!;iule, as an approxiwation. to correct thew to tld=l, the correctioll
being obtained from the gelleral trenu of the ['esults shown. say, in Fig. 3:!. Tahle 4 gives
the resul: ,of such a calculatlOll, but Leyolld showing that the wild steel results fall well
outside tl:e group for armour plate it gi"es no inuir-ntion of the precise relatioll between
P and B. Another pre~lltatioll of the results is giYen in Fig. 33 in which P has been
plotted against t/d and the llrine]] llUlllUel' a:.;sociated with e<.lch result has been gin'n
against the plotted point. Although thili diagram provides evidence that P tends to ill'
crease with B it does not suggest any definite contours for cOllstant B such as would be
expected from the assllwptioll P=fltld . B). In 'dew of these obseITatiolls it is lIot
profitalJI~ to attempt to obTain an approximate analytical relation between the nl'iable!;.
Frolll tb~retical considerations it is to be expected that when t/d is large tile nllue of
P "ill a~proxilllilte to ,1 cOllstant yuIlle of k f 11 where k is about 4'G and f 11 is tile yield
stress ruateriul (~ p. 41). It is also ob-rious that P is zero whell tld=O. A function snch
as P=k.f 1 (1- e - aI/d) where a is a function of head shape and llrinell number llli;.:l1t
give all ;;ppI'oximate representation, but, in vie~' of the scatter of the results thel'e is 110
ildvalltag<: in presenting thew ill this form. COll1]lill'i~on of Figs. 32 and 3-3, howewr,
E:hows tb:n some ~in is made by plotting P/B illstt'ad of P against tid. The curve shown
in Fig. ~ is drawn freely with no attelllpt to fit to all equation. It will he i"een that as
far as ar:nour plate is concerned the error introduced uy ulSing this cur"e would never
be large.

37
 Table ~.

Estimated 'Value" of PjB at tjd=l, obtained by correcting values ob~er'Ved

in the neighbourhood of tjd = 1.

8., p y
lid . 0·36 (I-lid) II="B =11+8., B
0-825 (){)63 0·422 0-480 321
0-828 0-062 0·450 (}1112 315
1-020 -0-009 0-543 (}5M 264
10011 -G-004 0-552 0-648 261
l-Qol2 -(H)16 0·347 0-532 300 .

1-046 -(H)17 0-506 0-489 303

1-032 -(H)12 (}483 00.71 357
1-032 -(H)12 00470 O-~ 346
1.035 -(H)13 0·536 0-523 461
1-032 -(H)12 0·518 00506 462
0-785 1-00 -(H)15 0·504 0·489 285
1-041 -00015 0·495 0-480 291
1·565 10013 -0-Q05 0·471 00466 283
1-009 -0-003 0·463 00460 285
l-Qol2 -(H)15 0·532 0-517 269
0·944 <Hl2O 0·495 00515 257
0-897 0-037 0-00 (}520 248
1{)65 -0·023 0·534 00511 316
1·068 -0·024 0·552 0·528 316
1-061 -0·0"22 00503 0·481 311
00932 0-024 0·458 0·481 247
0-933 0-024 0-433 0-457 257
0-285 0·877 0·044 0·585 0-629 109
0-877 0-044 0-558 0-602 109

Tl~ cune of Fig. 32 ·will gi,e a fairly good estiwate of the maximum 'resistilllce
encv:.ntereu by a punch of 1·4 c.r.h. in the range 0·7 <t/d<:!·O. Despite the scatter of
the ~<)ints the diagram shows !'ome evidence of a swall " scale effect" in the directioll
whit:). would be expected from the similar effe<:t in energies for perforation. ?tIaximuw
pre!;'lJ.res tend to decrease as calib,·e increase!;. This tendenc~· is illustrated in Fig. 33,
in 'Il"ilch the points corresponding with the plates ui"ed in the N.P.L. trials are showll in
hea.r.er printing.
Al:hough the tendency can be seen, the variatioll!; a.pparent in Fig. 32 show that no
\Ili'ef:i ].Hlrpo!'e would be "erved by an attempt to express the relation by diffe,·ent cun·es
for ':'.Jeh scale. Extrapolation of the curve beyond the range 0·7<'jd<2·0 is probably
jnsti.::able, if it is guidt>d by the following considerations : -
i). There may be a discontinuity in the slope of the CUf'Ve in the region tjd=0·4
or 0·5 (see Chapter 2, page 2(;) but there is no reason to suppose that any
large curvature exists from the origin to this 'Vnlue.
j). Since increase of thickness wust increase maximum load except possibly at
great thicknesses, the !;lope is always posith·e.

38
.=/G.33. ARMOUR PLATE PENETRATION.
VALUES OF MAXIMuM PRESSURE WITH PLATE HARONESSES
SHOWN AGAINST PLOTTED POINTS.
v A RIO US PUN C HOI A lilt E T E R S. 'A L L 1· 4 C.R.H.
El ·Z85 inch dia. punch. + ·785 inch t/iQ-punt:lJ. El /·565 inch dla.punch.
0
: I I I I I I
J,581
(!Mal

..... G46&
374
-

Or- 05D!,.
(;)U&
eZK
0

or- -
t~
0
266
e
:s 0 - ~ r{!r
o
. 2!10 -
51' +.28& .
;70
. [;]
(;)~7
0260
zWoZ&9
4-291
0 151293
p 316

e300 ~I +275
274 -.
OM6
O~
311 [;]273 -
0
(;)505
0
eM
26~qr.)
(;) ~JIS 2&4 tH- Z73Z73
:4 or- J77
2111
-
£ 0
~,
..
0
33ZC
am
. ZII5
11<\:
ClZS'

O~ r)2'- -
[;lz.n
CZ!1
:i 0
.t::
G!lSl
or!"
0 °'
1 -
8- 2ua 7! o lot
90

or- -
0

50
lot 0

"" (:')
I ,., I t/
l I I I
·7
ReF. A.R-I:.
'S
8~SI.
'9 1·0 '·2 1·3
I'd.
1-4-
-
'·5 '·6 1·7 1'8 I·g 2'0 2·1
 (iii.. The limiting value of the pressure, probably approached very closely at
tid ::: 5, is likely to be about 'P ::: 4,6 t".·
A te~,ative curve for hardnesR in the region of that of mild :.;teel (P ~ 100; i;; included.
Infor~Iion on the effects of .nriation in head shape is very scanty, but the available
reS11lu referring to heAd shapes other thnn 1'4 and 4'0 c.r.h. are plotted in Fig. 34.
The arpro:dmate cunes for 1'4 and 4·0 c.r.h. are repeated in this diagram. In the
small :-ange of thicknes8es in which the additional rel>ults lie (approximately
l'O<t ';<1'5) the departureR of the reF;ults for O·G. 1·0 and 2'0 c.r.h. from those for 1,4
c.r.h. &.l'e not large. Xenrthele~s. they indicate. as iS,to be expected, that a blunter
head g:ves a higher maximum pressure. The differences are likely to be greater when
O<tjd<l and smaller when tld>1·5.
The .,-alues of plB as calculated from the X.P.L. formula ha.e been included in Fig. 34.
It is 8?parent that the approximate estimate of 2;
for maximum stress obtained from
the fOr.:lula was not greatly in error for the middle hardness (B=300) but that, as was
to be eIpected, the estimate is not good for the other hardnesses.

5. DYN.um:: 1lEA.ST.;RE.\ll::\T OF PLATE RE:-ilSTA..,\CE.

The -:..xperimental evidenee OlJ the magllitude of the forces to which a projectile is
SUbje<:l~ on penetrating armour plate ilS alwOlst entirely couoned to the static puw::hing
l'esults ""hich ha.e just been delScriued. E110rts to deduce the retardation (aud helll:e
the re4.rding force) by obtaining 8pace·tillie ret'ords of a shot in the COUl'~e of norlllal
pelldnjoll of armour have been llIade in Ell;,;l...tud, .-\.llIel'ita aud GerlllallY. III the
latrer ,.··)Untry the experimental ruethod used was lha! of llluitiple spark phutogl'allhy
gi.ing .;.( most a series of 24 associated ralues of space LlIH\ time. Thi;. lllethod had
airead,. been tried in England (Ref. tiT) but di~contillueu becau~ of itlS im;uttieiellt
accuracy. The German re8ults (Ref. ill) LIre abo illsuttidelltly act urate to gi,e wore thall
the oro5:r of the force whkh, at' shown by Fig. 3U is reauily calculable fl'UUl nitkal
energy. The difficulties as~ociated with the lllea!;UreUleut arise prilllal'ily frolll the
extremt: brevity of the period during which tIle ret.ll'uatiun acts. The ordel' of thi" tirue
for a p:"')jectile of diameter d illches a.ud a heau length el!ual to itl> calibl'e whell <.Itt<.lckillg
a ODe: t:.:libre plate way be takell at dltif !;€("OllUS, where t- is the mean velocity in Ls.
o.er tb", tra.el of 2<1 inches. At a mean .elodt, of 100U f.~. the total tiwe fOI' a l·ilH:h
projen':~e is thulS of the order i lllillise{"ond. "·ithin tl..lit' period a "pal'e·tillle cur,e is
re(juire: of suffident accw'sl'Y tu ~i\'t~ a l·el)!·eselltalioll. Ull H time basis, of the SE"{'oJld
derh·at:7e. The experimental arl'augelllellt til'st IIsed hy the Xa"ul RelSearch Laboratory,
WalShir..?wn (Refs. A12a, 347, 34~) ill shown ill Fig. 33.
The ~ ?inciple of the metuod wa" to obtain a recurd 011 moving tillll of the illotioll of lhe
base o~ the projectile as it ullto,ered a narrow 1'lit, which \\'<.IS intellsely illlllllinateu
by a e:~ark of sufficiently long duration to cu.er the whole tillle inter.al cOlleerneu.
The t.o.:-?et plate was so positioned relatire to the ~lit th,lt the lllotion recur·JeJ would
occur vo.ile tbe plate wa~ heing pelll'tl'oted. Thl' iwage motion <.IlId olm lllutioll beillg
perJ){'nc..:cular. the slope of till' tra,'e at nll~' poillt Will' proportiullol to the ill~talltaneous
l"elociT! Cjf the base of tbe projel'tile, alld hewe the rate of ('hallgl' of the slope "a\'e the
retard::noll of the ba"'e. The p()~;;ihilit~· of oittailling' a llIeasure of tlli". rate of drau;.:e
depend~ on obtaining a very hi;.!ll film 1'1'et'11. By lI;;ing .111 air turbille al' ilhll'trated ill
Fig. 35. the film being 1lI0l1nted on the insifle of the cylindrical portion of tbe turbille
a film .peed of about 3UO f.~. was obtainl'f!' The turbine was small. abollt o·n illch
diaruete. but capable of a l'olatiollal s~l'ed of about 2400 re\'ollltion~ per second.
From allal.\"I,is of records taken with this a)lparatu~ for ilUpact" of O·2li;;3 inch
diamete pl'ojec,tiles aguin~t arlllOll!, ~tt'e1 (:;.T.S.) aud mild Iltt'el the resulr~ gh'pn ill
Table ;, ~ere obtained. (Re~ult!l, not reproduced here, were also obtained ill Ref. 348 for
face ha:--iened plate and shuwed a double peak ill the force cune).

• A Cl.:-;e, derived from firing trials, sho ... ing estimated mean vressnre for .-slues of t .'d from 3 to B,
and ref",.,..ng to plate in the range 230 to 280 B.li.K. is gi"en in Ref. 44-1. It i9 roughly consistent as an
extens.iou "1 tbe appropriate cune oi Fig. 30, but 5ho ... s meaD pressure continuing to increase sligbtly
1ritb lie lp to !/d=B.

39
 Table 5.

P.·ojectilc dimensiolls.-Diaweter 0':26:)5 illcil ± O'UU01 inch; length UNO inch ± O'OO~
- ind,: ogh'al radius 0'910 inch.
T~rget properties : -
(a.) . S.T.S. 2 ins. x 2 in!!. X tin. Hard· (b). Mild steel 2 ins. x 2 ins. x i in.
ness 240 Brinell; ultimate ten- Hardness 103 Brinell; ulti·
"He !i'trength 123,000 lb. per mate tensile strength 50,000 III
square inch. per square inch.

S.T.S. Armour Mild steel

Stri.kiIlg Rema.ining Muimlllll Stri.king Rema.ining Maximum
veloc:ity velocity force velocity velocity force
fA f.1I. lb. wt. f./l. f.1I. lb. 1Ft..
1543 7116 13,iOO 1222 471i 9,440
1440 490 14,820 1127 349 8,560
1316 0 14,590 llOS 0 8,560
1367 0 14,500

T!. e mean tigures obtained from these results are:-

I MB.x. force Max. pressure

toDll p, WDlI!sq. incb plB lid

S.T.s .... 6·40 115·6 ()-f82 0-942

Mild Iteel 3·95 71-4 0·693 0-942

~i:.ce the ogive used was ~'4J c.r.h., tbelole re!'lilt~ ilre not directly comparable with
any ·:i those obtained by !ltatil: pUIlc:hing. The l'UITel> of Fig. 3..1 or Fig. 31 wOllld foreca!'t
lowe values. ·It is not, howev",r, to be conduded Ull these relSult!l alolle that there if; a
dym:nic effect increasing the maximulll forl:es found lIy I>tatir experiments. It has been
poin~~ out by several authorlS (Refs. :.~l, :!H;:;. ~'8. 3US) that rbe a~lSumptioll of a per·
CecC: rigid shot lends to si~l1itknnt errors in thi" metbod of estimating- the retarding
forel:-_ Simple calculation "ho"',, that tbe time duration of the force acting on the pro~
jectL~ i~ only a fairly small multiple of its period of longitudinal .ibration. Such vibra.
tion .... which have been reco\'ded after impact (Ref. 3G5) ha,e. therefore. a consideraLle
elfl'('~ rln the motion of the ba8e in the period under measurement. The head reaetion is
rrop!~ted elastically to the base and it" motioll is the resultant of a serie!' of wa,es
refl~'~ up and down the shot. .\.llowanre was made for this effect ill the later report
(Ref. J,li) where results are gi,en for S.T.S. armour, mild steel and 24 S.T. aluminium.
Th~ results are given in Table G.

Table 6.

Projectile diameter, d =0'169;:; inch. Ogive shape, 2'5 c.r.h.

24 S.T.
M.."eriaJ S.T.S. Armour B=266 Mild steel B = 99 Aluminium

Tbioknlu t '" <>-500 0·360 0-250 0·1875 0·500 0·350 0·250 0·1875 0'2BI
(mob",;
Max. j:rce (lb.) 22,800 20,600 14,400 10,400 12,600 ll,200 8,600 6,300 8,000
MaJ:.~p, 178'4 161·2 112·7 B1-4 98·6 87·7 6i·3 49·3 62·6
(tow; 'nob ')
lid 1·855 I
1-336 0·928 0-696 1·855 1·299 O'!l:!B 0·696
pjB !}-671 !}-606 0·424 0·306 0-996 0·886 0·680 0·498

40
 ARMOUR PLATE PENETRATION.
FIG. 34
VALUES OF MAXIMUM PRESSURE FROM STATIC OBSERVATIONS.
DR. NELL HARDN ESS
1'5 I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I , I I I I I
.... - COMPARISON OF MEAN RESULTS FOR /·4AND4·OC./l.H.
I' - -. -
WITH OBSERVATIONS ON OTHER CR.H. ~ AND WITH
I- - MEAN PRESSURE ESTIMATED FROM N.P.L. FORMULA.

l' - <:> • 0'6 CR.H. +- '-0 C.R.H. ~ - z·O C.R.Ii. -

I''U-
o09- I - -

,ft
-.t. o- t·4C.R.H.
o P/B ~
I
o'7 I - 6"~ ~-
P~6 s,.;;.- -
4·OC.R·H.
:;fP
.... (!)
---- ~ ~ f- --- -
PI... ca. ... 0 0 _ -
o.-e. ..... ---- ---- 'r-'~

o-S I-
~
__ 00 I-
~~ ~--- P!6,!! 4~-
___ 00
ro-
- ---- ---- --- ------
o --- ~ ---
--- ~....-- 1----- ---
f----
o 3- 1--- -- f-""-- I-- - - - -

O· Z ---- ---
- - --- --_. -----
~-- ~

o1 - --- ---- f-- -

I I I
-- -- I I I I I I I J I I I I
O' 0'1 0·'2. 0:3 0·4 0:5 0:6 0:7 0:8 0:' 1'0 H ,·'2 "3 1:4 1:5 1:6 1'7 1'8 1'9 2.. 0 2:1 2:2 2:3 2:.. 2·5 2·6 Z·7 Z'8 Z·S J·O
g~F;-A~Il. No.SSSI tid
 FIG. .JS.
F-XPF;RIMENTAl ARRANGf:MF.NT USF.D AT NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY WASHINGTON
, . -. ~.-~
.., - .. ... -.--------- .- .. ------.~-.------.-------

TO RECORD THE MOTIO .... OF A PROJECTILE PENETRATING A.RMOUR.

Specimen
j Le"s I

Mi"o,. .IU2. .§
'---!=7--U- ij3~~___1-<7
./ ~'-'k. F. Z .20
/' lap.
/' Bull.t. ~
. /;$.' 9-6'
./ EI.IZ-S·
/'
./
/"
--~ ~./ .

PIroto ~' )-SfHI'lt. '-"itia!i", coil.

~ L..,,$ 1i4.16-4C1r111. \ \
4.
Gu" '\
. if/! ~ .. cUwl/ I,,, Inln";'g .".,t.

Mirl'D' ./

TiI,bi"._
 .!.n eS~Jl[~ll. I'imilar method has been used by the Roau Research Lahoratol'" (TIdtS.
~. 28,j, 4,0(;, on the 2-pr. scale, Result", nre u'l"ilil:lule for only one plate, whose thkknesl<
was H mm . .:.nd haruness ::!!.I3 Bl"inell. The peak l'etanIution found when allowaJln~ w. ~
made for e~: ;!ic motion was approximately ~.lOc Ls_ 2 .\~suming a shot mass of !!·3i lb ..
n
rhis; figure ""luld gi '-e /II == O·4,(jj at tid = l'O:H, These latter valuel! correspond fairl.r
dOl'lely "ith che static results shown ill Fig_ 32. The American results give pre!o'I'ures
which are !il0:newhat higher than thoRe of the lIeUl'e!o't hea:.! shape used in the static- tests.
The accur3("~ of the experimental re"ult8 npp(l!o: 10 ~ extremely high in order to give e.en
a rongh esti::late of the variation of the forre on the prujectile_ 'While, therefore, the
~--ult8 of tLs experiwellrul tt'('hniqu(' ma:r be regarded all confirming that there is 110
change in th .. order of the peak foree between statie and -dynamic penetrations, it ("annot
at present to! eoncluded that the small dilferem'es found either in the type of force-
penetration ('il".e (ReftS. 2'J9. 4-()(i) , or the peuk lcadl< are I<ignificant.
(lther mel:ods of uetermining the for('el' eXPl'ted durin~ impact have been attemptl'd.
The surface :narkin;!8 on "hot whit-b rphollllrlPIl from a 1I0rmai target were anal~-:O;l'!l ill
Ref. U5. ana an p"omate of thp retarrl,ltioll obtained on the a8sumptions that the spin
r-emained cor_~nt and tbat the marklS Wei'e (';1Il~"() by wnterial whieh remained in n plane
parallel to tre plate liinrfa(·e. E~timute" h:lI-e all<o been made by honsing a free indentl'r
in conwct T.1:h a topper ., target" within cl. "hell and rueasuring the clepth of indellla-
tion ('3n~ Then the shell Ilenl'trated an armour plate, An extell~ioil of this we. hUll is
de~:ribed ill Ref. -U~. Several !;teel lmlls were u!<ed H!< indenter ... nnd were located nt
y;t:-;omj iniT~l dhitnnee8 from the ("opper" target." TIley thul'I "truc·k. the copper at
'-:lriOI11'; tim~ after impad ani! at 'l"arioul'l \'elo!'itie!O: "hil·h could ue pstimated frow tbl'
nenrh" of in,:. mtation_ From thei'le veIoc'ities a "eries of Illean nCl'elerations was dedn("ed.
The difficultj~ of interpretation in all theloot' experiulPlHal method" are ('onsiderabll' and,
in {"onl'E''luen-e. they have "0 far done no mure thall to l'onfirm the probable order uf the
l'e:'ik fon:e I:701,"ed.

(j. Tfll))llt...,.ICAL ,,'UI!K 0_" 'fHt; RJo:SiSTA:'\I'E TO PI:;:\t:TR.HlO:\.

(j.l. PrelSl!liI': rccfuin'd /·0 expalld a· hole ill aI/ infil1i t e nll'ri jurn.
The experi=l-ental eridenee on the foree to which thl' I'rojediJe il< subjected hal'; 111111"
~n con"ide~ and it rewainl'; to examine the illl-p!-:ti:,.:arjons whi("h have been mud!' f)'UIII
a rht'Oretkui a"pe<:t. An estimate of the liwitillg prt'i"I<\lI'e wbil-h would be reached in
an infinitel.' -hick wl'diuw ba", ~n gi,-en in Rl'f. A.:!U alld extended in Ref. 243. In tbe
for.ner case !on analysis ~-as wade of the work 11el:l'''~lry to expand a cylindrical hole
in a pla"tir =.edillm and in the laffel- the merh()(\ wn ... extended ro a 8pheric-al hole. If
~t1""3in harde:_~ng i~ npgle<:ted lIlt' til''''\ aliI] "'t'('OIld llIl'thod" gin' ]'~'~)ll:cli\"el'y the followillg
approximatl:' ~elation!; (see Cl.talJtel' :.!, p, :!U) : -
(i). p==3'(j tv- (li). p=4'3 tv
where t" is ~.le yield stren~th of th~ material. ~trnin hnrrlenill;: will hate lli(' {·tfl'd of
iat-:-easing tt... \';Ilue of tv' U!;illg- results obtained fOI" lar~E' ~·tI"nills under hj~h prE'l"'!o'ur~
(&:of .... .-\042. :~!3j it is estiwatl'tl tbal the .alue of /1 \\'illue inrrenl'eJ by about 8 per cent.
for' armour "'''t'I" and 3U per ("ell(. for mild I<teel. Hpn(·l'. (01' a fairly blunt pnll('h pl'nE"
tl':;u.i~g arW<..1r tbe etitiwuted order of thl' pressure is auout
11 =4'6111
Ii the ratic, of Brinell Dumber B to yield streJlgth !I/ is k
pIB==4·6/k
or. since B ~ -l·7 1 " for armour steelr" and f" slightly extt'(.·(]" f II'
plB :::0,9.
This is tbf jmiting ratio of plB which wonld Ul' expedet.1 fur high r:Jlllt'loi of t/ll. Thl'
<.:llrT'e of Fh: :t,: iH l'onl<isteJlt with a limit of nbout this nIne. In the ('ill>e of wiltl "tpel
the approriD.:1>re relation between p and tIl will be
p ::: 5/" or pIB=5/k.
~ince k i!' :n the neighbourbood of :?'j for mild r;teel the limiting volue for plB ill
this CI:I ~ is
IJIB::: 2.
ThiM re!luj; i!l again con ... i~tent with Fig. 32.
Although 'ie ~tatic punchiJlg rp~ult~ nl"e ('onsi8tf'nt with the exif:tell("p of lilllirin;;::
pr~,"ure@ of <·hout thl' abo.e .alue. the rangp of tlri for whi('h obsf'r'iltion" on lubri('atl'd
punches are t 7ailable i~ not sufficiently.lllri'p to gite direct confirmation of the exi8tence

4.1
 ano lWlgnituJe of the liwit. Expt:rimenls un J..lundd..IIg in copver, uoth harJeneO allli
auni'alea are deSCl"LOeu UI rlet. 40. ill which <It uu;cu~siun IS aliso giH~n 01 the lOiglliIiciiJH:e
C!ara.n.~lOs' testll. ContirmatlOn ill UUtaUleU o[ the eXlstellce 01 a l.im.it 01 the predkt~u
llla'r!lHu<1e and it iIO found toat a l'euetratlOll <1epth 01 about j Ulameters ilO necessary
- oet~r-e the lllllit ilS reached. it is, howe\·er, VOlilted out that illlievenuently 01 ~uaw
naruelling tOe Brinell or other in<1elltatlon lIaruness i~ u.~ely to Ue lesrs thall the pres~ure
at g:'eat aepths becaulle the consu·aint on the l.Illiterlal 110 leslS near the surface. }< low
Into a Up can, therefore, occur and tbis pro\ides a. relief whlch ilS not a\·ailaule deep in
the materia.L This etfect has some importance in any attemptlS to deduce the value of the
hareness trom the yield strength of the lllaterial, out" does not atlect the arguments given
aoo.e in which it is discoUllted uy the UISe 01 an elllpu:iUlI value for k.
G.2. .l.lIalyses iuvolL-ing the thea,·" of eltutwity.
Ul.ller estimates of the resistance and state of stresl! during penetration have been made
by the use of the methods of the tbeory of elasticity. In Ret. 00 an upper limit is found
to tbe relSistance by using the von ..\IitielS plasticity condition and considering the relSol'ied
fort:.es on conical surfaces axial with the punch. The limits thus found incre<l.lSe
as penetration increalSes and, therefore, give no information on any constant resistance
at g-r-eat depths. The same method applied to finite plates gives results of the order
of the static oUllervations. In Refs. S8 and 121 the analytical problem is treated entirely
on the ba~is of elasticity theory. Although the !;olutiou is rigorous for the very complex
problem of elastic indentation oi a I!'()lid by a body of revolution its application as an
approximation to penetration proulews requires an elllpirical estimate for the appl'o·
pria~e change in .. modulus of elatlticity " applicable to plastic changes. It does not,
thl'rtiore, provide an independent et;tirnate for re,.;i",tallte. An investigation of the
di:-;tr..bution of stress in a semi·illfinite elastic body ",llujected to a uniform prps!;ure over
an il!tel"llal drcular area is given in Ref. 3i3. The pra<:tical application of this analy!;is
is eoncerned with discing. Again 110 direct estilllate of plate resistance is provided, but
the B~,.;nmption of a pressnre eqnal to 4 or 5 tiDle~ the ~·ield strenl,'ih giws consistent
mlu~ for the stre!!lses uuder which bark failure oeeurl>. The CHBe of wedge indentation
into a plastic solid, reducing the problem to two dimen~iolls in~tead of three. has been
l·omi<lered in Ref. 408. The predkted type of flow was ob..erved when the deformation
was ::tade on a. lead block scribed v.;th a grid of lSquare8.

7. YODlFICATIO:-<S TO TH~ FOHCES AL"IL\"(j 0:\ THE l'ROJEX."1'1LE DCE TO

Dl"!'A!JIC EFFECTS.
Tho:.-oretictll investigations may be regarded a" gidllg justification for assuming that
the .::atic curvel! I!hoWIl in Fig. a:.! will tend to approach a CUUstallt preSlSUI'e at
tid =~ or ;j and they pre(]ict a .alue for thi!; pr~slSure. They alllO give an explanation
in iE:..~tl of !Strain hardeniug of the divergelH:e of the values of pi B for mild steel com·
parf:"oj with armour steel. XO wry cloSt' e~tilllate~ haw yet been gi.en from theoretical
comiderations of the maximum resi4;t;Illl'e oli"ered h.\' a finite plate although the total
work can be estimated by th.,. Ulethod~ di."Clll'l'ed ill Chapter:!, Xe,·erthele!;s, some
indie-adons can be provided from theory of the cUlluitioll!S ill which the force is likely
to exeeed that measured by static methods.
7.1. Kinetic energy Of the target.
~v~e increase in resi~tan~e in dynalllic pelletration compared with static might be
ex~,ed from the neces~lty Ul the former ta~e to accelerate the material away from the
Ilurfar:e of the advancillg projectile. The o.erall inCre,li:e in rel'istanee frolll· thilS cause
is kno~·n to. be small from the fan t~:lt, at leust up to Yelodtie~ of about :!::iOO f.s., the
ener~ required to perforate a plate I~ 1I0t greatl~' dependent on velocity (see footnote
l'a:,.'1:' ;~) and that it agree~ with tbe !!Ita tie. work. A minimum value· of the kinetic
ener:;:y imparte-d to the plate is easily ealrulable froUl com:iderations of momentum.
If th" ~a8s of th~ projectile i8 Jl. ~nd ~f the pla.te kJI and. if the projectile approache8 the
plate .wIth ,"elo~lty t:o and ~eave'" It With veloclt,V 1"" ~he centre of gravity of the plate
mU8t nave acqUired II velOCIty Illk) (po - I·,). The ratIO of the energv of translation E
of th" plate to the energy E lost by the projectile is thus gh·eu by • 11

Ep
E
=!(
k
Va-VI )1
Vol_Vt i
=.! (Va -
k VO+tl l
t\) (20)
For ~locities of attack near the criti(·al velocitv. t" will bp !;mall compared with 1:0 and
the H:.!'m in brackets will be near unit:v. Rf'~urdi~g the target as a di!;C N times the
diam~er of the projectile, allu the latt~r as etJuhalellL ill voluwe to a cyliIHler 01
iliawe.u d aud length &l the value of k is givell uy
k=Nz/3. tid.
In the case of a one <.:alibre plate for exarnple the ratio Ep IE cuuld thus ue made illS g"1'eat
alS ;)~ c~nt. only uy waking the plate les", than eight calibre!! ill diameter. The
calciW.tion assumes a treely lSul'porteu target and tLe t'tfect of constraints on all actual
target will clearly be to increase the eJfet:live rna",,, and 80 to decrease the ratio. It is
not, !:0wever, true that the energy imparted to the plate continues to decrea!-e as its
size increases. Equation (20) is currect for translational energy but neglectlS energy
of nb:-dtion, and the distriuution of energy between "ibrdtion and translation <Iepenilil
on thf size of the plate. It is obvioul" that the ellergy given to the target callnot <lepend
on itt;; ;;ue if tbe tilDe for transllliSHion of waves from the impact position to the boundaries
of the plate and back again is greater than tLe duration of impact. If the velocit.¥ of
wave propagation i8 c and the duration of impact T, the energy given to the platt' mo~t
thos t~ at least as great as the energy of tran",latiOIl given to a plate of radius approx·
imawr cT/2. For head length of one c<llibre T may be taken approxima tely as
(t+d) _2_ leading to
. "0+"1

mDI
If now !7 oz - VIZ is wken as t: 2 , the square of the critical velocity, and the formula (l3

C (~):'&:I (10 of Chapter :l) is u!;e(}, the inequality becomes

E 3 d3 C (t/d)·13
~>4 mCi (1 + tjd)2
,," h '..ae
,.1t ' ..
approXImatiOns - = 1"'., '-I • = 10· ,C=,
-3 d3 10 UU(I f .s. t "lle f Ib
ormu a eeomel:' ti na II y
' 4m

~ > ~~~. (tfd)·U(l+t/d)-a

A olle ca.liln·e piate of large area relative to the crul"l" sectiun of the pl'ojt'ctile thm;
absorb;! at least 0'3 per cellt. of the energy as killetic energy. Its total kinetic energy
inclubg the viurational component. omitted from this calculation, may be mIH'h
larger. An attempt to calculate the total energy is given in Ref. 1G3. By approxilllating
for thf elasticity of the plate the velocity t-
of the tell[J'e of a lar~e thin plate under the
action ·)f a normal force 1<' is outa ineo all
D=aF
where u= _1_
2 4t p.
This l"~!ation leads to the following value for the ratio Ep/E where E p is now the total
kinetk energy communicated to the plate:-

Ep = 2am J 2
F dt
E (fFdt)2

..... - 1_:
.;n~nf t
he furt her a ~proxlrna
. t' r
IOn ~f Pldt
F dt)Z = -;1 were
h . t "lle d ura t'Ion uf' 1111
or Ii! .
pact

EJJ=~ ~ (~)I
E 8 ' CT' t
For a '.lIe calibre plate. with the same a8sumptions as above,
T ::: _~ giving EfJ = 371 VO-+-v 1
!)o+D1 E 32' C

where. with the numerical valueI'! 81'Fmmed [1:="(10'. l'G), ('=10~]. the ratio at the
critica~ velocity becomes
~ = 31' .../1,6 ::: .037
E 32 10
On Rd. 1lh:l, ill which the methou of allulY:,jis is given, all esti.wate of IS per cent.
iB obtaint1i for the enel"gy of the plate. This figul'e ilS oLtaiued by iLlSlSUlllillg u lTitical
~elocity ,~i 3000 f,s. for a Olle calibre plate, the force lJeillg as~umt'U to act orer the vlate
thicknes~ only). The ratio oLtailled uuu~e correlSponds to a plate energy of auout 4 per
cent. of :he total alld ill cunlSu;tent with the estimate of ;) per cent, for Il- plate eight
calibres in diameter. 10 a plate alS l!lllall as this the wavet! will bave made auout fuur
double jO"ll'neys to the boundary and back to the centre before the illlpact is over. The
energy ~. therefore, likely to have been very largely eOll~erted into energy of tram;·
lation and the proportion remaining: as vibrational energy will be relatively small. The
reaction ~tween the plate alld the projectile will" of course, 00 modUk'tl by the vlate
motion, Dot the mriation will be small in plates as large all, ur larger, than eight
ealibres i.:l. diameter.
It therdore appearll tbat for plate thicknesses in the region of one calibre the killetic
energy 0: the plate is not likely to exceed about 5 pel' cent. of the total. Higber pro-
portions :nay exist in ("onditions in which the duration of impoct is very II lli all, i.e., for
considerably thinner plates, or with blunt headed projectiles, or with plates which plug
shortly aiter impact o<'cur.s. Analyses of the elastic motion of thin plat~ from \.hich
etsti.wat~ corresponding with these conditions would be calculable a.re given in Refl!;,
102, 139 <.nd 339.
The er.:.crgy abstracted from the projectile when attack if> made at a velocity higher
than the '~ritical velocity usually exceeds the critical energy, This fact is lSometimes
attribut.€'d to the energy gi.en to the plug. It is true that the plug is ejected with a
.elocity tot least as great as the remaining velocity of the prOjectile and that the latter
must haT"e supplied tile corresponding kinetic energy, As a \'ery rough approximation
ic i.s tllu~ possiule to attribute the deviatiolJ from unity of the eoeffieient s (pp. 19 and
~) to P:"lg energy. ~ince, howe.er, the plug mU!>1 hU\'e acquired some velocity to
enable tl:.~ shear fracture strain to be reached, part of this energy is expended whether
or not th-: process extends to fracture. Further, the determination of 8 must depend on
the t{)tal energy gi.en U> the plate, both vibrational and translational energy being
included. Even in the absence of plug formation these effects are retlected in the valuet!
of 8 difft:ing from uuity found for petailing plates, From these considerations it is
apparent :hat it is only in a crude way that 8 can be regarded a6 ca.lculable frow plug
energy.
A con~ntion has ariBen of espressing trial results, on occasion, in terms of a
"Poncel!.-: coefficient" '"t (see Chapter 2), It would be possible formally to give the
energy d::e to dynamic effects in term", of '"to . The lack of any physical justification for
the Ponco;-1t!t form of the repsilrtanee in steel would. however, prevent such cal('ulations
from ha • ..ng any signiticance. The only conditiolls ill which a formula for the resist·
ance of ~ type fl = L1 (1 + i y p ;:) (:;.IIl be gi\'elJ a fairly pr~il>€ pby!;il"al weullillg

occur wt.~n the size of the hole made in the target increases with velocity. Snch
condition.;; arise in steel only at very high ~elocities of attack and, as a normal tonlSt!·
quence, ~J..inst thick targets. The illcrease in resistante then oc('urring through the
high velocity is Dot primarily a result of energy retained in the target as kineti(, energy
but as pMic deformation in excess of that which v:ould occur at lower .elocities. The
conditiOn! in which such behaviour will occur are cOll~idered in the next section.

'7.t. Car-;.:ation.
The hec-i shape may be ,"uth that the radial Yt'lodty imparted to the targ-et material ('.(1nl'ies
:r to mo'-;, away from the projectile axis at ;1 rate "hi("h is too Iligh to allow it to he over-
:aken by ~be ad.ancing head. Finch behanonr i", known a'> " ca\;tation," and its oceur-
:-enee is (;"'I'iously conditioned by the j;hape of the head, A di!'('us~ion of the effect is given
in Refs. 0.~, 40<J. The qualitati.e effeds t{) bf:> expeded are fairly obvious. In the ('ase
A a ('onieu bead, for example, the flow of the tar:,:-et water'ial at !'boulder entry mnst have
!l radial e:·mponent, and. even at moderate velociries a di"pial"eDlent must occur in eXtes~
·)f that frem which ela~tic recovery ill possible, For ol!iYal heads "hirh meet the parallel
body tan~ntially tbe existence of the effect will depend on the velo<"ity in relation to tbe
~ead ('ur-nure, "'ilh a gi~elJ head . "hapt' there will he n ("ritkal wlocity below which
:10 ('a\;I;]:-.on O<'{'llN. A~ thil'l velocitv is t'x(·et!(led tht' ex('es" diameter of the hole over
~he projf"'."ile diamel('r will grow, and the re:..rion of "'epaT"cltion of tbe targ-et material
:rom tbe ~,rojectile "llrfnce "ill shift toward" the nose. ~in('e the proje("tile nlO<'ity
decrease!' VI penetration pro{'eed!': the exc-ess diameter de('rease~ from the front of the plate
and a ta,~"'ring hole is therefore formed. The effect is well substantiated for du(~tile
materials (Refs. 3i:!, 409), but irs within the runge of pl'adic<l1 illlportullce for armour
I;teek: unlv where very high ,-elocity PI'ojectiles are l:olll:el'lled. A dil'cu!>t>ion of the prac-
tieal ;.ignitieanl:e in relatioll to tbe performance of high velocit}· tungli'ten-earbide cores is
~..'in~1l in Hef. 3i2. In cOllsidering the illlJllieutiolls at> regards stre~~S within the pro·
jecti1.e the phatoe of the motion during which C<lvitation effects operate becomes important.
The largest.contriuution from tbe dynalllit- term in the re"il'tanl'e, regarded as a pressure,
must clearly come at the initial ",tage wben the velo(·ity is highe"t. The local pressure
at the tip is therefore augmented even though the target material may not be leaving
l'ontUl't with tbe head. ~luximum pre~sure in the l>en:-;e in whi('h it bas so far been inter·
prete-d will not. bowe"er, ha-ve been reached. At a pen~tration of about four or five
('alibrE'S, at which depth maximum static resi"tam'e may be eXI)e(:ted, the velocity in mo~t
practical cases will have fallen below the l'avit<ltioll -velocity. Where a finit~ plate is
concerned the maximum stress considered as 4;:, where F is the maximum resisuwce,
~~- .
is thue likely to be increased by C<l\'itation effects only Ul thol't' ca~s where the projectile
hag a remaining -velocity approaching the eu~itation velocity. .t5uch cases will be rare,
and, in consequence, tbe practical importance of C<l,itation etfect~ lies in their concentra·
tion of the stress on the nose of the PI'ojectile, and the increase they retluire in total
energy rather than in the direct increase of maximum resistance. The cavitation velocity
t1. 'for an ogiva! head of 11 c.r.h. penetl"lItillg a material which offers a mean resistive
pressure p and has a density p is given in Ref. 409 as

t1e = J2n p
kp
where k is a constant depending on the target material. The approximate value of k for
steel i~ 2'3. A discussion of tbe value of p as determined from firing trials against thick
plate!> is given in Ref. 444. Using tbe nlue 1'=23i tOilS per squure inch for plate in the
ra.nge ~0-280 RH.S. the critical caritation velO<'ity for a 1·4 c.r.h. projectile is thus
found as v. =:!4W Ls. Above this velocity an illcreal>e in critical energy may be expected
throu:;b cavitation. Thit> increase is small within the velocit~· ranges ordinarily u~e<.l
and fc.:ther, as shown above, does not ne('e!;;sariIJ cause un increase ill maximum reRist·
ance. The increase in resistance in the initial stage of penetration is difficult to estimate,
becauSE; it is miti;!uted by the surface etfed ,,-bich allows the target material to flow into
a lip. If, however, it is taken to be in the same proportion as the increaRe which would
()('cur r:.eep in the target, .a velocity 50 per (·ent. in ex('e~" of the cayitntion velocity (i.e.,
aiOO r-.) would l'3USe an lIIcreaRe of neal'ly 20 per cent. III the stre"s, and u velocity equal
to twi-:-e the ca,itatioll veloeity would briYe an increato'e of more than 50 Tlt'r rent. in the
I'tre~. For very hi:rh "elodt)' a I tUt·k u cOIl!;iuerable re~r\"e of heau. li'trength ill the
pl'o~~ile is thus necestiury o\-er that wbich would be calculated from the static load.
penetr:?tion curves.

8. CoWRESSIVE STRE."GTH n~UlHED L-'; ARllOUR PIEBCL'\'G PROJE<.'T1LE8.

8.1. .~ tre1lgth ,.equired to withstand the "etardatio-n on impa-ct.

If il.-:rtia effects of the turgd material are neglected the lllaximum load F encountered
duriu~ penetration can be c1o>lely elStimated from Fig. 3-!. Treating the projectile as a
rigid to)dy whilh is subjected to a maximum retardation of FIJI, 3J l>eing ittl waslS, t.he
max.in:ll.ID lSu'ess;S~ at any section:x not illlwersed in the plate is thus : -
M~
S~ = .A ~
M (21)
where ][ z = rna&; of the part of the prOjectile betweell :x and the base
and J. z =cro~'l!eCtiollal area of the Pl'ojectile at z.
On llie!!e hypotheses the maximum cOUllH'elSsive stresses are thus easiJy C<lIculaule for
the Ilo:mal attack of a gi\'ell tell'get when the diwensiolls of the projectile are knOWll. As
regarl.k comprelSt>ive IlU'elStlt!1S it is prouaule that little error is made in covering the ealSe
of oiJli·:;ue atta<:k by taking tbe plate thil'kuesto' a~ t t.ec 8 where 8 is the angle of attack.
This a.8sumption probably overestimatelS the effective thickness and therefore gives a
margi.n of sa,fety whe/l ulo,led to estimate the Iltrength required in the projectile. Calcula.
tionl!' 011 theto'e lines of tbe !;tJ'el'~~ antidpated in yarioulol li'tanuard armour piercinn- pro.
jectilei- are givell ill Ref. ::;~5. In tbi", paper attention iii' largely directed to the ha;dne,,~
uistril-;ltioll l'equil'ed in the projectile to gi"e it ju!:t sufficient stl'Pllgth to withstalld the
pressG.:"es. It is, of course, not necessary to give a hardness gradient to the projectile

~;:;
 in orut::..° to pre\'ent failure under cowpre"!I~ion. A uuiformly hard shot with sufficient
COWPl'blSive strength in its head would have a great€r reserve of body IOtreugth under
pure c(,Jlpre:>t!ion than a t!imilar shot with itt! Ilurunet!!! reduced towards the lJatle. The
reduce.: hardneStl is de!>irable mainly at! a weallt! of conferring greater resistance to fl·ac·
- ture ur.ier the transver~ forces generated in oblique attack." For a projectile with a
solid c:-indrical body the calculation will dea.rly give a harduesii falling liuearly to zero
at the ~a.se of the shot. The gradient required is one which ensures that the hardness
exceeds the calculated value at every point. A projectile with a cavity will lead to a
calcol.a:ed curve with a form depeudiDg on tile cavity sllape. Again the hardness dis·
tribution actuallY used would uot necesliarily foJlo~' thil> form, but would conform to
the nea.-est distribution practicable ill ensw'ing that a rel>erw of hardnes!! existed at every
point. In calculations of this type it is not necessary to take haru.ne!ls dh;tribution a!!
the unbown quantity. Assuming thilS to be fixed within limits, optimum values for other
design :ill'8.meters may Ue calculated from the static results. These paramet€rs include
shell miss and length, volume and sha.pe of the ca,;ty and the diwensions Ilnd mU!!I!J of
the bas.: plug. 3. discus!Jion of the method' by which optimum values of some of these
parame,er8 may be det€rmined wilen the others are ISpedfied is given in Ref. 3i5. The
proble~ w which detailed cOllsideration is given in thi" llUper ilS the deterruinatiOJl of the
maxim"-1Il cavity permi81>ible in a shell \\'h~F;e hardue~1'i gradient and proof couditiolJl> are
specifiei .. The nOQlerical cal>el! for the tj'U1ch C.P.H.C. Iihe11 and the :J·2:j·i.llch A.p.e.
wodel 0{ the 15·inch A.P.C. 8hell are solved.
In tb-:se problems, which are lSoluble from tile data of the I;tatic pUIll'bing rel;ultl> the
conditi·:'ls considered are those in the body of tbe projet.'tile. 'l'ue luad is distributeu rounu
the hea,i and in thi.., region equation (:!l) will therefore not <l pply. I n the case of static
penetrs'~on, as hal! already been shown. the pressure deep in a \'ery thick plate tends
to a. vai:.e of about O·!J B ton per square inch where LJ is the Brinell harduess in kg./mm. 2 •
At the .urface. i.e., for the initial "tag-el! of static penetration. it must necessurily he
approx.:..:zately B kg.imm. 2 or 0'633 B ton per square inch. The maximulll pressure j n
regiom If the head near the tip if dynawic effects are neglected may thus be taken as
kB wbe..-e
O·ij3.j <I.: <0·9.
If B :.sthe Yickers Diamond HaruuesR of the projet:tile ileau it" static cowl'rel>I>iYe
strengt~ S is approximately giveu tRef. 97) by
.s=H(O·1i+O'UOO1.:.!lJ) (::2)
This ~'jrmula v:as deduced fl'OIll static cowpl'e!S",iull te!Sts 011 l"lJe(.'illlt:'II!>, u'a im.'b dia.
meter a:d 4 inches in length, of two types of prujectile Ilteel (CI'.Mo. as lIt'ed for tbe :!'PI·.
and .xi.·~·r. as used for the 2;:;,pl·.). The range uf haruuesl> illvt'stigated was ;:;00 to !IUU
V.D.H. lnd equation (22) was fitteu to tbe obl>l:'lTed point IS, which !;bowell a nearlY Jille"r
relation. by imposing the condition that the cur\'e sbuuld pass thruugh tile ori .. ill .• 'Yithin
the ran~ of yalidity of equation (2:!) the minimuw h,u'dlle",1S 11 required to l~re\"ent cuw-
pressi'f :'ailure near the tip of the projectile it; thus giyen by
H (0'17 + O·OOO1.2B) = kB (23)
where B is the Briuell hardness of the ta.rget. UruVbl!i of tbit; relation for the two valnes
~=~.63.:, and 1.:=.0'1* are shown in Fig. 3u. The ~allger of compressi\'e failure if the pro.
Jectlle h~? has. made.quate ~ardf1elis duelS not IStl:lct~y apply to the immersed part. Except
for conc:.:.nons m which caVItatIon effects are tugmficant the !;urface of the head within
the targ;t is, approximately, under hydrol>tatic pressure. Failure cannot occur under
such co~ditions. The dangE'rous region ilj, tberefore, ill the dose Ilt:'ifl'hbourhood of the
!SeCtion :..nmediately outside the plate where full lateral sUIJport is not available. E\'ell
in this r-:-~ion the front petals of the plate will pro,ide sowe support and hence sillce the
cross ~.-::ion of the head is inc~eas~g from tip to "houlder, the curves given hI Fig. au
over·est::..:J.ate the hardness requued ill the head. . The operative curve for most practical
caselS w=-:. be very much closer to that correspondmg with k = O·~ tban that for k =0'1:1.
The Ian.:!' cons.tant assuwes a depth of penetration of four of fi\'e calibre!!. Not only will
such ta!"~et thIcknesses be rare, but even when they are eneountered the head will be
immerse-:. and, except in cavitation conditions, will be receiving support from the plate .

• If imjJ ...."t conditiolll are such as to gi~e a force of sufficiently short duration at the projectile head "' ...e
propagatlf'l .nil trarmnit the pressure to the baSI', and on reflectioo a tension ,..ill be transmitted to th~ body.
In these c:.uditioll5 redu~-ed hardness may prevent tensile failure.
 ARM 0 U R P L.A 1 E PEN ETRATION
100 o R.'.~ A·~·D. "".U$1 .... ~

FiG. ~6 I I
I I I I I I r I I j T If'i
..
-

V
DE'PENDENCE OF MINIMUM
I
TIP-Hlt.RONESS OF PROJECTILE
ON HARDNESS OF TARGET. .
9 Ov J J
c
V
. 0

0: 1 ~

...... ) J
-
V
0: J J
V .

s._-A ... ~
'J
~

00-
I{ If •

0: I , f/W ~ELLI H ~RDINE~ ~ NUN. EROF, 'ARGET

I I I I
SO 70 $0 110 130 ISO 170 190 Z10 Z30 z.so Z70 Z90 310330 3SO 'S70 390 410 "30 450-470
S.2. :utors other than retardation affecting 8t/"ellgth alld hardlless requirements.
Th~ are !>Ome factor!! which mollify the l:olle1u!-ioJIIs reachetl above reiatiye to the
sU'ellg"u etitiwated from IStatic l·etiult... to Le Jlet:esS<lry ill the projectile. Thetie fadorlS
Me : -
, 1 '. The time occupied by ~l1etl"atioll i:; so tihol"t that the aStiulllption that the
. projectile res}JoJldl! to impre!;tied fO)'ceti ati a rigiu LoJy, illisteau of ati all
elastic body, is only Hry approximately true.
("' The titatic alld dynamic forces are Jlot etlual at all !;wges, eti}JeCially whell
cavitation occurs. •
~::::. The compl'essive yield strellgth of the projectile material is not necessarily
the same in dynamic as in static conditions.
(4:. The assumption that the force over any cross'lSectioll its purely normal is only
an approximate representation of the actual three dimeutiional state of stress
in the projectile.

~.21, E1Mtic propagation of stress in the projectile.

The Clfects to be expected &8 a consequellce of (1) are cOlltiidered in ref. :!U3, Tl'eatillg
the pNolem as one llimensional the force·time relation existing at the head will be
transI!:.itte<! down the I;hot and repeated in the !;ame form at any section until the wave
has ~..n refiected at the base auu re·trallismitted, with change of sign, to the section
concer:.ed. There can thus be no immediate adjustment of the !;tre!;s to the yalue given
bJ equtdon (:.~) and corresponding with" rig-hI body" treatment. Complete adjustment
will nFer oecur, but the error inyolved in atssullling it in comparath'ely slow penetrations
will lJe very t!wall. Takillg the velocity of SOUIlU ill stt'ei ati li.UUO Lt;. and the projectile
as thr~ calibres in length the head will not receive relief from the reflected wave,
i.e., v;-...J not begin t.o receive the lllitigatioll ill strests which occurs through it!; finite
length. until the waye has trayelled the di!;tanl:e of tsix calibres from head to base and
back. :; the projectile \'elodty if; !: the penetration hefore relief al'rives at the head is
thus (jr17,OOO calibl·es. At velocitielS of the ol'uer :JOOO Ls. more than one calibre pene·
tration will thus have occurred before the relief ani,elS at the head. The exact con·
sequeIi·:e of these elfects depends on the shape of the force· penetration curye. Qualitativply
the res-..lt must always be that a greater maximum stl'ess OI.TUr!; at any section than that
given ::y equation (21). The increase is. however. I'ignific-ant only at moderately high
.eloci,,:.,s and is more serious near tbe l1ead. where transmission times nre relatiYely
longer. [han near the base. Any factor additional to velocity which increases the rate
of rise -:of the force, such alS bluntlle8s of the ht'ad or bardlle,,!; of the target will increase
the eff~:t. The estimate of requisite bead·strength indicatetl by Fig. 3U is not affected
by the~ consideration8 ",ince the graphlS are Lased 011 tbe assumption that the full head
pressu..~ is operative. The body strength must, however, have some resen'e over that
indicalo!'i by equation (21). The amount of this reserve call1lot be quoted in general
terms.~ut if the force'penetration cUI'ye is known it can be calculated for any specifiell
.eloci:; of attack by the method gi\"en in Ref. 293.

~.22. Dynamic component of resi~tance.

The ~C1ease in stress due to non·equh·alellce of static and dynamic pelleh'atioll has
ill par. been c-on!'idered (pp. 44, 45). As with tile elastic effects in the projectile. tile
dynaIlli: component of the plate resistance bet'orues 8erious onl~' at high velocity. III
this (,E.H!, however, the effect requirelS an increase in heau strength over that. shown by
Fig. 3(; and, in general. no significant increa!>e in body strength compared witb tbat
defined by equation (21). The increa!':e in head strength it! required to counter tile
concen~tioll of stres!' towards the tip as cavitation tends to be, or is established. The
smallD~8 of the effect on the body !'trength as calculated from equation (21) arises as
alread: shown from the fact. thilt wben maximum resistan(,e occur8 the projectile will
usuall: have IO!lt tmfficient .elocit~· to bring' the vhenomena into the l'llnge where thi
differe!J~e between static and dynamic resistance is small.

~.23. Dependen-ce of yield stress on rate of stmill.

The ·:'~pendence of yield I'Otrength on rnte of strain mentioned in (3) aum'e bas Leen
the I'u:.;ed of many im·e~tigation!':. These show that tbere i8 a large depelldellte in
comparHively I'Oft materials. bllt that the ratio of Clynnmk to I'tatic yield, which is
alwap ~reater than ullity, appro3t'bel< nnity very (']u!':ely when the material is hal·d. In
one lIl.,::.h.od of investigation (Ref. 1) the test is a tensile olle, the specimen being suddenly

47
 pulled by the impact of a bullet against a yoke to wl1ich it is attached. In a sec·ond
methc..i (Ref. il) the specimen is comprel;~ uy being il;;elf firet1 normally agaim;t a Yel·~·
hard :J.rget. This method of testing is frequently tailed the' Taylor test ,. since it,
_like t:e first, was originally developed by <.i. I. Taylor who propo!;ed a !;imple method
of analysis for the problem. In the approximatioll in which the motion of the target
is neg:~ted the two simplifying assumptions are : -
(o!. As the plastic deformation, due to the stoppage of the projectile heau~ tra,·els
do'lnl the projectile the streAA at the boundary of the region not yet pla;;tically
deformed is Y, the yield "tre!'!! which it" is requireu to find:
(bl. The plastic boundary travels with a constant velocity c which can be e!>timated
by assuming that the retardation of the rear of the projectile is COlllStant-.
Theile assumptions are illustrated in Fig. 37.

z
.... ----------------------.-..i
\~!
,

I
:-AY RIGID
I
I TARGET,

i
I ct I
1..... - ____ - - - ... '

Let t = time measured from illstant of impact of head.

z = distance of base from target at time t.
p = density of projecWe.
A = cro!"s·sectionaJ area of uudeformeli projectile.
Wit!i as!>umptions (a) and (b) the etluation of motion of the unueformed put of tl1e
projec:Je is
4p (z-ct)=AY jd l .!dt2 (24)
If y=z - ct and z is the nlue of!J when the base comes to rest, i.e., when :=0, the first
inter-tion of (24) gives
(dyjdt)1 - cJ = 2 Y/ p log IIlz
If \i.e initial velocity is U and the initial length is L, inlOertion of these condition8
gives :-
(25)

Hen·:e, Y is Imown in terms of the measurable quantities P 1 r.:, L, x and the ,·elocity
c. Tt~ value of the latter obtained from assumption (b) is

2 L-~
c= U (~-x) •
where ~ is the final length of the specimen.
~10~ rigorous analyses of this problem are given in Refs. 181, 238, 242. The similar
probl~::!l of the sudden propagation of large strains ill wires has reCeiVed considerable
attenr:'in (Refs. A.23, A.32, A.36, A.37, A.41, A.43, A.44, 113, 168, 173, 22i, 357). JoIany
of thM! papers are coneerned with the consequences of the result derived in Ref. A.23
that p:..astic strains are propagated at a velocity c related to the stress 8 strain e and
den sir: p by the equation ' ,
leU
cJ=p(k

• .ua~ptioD (b) i5 not CODsisteut ";th equatioD (24), but is used only iu order to obtain an approximate
.... Iue fo~ c. If~. dw-ation of impact is T, T=l,-z,and if the retardatioD of the base is constant T=2iL-I,l.
H&.I1oe, :..29 quoted ~.uue for C HI ebt.a.ined. TlIe ;pproximation tenda to u.nderestimate Y. -U-~
 An eiegant method of obhlining this relSult directly from the one-dimensional equation
is gifen in Ref. 155, and a review of work on the propagation of plastic wa\"es in Ref. 154.
Descriptions of practical applications of the Taylor w:;, to the determination of com·
pres~i\e yield streRl'e1! are given in the paperll from which the resultB in Table 7 below
have been taken:-
Table 7.
Dynamic compressive yield IStress, as measured in the Taylor test,
compared with static yield.

w-I MAterial
Statio
Yield
tons/Ilq. in.
Dyu&miD
Veloaity raIIP
f.a.
15 Mild steal 39 68 1300 to 2MO

" 240 66

" Med. C. 19 60

J
800 to ~
f7 Hi. Cr. 53 80
f7 Vibrao 7' 100
I
.a Armour plate 39 77
f8
fa
37
fl
63
77
!} lID) to 2400

4.8 33 77

61 .Mild ateel (B.H.N. 120) M

61 Annour plate (B.H..'i. 210) 69 i} 1100 to 2750

81 Shell IteeI. 20 54
81 AnnOill' plate to 74
81
81
60
80
93
112
:} 1000 to 2600

83 Shot steel (V.D.H.21S to 236) 67 toSS I 1600 to 2400

136
136
Mild steal
Ni, Cr
18
120
f5

125 !}
!
600 to 1800

Althv;:uzh the rate of strain in these tests is unknown, it wust be high. If the resultlS
al'e regarded as applicable to penetration conditions, they indicate that the ra tio of
dynamit to static comprelSlSi\"e yield decreases frow p.bout 3 at a static yield of :10 tons
to about 1'3 at 80 tons (Refs. 118 and 13.3). Since the ratio probably continues to
approach unity as the static yield increases, and since the head hardness, as shown by
Fig. 3G. will almost imariably be required to exceed 400 V.D.H. (~7 tons per square
inch yield) the conclulSiollS already reached relating to head strength do not req1lire allY
significa!lt modification to allow for diJIerellces ill the static and dynamic yield. As
regards body hardness, the factor will in many casel! permit a degradation ill h<ll·ullelOt'.
The amfJunt of the reduction C~1l1 l"el:ldil)" lie elStiwated in any particular CRse lSillce eq:la·
tion (211 directly specifies the streslS tile projectile most ",ithstalld at any section, allu
if this i.e interpreted as uynamic stress the necessary static strength and hellce llill"due8S
can Ue found approximately from the resnlts in Table 7.
8.24:. Three·dimel1si01lal distribution of stress in tlleprojectiZe.
An explicit solution for the complete streJSs distribution in a uody mo\ing under an
arbitrary force at one end haf' not yet been obtained. The approximations ISO far con-
sidered either treat the projectile as rigid or assume one·dimensional propagation of
stress a:ong the axis. A closer approximation for the case of a decelera ting elastic
sphere i! giYen in Ref. 3il. The problem considt'red ill this paper is that of a sphere,
part of Those surface is subjected to a hydrostatic prel!,"ure so that. if it were rigid, it
would I!:oye with a constant aeceleration. The complication of waye effect" in the elas-
tic sph~~ is ayoided by assnming a body force acting on each element of wass in the
opposiTe "enf'e to the pre!'Osure, thus reducing the problf'm to a semi· static case. To a
close al-I;.oroximation the contonrs of mnxilllllID mp8S differences in the region of the a.tis

49
 of symmetry are planes perpendicular to the axis, aithough in their entirety they . .
necessarily closed surfaces within the sphere. A comparison is given of the axial stre.
difference!! thos calculated "ith the stresR which would be calculated, as in equati_
(4), for a rigid sphere onder the same partial hydrostatic pressure. Considerable differ-
ences in detail naturally exist and it appears that the" rigid" assumption might some-
times Nlnsiderablv under·e",tiUlute the !!tress. The divergence is. however. likelv to ..
less serious when" the call'ulations are applied to a cylinder instead of a sphere. For
the sphere the contours ·of l<\rgest stress dUierellce occur between the stressed area alii
the cenrre and enclose a !'mall volume with a neaJ;ly plane surface perpendicular to the
axis. The necessity for high internal hardness within the projectile head, and tlle
occasional fracture of heads across a plane normal to the axis are probubly due to tilil
cause. These considerations will not, howe.er. lead to an estimated hardness require-
ment exceeding that shown in Fig. :m. since the calculation does not indicate streS8N
exceeding the applied stress.

9. STRESl'ES GE:\ERA'I1tD IN TID!) OSLIQUBI ArrACK OF ARMOUR.

9.1. .JI9tion Of the projectile thro-ugh. the plate.

In the field of oblique attack of armour there is at present little exact knowledge of
the stresses brought into pla~' mthin the projectile, but from various experimental
observations and simplitied theol'etical investigations a qualitative idea of the phenomena
may be obtainetl. The initial penetration of an oblique plate by the sywllJetrical ogi,·al
head of a projectile must l'ause a reaction- which it; not axial with the projectile alld
which produces a moment tending to turn the axis further away from the normal to
the plate. Further, if the projPdile hal> sufficient energy to perforate, the earlier relief
of stress on the part of the head which first brea.ks the back surface produces a couple
of opposite sense and so tends to rotate tile projectile toward!! the normal. The
forward progression of the projectile through the plate is thus accompanied Ly a tS~·!>a ..
motion. This is illustrated in Fig. 3:;, which shows multiple spark photographs of the
penetration at a.striking velocity of about 2000 f.s. by a 2·pr. shot of a 17 mm. I.T.80
plate at 30 degrees attack. Other photographs showing the motion of 0·3U3 inch PI'o-
jectilet' penetrating val'iom: targt't8 may be seen in Refs. 1!0 and m. The extellt
of the t:raDsverse rotational motion clearly depellds. amongst other factor);. on the
velocity of the projectile. At a suflitiently high "elocity the time of penetration is >:()
reduced that only a very small allgular displacement can dHelop before the projedile
travels c.eyond the plate. At a ,·elol'ity in the neighbollrhood of the critical velodty the
initial >.:lrn away frow normal IDay he very large, causillg the presentation of u large
surface r,f the projectile to the front face of the plate. At a .elocity well below tile critical
velocity the back surface will not be broken and the rotation due to the first ('on pIe will
continuE'. allowing the projectile to !!kid a.way froUl the impart ro~ition. Since the
resultant magnitude and directioll of the reaction in the shot is governed hy its disposi·
tion relative to the plate there is thu~ a dependence of stress distribution on velocity of
a type .hich doee not occnr in normal attack.

9.2. Bf:'1Ui.illl{} moment and shearing stress in a rigid rod.

Altho'.l~h the magnitude of the forces on the head are thu!;! dependent on several
factors ,"hicb cannot easily be estimated it is possible from simple conRiderations to
determ.be the approximate distribution of stress along the projectile. Let the latter
be regarded as a rigid rod subject to forces as illustrated in Fig. 39.
Length of rod=l.
Ma-ss per unit length=s.
Reaction a t head 0 at time t =R at angle 8 to axis of rod.
Forces at section P distant z from 0 equivalent to : -
(1) a tension T; (2) a shearing force S j (3) a couple Q.
The f0rces aB shown in the larger diagram represent those exerted at P on the section
OP. b the inset the forces acting on an element with boundaries at z and (l' +~.r are
illustrated.· The equation for the rotation of this elelllent gives directly the relation ; -
8 = -aQ
;),.

50
 FIG. 38.
lIultiple spark photographs showing the turning of
a 2·pr. projectile during perforation of a thin plate.
 ,

REACTiONS I N A R.IG I D ROD UN DER

A FORCE AT ONE EN-D.

I
I
I s+S's
I
~, 'If T+ST .
I
I ,, ""
I
I
)JQ+SQ
I
IR P~
,,/ ,'j.
I / ,,
I
I
, " ~
s
I
Ie ~
I
oV
 .=/G.40.

VARIATION OF BENDING MOMENT AND

SHEARING STRESS ALONG' A ROO

F R E EAT 0 NEE N D.

Bend/ng mt,,"ent • Q. R sin e x ( 1- e)2

Shea,.ing $t,.~ss • S· Rsln e (1-~) (t- e)

J~ r-----~------_+------4_------~----~

o·z

~ -:;1·2

CII
V)
z -0-4-
in
c:::

-~6

-c·s

/1W;- A.JUI. 8661-

 The equa.tion for the rotation of the section OP is : -
Xl .. X Sz
sz· 12 8 = R sin 9 2 - 2" - Q
p ..
and -tor the whole roo. sZ. - 8
. . U
= R Bin 8 2

Hence, za~ - 2Q = R lin 8 (~ - x)

or Q = R sin 9. Z(1--i)2
The bending moment thus has a maximum at x = l/3 an!l since it is zero at :r= 0
a.nd x= I its greatest value occurs at this point. The shearing 8tre88 S= - 8Q/9J:, is
given by:-
8= -RBin8(1-4z/l+3zI/zt)
&Il d .
th UB h as a. maXlDlIlm at Z= 21. ;3. I ts va,I ue at thOIS poSItIOn R sin
. . .Is-- ~
--auu .1 h
ence Iess
3
in a.bsolote value than the corresponding stress at x=O. The ,·urintion in bending
moment and shearing stress along the rod are sbown in Fig. 4U.

9.3. y~alitati,;e di~l7·il)//tio/l

of lS/realS ill a projec/i/t, attacJ,:itHj a pla/u obliquely and its
relatiol~ to projedile de:siYIl.
Although the assumptions that the projectile lllay be regarded as a uniforlll rod, allu
that thE' equations of a rigid body may be applied, are crude approximations, they are
sufficient to indicate that the hending DlOllll?llt is highest in a region set back from the
head, a:ld that the shearing stress is highest in the forward part of the projectile. In
addition to these forces there will ue a compressive stress as already discussed in rela·
tion to normal attack. A~suming the projectile to possess sufficient strength to resist
failure from the latter !>tress, the most likely cause of failure arises in the bendillg
moment.3. To withstanu these moments a high " benu !;trength" is necessary. The
bend strength of "teel is increased by inCl"easillg its abili ty to undergo plastic deforma-
tion af:er its yield strength has been reached. By giving a hardness gradient to the
projectile, ductility is increased from front to rear, and bending moments which would
fracture a· fully hardened projectile produce ollly a deformation which still enables most
of the E'Ill'rgy to ue used in perforatillg the plate. A di"cll!lsion of the mriation of the
bend sr:ength of projectile titeels wirh hardlless is givell in Refs. -lHi and 443. Differ·
ential h.ardening proYides only a mealls of increasing resistance to fracture under the
strelSS cistributioll likely to occur in oblique penetration. It cause!; no reduction in the
applied forces. The magnitude of the latter can, however, be modified by projectile
design tu a much greater extent in oblique than in normal attack. From the expression
for the tending momellt it is clear that at a given value of x/I, Q is proportional to l.
Hence, the longer the shot the greater is the tendency to fail under the bending stre!;s.
This tendency would occur if the reaction R were independent of length. In fact, R
will lar~ely be determined by the projected are.l of the part of the head immersed in the
plate ard hence by head shape and by the amount of rotation caused by the impact.

9.4. Th~oretical and empirical i"1:eatigati07l8 of oblique attack.

An egnmate from theoretical con!!iderations of the reaction to oblique pelletration uy
a yawe<i wedge is given in Ref. 44.3. There is a considerable degree of approxilllation
involved in replacing the three-dilllensional problem to one of plane strain by assuming
wedge·iI.;dentation. but it appears from the solution that it iR not legitimate to regard
the reauion as a hydrostatic pressure over the immersed part of the head. Static
measur!:!llents of the reaction in ouUque penetration present many experilllental diffi-
cuItie". In any case, static measurements in these cOllditions would gi,e les," direct
illforwa:ioll than that obtainable in normal penetratioll because of the modification in
lJIode 0( penetrntioll' due to the transverse rotatioll of the projectile in actual firing.
In ~·i(,"\· of rhe cOlllpl!'xit~· of the cOllditioll1', informatioll 011 the phenomena of obliq lie
penetration is ueriyed almost entirel~ from elllpirical inve!'ltigations. MallY trial!; have
been ..llliide to determine the best deSIgn of prOjectile for various conditions of oblique
atta.ck. 50 me of these are described in Refs. 351, 352 and 354. ln general, these inveliti·
gations YlOW that blunt nosed projectiles give the better performance at high obliquiLy.
When tee conditions arE' moderately se\"ere, be<.·au~ of hardne.<l8, thickness or obliquity
of the target, or high yelocity of attack it becomes impossible to preserve a monobloc
projectile in an integral cOlldition. In these conditions armour piercing caps can greatly
improve the performance of the projectile (Ref. 356). . .
Empirical investigations into problems of oblique attack include those in which mul.
tiple ta.~ets of special type ar~ concerned. Some of these investigations are described
in Chap.er 4.
 ------

CHAPTER 4.

COMI'LEX TARGETS.

By V. A. Adams.

1. I:-'TBQDUC'noN.
The evidence and cOI}du.,;ions presented in Chapters 1 to 3 relate almost entirely to (LII;)
effects lrhlch occur when aD unra"\\""ed projedile !>trikes a single plate. In the preo;ellt
chapter consideration will be gtven to some of the effects which are introduced wbell
the arm01ll' is 80 situated that the projectile ("all arrive only after preliminary penetratioll
of strucrure or auxiliary armour. Theile condition~ will frequently arise in practi("t'.
Preliminuy al'wonr may be rleliberutel;v introduced aPi part of the defence, as in the skirt·
ing pla,Leii of some laud fighting vehicleJo; and in 8pet'ial di8[lOsitions in aircraft. III
addition, structural members and Ilncillary equipment may iltreen the armour a8 in
armo\lNrl bulkheads in ships, llulJmarines and aireraft. If the preliminary targets merely
retardN tbe projectile without causing yaw, deformation, or breakage their effects would
in general ~use little mouitic-atioll in the ("onditionH of impact, and the effects on striking
.elDcit~·. and poljjoiibly angle of impact. ("ould lie eHtimated. The importance of prelim·
inary impacts ari~s wben the latter moditieutionli al'e 1I0t the only effectB introuu(·tld.
Yaw ("aL have a large effect on the performam'e of the projedile against arJJlour, allrl
need not necosHarjJy caua,;e a deterioration. Ueforma t iOIl of tbe ro'ec'
ill a enfral Bense as induding removal of ea I>:. IS UI'tlO1I 0 b .
am l" )ro U~ 1I al'''f' e ·t Hll 10; a \\"aV/l lsadY8 the
ell " spaced a.rmour . 18 U . it IS, ere. P. u~ua y 1lI tended to dorm or ;
J'flIl' projectile, although in I!Ipedal C8st'H the introduction of yaw may be intelll.lell-
when it is kno,,'Tl that yaw in the projedile will illereasc its critical velooity agaiIu!t the
target concerned..

2. UENI~UL eON~IDEn.\TIO;';t-; AFfo'EL'Tl:\(l THE l":-,;~ OF 8[>.\0:n ARMOUR.

If a ;:"ell quantity of arwour is a\'aiiaule to protect a ~ire:1 area, and if yaw allu
deforma'ion are neg-leeted. it would I~ ant\cipated that a Iol'loi of llitopping power woulu
follow r.'Jm using the armour as two separate plates instead of OI~e integral platl.:'. III tue
aUIOel1I·.e or precille Information for the ("ritit-al velocities of tbin plates, and of an.'" gener;II
to/'wul.il ior tbe .,;iopefl of the linel' relutillg Mtl'ikill~ 1I11tl rel-iiullal energy, no ri:.:orolllO
proof of thiH Illfect ('an l.k! gi\'ell. A ",trong inuit-ation iI', nevertheless, ouwinaule at'
follo ..'" ; -
t'oll!;j.jer two plates of thicknel'Hel< fl' t: aUlIl"ritit-al enl'rgU!Pl E,. E: when under uttacli:
by HOme .. pecified projectile. Let·I:; be the t"ritit'al energy for a plJte of the "':lIl1e lllateI'ial
of thld.:.:esi t,'" t:. If the crith-a I velocities ill tlat·h 1"<.I1'e ('all be exprel'~u in a mooifieu
de Marre type formllia then : -
E - (El + E I ) = C[ ('-1 + t z)" - (t 1.. + 12")]
= Ct ...[ (1 + ~) .. - 1 - a'"J
where a p:= tJt2 lI.ud n = 1'13.
i!;iJl('e (.' it' a. Il()~iti\"e ('on"tallt thh; expre"sion \" po~iti"t! if 11>1. This rel!;ult may he
proved. ~')r example, by putting : -
f(a) = (1 + a)" -1 - a'"
rea) = (1
7\ +
4)"-1._ r-- 1
Thuiil' (a) is popitil'e if (n -1»0. RIl\! "jIll'!' -'(II) = U the dilfel"l.:'lu·!:' /oj - (l:J, + I:J:) i~ lJosi·
tive el:l"<:-'!'t Rt a = 0, w-here it i., nl:!l"e"!>a.rily ~ro.
In th., ~drtic-ular ("a..e tL=t~:-

._~ = (tt + t2 )" = 2"-] = 1·347 if n = 1.43

E1 +E. t1- + tl'"
 Thu~. nearly 35 per cent. mOl'e energy can be abROrbed by the plate if it is used. a~ a- "
I'ingle plate instead of two platefl each of half the thickness. The facts that thf. pene~l'::"
tion f,:,~mula is not exactly true. alld that an o.er-matded plate does 1I0t ab~tract exactly
the crJ'ical energy from an attacking projediIe, do not in.alidate the conclusion that a
"lOI'f' of orotecting power would be ("aulled hy dhiding the plate if only energy considera·
tions .. ere in.ol.ed. The. result iii; not surprising when it il' remembered that the shtlar
f'treng,b o>er tbe interior face of the plate iii: ~acri1ked when the division is made .
..\. f~ther point arising in any application of ~p~ed armour is that supports are
ree; uirE-l for the additional plate and that where weight i~ an important consideration
they may reduce the weight available for the total armour. The deflection introduced
ty the jr!!t plate may alISO cause a loss of protection. 'Under oblique attack the projectile
on eme!1!'ence from the first plate may frequently be deflected towards the normal. Hence,
if the two plates are parallel, the projectile will, in this respect, be in a more fa,voul'able
condition to penetrate the rear plate. All these considerations show that the extra com .
cation in.olved in insta lin s aced armour call onlv be 'u tift. by a ..
Jon 1D the proJectil{' ~ performance 6 the ('ifec s of yaw or deformation..
E

:3. rAW CAI.'SED B\' PB&LIlliNARY TARGETS A..'lil) ITS EFFECrS ON PE..~ET1UTION.
AllY '_<ll'get other than a uniform plate set normal to the line of flight may be expected
to generate yaw in a projectile which passes through it. It has been seen (Chapters 1
and 31 :hat couples are brought into play wben an oblique target is traversed, and that
although they change in I!ign during penetration, tbeir resultant is usually not zero. If
tbe pre.iminary target is hit on or near an edge a further c.au!'oe of yaw development exists.
Any a...--ymmetrical deformation or fracture of ~heath or cap of the attacking projectile
will aliO generate yaw. If yaw is developed it may affect penetration of the main armolll"
in t \\"0 ~ays: directly by modifying (be applica tion of force~ to the plate, or indirectly
by c.auring the projectile to break, when, in an unyawed condition, it would have remained
whole. A direct effect may be expected from tbe inc.rease in the projected area of the
projectile on the target. Thus if, as in Fig. 41. the axi!'l of th{' projectile is inclined at
an angie a to its line of flight, and if it!'l diameter is d and body length behind the
shouldfr is 1, its projected length perpendicular to the line of flight is approximately
.1B = 1 sin a + d COf! 4.
Wrir.ng the length AB as : -
.1B = d [ 1 + 2 Bin a /2 ( lj d 008 a / 2 - sin a /2 ) ]
it ilS ~u that sin!:e I>d for all projet:tiles of ordinary delSign the l'rojected area is
iilcrea~ by yaw. If the projectile perforated the plate without alteration in presenta'
tion an increased critical velodty would be expectro corresponding with the increase in
tbe area of displaced plate.
Tbil' direct effect might be the dominating factor in cases ill which the trallsver~
rotatiof. of tbe projectile ill the cour8e of penetration is negligible, but such cases will ..-
?e ~are_ . unless the striking velocity is well in exce!'lS of the critical velocity the pro'--
Je(·ttle '"Ill be l<iubjected to couple~ whicb will either alter the inclination of the axis or
produ('~ breakage. The effect!> to be expected from the couples, at least in the early
stages. can be !"een from Fig. 42 .
. If.. a. illustra.ted .in A of Fig. 42, tlle plane of the yaw is su!:h that the axil> of the pro,
JectIle :.! more InclIned to the plate normal than it would have been in unyawed tlight,
the re~'lltant reactioll R,. at the beginning of pen{'tration will alHo be more inclined to
tbe nor.nal. The woment about the centre of gravity G will also be increased and the
initial :Icochet:type of rotation will be intensified. E"en if the projectile remains integ·
ral unoer the lDcrea!ied transverse forces th{' presentation will thus augment the resist·
ing fortt's and may c.au!>e ricochet in"tead of penetration. Against a thick or hard tar·
get tbe 'lnbalan("e of the foree!! it; likely to indure deformation or break·up. B of Fig. 42
illustra:es a ca~e in which the direction of yaw diminishes the angle between the plate
normal and the projE'.{'tile axiR. The reaction R will now become nearer to the normal
tban it Tould ha"l"'e Iw-en in nn.\"a~·ed attack. In the Fier .. the moment would still ha"l"'e
the "a~ sigH. aR in ra~e A, hut ~ondition~ can arise in ~hich thl'! !iign is reversed. The
tendency to ncocb{'t t:vpe of mohon can thnR be rednred or rever~ed. Provided the "\"<lV..
is not ~i)O lar~e. a more fa "oura ble pre~ntation for penetration thus results and' the
transy€"<>e stre~R{,S ill tbe projectile are al80 reduced_ From these considerations it is
to be ~rpecterl that tbe infinen("e of :vaw "'ill ,-ar:v with the type of problem concernpil.
the prL-:ary factors being the orientation of the y:lW plane relative to the armour, and
 ARMOUR PLATE PENETRATION.

t=IG. 41,

INCREASE IN PROJECTED AREA DUE TO YA W.

DIR6cnON
01' FLlflHT.

~/G.4Z.

',.,'FLUENCE OF YAW ON THE CHANGE IN PRESENTATION CAUSED

BY IMPACT FORCES.

DIR6CT.':JN
OF FU6.HT. ~

DIRECTION
OF FLIGHT.
th~ alliylitude of th~ yaw on impact. The angular .elocities posses8~d by the pl'ojecril~
iwwl:.'olltely before impact due to iu; ya wille- lllOtiuli in air are so small compared with
those arising on impaet that they can be neglected.
3.1:- Y'lI.O.development and gate pret->entiofl ill relation to aircraft targets.
In r.:e ca~e of armoured bomuer" it is possible to a. lal'ge extent to define the COJluitiolllS
of a["...r.ck. In the late war, tat:tical considerations of the attack of fighter aircraft on
~nemy bombers made it reasonable to assume that the buUets would come from a direct-
ion as.:ern of the bomber within a cone of fairly "mall angle, and tha.t the a.xiB of the
cone 'IIould be nearly perpendicular to the armoured bulkhead protecting the pilot's
cabin. From the preceding section and Fig. 42, it is clear that in normal attack yaw
must ~ways be disadyantage<lus to the attacking projectile. Although enemy bombt>rs
carried no auxiliary pla.tes for the deliberate introduction of yaw the bullets could arrive
at the umour only after penetrating the aircraft skin and various components of struc-
ture a:.d apparatus. These impaets apply couples to the bullet and, since there may
be a o~mparatively long tlight (UP to 17 feet) within the aircraft, between the prelimin-
ary'impact and that against the armour, the yaw at the armour may have any value up
to its ::laXimum. Analysis of the effects of yaw may be found in Refs. A.il, 106--100,
125, 2:..) and of its causes in Ref. 142_ The first group of papers give empirical results
for tht frequency distribution of yaw a~ainst replica aircraft targets. with some results
for eq:..ipped aircraft. and the results for correlation between yaw at impact and pet-
forma:-.ee against the armour. On the first point. the frequency distribution naturally
depenc~ on the calibre and design of the attacking bllllet. In general. it was found that
perfor~an(:e followed that whit-h' would be expected from the projected-area consider-
atiom :.!lustrated in Fig . .u or from the Plomewhat similar assumption that the effect of
a ~i~E'~ yaw Cl is equi'l'fllent to that of an increase a in the obliquity of a·Hack.
The .pecific C":lUfo>eS of .vaw development in armour-piercing aircraft bullets are di,,-
("usseO ~n Ref. 1-12 Whatever tOmponent8 the bllllet may hit in its path within the ail'-
craft. :: is obvious that it mU8t penetrate the aircraft 8kin and that because of the direet-
ion of attack this penetration llllll!t <K'cur at very high obliquity. Impacts against
dural ·:.f the thicknes~ used on enemy bomber", were photogra.phed at very high frequen-
cies b; multiple I'park apparatus. l're,ious work had 8hown that when 0'303 inch ball
ammu=.:rion was used against such targets, the bullet nose was rotated towards the
norma.: to sllch an extent that the bullet soon set it!;elf perpendic:ular to the plane of
the tar~t. The photographs had shown that in these conditions the bullet continued to
plougb ::hrough the d1lral. but that in doin,:r "0 it was itself cut into two parts. O\ll~'
the b~ continueu into the aireraft, the Reparated head tlying outside.
The ~actors governing yaW' development of other types of u1111et were eluduated from
photo~!phic sequenceR such al' th08e shown in Figs. 43 and 44. The latter figure
show!' .. projectile which is able to traverse the replica targ~t without signitkan t yaw
developlent.

3.2. 1:!C derdopment and it.~ effect (HI critical l'ciocity ill "Saral tal'gets_
Tht' ~;:tack of an armoured. deck in a war~hip proyide8 an example where, unlike that
of the illcraft. the existence of yaW' i", almost certain to aS8ist penetration_ JlI,.;t a8 ill
the air~aft problem, tactical con!'iderations limit the variability in impact (ondition".
and it !>ppeaf8 on analysis that the conditions of Fig. 42B mm.t obtain. The problem is
exa.miL~d in Ref". 43:i. 436. where multiple spark photography has in this case been
a.pplieo:i to s(,ale models of the naval ('onditions. The main armonr of a battle"hip
is likel: t~ be of the cemented type anI) is not proteeted by outer plating. The interior
i~, how~er, also protected by an " armoured dp('k " and if a "'bell i", to reaeh this deek
it must ·~ome from above throng-h the lIpper decks. The di"tance at which an t'ngagement
iR likelT to be fought defines uoth the angle of descent and the striking .elocity within
fairl:> {:O~ limitll. Taking- the d!'('k as bori7.ontal, tbe an:zle between the deck normul
and tb.~ line of flight is thn!' known at the first de<'k ano the problew reduc€s to that
of findi=~, in the"'e conditioll~. thp. :>aw ('aused by pelletration of tbe preliminary de('k~,
the der'.:ltion and velocity loss. and the influence of these factors on the impact at the
annour.;-l deck.
The :'::.finence of the preliminary de<'k'" 011 the rwrformaJlf'e of the pl'Ojedile :lg-<lill~t
the an:,1I1red (leek (lepends on the follow-in/! tbl'P't' faf'lors : - .
(i:1. In its transit through a thin platp the projectile rP<'eives an angular 'l'elocit~,
tending to turn its axis towarns the plate normal.
 \-'..:.1.Sutlicient spa.ce exliit.... bet~:eel: the pl:elillliuary deck!> to a.llow the angular
velocity: to de\·elop. L ~nifiLdllt allguwr dilSpla.cemeut, but the gyrollCopic
effect from the spin is not ~u1fu:~ntly large ill this space to <UlW!e mnch
rotation of the axis from the original plane of motion.
(iill. The a.ttack on the a:rmoul'eO deck occurlS at high obliquity, so that the strong
tendency to ricochet which exists ill Ullyawed attack is reduced. by. a yaw
which bcings the projectile axilS uearer to the plate norm.a.l.
The iit'st two points are illu8trat~ in Fig. 4U (see also Fig. 38, Chapter 3)'. In the
la-st tr-.une of this sequence the shell hall covereu leRs than half the distance between the
firllt IIJld last. decks and· the inclination of it~ IlxilS to the original line of Hight ilS already
ll:l!'ge. This po.rticullH' target is thicker and harder thau the prelimiuarry decks; but the
latter produce a similal' effect. with smaller amplitude. Each preliminary deck ginll a.
rotation in the same sense and the sheU. therefort'o arrives at the tsrget with a yaw
which may be sufficient to !!lake a. large difIerenee in the l'ystem of fol'Ces to which it
is then !Subjected. Fig. 46 !>hows Ii- ~uehce in which an initially capped I!hell has
traversed three preliminar;v dl:!Cb and arrived at the armoured deck with u· ,vaw large
enougll to C&Q1!e it 00 topple (" Topple" is defined below).
From Fig 4:!B it can be seen that case~ can arise in oblique atta<'k in which small
ya~'I' wil1 'cau!;e a reaetion favonring a ricochet type of motion and large yawR will
caUl'e a transverse rotation in the opposite ",en~. The term " topple" is Ul'ed to de!>('ribe
thilo1 motion in which the axis of the projectile movelol t.owarrl~ the normal. It iEo: to be
expf'('~ed that both ricochet and topplp reJ.lre~ent wa~ta!!e ot ellergy. and tha t the most
fal"ourable presentation for ppnetrHtion exist!' wilen yaw is !'Iuch that in the initial Rtages
very :ittle transverse rotation i!'l caw;ed. For IoiOmp combination" of t~rget thicknesl!
Rnd ~locit:v it is thus likely that a range of :vnw~ will exi"t. within whieh ])(,netration
"ill ~ achieved, but out~ide whit-h failure will o(·cur. by ri('o~.'het for the "mHlIer vawlol
a-nd by topple for the greater. The~ 1'eI!l1lltF; were ob",er\'ed agaimi the armoured- -deck.
on the model I!CAle.
For a given thicknesI' of armour the range of :va~' within whieh penetration occurs is
plainly dependent on I'triking velncity. If the 'l"elocity if< too low failure will occur
what~er the yaw may be. and if it iF; Hufficiently high the plate will be defeated at all
valnf'>' of the yaw. The rel'nltl< el'tabli",hed in the mooel invl'I't;gation gave quantitative
infor.:lation for the Naval cafle.

4. &>ACED ABMOCR A:"4D CAP·STRIPPI:SG.

·W~ cOllsiderat.ion is given to the use of complex targets in defence. it il! found
much more advantageous to exploit systems which break. or deform the projectile than
to de;oend on induced yaw. This situation Mises not only because yaw clin 80metimes
IlBSlst the a.ttacking projectile, as in the attack through decks, but b~.'a'llse the full yaw
amp!i~ude necessarily take's time to develop after the impulse originating it. Bente,
to eNble a large yaw to exilSt at the tinal armour there must either be a lar,ge distallce
betw~ the components of the lSystem, whith is impossible in land vehicleH. or the
prelbinary target must give a very large impulse. A substantial part of the total
weigtt would then be absorbed in the initial target and the system would in mOJoit
circUJ1stances become inefficient for the reasons dilSCussed in Section 2. For an uncapped.:f
projtdile it is therefore necessary to find whether a comparatively light preliminary;:
pla.~ ean be made to cau8(' breakage. For a capped projectile it may suftlee to remove.;'
the cap, since its efficiency will then he reduced if the main armour is suft\ciently hard;"
or it may be necessary to use both Il· cap-Irtripping plate an<J a breakage plate. : .:
4.1. Breakage 'of (J.f"'m01lr piercil1g projectiZes by thin plates.
Th'!: circUlll.8'taD.ces in which small and moderate calibre A.P. projectiles can be broken
by t!:.in pla.tes a.re discussed ill Refs. 294, 3~, 3:W, 378. 44U and 447. III contliderin ..
m~ by which large ya.ws might be induced in bullets attacking aircraft the rathe~
snrp~..!!ing result was found that comparatively thin ta.rgets, through which the pro.
jectU~ could easily penetrate. would, in certain conditions, invariably break the bullet".
The8-=: targets .are .specified ill the abo~e r~ports, ',Vhere the factors iniolved 8.l'e anaJ.Y!M'd.
Tt..'!: determmatlon of ~ target whlch 18 suffiCIent to cause breakage represents. only
pan ·jf the task of definmg all a""e~bly to defeat the attacking projectile. The total
ene~ of the fragment!; after ])(,netration of a thin plate is not greatly reduced com.
pare:. with the initial energy of the shot. It iF; entirely a matter of experiment to find
5(j
 -...
.. ,.
- 'v:-,. •

.'

.,
0'

..........

...... "
-" •
- "

,,~,

.
~,,"""."-'-.'
o ,
.
...... ~

"
'. ~~ ....~.:

...
,
:,
itNr,.' ._,.:..~ ...
,',
'IT'

. •
..
• r

"- ;7 ~F'> '~~"'~~-' ,'

.~",;""""":':'.-:.:'"
:'1 • ,
. . ',~.-'

"
_ ..
'-~'1

" ~

.. -.
FIG. 43.
Mnltiple spark photographs showing yaw development as a result of penetration of
aircraft skin.
 FIG. 44.
~IuJtipJ", spark pbotograpbs of the penetration of aircraft skin by a bullet to a design
whieb prevents yaw development.
 .... '
,-,
.-
. ~':..- .-- --:-:--- .
....... ~. ',.. . ..;; - ~

:.

,"
.
-

FIG. 45.
~Iultiple spark photographs I;homng the resultant tranfITeY'I;e
~Qtation of a projectile after' paF;sage through an oblique plate.
 FIG. 46.
lb.ltiple spark photographs on model scale of a shell toppling against an armoured deck
after traversing three preliminary decks.
what is the most eftIcient and convenient method of !Stopping the fragments. Empirical
investigation provided the necessary information a·nd it WIltJ found possible to define 11
sy8tem of spaced plate defence giving 8ignificant saving in weight.
The brellkage effects first demon8trated on smaJl arms bullets were later shown to \)e
applicable to larger calibre projectiles (Refs. 328, 329 and 447). It might be antici·
pated that the base·tempering adopted on larger scale projectiles would necessitate a
relatively lhicker front plate in order to ~use breakage. .Kot only is this not found to
be the e&a!, but it appears that sma.ller values of tjd than those required for small arIDIS
ca.n be used in the front plate to give break·up in the larger shot.
For projectiles other than conventional A.P. bulleu and monobloc shot the shatter
pla,tes may fail to produce breakage. From firings with 20 mID. Ma.user A.P. aDlllluuitioll
(Ref. 3il) it appears that a projectile with reduced nose hardneHs may suryive an
impact 1rbich would brea·k harder bullets. It has not been established whether, from
the attac.king aspect, there would be any overall advantage in using a slightly softer
head against a 8paced target. Such projectiles would, of course-, have a lower perform·
&Dce against single plates. Except in C&IIe8 where they are kno~"D t.o be the only type
utied for the attack, as discul!sed in Ref. 374, the polisil;liliry of their use C.'lII be
neglected. For projectiles of 2-pr. and upwards, however,· the po~8ib]e existence of'
armour piercing ca.p8 must be considered. When such caps are present, thin targets dIJ!
not break tIt& projecti1e--4 C.onsideration is therefore required of means by which the Cllp
can be brolam or removed before impact occurs against the breakage plate.
4..2. RemotxJI or breakage of a.rmour piercing caps.
Since the caps of projt'Ctiles ma.y vary in their design, manner of attachment and
heat· treatment, and siuce also the piercing cap may be vreceded by a ballistic cap, it
is not pogrible to giYe any general law governing the behanour of caps against thin
targets. For a giT'en type of projectile it is nel"ertheless possible to inl"estigate thl!
dependenO! of cap behaviour on target thickness and obliquity and projectile velodty.
Trials can tbul!1 be wade to find whether, for cap· breakage, there is a critical velocity
analogous [() that for penetratiun of a I!hot through a plate. Experiments designed to
.find such critical velocities are dt'l!!Cribed in Rt'f. a27. The experimental method is
a.lmost neressarily photographic, Hint"e in the absenre of photographl! it is extremely
difficult to determine wht'ther or not the cap has been removed. and, if it has, the state
of separation or disintegration. The result", obtained by photographic methods in
Ref. 327 ;IDOW that the factor!S affecting "critical velocity for cap· breakage " are
similar to those for critical velocities for plate penetration, to the extent that removal
or brea~e is facilitated by increases in (i) striking velocity, (ii) thickness of plate,
(iii) obliqmty of attack and (iv) hardness of the ta.rget plate.
Exa.mpl!s of photographs of the effects of various targets on caps are shown in Figi'<.
41, 48 &.DO 49. Fig. 41 (a) shows how perforation may be effected with damage only to
the ballistic cap and Fig. 47 (b) shows how the piercing cap ma-y be removed without
lleinlC broien. COlllplete rap·breakaICe is shown in Fig. 4i (c). Effects similar to tholoie
of Figs. 47 (b) and (c), but on another scale, a·re shown in Figs. 48 a·nd 49. Fig. 48
shows a ease of cap displacement without breakage. Both in this ca~e and that of
Fig. 47 (lii there is a strong probability that the shot would behave as if ca,pped on a
rear target a·nd in the~ cases .1 de·capping" is not deemed to have oceurred. Fig. 49
shows two viewil taken simultaneously for a case in which the cap is sati!Sfactorily
broken. The dome of material in front of the projectile does not derive from the cap.
but from the mild steel plate a.nd would give no protection to the projectile nose in an
impact apinst ha.rd armour. The photographic investigations have enabled quantitatiw
eonclus'ioIlS to be drawn on the .1 critical velocity" relationships applicable to cap·
stripping.

5. ApPLll"ATION OF SPACED ARMOUR TO LA..'"D Vmucu:s.

The appiieation of llpaced armour to land vehicles is complicated b~· the I'lel"ere
limitation in available 8pac,e and by the necessity to protect agaiDlrt a large ran~e of
angles of Attack. As regards the latter point, it is not posJrible to restrict consideratioll
to the pror.ection given under normal attack on the grounds that oblique at.ta('k fa,'onri'<
defence. The prote('tion of a vehicle is not assessed alone on the basis of any complete
immunity it may give a~ainj;;t a j;;Jlecitled projectile up to a specified "elocity of att.'lck.
The 888e8I!ment includes the /I partia.} immunity" conferred against other conditions of
&ttaclI:.
5j
 It ia clear that the variation in performance of spaced plates aa angle of attack is~
cllaqed will ~er from that of a Bi.nele plate. ~he s~gle plate,. or t~~ r~ar plate in. !P'"
combiDation is either v2rtical '2~ inclined about a horLZontal aXIl!. SimIlarly, the m·
clination of the breakage plate must be about a horizontal axis, to ensure that it ha~ all
__ oblique presentation from all directions ~ a horizontal plane. ~h~se ~e the only ~I.rec.
tiona ronsidered, since angles of descent will be small for ground tirmg m tho!le con~lhon8
under which the attacking projectile has much pros~t of success, and a!tack from al~r~ft
is left out of consideration. The first plate may be expected to deVUlte the prOJectile
from its original course and so to.cause. an alteration.i n the a~gle of atta~~ of the second
plate. The extent of thi~ alteration. ~ depend on the particular conditions of attack.
The fKtors involved are illustrated lD Fig. 50. , .
Let 0 be the point of inlpact on the first plate and let ABOOI be points on a sphere of
centre 0 such that:- .
OB is the normal to the second plate (OB is assumed to be horizontal).
OA is the normal to the first plate, AOB = CI
00 is the original direction of motion making 8 with OB (in a horizontal plane).
0'0 is the direction of motion after deviation, making L.8' with OB.
AS8Q.IDing the deviation to be in the plane defined by the original direction of motion
and tJae normal at impact on the first plate, the angle of deviation is "'-""
where :-?=LAOO, ",'=LAOO'
Froaa the two spherical triangles ABO} ABC' : -
cos 8=008 CI C08 '" + Bin ClBin '" C08 A
COB 8' =008 CI C08 " + sin Clsin "" C08 A
and hence:-
sin '" C08 8' - sin "" C08 8 = cousin (",-",) (26)
where, since B is a right angle:- .
COB '" = C08 CI C08 8 ... (27)
8' ma,. be exp~sed directly in terwlS 8, CI alld the deflection ('" - ""') by combining (26)
and (%1') in the relation : -
+
cos 8'=cos8008("'-"") cou8inI 8ain(",-",'). x(1-cos1acosZ8)-i (28)

UsiDg (26) and (27), or (~), the 81lgle of attack 8' on the second plate can be found from
a., B and the deviation "'-"". Two simple cat!eS to consider are (i) 8 =0, (ti) CI=O.
(i). 8 =0.
In this case in the absence of the first plate the a.ttack would have been normal on the
second plate. Substitution in the equation gives'" = «and 8' = '" - "", i.e.} the angle of
attack is increased to the full extent of the deflection, as is obvious from the fact that the
whole motion is in the plane ACB.
(ti). CI=O.
In this case both plates are vertical, '" = 8 from (27), and from (26) or (28) 8' = 9
-( "'-.'), i.e.} the angle of a.ttack is diminished by the fullllDlonnt of the de1lection. This
again is obvious since the motion i8 now all in plane OBC. Any addition or subtraction
to the angle of attack intermediate between the8e two casel!! is pos~ible, and there is thus
in geDel'8l no simple way of expressing the deflection go¥erned by (26) and (27). It i8,
howeTer, not surprising that experiment indicates that single plates gain more in im·
munity than spaced plates as obliquity of attack is increased.' A spaced plate assembly
is J.i.kejy to be chosen with reference to its performance under attack n.long a line normal
to tbe second plate. So far as deflection has any effect the gain is greatest in this condition.
As obliquity increasesy the gain from this cause diminishes, and at some value alters to ..
a loa.. It also appears probable' that obliquity haa a less marked effect on the penetrati8n ;,'
of fntplenta than it has OD integral projectiles. From both these causes, therefore'
sensitivity of spaced plates to angle of attack is less than that of single plate. '
E~me~ta'} ~ork on the practi<:abi~it.y Of. nsi~g spaced armour on a heavy armoured
car u! described m Refs. 328, 329. An mvestlgatlOn of the UISe of thin spaced plates for
protedion against 0'303 inch A.P. shot is described in Ref. 322. In this application very
 FIG. 4:7.
~-\rditron flash photographs of the effects of thin
plates on 2·pr. capped projectile•

......
.J
--~
- ,-

~:""

(a). Ballistic cap deformed.

(b). Piercing cap detached but unbroken.

(c). Piercing cap disintegrated.

 ,~- ......."'- : -.:.,. j
". ,.:

'- .. '.
' . . r-
-". : . ~~
o. ~--
- , •• -- '!'
...... --
•• 0' '.- -

0; ~ -<

FIG. 48.
Arditron tia-sh photograph of 6·pr. Displacement of cap.
 .
:
J

'.

,
.-\..

J"

" - . ~.: i.

.
..
• I

.:
.. " .

_~ '0"

-
:. :-'.- ~~'~:>~~::"~'
~ ... ~._ or :"

FIG. 49.
Arditron flash photographs of 6·pr.
Two simultaneous views from different aspects showing
breakage of piercing cap.
 ~/G. 50.

ARMOUR PLATE PEN ETRATION.

EFFECTS OF DEVIATION CAUSED BY FIRST PLATE ON

THE ANGLE OF ATTACK OF THE SECOND PLA TE IN
OBLIQUE IMPACTS ON SPACED ARMOUR.

DIIt~CTIOII ."".11

/IIOIlMAL TO
 lightly armoured vehides were ('on",idered and the /Zain from "llUcing was attributed to
,)'UW, Toe inYe"'tigatiolls relevant to heavy al'lUourell CHI'S exalllille the performance of
tSput:eU t01rgetlS under atwck by :!.pr. ",hot a~ direction and 'ielocity are varied.
A lIe8Cription is given of olJ~rvations 011 the elfecti,elless of mrious three· plate dis.
~u",itium when thid;:ne",se~, quality, and inter·plate diRtances are varied, Specificatioll!!
are l,..i\-~n of !;.Ome cOllllJinutons which repre6ent sulJ"tantial eeonomy in weight. Never.
theles,", !.he general conclusion is tbat full exploitation of spaced·pla.te principles requiree.!
more space than is usually available- in land figbting vehicle.. ~.

1)9
 CHAPTER 5.

OORED PROJECTILES.
By R. Beeching.
1. lNTBODUC1'ION.
As will be clear from previoUB chaptenl, a certain mlDlDlUm energy is nece~ry ~
produce a hole of given diameter in any pla.te, and for plate of anyone quality, thIS
minimwn energy is a function of plate thickness and hole diamet~r.. Therefore, f~r
su.~ at even " point blank " range, the gun must be capable of gIvmg the sh~t th~1I
DllllllIlum amount of kinetic energy, while some surplus to allow for retardatlon IS
necessary for defeat of the target at longer ranges. Thus, all the while a gun fires
solid,. full calibre projectiles of a given energy there is a fixed 1imit to the amount of
armoar whi~h it can penetrate, and when shot quality is such that this limit is reached,
no fmother improvement is possible with this type of projectile and a given gun.
During the war, however, there wu & continual need to increa~ penetration per-
formance in re1.a.tion to gun energy, either to enable existing gum: to defeat ~ome new
target, or to make it possible to develop a. new gun of reasonable size yet capable of
defeating compa.ratil·ely thick armour. Therefore, it was necessary to overcome the
limitation imposed by the use of solid, fnll ('.alibre projectiles. One way of doinlC thi!'
was w use & projectile which employed the available shot energy more economically,
by making lit smaller hole in the plate. This result was achieved by employing projectilelo;
havillg a heavy piercing core of rE'doced calibrE', with light sUrTounding component!' to
build the projectile up to full gun calibre. With such projectiles a large part of the ma~.
and hence & 1.a.rge part of the kineti<' energy, waF; concentrated in the <'ore. and thiR W3!i
employed to perforate a core diameter hole in the plate (Flee Table 8, page 63).
For reasons which will become apparent in the next r>ection. !;uccessful developmt:'nt
of projectiles of this type was dependent upon employment of sintered tUllgsten carbide
as & eore material.

2. THE PBI!oiClPlES 011' OJRED SHOT DESIG:-i.

In general, the purpoHe of using cored projectile!i is to obt<lill greater penetrath'e power
than is possible with the same weapon firing I!Oliu !iteel !ihot. It it; ill teresting, therefore,
to consider what conditioDS mu~t be I!8tisfied to en!iUI'e that this relmlt is achie.ed .
.A5 the Milne formula shows, the energy n~:e~ry tu PI'ouu(:e a bole ill a given plate
varies as d 1.67, where Ii is the t;hot c.alibre. Therefore, if it ill assumed that this same
relationship holds for the piercing core of a cored projt'Ctile, it is evident that a projectile
of this type should be capable of penetrating a greater thicknes!i of armour than the
corre!pOnding solid shot, provided it hllM .. kint:'tic euergy greater than iM I Vi'
r 1.17
where M I is the mass of the solid shot;
Vi is the velocity of the solid shot; and
r is the ratio of the solid shot diameter to that of the core .
.Co-nsider now the p~oblem of .giving the core a.d~uate kinetic energy. The cored shot
will normally be conSIderably lighter than the solid shot, even when the core is of high
density material. Since, therefore, the velocity obtainable from a given glln is determined
approximately by the relationship l ( M ~ P = constant
+ )
where M=shot mass;
0= charge weight; and
V = shot velocity;
t.he lighter shot will have a higher velocity, but will not haye quite such a high muzzle
energy 8S the heavier shot, because a greater proportion of the total available energy will
be used in accelerating the propellant galSses. However, for the present purpose it will
~ allsumed that the Ilhot energy available from a given gun is independent of IShot weight,
although mis assumption is favourJ,ble to the cured shot.
Suppose the cored shot ha.s a core of mass Mz and the mass of the other components
is m. Then, if we assume shot energy is constant for a gh·en gun, the ratio of the kinetic
energy of the core to that of the solid shot, will be
Mt
Mt+m
If the cored shot is to be Iluperior to the ISOlid Ilhot
MI o(~.
M. +m r i ..,
Experience shows that this condition canllot be &ltilSfied with an adequate margin,
if the core is of steel, unless the steel core is made very long, because the weight of
cowponents necessary to build a projectile of full gun calibre around the core have a
walSlS which is too great in relation to the mass of the core. Further, the core cannot be
waul' very long, both because it would break up during angle attack and because it
would tend to shatter. This is the main reason why a high density core is necessary.
If the weight of the outer components of a cored shot could be made very small, then,
apart from the reduct.ion of gun efficiency as shot weight falls and velocity incre~es,
the ISwaller the core diameter were made, the greater the penetrative performance should
becowe. In practice, however, two factors militate against this. Firstly, the weight
uf the outer components is by no means negligible, and their weight tends to increase
slowly lrith df'('rt.>IH!e in core diameter. ~in('e core weight ill proportional to the cube
of C01"1:' talibre, it decreaa,;es rapidly as the core ilS reduced. As a result, core energy
falls with increasing rapidity with decrease in core size. Secondly, if the core and shot
are wade very light, and the velocity very high, the reta.rdation due to air resistance
become!; iarge, and shot energy falls rapidly with increaF;e in range. Therefore, there
it! an oprimum range of core calibre in relation to shot calihre, and the best calibre of a
hea,·y tWlgsten carbide core is found to be around half of the gun calibre.

3. TU:-iGsn::.-.; CARl:llUtil AS A COHE MATERIAL.

TUlIgt;len carbide, lSintered either with nickel or cobalt a.s a binding medium, was
atluptetl as a core waterial by oUl'lSehelS and otherlS during the war. Its main virtues
are itll 4h density, nearly twice that of steel, and its high hardness and compressive
strength.
The hi?h delli!ity of the waterial permitll the design of shot having cores of only about
half th~ jull shot diameter, yet having about half the total weight of the whole projectile.
Furtller. lJecause the materia,l iH ISO dellse. IShot with a swall calibre core are not so
light tha; they have to \)e tired at extremeiy high velocities, as would be the case with
shot hal""ing a !:!teel core of similar size.
Silltl!rel tung!:!ten carbid.e of the types used for shot corell has a hardness of around
1000 to ~OO V.D.H. Tests of the compressive strength of such material are difficult.
Xeverth~el;8, carbide cores of the hardness mentioned, appear to possess a much higher
compret!sive strength than that of hardened shot steel (V.D.H. 830). In any case, it is
found that such cores do not shatter when fired against plates many calibres thick, at
• striking velocities of 4500 f.s. and over. _
The ID.!in adverse characteristic of the sintered cores used. up to the present time is
their bri:tlene!!s. This can be controlled to some extent by altering the amount and
nature of the binder, and by the purity of the powders used, but all types of core used
up to th!:- present have been almost completely lacking in ductility.
This brittleness doe!! not matter very much when single plates are attaeked at normal
incidence. The shot tends to break up before emerging from the plate, but this doesl
not Dl&t".a' if the fragments are not too fine. The break·up may, in fact, spread the ~
lethal elect, At large angles of a.ttack, however, cores do tend to pulverize before·'
emerging from the plate, if they are too brittle. ;.. ,
When ~hey are fired. against spaced plate targets, the brittleness of tungsten carbide
cores is vi greater importance, since the core almost invariably breaks up on penetrating
the from plate, and the fragments tend to disperse before striking the second plate.
Because r,f this. it has been found necessary to protect the core with a close fitting steel
sheath, i.:J. shot intended for the attack of such targets. This has the effect of reducing
core break·up a·nd of prE'nnting di!'lpersion of the fragments before the core strikes the
second p:.a.te.
61
 4. Typms OF CoRm PRO.JlllC'1'IIJDS.

Three ma·in types of cored projectile!! were developed by combatant nations during the
"War. .ill of these depended U~t the principle of using a heary, swall calibre, core to
a
punch small hole in the target, with light surrounding componenta to build up the pro-
jectile to bore calibre. Further, British designs of all three types also had a. protective
steel sheath round the core. The three types were, however, distinguished by the nature
of the light surrounding parts. •

4.1. Compo8ite rigid projectiles.

In tb.i! simplest type of cored projectile, commonly known as the composite rigid type,
the core is surrounded by light components forming a full calibre projectile, generally
having an external form similar to that of a conventional shot or shell. Projectiles of
this type leave the gun and travel to the target without change of form.
The! have the ad'fantages of relative simplicity and of ready intuchangeability with
other forms of ammunition. On the other hand, since they are very light in relation
to their total cross sectional area, they suffer severe retardation and 1088 of energy at
long ranges.

4.2. E'lueeu bore projectiles.

To overcome the disadvantage of poor external "ullistics u8l;()Ciaied with composite
rigid projectiles, cored projectiles were developed which could be swaged down to a
smaller calibre, either in a. taper bore barrel or in a barrel fitted with a squeezing muzzle
extension. With projectiles of this type. the outer components were so designed that
they nuld squeeze down readily and 6r1ve a proj~tile a good ballistic form and of
little ~ore than core diameter.
Such projectiles give very much impl'o'fed long range performance. as compared ..nth
the composite rigid type, but suffer from the disad,antage of not being interchangeable
with omer forms of a.mmunition.

4.3. Sobot projectile8.

To OTel'COme the disa.dvantages of "oih the cowposite rigid and squeeze bore types of
projeetilefl, a. third type of cored shot was de'feloped. Thi!; was so arranged that the
outer components were discarded as the shot left the gun, leaving a. 1mb· projectile, formed
by the eore and sheath, to continue its travel to the target. This sub-projectile was of
high density and could be given an external form of low drag coe1licient.
Such projectiles could readily be interchanged with other ammunition, and gave good
long I'fL!lge performance. -

4.4. Ct;,m.parison ot pertorrTUJnce ot A..p.e.B.C. and cored projectiles.--

The ra.lative performance figures at normal and 30 degrees attack for A.P .C.B.C. shot
and the corresponding cored projectiles are shown in Table 8. Comparisons a·re shown
for 17·p!'., 6·pr. and 2·pr. projectiles. In the latter case the cored projectiles concerned
are of tb.e " Littlejohn" muzzle squeeze type, and in the former two cases of ijle dis-
carding" Sabot" type.
 1'able 8.
Comparison of thicknes8e8 of plate pel' Cora ted by full calibre and
8ub-ea.libre projectiles.

Perforation or homo. plate (mm.)

~--~------------------
Normal
I----------.~--------~---------
A.P.D.S.
A.P.C.B.C.
-I &'P.D.8.
I(Sabot projeotile)
A.P.C.B.C. I (&bot projectile)

I=i
Jda.
o 2'7% 1111
&00 141 108
1000 ! 162 ! 232. 131 191
l!W) 138 192 III 161
8-pr. o 126 184 100
&00 lUi 165 92
1000 106 l~ 85
l!W) 89 113 '11
U.lilvk n
Iqueer.e bore

2·pr. o 81 120 66 100

600 71 105 68 86

1000 61 90 60 72
JOOO .a 60 88 66

,
5. ~ CB.ARAC'IElUSTll.'S 01-' l'J...ATE 1'£!'iET11ATIO~ BI CollEU PROJOCIll.BS.
The fo~iug sections of this chaptel' outliue 1!0IDe of the ideas uuderlying the develop·
recnt of r.:ongsten carbide cored projectileI'. In this respect, the treatment accorded to
~ored PI'O~ectiles is rather different frOID t ue treatment of solid shot in other parts of
this voluu:e. It was considered, howeveJ·, tuut ISOllle expLwation of the reasons for mdng
!=Uch projt1!tiJes was necessa.·ry, IUS they are of recent developlllent and may not be familiar
to many readers.
More w keeping with the precedillg chapters, is c(lnlSideratiol1 of any pecnliarities in
the mecha:iliim of plate penetratioll by cored I'!'hot, \\'hich il!; the subject of thiJo! section.
So far w armonr penetration is concerned. ollly the core and sheath of e.xil!ting forms
of CQred ?rojectilet; are of imporUl.IH:e. Tue outer components a·re either diJ;;carded,
"'aged d<·~-n t(l become part of the sheath, or are so light as to make no appreciable con-
tribntioll ;.0 perforation of the plate.
The mapr differences between the mecbanit;lll of plate pelletration by tungsten carbide
cores and by solid steel shot a.rise from the very great difference in the ratio of thick-
ness of E...'"IDDUr perforated to the diameter of the penetrating body. ThuI": while
Reel ahot are ·Eldom eapable of penetrating -JR0I'e tJum two calibres of ·plate, tungsten
cZroide.(";(ftS may penetrate pla.te eight or mOJ:e core cnli~.'thiCk. 'Becat1~ of the high
TeIocitie" at which -earbide cores are fired, uno t ueir high ClemMy, they normally have
striking e:lergies four or five times greater thah tuat which would mmally be associated
with a solid steel shot of the same caliure as the core. Thii' high energy, t(lgether with
freedom r,)m shatter, 8('count for the great calibre tbiekne!>1S of plate penetrated.
Becaufolt" the plate thickne!is penetrated by a carbide core i" 1>0 gy·eat. tue mechani"rn of
penetratir.'J. 11; much more akin to that aAAumed in the "e.xpandin~ hole" tbroretieal
treatment- of the penetration problem, described on pp, 20 and 4-1, than iF; the caF;e
vitb. steel ~hot. There is little tendency for the core t(l form a plug. until perforation is
nearly co~plete, and n1l1'in!!' mogt stages of penetration the plate may be regarded as
approximHillg to an infinill' rna ... ".
63
5.1. Cavitation.
With steel shot there is evidence that the inertia of the plate matt!rial cau~s the
initial stages of penetration to be more difficult ullder dynamic conditions thall during
sta,tic penetration. Wjj;h such shot, however, only a small part of the total penetration is
HBOciated with sideways displacement of plate material, the major part of the dis·
piaremen,t being in the forward direction in ulSI>ociation with the tendency to plug
fon::r.ation. Thus, the energy necessary for perforation of a plate is not very dependent
upon head form, and may even be reduced by the employment of a blunt head.
In the cue of carbide cores, however, the major part of the penetration process is
associate with radial displacement of plute material by the shot head. In these circum·
st.aMes, if the head form is unsuitable and the shot velocity is high, the radial velocity
imparted to the plate material may be so great as to caUI;e permanent enlargement of the
shot hole, a.nd thus offset some of tbe advantageti of tbe IImali crO!;11 t;eCtional area of the
co~ .
Tlils effect has been observed ,dth cores of unsuitable, discontinnoul!I, bead form. With
sheathed coret! of good head form, or cores of poor form but relatively low litriking velocity,
the root hole is of uniform core diameter all the way througb tbe plate, except for a scoop·
ing around the entrance produced by the sheath. A typical section of soch a hole is sbown
in F>g. 51&. W'hen the head form ill poor and tbe velodty high, however, a cavitation
effed is produced akin to that produced by a fast·moving body in a fiuid, and the shot hole
is tapered, with a diameter well above core diameter near tbe entrance face. Moreover,
because the core produces this oversize hole, the sheath doetl not scoop the face of the
pla~. but is forced into the space between the core and the walls of the hole. Such a
hole is shown in Fig. 51b. The theoretical treatment summarized in Chapter 3 (p. 44)
give! conclusions which are in close agreement with observation.

6. PE..'\'E'I'BATION FORMUL.E FOR C{)RED PROJECTILES.

The penetration formula! originally derived for steel projectiles are found to fit equally
well for carbide cores, for all practical purpose!>. The formula most commonly used in
praC'lice in this country for predicting the performance of this type of projectile, as for
steel shot, is the Milne formula. As for steel shot, this gives a good fit with observed
resuitB for angles of attack up to 30 degrees, and for the ranges of plate thickness and
velocity which are of practical interest. The only difference is that the constant (C) in
the formula tends to be rather smaller for carbide cores than for steel shot, particularly
agai:l.st plates of bigh tid ratio. This means that the carbide core needs rather less
energy than would be expected from experience with steel shot fired under conditions of
lowe tid ratio.
It !ta.s been suggested that this is due to a contribution from the steel sheath, which is
igno:-ed. This BeeIDB improbable, however, particularly as the difference in the constant
C i.E most (m)a::~d with thick plates. A more probable explanation appears to be that,
while the ~ term in the Milne formula implies that the mean resistance to penetra.
tion rues with increase in plate thickness, this is not likely to be so marked with cored
shot. In·so·far as the middle part of a pIaU! of high tid may be regarded as approximating
to put of an infinite mass, the resistance to penetration over a large part of the penetra.
tion !Dust be insensitive to plate thickness. Thus it appears that the index for cored
shot ilbould be reduced from 1·43 to more nearly Wlity, and it is probable that with the
thicker plates the value of C has to be reduced to offset the use of the higher value of the
Index.. Over the relatively small ranges of the variables which occur in practice the
observed results fit equally well for a variety of combinations of values of C and the u;,dex.
 FIG. 51.

ARMOUR PLATE PENETRATION.

SHOWING THE FORM .OF HOLE PRODUCED BY CORED SHOT

(0.) WHEN NO CAVITATION OCCURS, ( b) WITH CAVITATION.·

(a. ) (b)
 APPENDIX I.

LlAT OF I'Al'lmS HECI'~IVgn AND 8lJMMAmZED RY A.P.P.

C'C, C'111'1 N "'1'1 Nfl H' rn-cc 1M M IT'I'I.:":'

~I Title Authol1l luning authority Referenoo {)&w

Stl"llM-8tr&in Hel&tionship In lmpa.ct O. I. Taylor C.D.R.C. R.C.36 Bepwmher, 1039

2 Imll&Ct ExperimentAl with Steel Pl&toa uainM DuUotAI and Steel BalIB 811 Projeotilllll R M. DaYies M.O.S. D.B.R. F12/163 Dootlmber, 1940
3 Tho Determination of Statio and Dynamio Yield St~ by a Ball Method R. M. Davlllll M.O.S. D.B.R. F12/163 Maroh, 1941
, EuminatiDn and TestAI of Pl&toa and Projectilllll UBCd in Preliminary Splinwr Oun D.S.l.R. M.H.S. Rept./2400 Marcb, 1940
EXllllrimenta N.P.L.
1\ I Metallurgical Examination of Fragmonta from Bombs exploded at Larkhill and M.H.S. Rept./2500 April,l940
I::lwwartby
6 Metallurgical Examination of .. number of Steel Target Platea and Bomh FragmentAl -M.H.B. Rept./2Ii06 April, 1940
7 Metallurgical Examination of TargetAI and Bomb FragmentAl M.H.B. Rept./2632 October, 11140
IJ The Relationship Between StreB8 and Strain in the Tonsile Impact Teat A. F. C. Brown Proc. InRt. Mecb. Eng. Vol. 146, 1941. p.l2ft Juno, 1941
C"> N. D. O. Vinoent
ICiI
9 Penetmtion of BulletAI into Various Types of Mawnal C.D.RC., B.RS. R.C.O May, 1939
10 The ltesistanoo to Penetr&tlon of Concrete Blocks embedded in Clay C.D.R.C., R.R.L. RC.80 April,l940
II The Velocity of SmaU Bomb FragmentAl M.H.S. A.R.P./131i/NSB Deoomber, 1940
12 A Labor&tory Method of Projecting Stool Balls of 3/32·ln. di .. mcter at High Velocities C.D.R.C. RC. 171 • Deoemoor,l940
13 Fr&gmrntAltion of Gennan 1 kg. ExplOHive Inoondi ..ry Bomh C.D.RC. R.C.172 January, 1941
If Tbo ltesiatanoo of PI&&ties, Metals and other Materials to Ponctr&tion by 3/32·in. C.n.R.C. R.C.182 January, 1941
I::lteel Balls Projooted at High Velocity
16 I The Compressive Strength of Mild Stool Cylindrical Projectiles at varying Striking C.D.R.C. R.C. 186 January, 1941
Velocities
16 f Tho &",iRtanoo of Concrow to Penetr&tion of Higb Velocity Projectilllll Resembling C.D.RC. R.C.I06 1941
Bo",b I::lplintel1l
17 Bom" "'ragrnentation ami Degree of Prowction afforded by VarioUB Mawrials C.D.R.C. R.C.197 1941
18 Frogmontation of a Briti.h 20 pdr. Anti·Pel1lOnnol Bomb C.D.R.C. R.C.I08 1941
10 8mall Dorub It'rngmentAI E. D. van Reat C.n.H.C. RC.I66 January, 1941
 No. I Title I\utho ... llIIIuing authority Refel'flllOll nato
-1------ 1- ---------1
:.\II 1 Tho l'onllwtion of Armour 1·...1.> In .. Hlatio IAlIIL 0_ O. &Inca A.lt.U. Woolwloh Met. l1.8pt.207/" -AprU, 1U41
21 Attack of O·303-illoh BuUete on Petallioa Plate C.A.Adame A.R.D. Woolwich
22 ,Prognlll8 Report 00 the PeD8tmtion Behaviour of U"ht Annuur Dr. H. O'Noill M.O.I:I. Met. Cum. A.C. 646 Met. f3 Fehruary. 1041
23 Beoond ProgJ'llllll Report on Peoet.r&tion Behaviour of Light Armour M.O.S. Met. Com. A.C. 961 Mftt. 66 June, 11141
24 Hillh.~pood Tenaian Tillite at Elevated TempemtUl'8ll-Part I. - I American Sooiety for 1040
'festlllI Maklrlala. Vol. 40'
26 I High.Speed TODBioo Tillite at Elevated TempemtUl'8ll. Parte II aod III. A. Nadaiand Journal of A"plled
M. J. Manjcine MeobaWOII. Vol. 8
00 I E.perimente on the PeolltJaLioo of Proj86til88 P. Regnauld (Trenelated by A.R.P. 1938
Dept., ,ite-rllh and
E.perimenlM Rooorda)
In I ,Preliminary Report 00 All.ltemperod Armour Plate InvORtigation 'No. 1021. I 'May, 1941
0." Dreeeing and ,
Metallurgical Labomtory.!
~ Dopt. of Minoa and '
Reaoul'OO8, (Ottawa)
AI I Effeot of Carbide oondition 00 tmll8ition Velocity and Ballistio Properties Ameriuall,informatillo
Bupph •.d by Imperial &nd
Foreign LiaillOn.
(D.~.R.• M.O.!:!.) W.A.

A2 CoFftJlation of Mioroetruoture &nd BaUiatio Properties of Armour Plate

A3 Struotural ModelB. Part I-Theory

A.. Htructuml Models. Part II !Model

InveHtigatioDB of Armour Struotures
A5 Terminal Balliatice H. P. Robertson A.uerioaJl i ..fnrruation B.B. '1ml January, IMI
Buppli.d hy I",perial and
fo'omit!n LiaUoou.
(D.!:!.R., M.0.8.) N.R.C.
:II. 6 I Procedure UBed at the -Naval Proving 'Ground for the Identification aod Adjustment Amorioan information B.R. '1/313
of Armour PenetJatioo &nd Armour AhROrption it'unctioDB Bupplied hy 1'III'"rialand
¥oreign Liaillon -
A '1 ISpecificatioo AXB 488 for Rolled Armour Plate B.R. '1/266 AUgllHt, 1940
A 8 Second Partial Report on Light Armour lnve8tigation -U.S.1l'a\'y DeIlt. S.R. '1/4fi7 March, 10:18
 No. Title Authol'll 188uinll authority RefereDoe Date
,

Third P8rtl.I RflIJlri on 1,IMht. Annonr InVNOt.iM8t,jun - U.S. Navy Dept. B,n.7/4118 April, 11138
A "
.......rLh 1'.... ~t.1 l""l'ort 011 Llllht Al"UlOur lu ...tlM""u,, - Il.H. N ... )' II<oI,L. H.It.7/t07 1I."n, 111:1"
A 10
All Fifth Partial Report on Light Armour InvllIItig ..tion - U.B. Navy Dept. B.R. 7/498 JUJUI, 111311

A 12 The ProJl&l(.Uon of Shock WaVM In Air (l and II) - Jonrnal Aoou8L1oal BocIoty B.R.7/f«) October, 111311
Amerioa, Vol. II p.238

AI2A Sillth Partial Report on LlKht Armour - U.B. Navy Dopt. N.R.L. Rept. 0-16111 February, IIMI

A 13 Suftntb PlII"tial Report on LiIIht Armour - U.S. Navy Dept. B.R. 7/499 March,llHO
N.R.L. Rept. 1800

AU Eighth Partial Report on Light Armour - U.S. Navy Dopt. B.R. 7/683 May,IIMI
K.R.L. Rept. 0-1746

A 15 Ninth Partial Report on Light Armour - U.S. Navy Dopt. S.R. 7/864 September, 11M I
N.R.L. Rept. 0-1778

.\ 16 Ba1li8tio Teet of a Boron Carbide Target In Steel H. D. Smyth aDd N.D.R.C. S.R. 7/583 Auguat, IIMI
W. Bleakney Memo. No. A-1M
:!l
A 17 On the Probability of Penetration of Armour Plate L. A. DeI8&880, - S.R. 7/640 July,11M1
H. P. RobertAlon Report No. A II
and H. D. Smyth

A 18 The Mechanillll of Armour Perforation. I Residual Velocity H. P. RobertAlon - S.R.7/641 .July, IIMI
Report No. A. 16

- M.O.S., N.P.L. WPP/JE/811 July, IIMI

28 Mo'B!::tcal Enminallion or Two DiBce of Armour Plate received from the Ordnanoe
Examination of 70 mm. Homogeneous Annour PIn.te attacked by A.P. 2.pr. Mark III - - WPP/JM/IIO September, IIMI
~
l:ihot
Chemical Analysm and Metallurgical Kumination of a Piooo of Steel Plate and on M.Il.S. THS/JE/26111 Ootober, IIMI
30 -
ElmaIl Fragmenbl of the IlAmo
Chemioal Analyllill and Metallurgical Enmination of Fmgmenla from a Tank and Mine - M.H.S. THS/JE/1l3 Ootober, 11141
31
The LaWB Oovenling the Penetration of Spherical Steel Projectilllll into CellulOll6 Acetate - R.R.L., M.H.S. A.R.P./249/N.B.B.J.I. AUgu8t, 11141
32
Sheelr.......HI Normal Incidence
Th" Penetration of Spherioal Steel Projectiles into CcIlull8l Acetate Sheela. (III Oblique - - A.R.P./263/N.B.8.J.I. Septlln·br, 11141
33
Incid~J\ce.
 No. I TlUA Anlh..... IlIIIninli Anl.hurlt, n..rnn",.... "AI ..

34 I The Rel.. tionship Between Striking Velocity ..nd tbe Damage cauaed to Mawrials by .. M.H.S., R.E.D. RC.232 July, 1941
3/32 inch Steel BaD
36 I Critical Perforatioll Velocity of. 3/32 Illob Steel Ball fin..'<i .. t Clotb, M.. nllan_ Swel B.D. Bnm08 and C.D.R.C: R.C.239 July, 1941
.. nd .. TuCnol Carp .. . S. Zuckerm .. n
36 I Thyraron Control of • S~rk Dlacbe.rge applied to C.A. Adams A.RD. Woolwich R.D.C. 8340/40 Rpt. A April, 1941
(il A High 81'eed hronol!l'&ph
(iiI Multiple Spark Pbotography
371 Comparative E ... mina.tioD of Various Silioo-Mallllall6lMl Steel Armour Plate Met. Report 380/" AUJlUllt, 1941
38 InvllAtigation of tbe CaUile of Flaking Tecb. Co·onl. Committee AUJlUllt, 1941
(Work by Mond Nlokel Resoa.rcbl on Tank Armour
39 I Manufacture of Cemented Armour Plate In Poland. Foreign P .. pers Iilatituw of Tech. Res. S.R.7/144
Oen. Staff, Polish Army
40 I Borne Comple:ritiea of Impact Strengtb I A. V. de Foreet Tech. Pub. No. 1341 I February, 1941
Amer. Inst. Min. Met.
EngrB.

1i 41 I Calculation of Yield Stress in a Cylindrical Projectile O. I. Taylor C.D.RC. RC.271 I November, 1941
42 Penetration and Residual Velocitiee C. Sykea N.P.L. A.P.P. Co.ordin .. tinJ Sepwmber, 1941
Bub-Committee A.P. .
No.6
43 I Note on Road Rooearch Laboratory Report No. A.R.P./249/N.S.B.J.1. I D. O. Sopwith A.P.P. ('..a.ordinati!} I October, 1941
Bub·Committee A.P_ .
No. II
.. I The Resistance of CeDul(Wl Aoetaw Bheet oC Varying Mechanical Propertiea to Penetra· R.R.L_, M.H1:I. A_R. P.f'JD8/N .B.B. May, 1941
tion by Bm..n Projeotil611
46 I The Effect oCTemper..ture on the Reaistanoe ofCeUullBl Aoetaw PlastiD!! .. nd .. Pcrspu" M.H.S. RC.274 Ootober, 1941
to Penetration by 3/32 incb Bteel DaDa
46 I I!'ourtb Inwrim Report 00 Conorew for DeCeooe Work. The UIIIl of Model Targe1.8 and M.O.B. F/72/Reporte/212 M.O.S./26/ A.C. W. October, 1941
Projectilflll in Penetration TIlB1.8 H.W.W.P_ B.R. 110
47 I Firat Report on the Compl'flll8ive Yield Strength of Cylindrical Stool Projectilflll Fired at M.O.B. S/72/3111 M.O.S./33/ November, 1941
V..rioua Btriking Vclooitilllt-Miid Stool, Medium Carbon Steel, Nickel-Chromium A.C.W.
S"""I .. nd" Vibn.o .. Steel
48 I Second Report on tbe Compl'flll8ive Yield Strengtb of Cylindrical Projeotiles at Various M.O.B. B/72/361 M.O.S./MJ INovember, 1941
StrikinK Vclocitil'll--COmpari80n Between specimens made from tbe" C .. A~I Armour A.C.W.
Pi ........ NOH. 3136 and 3140
 No. Title Authors bauing authority Refenmce /Date
I:
411 Allah_l_ nr Ht.lnCl l'Prr..... I.lull TN" Ie. A. !.II.-.t 1l.1I.lt.O. M.IUI. It.ll. 3711 N .. "nml •.". IlK.

110 The I'crfonnanoo of Shot "IIaillllt Plate E. A. Milne, E.B.D.,O.B. E.B.D. Rept. No. 20 November,lDU
N. HiochuliO'e
61 Addcnduol to ite(lOrt on Armour Penetration of O·303·inch DuUola - A.R.D. Woolwloh - July.11K1
62 Meohanical ProlocrLiea of MllIIIIrs. Firth &. Brown's 12·inch .. C" Plates NOB. 3135 and - A.R.D. Woolwloh Met. Report 684/011 November, 19U
314C1
63 Attack of 8 mm. Pctalllng I'1&Lc No. 1899 and 6 mm. Pet&lIing Plate No. 1899A. O. O. Bainee A.n.D. Woolwioh l'h}'llics Section, Ootober, 1941
Part lIi 8&lli8tiOll Branch Rept.
lit Att&ck on HomogenooU8 Hard Annour hy 2.pr. - D.T.D. Exptl. Report A. T. 2 October, 1941
56 Bctr&chtungen uber die Dynamische Durchdringung. (Jo'oreil(1l p&p8ra) C. PalUlCri - . Aluminium Vol. 2.1, 1941, June, 1941
, . p.296
60 DeLcrmination of the iteeiltt&nce to Deformation in !3'i,amic UpHettiog and of the Co. K.Owburg, - Iron alld Steel Inot., September, 1941
efficient of External Friction for I18veral Btructu Steels. . i N. Ul'man TraD8lation No. ~
AlII ConBtruction of the N.D.R.C. EXJIIlriment&1 Firing Range at Princeton Univeraity H. D. Smyth N.D.R.C. ProllreHII Rept. June, 1941
~ No. A·6 S.R. 7/392
I
67 NotOll on ItA. Bothe'a" Theory of Armour Penetration .. 0.1. Tayl~r C.D.R.C. R.C.27" November, 1941
I. Statio Penetration .. R.C, 2110
II. Knlarllcment of a Hole in a Flat Sheet at High Speed

611 Report on Distortion of Metal in Penetration by Statio Puoehca and BuUe18 - M.O.S., D.B.R. F.72/299 October, IINI
69 First lteport on an Iov68t1gat.ion of the Mechanical Propertiee of Seleoted Armour - N.P.L. Eng. Dept.j72K/ December, IDU
Platell P.J.H. ; H.J."i'.
00 The ltelation bctwf'tln tho Ponetration Rni8tancc and the Residusl Vl'locity of a - M.O.S., R.R.L. Sf72/3fJI/M.O.S,f43/ Deoombe', IINI
S,.herioal l'rojllCtile Jlerforatinll Pla8tic Sheela ! A.H.D.M., N.S.B.
61 Third I nterim Report on the Determination of the Compl1lllllive Yield Strength of liteel - M.O.B. F(12/MI/M.O.S./461 Decemher, 1941
l'rojeutilll8-Effoct of SJlecimen DimeRBioR8 011 t.h., &.lui .... obtained with Mild Steel A.C.W.
62 On the AnalY8is of Plating Trials ' .. E. A. MUn" KB.D.,O.B. KB.D. Rept. No. 22 December. 1941
N. Hincbcliff.,
63 Rubhcr Honded Steel PlateR for Armour Plate - A.H.D. Woolwich Met. Re(lt. 642/40 November. 1941
64 I'cnetratlon of Stool under Static and Dynamic ConditionR 0 •. 0. Baines A.RD. Woolwich R.D./Ba.\I. Rept. 3/41 November. 1941
6Ii .Surfaoo Markin"" on l'rojcctile8 caused by Impact on Armour Plato W. It. De~n. A.R.D., Woolwich R.D./BaIl. Rept. 4/41 December,IDU
~ 'I
H. W. ranons '.
 No. TiUe A"t.ho.... 1... ,,;1111 ""I.hurlt., IlPfnm .... . I,. ....
-"--
I -- - - . ---------~ I
66 An Estimation of tho RatiBtance Offered hy a Pla8tio Medium to the Nonllal Penetration E. N. Fox I A.R.D. WooI\tioh R.D./RaU. Rept. 14/41 I·~cemher, IIHI-
of a l'unch under Static Conditioll8
67 Multi plo Spark l'hotollraphs of the Att.ack of Annuur Plate C. A. Adams A.R.D. ·Woolwioh R.D./Ball. ltept. 19/42 January, 1942
68 ExpcrimenlB on the LoM of Rotational and Traoslatiooal Velocity of a Projeotile on O. O. C. Probert A.R.D. Woolwloh R.D. 4051/41 January, 11H2
PWllling through a plate
69 Nolea on the Penetmtion of Armour Piercing Projectilllll D.Stockdale D.T.D. Exptl. Rept. A.T.II December, IIHI
70 The Shatter Effect D. Stockdale D.T.D. ExptI. Rept. A.T.13 January, 11H2
71 Ballistio Properties of Armour from PzKw.lV D. Stockdale D.T.D. Exptl. Rept. A.T.17 January, IC42
72 Obaervatioll8 on Homogeneoua Armour PlaLllll, (118 manufactured in Poland) Biernacki and Wl'IWlj Inat. Tech. RIlII. Oen. S.R.7/"1 December, IIHI
Staff, Polish Anny
73 Rapid Tell8ion TealB u8ing the Two·Load Method A. V. de Fornat, AllIer. In8t. Min. Met. I December, 11141
C. M..-oregor and Engre. Tech. Pub. No.
A. R. Anderson 1393

- l A 20 Attempt of a Tb(,'1)ry of Annour Penetration H. A. Sethe S.R. 7/399 May, 19M

c:
A 21 Effect of AUoying Elements upon the Ph)'llical and Magnetio Propertillll of HadfieJd'8 J. Chipman N.D.R.C./Serlal No. 138 B.R.7/1214 December, 1941
Ht«,1 for Armour Plate
74 A Report on the X-Ray Examination of Steel Platllll after att.ack by l'rojeotilllll and D.S.I.R., N.P.L. C.W./J.M./137 December, 1941
High Expl08ivllII
76 Repurt on the MetaUurgical Examination of a Low-Carbon Stool Plate attaok by a M.O.S. W.D.R./J.M./IM January, 1942
2·pr. Shot
76 Report on the MetaUurgical Examination of Two Ii6 mm. Homogeneou8 Machinable M.O.S. W.D.R./J.E·/lIi3 February, 1942
Annour I'lates NOB. 2M2 and 2343
77 CommenlB on Two Recent Reporta on l<'ormulae for Armour Plate l'onetmtiun D. O. Sopwith A.P.P. Go-oro. Sub. Com. February, 11142
Paper No. 14
78 I Summary of Annour l'onctration Formulae D. O. Sopwith A.P.P. Co-oro. Sub. Com., Fobruary,l942
Paper No. 16
79 I Data Itelati..nK to Shatter A.P.I'. Co·oro. Sub. Com.' March,l942
Paper No. 23
80 I Shatter A.P.P. Co·oro. Sub. Com. I March, 1942
Paper No. 24
81 I .. Compreaaive Yield Strength" of Cylindrical Projeotilllll out from Various Annour- RR.L. S/72/361 M.O.S./621 February, 11142·
Piercing SheIla and Armour Plares A.C.W.
 Title Aul.hon! . _.I_._._~""'ing .au!.hority ItcCllrenoe 'I DIL ....
No·1.. ------.-
-_ ------ --------------- ------ --_. -I

82 J Th" It....iHtanoo of Mild lilA",1 to Penetration by Stelll &1 ... of VarioUll Siwe M.O.S. li/72/:lril M.O.R/MI February. 1042
N.H-B. J.1.
83 1 The" Vynamie " CompfCll8ive St.roqth of Steel Crom the b&!lll of 2.pr. A.P. Shot M.O.S. S/72/361 M.O.S./7fl ,I MlLrcb. 10.2
A.C.W.
84 1 Scv",nth Interim Report on Concrete Cor Defonoo Work. Conorete to Resist Multiple M.O.S. M.O.S./B4/A.C.W. ·1 April. 1M2
6·llr. Attack. Detailed ResullM of Model TeaIM H.W.W.P. t' 72 Repla.
212 (S.R. 60)
851 The" Dynamic" Compl"CII8ive Yield Strength of Duralumin M.O.S. M.0.S./971 A.C.W. April. 1M2
80 On the (',onduot oC Plating Tria.... with an Appendi:a: on the Performllnce oC 2.pr. A.P. E. Miln'l and KU.B.,O.B. E.D.D. Rept. No. 24 March,ll)I.2
Shot N. Hinchclifte
87 1 E:a:perimenlM with Carbon.MlLnRaneee Stcelto Specification D.T.D. 188 to dotermino . A.R.V. Woolwioh Met. Rcpt. 661/401 November. 19011
its suitability &8 armour Plating
8R Phenomenological Theory oC Armour l'enetration J. W. Harding A.R.D. Woolwich R.D. BaD. IWllt. 21/42 l<'ebruary. 1042
'-1 8\1 Attaek oC 0·303·inch A.I'. on HomolillnooUll Hard (I. T. 70) and Homogeneous Machine· A. J. M"Alpinll V.T.D. El:ptl. Rept. A.T. 14 JlLnuary. 1M2
...... able (1.1'. 100) Armour Downi"
1111 Attack on Homogeneous Hard and Machineable Quality Armour by 16 mm. Hcsa W. D. Block,llLl" D.T.V. E:a:ptl. Rept. A.T. 19 March. 1042
Mark I Z
01 1 The Jo:rr,·ct IIf URinK Capped Shot ]). SkN:kdlLle n.T.V. E:a:ptl. H.ept. A.T. 25 April. 1042
112 lJ"lIiRlic l"ro[lllrties oC Annour Crom Front DC Pz Kw. lIT. H. Harris .Jones V.T.D. E:a:ptl. Rept. A. T.-.\l6 April. 1M2
D. Stockdale
931 Attack by 2.pr. A.P. on thin HomogcneoUll Hard and Machineablo Qualil.y Armuur at H. Harris .Joncs I>.T.V. E:a:ptl. Itcpt. A. T. 211 April. 1M2
Ohliquo Angles
1M Note on the Effeet DC Low Temperature on the BuDet.Resisting Propertiee oC Homo· 1<'. W. llill. S. W. R.A.K. Noto No. Ann. 33 December. 19011
geneous Hard Armour Plate TriggR and S. H.
Oelman
911 Th .. H(llLt Treatment oC 2.pr. A.P. Shot
I Mond Nlokel, Hell. Lab. R88
116 Annour Plate Improvement &8 &lated to Statistical Analysis DC Manufacturing data Ocpt. oC Mines and Invest. No. 11" January, 1M2
Re80UI'OflA. Ottawa. Ore
DnlIIIIinl! ILnd Metal1urll·
ical La"".
A 22 1 A New Type DC Accelerometer Cor Hillh Accelerations A. V. d" Forest and N.D.RC. Re"t. on Contraot No. : 1 January. III&:~
J. It. lk:njlLlIlin N.V.C.ra·IOD S.R. 7/1600
 Tith, AuU,ul1I 1..... 1........ U... rlty Ie...rnn... nn 1l1Le...
NO'1 I'
A 23 I On the Pro(l&gation of Plutio Deformation in Solids II T. von Karman N.D.R.C. N.D.n. Committee Re~t. I January, 1942
No. A·29. S.lt. 7/16 6
97 I The Comllre8llive Strength of Two A. P. Shot Materiala D.S.I.R, N.P.I•. A.l'. P. Go.(Jr(1. 81110. Com. I May, 11M2
Paper No. 26 I

98 I: l!Uat PrOgl'ellB Report on the Invlllltigation of Scalo Effeot in Armour Penetration A.P.P. r,o·ord. Sub. Com. ' May, 1942
Paper No. 27
lID I Nllte on tho I!:ff60t of Internal Strc88eII on the Resistance of Annour Plate to Perforation A.P.P. Co·ord. Sub. Com. I May, 1942
l'aper No. 28
100 I RoJlort on the MetaUurgical Examination of 2·pr. Shot }I'ired at HomogeneoWl Armour A.P.P. Co·ord. Sub. Com. May, 1942
Plate Paper No. 29
101 Penetration of Steel under Statio &lid Dynamio Conditioll8-PartA VI, VII and VIII O. O. Bainetl A.R.D., Woolwich RD./BaIl./Rept. 22142 March, 1942
102 ...orced Vibratioll8 of an E1utio Plate cauaed by Normal Impact W. R. D<-an A.R.D. Woolwich R.D./Ball./Rept. 24/42 March, 11142
1113 An Examination of Beardmore's 1.1'. 70 Plates wbioh were prone to SpontanooWl A.R.D. Woolwioh Met. Rept. 208/42 April, 11142
Cracking
If» Examination of Front HuD Inner Plates AMembly from a Oerman PZ. Kw In Tank A.R.D. Woolwich Met. Rept. 232/42 April, 1942
~~ W5 The BalliBtib l'roperties of Armour from Pz. Kw III (A.E.C.) D. Stockdale D.T.D. Exptl. ltept. A.T. 40 JWle, 1942
~

100 Yawing of Bullota by a Replica Heavy Bomber Fuselage [R.D. Ann. 3 (d)] M.A.P. Firing Trial Summary Decom""r, 11141
No. 20
107 I Penetration of Armour Plate by Yawed Bullets [RD. Arm. 3 (d)] M.A.P. Firinll Trial Summary' March, 11142
No. 21
108 TargelB for Development of 0,50 inob A.P. Ammunition ORB. O.R.S. Ref. ....1'. 1113 July, 1941
1011 Machineable ArUlour Plaw O.R.S. ORS. Ref. F.T. 238 April, 1942
llO Armour Protection of B. 8/41 (Crow) O.R.S. O.RS. Ref.•'.T. 2rJO May, 1M2
111 Armour Penetration within Struoture hy liS mm. Bcaa A.P. Ammunition O.R.S. O.R.S. Itef. )<'.1'. 261 May, 1942
lI2 }I'oreigll Papera. Armour Plate Quality and ita Relation to PbYBical and Chemioal DeJlt. MinPB and Ore On'Minl! and Met. February, 1942
TCIIIB R<..ouroee, Ottawa lAb. lnv. No. 1167
A 24 I Armour Piercing Bullcta with Sintercd Carbido COI'l'Ol J. Leader A.P.O. Ballistic Rcoearch Lab. I November, 1941
Rept. No. 262
A 26 I The !'IBlltio PropertieB of Mctala at High Ra\AlB of Strain .'. &ilz. N.n.R.C. Progl'llll8 ReJlI" No. A·41 April, 1942
A. W. lAwson S.R.7/1938
and P. MiUor
 No. I Title Authol1l IMuinlJ authority Referenoo Date

A ~R I Thea M"'aAlIIolliont. I~r I"'IIP ·",an.loul tUI~ It. W. CJUI •• uum. N .ll.It.lI. 1:I.I1.7/IU.1 I',,,yn.. AI',II,I".2
W, Oartcn and Rept. No, A·'6
J. A. Crocker
A27 The New Vertical }I'lrina Chamber and Conorete lAboratory at Princeton University J. E. Burchanl N.D.R.C. B. R. 7/2235 Progreu May, 1042
Rept. No. A·M
113 The PllI8tic Wave In a Winl ell tended by an Impact IAJ&d O. I. Taylor C.D.R.C. RC.329 I June. 1042

11' Some ('..omments on the Road ReHearob Laboratories RellOt't M.O.B./M/N.S.B. J.I. 1~ D.S.I.R., N.P.L. A.P.P. Co-onl. Sub. Com. May, 1042
Paper No. 30
lUi Report on tbe Examination of Steel Dalla after Reoovery from TargelA! A.P.P. Co·onl. Sub. Com. , May, 1942
PaJltlr No. 31
116 I Report on Sub·Calibre Trials on Five Machincable Quality Tank Armour Plates A.P.P. Co:onl. Sub. Com.' August, 1942
Paper No. 38
117 I Internal Strains In Cylindrical Projectilll8 after FirinlJ at Annour l'late B. L. Smith and A.P.P. Co.ont. Sub. Com. , August, 1042
W.A. Wood Paper No. 39
118 Seoond Report on the .. ComJll'ellllive Yield Strength" of Cylindrical Projectilll8 out R.H.L. M.0.S./139/A.C. W. , September, 1942
-, from Various Armour· Piercing Shells and Plates
~

119 Interim I~port on tbe Measurement of tbe Deceleration of a Shell Penetrating Armour , M.O.S. M.O.S./l.a/D.J.M. , September, 1942
Plato
120 On the Occurrence of" Shatter .. E. A. Milne and E.B.D.,O.B. E.B.D. ReJlt. No. 30 October, 1942
H. HincholiO'e
121 On the EllI8tic Stl'C8llell I'roduood by IndentinK Thick Plal.ea, with an Application to J. W. Hanlil:' and A.R.D. Woolwich RD./BaII./Rept. 21/42 June, 1942
a Phenomenological Theory of Armour Penetration I. N. Sned on
122 Further Experiments on the Armour Penetration of 0·303.inch Bullets G. O. Baines A.R.D. Woolwioh R.D./DaH./Rept. 49/42 July, 1942:
123 Penetration of Steel under Statio and Dynamio Conditions. Part IX G.O.Baines A.R.D. Woolwloh R.D./Ball./Rcpt. 70/42 October, 1942:
124 Some CommenlA! on Gun·Porformance Prediction D.T.D. Ellptl. Kept. A. T. 67 September, 1942
125 Ponotration of Armour Plato by Yawed 16 10m. Besa A.P. BullelA! [R.D. Arm 3(d)] M.A.P. Firina Trial Summary August, 1942
No. 21
128 Internal Stnlll8 In HomogtJneouR Hani Armour for Tanks Mond Niokel a..-arob R. 79 No.'
Laboratories
127 Tho ell'ect of Tempering on the Internal StroBllClJ and Crack Sensitivity of Nickel· Mond Nickel Reaearoh R. 79 No.9
Chromium· Molybdenum liteel Plato welded witb Austcnitio Eleutrodll8 I.boratorill8
 Nil. 'nil.. AuthuuII I ... nlnll .. utburlty .....Iion"'.... u.....
-- -----------------------
128 I Statistical Anal}'llia of Armour Data, Applied to th" Oeneral8tool Caatinp Corporation ·,Dept. or MInt'<! and 8.R.7/2031 February, IIK2
. -: RllHoUroM, 'Ottaw.
Invest. No. 1183
.. I" . . . p-

129 I CoId.TemperatUl9 TOIIta 09 Armour Dept'. onfinOll and • 'S.R:V2340 May,llK2

ReaOUI'08ll, Ottawa.
fnvOll£. No. 1210
A 28 I Non-StrateiPo Substitute for SmaH Arma Armour.Pieroina BuHet Cores -mnkford AriNiDaJ (Ene. ;. ·s.&. "loon I" O~tc;be~;11140
Div .• B.A.A. Dept.)
·'R6pt. No. 80

A 29 J .. Fina.I Report .. to the U.S. GoI1l8 of Engineel'll N.R.C. S.R 7/238-7 Jun~,IDU
~
'-
I • 30 .4 doubIa Pupdulnm for-Ule III Seudilllll of tIte·BaUiatfG Behaviour- dI' Armour ., d. t ..Reynolds and N.D.R.C . 8.R. 7f2II66 June, 10.&2,
. . R; K. Krtimer Rept. No. A·62
, A31 Addendum -to VOQ. JU.rmao'. Theory oC the Propagation of Plaetio Deformation In j. It H"lloman N.D.R.C. S.R. 7/2-&31 June,llK2
Solids and C. Zener Rept. No. A-37M
, A 32 I A Not.e OIl J'OIl K.annan'II'·Tbeory of thll·Propal!'&tion de Plaatro Derorm~tion in Solids N.D.R.C. S.R.7/2432 June, 1M2
Memo. No. A·4IM
~~
I A 33 I.Theory of. Two DirnelllliOftaI Ballistio Pendulum V. Rojall8ky N.D.R.C. S.R.7/2567 July,llK2
Rept. No. A·86
I A:W j".llaJliatie.T,..tAlo[SmaU,Armout"·Plata Col' the·Frankford 'Al'II6nal G. T. Reynolds, N.D.R.C. S.R. 7/2668 • July, 1M2
R. L. Kramer and Rept. No. A·67
W. Bleakney
A 311 I Non-BaUiatio TOIIt for Armour Quality R. F. Mebl, N.D.R.C. S.Ii.'1i2683 July,llK2
M. Gel1ll&mor and Serial No. M·II
C. Barrett Progress Report
A36 The Pt'nnanent Strain in a Uniform Bar due to wngitudinal Impact M. P. White and l{~D.R.C.' RepC No. 71 " s.R>i/2Ms ".t.dy, 1M2
IAI V. Griffis Progl'088 Rept.

1~37 Colllmontl! OD White and,Ortffia"Tboory'of th!! Perman!!nt Strain in a Uniform Bar duo H: jo'. Bobnenblust N.D.R.C. S.R 7/2707 August, IIK2
to Longitudinal Impact Memo. No. A47M
I A ,38 I, The Effllot of • Solid Lubrloaot on BuUet Punellration R. L. Kramer N.D.R.C. S.R.7/2976 AUiuat, IIK2
Memo. No. A40M
·1,1 . ,- .
A 39 I Tetlte of Plaatio Armour Reoolvod from the National Research Council of Canada • R i Emrloh N.D.RC. S:R.7/2976 AUIIWtt, 1M2
and R A. Beth Memo. No. A·60M
,', '"
.131 I, Report on-tbe Enmination of a2·pr. Shot aM 8 inch N.C. Plate used for Sbatter Tillite D.S.I.R./N.P.L. W.P.R~/.1.E./31' September, INI
 Authol"ll IBlminK authority neferenM Date
~' Title I
1:12 I 1l"IMorl "" 1101' M.. IAll" ... I,·"I ~lAlllhl"II"" fIr 1l.."tI"lI" "III. r,,,,,, I WII III h ...h .. ()" PiAl.... I M.O.1l. W.I'.It./I'.n./:lllU I ti<ol,I... ",Iof'r, 1114:1
N, ... UUU .... 1 alad

133 I Second Report on an toveaUptlon of the MllOlianiaal i'ropcrtiea of Reiected Armour M.O.S. EnK.Dc\,:' I October. 1942
PI"ta 71KjP.J,H. .J.T.
134 I Preliminary Tillite on tbto U. of • Inch 1'lMtio ProtAlnLlvo PI"UlIa: for ProteolJOIl of R.R.L., M.O.S. M.0.8./II18/D.B. W. Novernbur, IBU
LooomotlvtIII apinlt Airoraft. Att.ck with lIO mm. A.P. Bhot
136 t Tho Dvnamio ~mpl'6II8lve YklltStrengt~ of S~I l'rojectileB. Summary of Results M.O.S. M.O.8./171/A.C.W. November, 1942
of testa on ariolla ArD1our. 'ercinl! 8 ella and Annout Plates
138 I The Jo:ffl'ct o( Calihre Size ~Specimen, I,ength 00 tbe Dynamio Compresaive Yield M.O.S. M.0.B./l'l31 A.C. W. Deoember. 1942
Stl'1'hgtb ot Cylindrical ctilllII of Mild Bt.ee.
]37 I The ReHiatanoo of Thiok Plates of Hard and Soft Duralwoin to Ponetration by Btool M.O.S. M.0.8~176/H.L.D.P. Dcoomber, 1942
Balla of VarioUB Sizea /72/361
138 IA. No'te 00 the Elect oh Armour Pebet.r&tion of f.hil Flexibility of the h~1.e E.H.Lee E.B.n., 0.8. Deoomber, 1942

13D INote on de Marm'a Formula W. R. Dean A.RD. Woolwiob RD./Ball./69/42 September, 1942

.r:;) 140 Investigation by Multiple S~rl l'rloMgrapby of Ai\gie Attack ot 0'303 inch W.Mark t c. A. AdaDl8, A.R.D. Woolwioh A.R.D./&I1./7li/~ OoOOOOr, 1942
llullelB "IIainat HomogeneoUB Hard Armour Plate H. R. Calvert
and H. F. Mills

14 i I0.303 Inch A.I'. Tiiala with b.b./t/ll.o18 O. O. Bainee A.RD. Woolwicb R.i>./Ball./OO/~ I DeoemOOr, lDol2
1-&2 Tho Yaw cauBOd by the lmpaot of a SpinninK l'rojcotiJo on tbe thin Target-Part I C. A. Adam .. A.RD. Woolwiob A.u'D./BaU./13/.:l February. I Dol3
H. 11.. Calv..rt
and H. F. HiILt
Ita &port on Ellporimeotll on tbe EiJllOt ftf Maobining Armour Plates D.T.b. Rept. III. fJ(Y1')/~1 No. I Jul't, 1942
]44 BallistiOB of Front Armonr of Crusader II G. Gutbrie I).T.I). Ellpti. Rept. A. T. '7 AugUBt, lDolZ
I~ tlfeet of Sur/aoo Lbinioa: upoh the Ballistic P\IotSetf.iea cif koiled 1.T. &i Armour iL O'Neill L.M..S. &S. Dept. July. 1M2
]46 A Statistical Analyais of 60 mm. Armour Plate from the Dominion Steel aod Foundries, ~Pt. of MineR md B.R.7/233D May, 1942
Limited DrOOII Ottawa. Ore
nr-in,g and Meta1\Q1'
cal lAb. Investigation o.
1166

1.7 1 Dominion Foundriea and Steel Limited, 60 ml Armour Plabe Ballistic Limit Teet I I Dept. of Minell anlt S.R.7/307. IBep\l!fJllMtr, 1M2
Reaultll PrellCnted io QuaHty Control Chart orm ReaoUrooll, Ot.... wa. Ore .
D~inM Bnd MetoBl~ ;
eal Lab. In~elltigatloD 0.:
1298
 Authnr. 1.1111111 .III.h..... t, lI... r" ... "OII II"ta
N ... f Tlt.la

148 Some Col\8ideration on Anti· Tank Weapona &lid Armour Pieroing Bullete A. B. Bolt I Itoyal Norwegian AIr JuI)"o 1942
Fol'Ofl
A CO I A Brief Bummary of Recent llor.ta on PencfnLlon in Concrete at Varioua Bcaloa P. A. Beth Interim Report to lbe B.R. '7/lt'78
IChief of Engineen, U.B.
Army, by tbe Committee on
Pa8IIive Protection 1ainst
Bombing 1941--42 o. 18
A 41 I Propagation of Plaatio WaV68. A Comparison of N.D.R.C. A·29 and RC. 329 H. F. Bobnenbhmt N.D.R.C. S.R. '7/3ICO 1September, 1942
Memo. No. A·03M
A 42 I Plaetio Deformation of Steel under Higb PreI!8ure P. W. Bridgman N.D.R.C. Rt.pt. No. A·tllI S.R. '7/Sln 1 September, 1942
Prngrellll Report
A 43 I The Propagation of Plaetlo Waves In Tonion Specimena of finite Lengtb: Theory &lid Tb. VOII Karman N.D.R.n Progrea Rept. S.R. '7/3211'7 1 Ootnber, 1942
Methode of Integration H. F. Bohnenb1uat No. A·IOO
and D. H. Hyen
A 44 I The Eff60t of Stopped Impe.ot and Re8eotion on the Propagation of Plaetio Strain R. E. DuW1lZ, D. S. N.n.R.C. Prol(nlllll Rept. I S.R 7/332'7 INovember, 1942
in Tenaion Wood, D. S. Clark No. A·HIS
&lid J. V. Cbaryk
Propertiea of Mild Steel, including Preliminary T68te of Armonr Steel Ba\liHti08 &-rcb Rept. 1 S.R. '7/3626 1 November, 1942
Group, Prinoeton
~ A 46 ITheandDallieLio
Duml
I N.D.RC.No.ProgreM
A·III
I
University
A 48 I Tbe Correlation of Metallograpbio Struoture and Hardn688 Limit with DalliBtic Pro· C. H. Lorig, I N.D.R.C. ProIlI'6llll Kept. I S.R. '713M'7 1 November, 1942
perti68 of Armour Plate P. C. RoHentbal and
A. R 1':1][&
A 4'7 I Tho Correlation of Metallogmpbio Struoture and Hardn6M Limit witb Ballietlo Pro· C. H. Lori" N.D.R.C. Prollr688 Kept. S.R. '7/3545 1 November, 1942
porti08 of Armour Plate: LilAlmture Survey
140 I Th.. ('.am·latinn botwoon tbe Mecbanioal Pmpertina and the Dallietio Qualitiea of Tank P. J. lliglls D.B.I.R., N.P.L. A.P.P. Co~rd. Sub. Com. 1 January, 1943
Armour Ba.tIIld on Data. Supplied by the ))epartmont of Tank Design Paper No. 36
160 I Note on Residual Velocity Moasurement by a Magnetio Metbod D.S.I.R, N.P.L. A.P.P. Co~rd. Sub. Com. 1 Deoember, 1942
Paper No. 46
161 I Third Report on an InvllIItigation of the Meobanioal Properties of 8eiooted Armour M.O.S. Eng./'12K/P.J.H. I February, 1943
Platea
162 S(l(lond Prol!l"688 Report on the Inv08tigation of Seale Effect in Armour Penetration: D. O. Sopwith, M.O.S. A.P.P. Co-ord. Sub. Com. February, 1043
Effect of HantneM on Plate Performanoe A. F. C. Brown and Paper No. 60
V. M. Hickson
103 I Reporte on Determination of Critical Veloolty for Perforation from Measuremente of I M.O.S. A.P.P. ('A)~rd. Sub. Com. 1 May, 1043
Striking and Reaidual Velooity Paper No. 63
 No. Title Au Lhorll II/ming au thority Refenm08 Date
- -
.1
11:4 " Helvlew 01' JteoenL Work OD Lb .. I'N.-.&aUon of 1·..... tlo W.. w.. J. W. M... NN.II ..",I A.II.II., lI.U. A. I'. I'. «k ... ,"I. Huh. 0"'". May. III.:!
I!:. H. Lee l'ap8r No. 63
1M Note on von Kannan's Formula for the Velocity of PropaliatioD of Plastio flaoe WaVllll E. A. Milno A.B.D.,O.B. A.P.P. Co·ord. Sub. Com. April, 1943
Paper No. M
1M I Penetration of SLeeI Under Statio and Dynamio ConditloD8 O. O. Baln08 A.R.D. Woohrioh A.R.D., Ball. Kept. 14/43 February, 1043
I

1a7 I 0·303 inoh A.P. Tri&1a with Copper·Coated BulMta O. O. Balnee A.RD. Woolwioh A.RD. BaU. Kept. 16/43 February, 1943
11181 Ponetration of Steel under Statio and l>yna.mio Conditiona--Part XI O. O. Bainea A.RD. Woolwioh A.R.D. Ball. Kept. 31/43 April. 11143
169 I Correlation between Metallurgioal and BaUistio Limit of Dominion Foundriea and - Dept. of MiJlIl8 and S.R. 7/34118 Nonmber, 1042
SLeeI 00 mm. Steel Plates RellOuroos, Ottl>wa. Ore
DreMing8 and Metallural·
cal Laboratoril!8
160 Mothod of Determining Linee of Flow of Material during Penetration of Armour F.er-ty Inspection Board of U.K. - June. 11142
Plate by Shot and Canada. Oimotorate
oflnspootion-Tank and
M.T.
·:i 161 The Penotratiou of Steel by ProjectUea J. B. Courtney.Pratt, Lubrication and Boaringa Paperll from Auatralia September, 1940
D. Tabor and Section C.B.I.R., Rept.. No. 40
P. Bowden No. 20
162 Testa af Thin Armour Plate J. Anderson A. P.O. ReJ,t. No. 38 S.R.7/2267 January, 1936
Work for 0 nanoo Dept..
U.S.A. .
163 Mechsnlam of Armour Penetration (Finlt Partial Report) C. Zenor and Ord. Dept. U.S.A. S.R.7/3206 September, 1042
J. E. Holloman Watertown AnIOnal Rept.
No.71O/4M
1M Armour Plate: An Analyais of Firings of Cal. 0·50 A.P. Ammunition against Homo· C. Zenor Ord. Dept. U.S.A. W.A. S.R. 7/37M November, 1942
genOOll8 Armour Plate Report No. 710/466
1M The Prop&l!ation of Plaalio Strain in Tenaion P. E. Duwez, D. B. N.D.R.C. Report No. A·99 S.R.7/3143 Ootober, 1042
Wood and D. S. Clark Prolf"lllll Report O.S.R.D.
D31
166 Tho InOuenoo of Sp80imen Length on Strain Propagation in Tension P. E. DIIWfIZ, D. S. Rept. No. A·I05 Pro(11'61111 S.R.7/3258 October, 1042
Wood and D. B. Clark Report O.S.R.D. D67
167 Flaah Photographs of BuUet Penetration in British Plastio Armour C. W. Curtis, Memo. No. A.8OM S.R.7/3630 November, 1042
R. O. Stone and O.S.R.D. 1068
J. Pittenger
 Nu. Titlo Authora Issuing authority Rofo",noo I Date

168 I flraphinal Solution! for ProblolllH of Strain Prol"'llRtill" in Ttl"oi"" If. F. n"IIIIf",hl".t, Arm.. ". "".1 Onhl"n'~. N.n, 7/411n .I"""" .. v. 1114:1
.1. Y. I ~hArvk An,1 "'·IN"I. N... A, 1:11
U. II. Uy,,", O.Ii.lt.lI. Ill!'"
160 On tho Propagation of tho Plastio Deformation produood by an }o;xpunding Cylindor J. S. Kochlor and Armour allli Ordn,,"oo S.n.1/3816 January, 1043
"". &itz !W1_,rt No. A-130
O.S_H..D. 1214 !
110 Flamo Hardening of HomogeneouH Armour PIRte (0_D.-811) 1'_ ~:_ Kylo I
ProKn'aII 1W~lOrt Sori..1 8.R.1/3188 ; January, 1043
No. M·32. 0 ... R.D. 11110
,
111 Examin.. tion of Enomy Material: A MeIAUul'lliool Study of a S.. mple of German Burfaoo H. W. Gilllltt Pro&1J'Clt8 Ro~rt Serial B.R.1/301l1 Marcb,l043
HardoDoo Armour Plate No. -68. O .•. R.D. 1299
112 The Evaluation of Weldin~ ProoodUI'O and Tochnique in terms of Ballistic Tcsts. O. B. Mikh .. kapov ProKM88 RorJrt Serial B.R.7/3781 January, 1943
Part I.-Weldability of mmereial Armour Plate No. M-45. O.. R.D. Jl66
173 Wavo Propagation in a Uniform Ra.r wh~ StroBII·Strain Curvo is Uoncavo Upward M. P. White and Armour and Ordnanoo B.R 7/3796 Maroh, 1943
I.e V. Griffis IWpurt No. A-I/)2 ,
O.S.RD. 1302
'-l 174 The Influence of Impaot Velocity on the Tell8ile Properties of Plain Carbon Steel. and P. E. Duwez, D. S. i'mgre88 Report No. B.R. 7/4016 Man''',1043
00 of a Cast-Steel Armour Plate Wood and H. S. Clark A-1M. O.S.R.D. 1214
176 Ballistio Te81.8 of B. T.B. Armor Plate, using 37 111m. ProjoctilllH R.. lli.tic Relll' ......,h Arlllor .. ",I Ordn..noo B.R.1/3078 Maroh,l943
OnJUP. Princflton Iwport Nil. A-1M.
Univeraity . O.S.RD. 130\
176 The ...'0 ....'" Produoed by Impact of a CylindricallIody M. P. White Annor and Ordnanoe S.R.1/4m7 March,l043
Report Nil. A·167.
O.S.RH. 1286
117 Faotora influencing the Propagation of Plaatio Btmin in Lollg Specimens P. E. ])UWflZ. D.S. Pml(l'088 Rorrt No. S.R 1/3008 March, 1043
Clark and D.S. Wood A-WO. O.S. .D. 1304
178 Beoond Pmgl'088 Roport on Plastio Defonna.tion of Steel under High Prt'.88l1re P. W. Bridgman Armor and Ordnanoe S.R.7/4199 March,l043
H.'port No. A-162
(l.S.R.D. 1347
170 The Te8ting of Metala in Compnl8llion at High ltatea of Strain F. Seitz Arrnnllr RIlII OrdllRnoe B.R 7/4101 April, 194.'1
Itcport No. A-174
O.8.RD. 13118
180 The Examination of Spark PhotographB of 2·pr. Shot for Evidllnco of Set·Up. !Wad - D.S.I.It., RR.L., M.O.S. M.O_S./260/T. L. August, 1043
Reaearch Lab.
181 PlaBtic WRVIlB in ('",mpreMion, including the Stoppilll( Proce88 for a Cylindrical Slug K H. Lee A.RD.,O.B. A.P.P. Co-o ....l. Sub. Coni. Junll. W4J
Btriking 110 ltigid Plate l'aper No. 67
 TIII~ Au!.h" .... IA""inM RII(.hurlty lI."r"mIlM IIR ....
-!,~: 1- . . __ .- - ... ---- -- -

IH;! I Shatter Diagram fur 2·inch 3 lb. and 6 lb. A.P. Shut
I K A. Miln" and
N. Hinchcliffe
A.B.D., 0.8. A.B.D. Ropt. No. 32 AUl!uat, 1043

1113 I The Penetration and Perforation of Targeta by Bomba, Sbell aOlI Irrol!ular Fragmenta A. G. Wal ....,'" Rnd M.O.S., P.D.E. P.D.K Hept. 1043/60 Octobor, 1043
L. Ro"'lIIh"ad
11141 Heport on S.T.A.M. Trial No. 129 S.T.A.M. October, 1043
IH6 Stati.Btical Analysi.B of Armor Plato Data.Report No. I A. Bmwn and Adviaory Sorvioo on Teoh. Hept. Sories E. Fobruary, 1943
I'. J. Stanley Quality Control Q.C./K 3
186 I Relation between Chemical Analysis ILIId &Iliatiu Limit for Armour Plate A. Brown and A.S.Q.C. Tech. Hept. Soritlll
P. J. I:ltanley E.(NO. Q.C./E/3 Part 1II
187 I Relation between Plato Thickno88 and A88688ild Balliatio Limit for Plato Ttl. ted botwoon P .• 1. Stanloy A.S.Q.C. Tech. lU'!It. Sori08 I July, 1043
January and May 1043 inoluaive EANO. Q.C. E./3 Part IV
188 EXRmination of Thin Armour Plato made in }'ranee for Oennallll A.RD. Woolwiob Met. Report 703/42 November. 1942
189 An EllRmination of a 63 mm. Beardmoro Cemonted Armour Plato No. 1233T. A.R.D. Woolwicb Met. Report 712/42 November, 1942
.~

.(0 100 Ponetration of Stool under Static and Dynamic Conditions-Part Xli G. O. Bainos A.RD. Woolwieb T.B. Report No. 3/43 Soptembor, 1043
101 Summary Heport un the Behaviour of Armour at Low Tnmperoturcs J. T. H. TUnier D.T.D. Report No. M. OOIl8A/1 May. 1043
No. I Armour llrancb
102 I HOll0rt on Low Temperature TriILIII on llritish 1'1t'''''8 ill Usn"d ... 11142-3 .J. T. H. Tumor )).'1'.0. IWport No. M. OOIiIiA/2 I September, 1943
No. I Armour Brancb
193 I Ballistic Quality of Armour from Gcrman Tank Pz. Kw. VI U. Hurris JODOS D.T.D. Report No. ~ 6816A/2 June, 1043
No. I
194 I PWICbing Testa witb Flat and Ogival Punches Work by }:III!Ii.Bh Steel Serial No. T. E./266 Mot. AU(!uSL, 1943
CorlMJration, Ltd. and Rea.
196 I Tbo Pbyaic8 of Armour Penotration D'·I'1.. or Minos and Oro DroIIIIing and Met. January, 1943
IWllOnrlltlS, Ottawa Lab. Investigation No.
1346
196 I Dominion Foundries and Steel 60 mm. Armonr Plate: Filial Heports on Correlation I Dopt. of Mine8 ILIId S.R.7/7:14 May. 1943
between Cbemical and Physical Testa and Balli.tic Limit Resources, Ottawa Ore DroIIIIing ILIId Mot.
Lab. Invest. 1400
1971 A Mothod of Me&IIuring tho Critical Velocity for Pcnetration of Armour Plato M. R Mc Pbail P.l>.K Valoartier, Quebec
I I January, 1943

lOll The Effout of tbe Shape of tbo Hood of A.P. Shot on Critical Velocities for Penotration M. R. MacPbail P.D.E. Valcartillr, Queboe May, 1943
at Normal
 Title Authors 1IIIIIIIng authority Reference n..te
~:I- ----------- ------ ---- ----------
199 I Determination of CritJoal Velooities for Penetration of Armour Plate M. R. MacPhail lnapeotion Board of July. 194.3
United Kingdom of Canada
200 I EJ:&minatJon of Austr&lia.n RoUed Armour Plate. A.B.l'. 3 H. W. Werner Counoil for &i,,"tifio and B-R. 7/'3/428 PhyBical August, 19f3
Ind. twa. Div. of Ind. Met. BeoLion Note No. I
ChemiBtry
201 I A Study of the Meohaniam of Penetration of HomogenooUB Armour Plate. (Watertown E. L. Reed and Work for Ord. Dept. S.R. 7/3918 J .. nuary, 194.3
Araenal) S. I.. Kruegel U.S.A. W.A. Report No.
710/197
202 I Correlation of Microstructure and &lliatJo Properties of Armour Plate E. L. R-tand W.A. Report No. 710/261 I S.R.7/3919 July, 11143
B. L. Kruegel
203 I Correlation of Miuroetrueture and &lliatJe PropertJes of Armour Plate. Part II-Face E. L. Reed and W.A. Report No. 710/261/11 S.R.7/3920 October, 1943
Hardened Plate S. L. Kruflgel
20f IA Prel.imiruuy Study of the &lliatie Properties of Flame·Hardened Armour Plate E. L. Reed and W.A. Report No. 7I0/3M S.R.7/3921 April, 194.3
S. L. Kruegel
2061 Further Studiee of the Meohanisrn of Penetration of Armour Plate A.lIurlioh W.A. Report No. 710/451
I B.a. 7/3923 July,l9f3
206 High Speed Testing. A Critique of the MoMurement! of tho Stresa·Strain Relation at J. H. Hollomon and W.A. Report No. 112/~ B.R.7/3922 July, 194.3
f£ High Speed. C. Zener

207 Investigation of the Ballistlo Properties of a Laminated Armour Allembly Submitted J. Sullivan W.A. Report No. 710/484 B.R.7/"722 Marcb, 1943
by Colonel H. W. Miller of the Univemty of Michigan
208 Proof Firing of Three·inoh Armour Pieroing Sbot with Difforont Contours F. Seitz Frankford Aracnal Report B.R.7/f339 NOVllmber, 1942
No. R·2M
209 A Study of Armour Piflrclng Corllll and the Phenomena of Armour Penetration by Meane E. R. Thile Frankford Aracnal Report B.R.7/UM February, 1943
of High S~ X·Ray Photollrapw. No. R·273
210 I Armour Penetration by Uranium and by Tungaten Bullet!. First Report C. W. Hudao!?1 E. R.I Frankford Anllmal Report B.R.7/US4. March, 1114.3
Thile and H. w. Euker No. R·274
211 I Development Test of Low Alloy Stool Aberdoon Proving Oround B.R.7/4.629 March,l943
Report No. A.D. 326
212 I Survey of the IJmit Velooity Performanoe Standard Calibre 60M2 A.P. 20 mm. A.P.
or J. Leeder B..II. Roa. Lab. Memo. 8.R.7/46M March, 1114.3
M711 and 37 mm. A.P.C. Mill Projectllllll againlt Thin Homogenoous Plate Rept. No. 132. A.P.O.
213 I Penetration of Mild Steel by A.P. Type Projeotiles J. Leeder &11. Rea. I..ab. No. IU S.R.7/4531 April, 194.3
A.P.O.
21. I The EffootiVllne811 of Llgbt Armour &I a Proteotlon against Flak H. M. ¥orae TflCh. Div. Servioo Branch B.R. 7/"45 Marcb.I94.3
n..lI. &ct. Offioo of
Chief of Ordnanoo U .B.A.
 No. Title AlIl,hul'll 10.111'"11 .. uthorlty Ref.. ren08 DalAI
---------1--------------1 - - - '
216 I Eleventh P .. rtial Report on Lillht Annour Work hy U.S. Navy Dept. B.R.7/f623 ' May, 1943
N.I'.O. DahlKren.
&port No. 0-2068
218 I Tho Penotration of HomogenooUB Ligbt Annour by jacketed Prujootiles .. t Normal Bure.. u ofOrdnanoo V.B. July, 1943
Obliquity Navy. N.P.O., Dablgren
&port No. 14-43
217 I ProIlI'888 Explosion Teat for Wolded Annaur Plato W. C. Snelling N.D.R.C. S.R.7/4206 April, 1943

218 Non·Ballistio T88t for AnnOIU Plato M. Gensmer, C. S. O.B.R.D. 1386----&rial No. B.R.7/42O'1 April, 1943
I Bamltt and R. F. Mehl M·IID. Special Report
I
219 Preliminary Report on Deftootion and Porforation of Bteel Platoa at Impaot Velooities P. E. Duwez, D. S. Annour and Ord" .."oo B.R.7/f3115 April, 1943
up to 150 R./I!JOO. Wood and D. 8. Clark Dept. No. A·17~
O.B.R.D. 1402
220 I Flamo H.. rdoning of HomogenooUB Armour PlaIA!: Elfeot of Flame Hardenina on tbe i P. E. Kyle ProgreB8 Report Serial B.R.7/432o& May, 1943
BalliBtio l'ropertiee of Pre-Hoat Treated HomogenooUB Annour PlaIA! No. M-89. O.S.R.D. 1409
221 I Improvement of JAlW Alloy Armour Steels C. H. Lorig, P. C. 1 Seril\l No. M·77 Progreu B.R.7/4392 May, 1943
Roeontb ..I, M. C. Vdy, Report O.S.R.D. If18
~ A. R. EIIIl''', G. P.
Kruml ..... f .. nd
O. K. Mannillil
222 I The Effect of Cold·Worklng on tbe &lliBtio Properties of Steel PlaIA! O. W. Bridgm..n Armour and Ordnanoo I B.R.7/f33O May, 1943
Report No. A·177
O.S.R.D. 1429
223 I Weldability of Commeroial ArmoIU Plato: The Inftuenoe of Thermal StreBII Relief on, R. H. Abom and Progrtllll! Report Serial B.R.7/4772 :1 May, 11:4;1
the Hardru. of Five Typca of I' inoh Rolled Annour R. E. Brian No. M·73 O.B.R.D. 1488
220& I Dynamio Tests of the Tellllile Propert.iee of B.A.E. 1020 Steels, ArDlOO Iron and 17B. T. P. E. Duwez, D.B. Armour and Ordn .. noo S.R. 7/4401 May, 1943
Aluminium Alloy Wood and D. B. Clark Report No. A·182
O.S.R.D. If 00
226 I The InJluenoo of Impact Velocity on tbe Tensile Properties of C.... B Armour PlalA!." P. E. Duwez, D. B. Armour .. nd Ordn.. noo S.R. 7/43/284. July, 1D43'
Heat-Treated Alloy BteeIa and Stainlllllll Steels Wood and D. S. Clark Report No. A.1911
O.S.R.D. 1841
228 I Correl.. lionoCMutallolrr&phioBtruotureand H ..rdn_ Limit in ArmolU PlaIA!: Par I.-I C. H. LoriR, A. R. Fin..1 Report Series No. B.R. 7/43/337 I AUllust, 1943
Effects of AuslA!nllA! TraWlformation Products on Ballistio Propertioa Et-, P. C. Roaenthal M·1I8. O.S.R.D. 1896
, and O. K. Manninll
227 I Tbe Beh.. violU of Longitudinal StreBII Waves near Disoontinuiti68 in Bars of Plastio I.e V. Griffis Annour and OrdnanOD S.R. 7/f3/739 I Septemoor, 1943
M.. terial Report No. A·212
0.S.R.D.1799
 Nn. TIUo Anti .. , •• I.n", • ... t.hurlt., Ilnr"nulua 11,,1...

228 Disou88ion of Energy Mea8uremenl.8 in Tension Impaot Teate at tho CaJifomia lnatituto I P. E. Du .... D. B. Armour and Ordnanoe B.R. '1/4~nfO September, IIK3
of ToohnoloirY Wood alld n. 8. Cluk Report No. 10·21'1
U.s.R.D. 1829
229 Plaatlo Deformation of Steel under Hlah Pr-ure D. W. Brldllm&D Annour and Ordnanoe S.R. '1/.a/1026 September, 11M3
&port No. 10·218
U.B.R.D. 1888
180 ColTlllation of Meta1lMCphlo Btruoton and H&rdnaa Limit In Armour Plato: Part U- c. B. Lori\.!. R. Final Report Serial No. B.R. '1/43/J226 October, JIM3
Correlation of oroatluotu", and Ballilltlo Propertlee.. Part ill-Anal,- of M·IM. D.B.R.D. 1MB
Problema p~nted by Individua,l ProdUDen !dP~c~~~
231 Examination 0'~my Mal.llri&l. M.&alIUI'IIiDaI Study of Two &mpJ811 of Japa.DMI B. W. Gill,,", A. S. ProJiM Report Serial B.R. '1/.a/ll06 Ootober, 11M3
Welded LiK t 1D111I8DBOU8 Mmour Henderwon. L. H. No. ·168. O.8.R.D. IIM18
Grenoll, J. Dunleavy
IIDd J. R. Cady
232 On the Statio and .l)ynamlo Plastio ReDo&, 0{ pw.. D. H. H,en Armuur and O..w- B.R. '1/4Al8'J No _ _• 11143-
Report No. A·228
O.M-R.D. 2018
233 Non·Ballilltio Test. for Armour Plato 14. o.n-.-, O. 8. Final Re~rt Series No. S.R.44/111 Noftlmber, If'-,3
II u.neU, A. lJ. W.... 111-87. .S.R.D. :JOt.
e~ J. Vajda and
. F. Mebl
234 Tbe &aotiona of Thia 8e&ma and B1a.. to Impaot Load.. Pan I.~ n.-, H. rRoben.on Intorim Report Chief Eng. S.R. '1/3'162 &ad 3763 J\lIIIII.I~
Part 1I.-BealD8 an R. J. Sluts U.S. Army by tho Com. . I
mittoo on P&.IIIIive Protoo·
tiO~ai"8t BombinllllMl
2 Noe. 13 and I'
236 Compariaon of 0-30 Calibre A.P. CoIUI under Comparator Miol'OllOOpe - British Arlmiralt~Je. B.R.7/4129 June, 11M3
..tion: P .... tio our
Division: Ref.:
IO/3/A.H.L./II.a
236 Compariaon of British Stool Protootive Plating with Amerioan S. T.S. PlatiDII - Britisb Admiralty Dele. S.R. '1/4131 Deoewber. IIMZ
lation: Plutio Annollf
J)j"iaion: nef.:
, \ 6/2/A.H.L./12/42
\

237 Armour Penetration Martinenky WehrteohnillChll Mon ..t· - November, IIMZ

Ihefto T ..Il8I .. ted by
Bohool of Tank Tooboolon
238 Note on tbe Collillion of a Plaatio CyUnder witb .. rigid Obat&ale F. G. Friedlander - A.P.P. (Jo-ord. Sub. Com. Marob, IIM4
Paper No. 118
 No. Title Authortl l88uing authority &ferenoo Date

230 ! Hcarlon Molion of .. Cylindrical Projedil" S"l>jllOl, l"alt.Jl"nlilll( 1""fNl (lrlh.. 1'(1111..1,,1. V. lI"jR""~ V M lUI Ie I.; N. :Ui~ "I'.il. JIIH
'1\'1'" UcouQ.luh tunl I~.I •. ),.,.,1..
UU Ifll"III1I8 .. UII LuhcicaUod I:IhuL O. O. Daiue& A.R.D. Woohvloh T.O. Report 1I{43 o-.mber.l~

241 The Effect of the Surfaor> Finish of the Ogive on the Performauoo of A.P. Shot U. O. Dainll8 A.R.ll. Woolwioh T.II. &Ilort 11/43 no..,mbcr. 11143
2411 Th .. AnalyaiJo of the I'lulio Deformation In .. Cylillll.,r of I:Ihut I:lteeI Strikina .. Rigid K H. Leo. allll A.R.I). Woolwioh S.T.A. Heport No. 41" January, 1\10&3
TarKet 1:1 ••f. Topper
U3 Penetration of Annour hy High Velocity Projectilllll and Munroe Jeta R. JliI(. N. F. Mott A.R.I). Woolwich tI.T.A. Report 13{" March,1M3
and D. C. Pack
244. The Perforalion of Armour by A.P. ProJoctilOll Part 1.-8teel Projeotilce D. Stockdale and School of Tank Januuy, 'f~4
V. K. W. Duff TochnoloKY
24u The Elfoct of Low Temperature on tho Bullet IW8lstlng Pro(Mlrtill8 of Armour PlatAl M,A.)'. Orfordn08ll O.R.D. Rilf.: F. T. 308 September. 1114a
~rch Station

246 A New Method of Determinina the Projectile Pelletra.t.ion Resiatanoo of Armour Dept. of Mine8 and S.n. 7{44{644. December, 1943
Plaw RosouIUlll, Ottawa. Ore
IltwJeInll and Mot. Lab.
,~ InvOBtigatlon No. 11137
247 Terminal Ballistics and Explosive Eftocta N.R.C. RR. 7/44/1334 October, 11143
248 Types of Failore Ocoorrlng In the Shock TllIIt of I inch Homogenoou8 Arruour with On:lnall<'O Dept. U.S.A. S.R, 7/43/KOS Marcb.l042
Calibre 0·00 A.P. Projootile& WalK>rtown .Araenal Rolled Armour H.ellf.
No."
249 Fint IUlport on TeruDon TNite under PnlMure ror the Watertown Amenal P. W. Bridgman W.A. Rilpt. No. 111/7 B.R. 7{43/12IIl Marcb, 1\143
2fj() Second Roport on Torsion }o:lIperimenta for the WawrtowlI Arsenal P. W. Bridgman W.A. Rept. No. 111/7.1 S.a. 7/43{12II2 Maroh, 11143
26) The Effect of Pre·atrainina In Tension on the Behaviour of SIAlcI under Tension, Tonion P. W. Bridgman W.A. Ropt. No. 111/7.2 B.R.7/43/12113 July, 1M3
and Com pl'OllBion
262 Deftlopment of a Fracture TaJt to Indioabl the lleime of Hardening of Armour BtAlIU A. Hyrlich W.A. Rapt. No. 710/632 8.R. 7/.f;J/fMB AUllust, 11143
on Quenching
263 Armour Plate-Rolled, Ballistio and MetallW'llical II inoh S.A.E. 1036 Rolled Homo· E. L.&ed W.A. S.R. 7/4:1/1170 Ootober, 1943
gcneou8 Armour Plato Exp. Rept. No, W.A.L.
710/M6
2M I'rinciplNl of Projoot.ilo Design flM' Peooiration. Firat. Pariial Rilpt. C. Zener "nd W.A. 8.R. 7/44/123 Ootobw, 11143
R. E. Peterson 1D!/32 1
%lift Tensi Ie Sll'C88-8train Curves J. E. Hollomom W.A. Rept. No. 1'130n·1 November, 11143
 No. I Title AIII.hun Ito-f....,II"a .,......
------------------- --------- . lo'IIIj"M
_.- - .. ."I.h"nl·Y
----.---- - I' ·1
lllO Tu ''''''''rlll...' tb., ~Oi>llt of HanJn8118 on the Ballistio l'ro(Mlrties of 1 Inoh Cut Plates A.P.O. &pt. No. A.D.- B.R. 7/"/478 I Dooember. 1942
101
2li7 To Dotennine the "~lToot of tbe BaDistio Propertit'lll oll inoh Cast. HomOllOneDWI Armour A.P.O. Rept. No. A.P.·380 I B.R. 7/44/144 May, 10<'~

268 To o"tormin., the Effeot of Plato Size alld the Method of Support on tb., Roeistanoe to A. P.O. Rept. No. A.D.·li27 B.R. 7/"/llO June, 1943
Penetratioo of t inch and , inoh &lIed HomolloneouB Armour witb Cal. 0-30
A.P.M.2

269/ Impmvement oC rr-nt Method oC Meaenrin8 Pla.te Thiokn_ lor Ballistio TeetB I I A.P.O. Rept. No. A.D.·533I B.R. 7/"/116
260 BaDiBtio TeatB of Rolled HomOjlllneoWl Armour (made from N.E.9430 Steel) under A. P.O. Rept. No. A.D.-li7'l B.R. 7/"/308 ISeptember, 11143
R(Mlcification A.X.S. 401)-2 aod A.X.S. 711
261 I Shock Teet Ballistio LimitB 00 Four. inoh. Tweoty t Inch and Four A Inch Fare- I I A.P.O. Rept. No. A.D.·636I B.B. 7/44/300 Auauat. 1943
hanleoed PlatAlB
262 I Tenth Partial Report 00 Light Armour I U.S. Navy Dopt. N.B.I.. B.R. 7/43/10611 June, 1042
Rept. ()-1892
263 The Mechanica oC Armour Perforation. m. Reeisting Foroe During the Penetration H. P. Robel1Alon Armour Bnd OrdnanOll B.B. 7/43/llD'l October. 1943
~ Cycle Report No. A-2ll
O.B.R.D. 17118
2M The MeobaniOB of Armour Perforation. I. Residual Velooity H. P. RobertBon Armour "nd Ordn"oC6 S.R.7/44/7M. I November. 1943
Rept. No. A-227
O.S.R.D. 2043
266 I Tbe EffectB of Flame H"rdeninll on the Ballistio Properties of Pre·He&t Tre&ted P. E. Kyle ProIlf68B Rest. Serial No. B.R. 7/44/353 ' I November. 1943
HomogenooWl Armour Pla.te • M·167. O.. R.D. 20511
266 I Distortion of an Armour Plate under Simple Comprellllive StreBII to High Strains P. W. Bridgman Armour "nd OrdnanOll B.a. 7/«/1268 I Dooember. 1943
Rept. No. A·231i
O.S.R.D.30ID
267 I Illveatill"tion of Bomn in Armour Pla.te. Influence of Bomn and Chromium on IIOme I T. O. Digg~ and / ProgrnBII Re port Serial I B.R.7/44/368 I Dooember. 1943
Propertieal of F;xperimentBl Steels containing 0-3 per oent. Carbon and 0·8, 1·26 or F. M. Reillh&rdt No. M·174. 0.S.R.D.3020
1·6 per oent. Manganeoe
268 I Tbe Influence oC Specimen DimensioM and Shape 00 tbe Reault8 of Tensile Impact I D. H. Wood, P. E. Armour and Ordnance B.R. 7/«/1263 I Dooemher, 1943
T6IItB Duwe~ and D. S. Clark Regjrt No. 231
O.. R.D.3028
269 I JoID,,1(0.DReport ol the UII6 oC Speoial Non·Alloy Stools for Armour Pieroing Capped Shot: I J. S. Jack80n, D. P. PmJ(T'OBB ReJlort Serial I B.R. 7/44/6118 I January, 1944
.. 10'l) BaBweJl, C. Jo'i&her No. M·19fi. 0.S.R.D.3110
and R. B. Sohenok
 No. , Title h/luing authority JI.e(flt'Ilnne Ilate

27') I 1'h,.. '1InIIPU,..p ,If Inll.-,·t. \' .. " ...

·it" lin tl,o 'l'oll.iICi 1·"~IN'I~i ... I" • C~"III"11 rUDaI. 'I'", ... II. H. CI>..... ".1'. AnnUli.' tl.IlIJ UnJIIM.IlUU IUt.7/H/MO January, llJU
NDUuual JI.IIIClI.~UU)' Hloo) ..... d. Mallgalluett:l Hr..c.,1 UUW"l0 "",I n. 1:1. ReIN"t. No. A·241
Wood O,S.lt.U. 3180
271 I Preliminary EK(lIlrimeni.8 on the Propagation of l'llIlItio ~train ill Tension )'. K VIIWtlZ Arnl<lUr a",\ Ordn ..noo S.H. 7/44/1176 Janu ..ry, IIJU
Itcporl No. A·2«
O.S.R.lJ. 3207. (ltovision
of Report No. A·33)

272 I The StRllllJ Wavll8 l'roduood in .. l'lato hy a plane 1'l'IlI!IIure Puleo J. 1'1. K.N,hl." .. nd Armour and Onln .. nce B.R.7/44/1048 Febru..ry, 1944
F. Seitz Report No. A·241i
O./S.lt.D. 3230
273 I Thu InOuenoe of Impact Velocity on the Tensile Propertiea of Four Magnoaium Alloys n. S. Clark. P. K Armour and OrdnanOll B.H. 7/44/937 Febru..ry, 1944
and 241;) Aluminium Alloy Duwel. and D. I:l. lteport No. A·240
Wood O.S.R.D.32fi6

27" I High Speed Compresalon Teata of Copper Crllsher Gauges and I:iJlherea C. C. Simp8on, Armour &, Ordnance B.R. 7/44/1206 March. lll«
E. L. "'irm..n .... d &pt. No. A·257
J. S. Koohler O.S.R.D. 3330
2ir. I The Set Added to Compre8llion Cylinders AfLer Impact E. L. "'irman, Armour &, Ordn..noo B.H.7/44/1371 Mareh. IOU
J. Ii Ku.,hl"r ..lid lI.ert. No. A.258
21 I". Heitz O,S.It.U.3331

2711 I'rogreM Report on Jnvestigation of Boron Armour Plate «(~1I7): Inllll"noo of T. G. Vij(gc" ILnd Progrflll8 &rt. &rial No. B.R.7/44/1240 March, IOU
Nitrogen on Some I'ro(1lJrtica of EKperim.mtal StcelK With ..nd Without Boron }t'. M. Hcinho.rdt M·23J. O.RIt.D. 3378

277 Effecl.8 of 1<'aIll6 Hardening on the &Ilistic l'ropertitlB of Pre· heat Treated Homo· E. L. Iln.rthololllnw, Profl'OllB Iloopt. Serial No. B.R.7/44/1318 Fehruary, lll«
gflnenus Armour I'late Jnr., M. R. Hurton, M·233. O.RS.D. 30116
F. H. It;vanR and
R. M. Williams
278 Th" Inlluenoe of Impact Velocity OD the Tensile I'ro(lllrti68 or Throo TY(l68 of Ship I). S. Cll\rk. Armuur &, Ordnance S. R. 7/44/1515 March, lll«
Plate: M.S., H.T.S., S.T.S. 1'. K Vow,,", .. nd Rept. No. A·26l
D. S. Wood O.lt.l:l.n. 3420
270 First Hcport on Improvement of Low Alloy Armour Stool (OD-1I7): Part V. The C. H. Lorig, Progro8B Itcpt. Seri..1 !';o. B.R.7/WI221i Marcb, 1944
Effect of Draw Practice on the Mechanical Properties of Six Armour Steels 0. 1'. Krull/ln.ur, M.245. O.Klt.V.3423
At. K. lln.rnl'tt.
1'. C. HOllolI •. hal .. nd
G, K. Mallning

2110 I'rogreM Il.eport of Armour )'IILw .. nd Low Alloy Steels (OO-IIG): The Spot Wohling W. F. IIc"". Progl1l88 Itcrt. Hcrial No. S.R7/44/1221 March,lO«
of Attachments to Jlomoll"neous Annollr A. Muller and M.2IG. O.S-R.D.34:13
W. V. Voty

28l "~rrol'1l in HesiduRI Velocity Determinations Using MagnetilK'd l:ihot P. J. Higg" n.S.I.U., N.P.L. Paper No. 62 A.P.P. Jo.nll.. ry, 1044
Co-ord. Bub.Com.
 No. Title AutborB I8Buing authority Reforenoo Date

2J.12 li'urll ..... Nnh l 1111 'hp II~fTppt nf Inlfln",1 Hlt'fIIfII" nn thfl Uf'.iFltAllI>("I Atmnnr l'l"t~ t.n A. Ii" 11I",,'n II H.I.II .. N.I'.f •.
nr I'RI",r N". 11:1. I Ir.... "'AI'V. IIIH
I~I'II ... II"II t:"'·UIlI. t IIh (;... ,11. A.I".I".

283 I Me808urement of the Deceleration of a Sbot Penetrating Annour Plate It.It.L., M.O.B. M.O.B./300/T.L.W.J.0.B'1 Deoomber, 1943
284 Sevontoonth Inwrim Roport on Conereto for Defence Work-Tho Effoot of Bootional M.O.B. M.O.!l/311/A.C.W. FeLontary, 1944
J)m18ity on tho Penotration Into Conoreto of Annour·pieminll Sloat and the Derivation
of a ~neral l'onetration Formula
286 I }'urther Moaauremente of the Deceleration of 2·pr. Shot Att.a.cking 41 mm. Armour M.O.S. M.0.B./325/W.J.O.B. I Marcb, 1944
Plate
286 I Tbe Elementary Theory of Shatter Diapaml in the Att.a.ck of Annour E. A. Milne O.n. Paper No. 68. May, 1944
A.P.l'. (Jo·ord. Sub·Com.
287 Nows on Proof of Piemillil Sbell It. Doeching O.D. O.B. Pro(;. No. 27,8M
288 Notel on Compoeition of A.p~ Sbot Stool M.O.B. B. T.A.M. Memo. No. 16
2!i1l Fracture of Duotile Metall N. Mott A.ll.D. B. T.A. Rollt. No. 4/43 Novcmbor, 1941
ex: ~!lO A Burv1lY of R.A.E. Roporte Dealing witb Stmalll Waves In Balloon Barrage Cables E.H.I_ A.RD. B. T.A. Memo. No. 4/44
C) Vue to TralUlverse Impact -
2111 Commcnte on N.R. L. Roport No. 0-2276, .. The wngitudinal Vibrations of a Pro· E.H.lAlIl A.R.D. B.T.A. MenlO. No. 11/44 June, 1944
jectile dorillil Armour l'onetration .. .
292 Static and Dynamio EJ:IIIlriment with Capped Sbot U. O. Haines A.RD. T.B. Roport No. 7~ Mamb,l944
203 Penptrntion of Stool Under Statio and Dynamio ConditiolUl-Furtbor EJ:porimonta o. o. nalnes A.RD. 'I'.B. R.eport No. 8/44 March, 1944
on the 2·pr. &,alo
2114 Armour Disposition Givinll Hillb Protection with Small Woiltht C. A. Ada",o, A.R.D. T.B. Report No. 11/44 Marcb,l944
n. H. C..lv.. rt,
H. F. Hill. and
J. Vonrmrt
206 Tho Mecbanism of Sbatter-Part II-The Time Factor in Shatter Behaviour C.A.AdamR A.ll.D. T.B. Roport No. 14/44 April, 1944
2116 Noto on Sbattor of Sbot at Normal Impact: Effeot of Hardn888 of Plate H. It. Calvert A.R.D. T.B. Roport No. 16/44 June, 1944
and J. Vennart

2117 Comparison of Static and Dynamio Partial Penetration of Armour Plaw Loy 2-pr. Shot O. O. Baines A.it.D. T.B. Roport No. 20/44 July, 1944
208 Tbo l..ongitudinal Motion of a Sbot Durinll Annour Penetration Witb Special Reference C. A. Adam. A.lt.D. T.B. ReJlort No. 23/44 AUllust, 1944
to N.It.L. iteport 0-2276
2\111 Note on RR.L. Paper No. M.0.S./326/W.J.0.B. O. O. Daines A.RD. T.B. lteport No. 26/44 Auguot. 1944
 No. Title Autborll J88uing autbority &fe"mDe Date

8011 To 1.... 1, the Buitability of Cour 120 mm. plalM homo. made by Thorn .. Jrirt.h and John - A·lt.O. T.II. I~"ort A.I'. No. 4/U Fnh",ary. 1D44
U."wn I..d. ('tr 1."1...( .,r .hut
301 6·pr. A.I'.C.-Varying Hardn688 Oradienta - A.R.D. T.B. IWllOrt A.P. No. (1/" FIlbruary, 19«
3O'.l To Inv6IItigato Stool Com(lOBition, Heat· treatment and Hardnellll I..ayout for 17.pr. - A.R.D. T.B. Roport A.P. No.IIi/" April. 19«
A.P.C. B1w1l
303 Firllt Iteport on Groovnd Stool Armuur I'lato. Teeta of Grooved and }'Iuted I'la168 D. J. Martin U.S.A. Ordnance Dept. B.R.7/43/1176 February, 1936
W.A. Expt. Itcpt.
No. W.A.L. 710/32
304 Photollraphie Study of Impact of Ball and Armour Pieroing Ammunition on Armour E. L. Rood W.A. ReJlort No. 710/78 S.R. 7/43/074 Deoomber, 1936
Plato
3()lj MetallulIJ"8phio Study of tbe Deformation of HomogenooU8 Armour Plate under Impact N. A. Mathows and W.A. ReJlort No. 710/384 B.R. 7/43/973 September, 1941
Ball and Armour I'iereing ProjectilCli K L. Reed

300 Developmcnt of 9465 Steel for U86 in Armour pjllreing Projectiles, 76 mm. A. P.C. M·61 - A.P.Q Rept. No. A.D.-P60 - May, 1943
JOi Thinl Partial Roport on Ballilltio TflIIta of Armour at Sub zero Temperatul1lll - A.P.O. S.R. 7/44/2O'.l September. 1943
oc Report No. A.D.-571
-I
30S The Longitudinal Vibrations of a Projectile during Armour Penetration - U.S. Navy Dept. N.R.L. S.R. 7/"/1606 June, 1943
Report No. 0--2276
JlIH The Effect of Inclueiollll upon tbe BalliHtic Performance of 1,-2, inch Armour Plato - N.RL. RIt. 7/43/767 September, 1943
Report No. M-2160 .
310 Report on Effect of Plate Temperature upon tbe Performance of Homogenoous Armour - N.R-L. S.R.7/"/17f1.l March, 19«
Iteport No. 0--2262
311 RoJlort on Velocity Lou of a • inch Model Projectile when it penetrates 1/32 incb Cold· - N.R.I.. S.It.7/"/1700 Maroh,I9«
Holled Shoot Steel Heport /1;0. 0--2263
312 Bihlilll(l'8.phy on Impact or Sbock Loading of Metals and Alloye including Strain HaLos - Dumau of ShiJlll, U.S. B.a. 7/"/29« November, 1943
a",1 Instrumentation for Measurement of DynamiC Loading Navy Itc... ami Standards
IStJction
313 Ballistio TflIIting of Armour-Iwvieod Edition - D"hlKron Hl'port No. S.R. 7/44/2202 June, 1944
21--43Iwv.A.
314 ImJlrovement of Low Alloy StoolH (0.0.-117): I'art VI.-Tbo .Effect of Melting Practice C. 11. !'orig. 1'. C. }'in,,1 ItcINlrt A.>ri,,1 No. B.It. 7/44/1817 April, 1044
on the Properties of Armour Stool RoacnLhal •. 1. H. Kuru, M-263. O.:s.R.D. Ju31i
A. It. .Elao&. N. N.D.R.C.
Keysor alld
O. K. Manning
 NH. "1"1110 AlIlhura 1... IIII1IlBIIU""ILy 1Lt,IDreIU., II.....,
-~-----

315 I Final lteport of tho Uee of epecial Non·Alloy Rioois for Armour riercinj! C.. pped Shot 1 J. S. J .. ckson. D. I'. Final lteport &ri ..1 No. B.R. 7/"/1808 April, 1044
(0.D.·1II7): P ..rt II.-H.eaulte of ";"'periment..1 Work directed towards I'roduction Hushwoll. C. K Fisher M·256. 0.S.R.D.3583
of .. Projectilo possess.ing 8uperior UILIli&tio l'ropertiee and It. II. Schenck
316 I BehlLviour of Motals under Dynamic ConditiOl\8(N.O .. II) (N.S.·IOO): Inftuonce of Impact D. S. CI .. rk. 1'. E. I l'rul!nl88 Itcport &rial B.It, 7/144/'JJYJ.7 May, 1044
Velocity on the Tensile Properties of N . .!!:. 8715, N.E. MI5, S.A.E. 1045 and Duwez and No. M·267. 0.S.RD.3695
S.A.'!!:' 1000 D. S. Wood
317 I Beh.. viour of Mel...1e undm- Dyn.. mic C'..onditioll8 (N.O .. II) (N.S.·IOIl): Inftuonce of 1'. K Duwez .. nd Report Seri..1 S.R. 7/44/2268 June, IIIoU
Velocity on tho Tensile Properties of some Metals .. nd Alloys D. R CI .. rk
INo.I'rol!fORR
M·2RII. O.H.RD. 31137
3111 Tho Propagation of tho Plutio Zone along a Tension Bar of .. Metal having a woll· J. Miklowitz Armour .. ntl Ordn .. noo S.R. 7/"/2669 July, III«
defined PllI8tio Limit iteptlrt Nu. A·211O
O.S-RD. 311M
3JU Dchaviour of Metale undllr Dynamic Conditions (N.S.·IOO): Tho Propagation of I'llI8tic 1'. E. Duwcz. Il. 8. I'rugre88 ltoport Seri..1 B.R 7/"/2481 July, 1044
Htrain in Compreeaion CI .. rk a/lfl No. M·:102. O.S.R.D. 3886
H. K MarWll8
3~'O Behaviour of Metals under Dynamic Conditioll8 (N.S .. IOO): A PruliminlLry Inv .... tiglLtion P. Ii:. DIIWUZ .. lid Prog ........ I{.'port Herial S.R 7/44/2656 July,llIoU
of the MeehaniHm of Penetration from the Standpoint of Strain PropaglLtion D. S. CI .. rk No. M·:U7. O.I:I.R.D. 39~7
z.: 321 Effect of jo'l.. m" Hardllning on thll Ballistio Properties of I'm·heat T ...-ated. Homo· E. L. IIRrtbolomew, j<'in.. 1 Report Serial No. B.It. 7/44/2935 September, 1944,
ganeoD8 Armour Plate Jr., M. K Burton, M·320. O.S.R.D. 4110
F. It. gv..n•• 1'. E.
Kyle and
R.R Willi .. mB

322 ITb., Use of Thin Spaoed Platoe of Armour Plate and Mild S'-I to Slop 0·303 Inob D./U.R, It.RL., M.O.B. M.0.B./357/K. L.C.F. June. 1944 I

A.I'. Shot D.B.W.

323 I Report on Armour Plate UNa A. M. WlLlker M.O.S. Toeb. Report Borios July,IUU'
.. E .. No. Q.C./E/Y

3241 Tbo r"rCurrnance ..gainst Homo·Hard (I.T.70) PI .. te of Heavy Alloy Coree ,•. T. H ..rris A.RD. T.B. Report No. 17/44 June, 1044

325 The Application of Static Penetration Data to the C.. lculation of Compre88ivo Stl"08llell G. O. n..illos A.RD. T.B. Report No. 21/" June, 11144
in Hhot or Shell during Penotration
326 I The Teohnique of Multiple Sp.. rk ('hotography Applied to Problems in Torminal II. R. Cal vert .. nd A.RD. T.B. Report No. 28/44 I Deoomber, 19U,
Ballistics. ('art I. - -The Penetration of Armour by A. P. Shot witb difforent J. Vonn .. rt
Hardne88 Distributioll8
327 I The F.ffecl.ivtlnHIIS of Thin 8tool Platoe In Stripping tbe I'ioreing Ca(lll frulll A. P.C... nd J. T. HlLrris. A.lt.D. T.H. Report No. 29/44 I Ootoher, 11144
A.P.C.D.C. I'rujoctil08 G. O. UlLin"..... nd
,•. E. llrickoll
328 I jo'irst ltoport on Three PI .. te Arrangement to defoat 2·pr. A.P.C.U.C. Hhot by tbo J. D. Thorn A.RD. T.B. lteport No. :10/" I September, 11144
Inclusion of Decapping .. nd Shatter PI .. tes
 No. I "111.. A"UlfIn IM"lnll .",.horlty Ih,("rNlclII "alAI
--_.- .......... _._._- I
329 On the ShBtter of 2·pr. A.P. Shot on Thin. HBrd. Oblique 1·1"...... J.D.Thom A.U.D. T.B. Rept. No. 31/« Septemoor. III«

330 A Qlm,lBrillOn of Two 60 lb. N.C. Pi ....... by S .... lic MethCMls a.o.Hai... A.R.B. T.B. Rept. No. 32/44 Ootober. III«

331 Note on tho Comparative Perfonnanoe of Canadian and iJrili.b Mark I I..J. CoI'8II O.O.Bain811 A.It.D. T.B. Rept. No. 34/« Ooto""r, 1944
In a Statio TNt
332 IGerman 7·6 em. Pal< 40 A.P.C.B.C. 8hell AR.D. Met. Report 129/« June, 19«

333 1'0 Determine the PerfonnBnce of Britisb 6·pr. A. P.C.B.C. Sbot Bt Wide AngieR of A.R.D. T.B. Report A.P. No.3D/«
Attack and to Aeoortaln Whetlmr Any Improvement Could He EIfecWd by Alteration
of the StBndard lIeat '.I'roatmclJIt
834 I To 'he PerfonnanOB of t.pr. A.P.C. 8110t Wltb I"'nBtntive Capa of 009% C
oo~re I A.R.D. IT.B. Report A.P. Nu.36/«l July. III«
Steel itb That of6.~. A.P.C. Shot Fitted With Alloy Stool (S.T.A.21) Ca(l8 Againat I'art II
1l0mogeneolJll I. T.80 area
3:10 I 'ro Dowrmine Whetber the HardnCl88 Distribution in 20 mm. H.S. A.I'. MBrk 4 8bot I A.RD. IT.B. Report A.P. No.38/«l August, 1944
Whieb Will OIve tbe I..,..flllt Critical Velocity Apinet P1Boo w Specification 1.1'.110
(280........ 330 Brinell) Will Also Give Optimum Performance Against Plate of I.T.70
Quality (444-477 lIrineUI
I 3:11\ IB~k.bP Sbot 01\ Thin. Oblique PIBtee D.T.D. RellOrt No. M 6376. June. 19«
All" No. I
:137 I AttBck of I.T.80 Platea at Higb An,(!M of Impact With Hllavy A.P. Sbot D.T.D. Report No. M 7000, May, 1044
Al16, No.1

338 I Mechanism of Armour PfllllltrBUon. Third Part il'l Report C. Zener Ordnan.. , I)"pt. U.S.A. S.R. 7/«/1677 Marcb,I9«
W.A. Ell!'t. Rep'.
No. W.A.L. 710/492.... 1

139 I Mecbanlem of Armour ~netrBtiOll. Founb Partial Repbri c. Zener Ordnance Dept. U.S.A. IUt. 7/«/3319 I AlIIJb8t. 19U
W.A. J<:llpt. Rept.
No. W.A.L. 710/49'l-2

S40 I 1'0 Dctennine tbe Security of Cap Att.achmr.nt and Annour l'enetration Chal"B()teristica A.P.O. ltepts. Nos. B.k. 7/«/111 Juno, 1M3
of 37 mm. A.P.C. 8110\ M.31 Witb Crimped-on U!.pa A.D.·P.7l and P.76

:141 I l>eveloJlmeot of &UiBtio Limit DetenninBtioll With One Sbot A.l'.O. lteport S.R. 7/«1746
No. A.D ..... I63

M2 I Report on the l~nCII to l'ooetration of Duralumin for Uee in Oon",,~iOl\ Witb I. W. Tioohmao A.P.O. Repon S.R.7/«lm8 I NOyember. 11M3
CUJTIlnt Design Bnd Developmont of Ouo Shields No. AIHi02

:M3 I Effect of HardnC118 on the BaUiBLio Propert" of A inch-l incb IIomogcmooU8 Armour A.P.O. &p.... NOlI. B.R. 7/44/29\10, 3269, I May........JllJle. 1044
AD--603, 1i13, 1i1O. 61t, 629 3440, 31i26 and 31i26
 I
N~I TI~ Autbol1l l88uinK autbority Refenmoe Date
I
':'44 I Tn llolulminn 1I"llIutln "I'II'UIIIIA'It'D.,1
A I,..," 11111.1 IlulllllynllllllD ami I Inllh 1i'a..WI Ir. H. \v "I II' . A.I'.Il. 11.0 ..... N". AI) 111111 H.It. 1/4'/:1130 Ja,u,ary. III"
llanlon~c1 Arlllour at Varying Obliquil.it>ll With (.;al. 1I·:tIl, Cal. lI'bO .. nd l!O ww.
Projectiles
3411 I The Jo:ffect of lIam",. and Obliquity Upon tbe Penetrati"" IlMistanoo of II-Incb A.P.O. Rept. No. AlHJ30 B.H.7/44/3261 May, 1944
t:ast Annour to 117 mm. A.P.c. M.1!6 and 37 mm. A.I'. M.74 Projoctiles
Report of the DaUistic TllBt of 4·im:h CaIIt HomollenooUB Annour Plates 8ubmitted by A.P.O. Rept. No. AD--36II B.n. 7/44/3262 April, 1044
General Stool Castinp Corporation
Tbe Effect of Hardnllllll and Obliquity on tbe Ballistic Properties of I·ineb Coat Armour A.P.O. Rept. No. AIHI63 B.R. 7/44/3266 June, 1944
Submitted by lebanon Stool Foundry
The Effect of Hamnllllll Upon tbo ResisLanoo to Penetration of 3·incb Cast Annour A.P.O. Rept. No. AIHl78 B.H. 7/44/3736 June, 1944
Ag..inst Annour Piercing l'rojectilllB
346 I Penetration of Steel Spberea into Wood 811 a Function of Btriking Velocity A.P.O. Rea. Lab. B.R.7/44/23OO May, 11)44
No. 462
347 The Mll8.Rurement of Forooa Wblcb ReaiBt Penetration of B. T.S. Armour, Mild Bteel Work by U.B. Navy Dept. B.R. 7/"/246/4 May, 1944
'8 and 24ST Aluminium NHL. Rept. No. 0-2276
348 l'enetration of Faoo Hardened Bullet Proof Armour by Solid Cal. 0·27 Bullet NRL. Rept. No. 0-2200 B.R. 7/44/2664 May, 1944
349 Finlt Partial Report on Projectile Sbock on Aircraft. Annour Supporta NRL. Rept. No. 0-2331 B.R. 7/44/2763 July, I~

350 Penetration MecbaniHID8. I-The Penetration of HomogeneouB Armour by Uncapped Dablgren Rept. No. 1-43 B.H.7/44/1300 April, 1943
Projectilca at 0° Obliquity
361 The Effect of NoBC Shape on tbe Halliatio Performanoo of 16 lb. 3·inch A.P. Solid Dahlgren Rept. No. 2-43 B.R. 7/44/3716 February, 1943
Shot Against Homogeneous Armour Plate
362 Penetration of Homogeneous Armour by 3·incb Flat·nUlled ProjectiJllB Dahlgren Rept. No. 7-f3 S.R. 7/44/3717 April, 1943
353 Penetration MIlCha.,ismB. lI-Bupplementary Report on tbe Penetration of Homo· Dahlgren Rapt. No. ~ B.R. 7/44/1206 Fllbruary, 1944
geneous Platea by Uncapped ProjootiJllII at 0" Obliquity
3M Penetration of Homogenoous Plate by 3·incb Flat·nOHed Prcjectilca Dahlgren Rept. No. 1z.......44 B.R. 7/44/2201 April, 11)44
366 The Development of a Prooesa for Manufacturinll and Welding }'ace Hardened Armour I R. B. Scbenek, N.D.R.e. Final Rept. B.R. 7/44/2621 July, 11)44
PI.. te J, B, J acksoo. Serial No. M-200.
D. P. Burwell and O.S.R.D. 3912
C. E. "aher
366 I A Compilation of Informal Reporta Submitted in Advauoo of Formal Reporta (16 Sep. Orduanoo .t Terminal B.R.7/44/3805 Octooor, 1944
to 16 Oct. 1044) Ballistics Rept.
No. OT8-3. 0.S.R.D.4268
 N... I 'rUin Au.I .. "p 1_.11l1hlu. RII' Ilnrll y Itr-rfll1'III'fl 110.1..
- - ----. ---" - --- .- _.".---.

3li7 ; IJchaviour of MeLaIR Under Dynamic Conditiona (NS-IOII): Mechanism of the Dynamio D. S. CllLrk. Progresa lteJlt. Serial No. I S.n. 7/44/37611 November. III«
Performance of Me LaiR D.H. Hy".,.. M-38li. O.S.R.D.4343
D.8. WO.MI and
P. E. Dllwll1
3li8 I Eff"ct of Locked-lip BtresseB on Ballistic Perfonnance of Welded Annollr. Part II I J. T. Norton. Final Rep,t. B.R. 7/MJ/40 I November. 11144
(Ol)-I06) D. Rosenthal alld Berial No. --421.
S. B. Maloof O.S.R.D. 4300
3liD I Behaviour of Metala Under Dynamic Conditions (NS-IOII): Properties of Yielding I P. E. Duwll1. Progresa Rapt. B.R.7/4li/7411 I December. 19«
H. E. Mar1A'ns and Berial No. M--4O\I.
D. B. Clark O.ti.R.D.4403
300 I Third ProgreH8 Report on the Investigation of Scale Effect in Armour Penetration. A. F. C. Brown and D.S.lR.. N.P.L. Paper No. 79 September. 1Df.&
I
}'irinll Trials at Normal Attack with Geometrically·Bimilar Shot Against Homogeooolls V. M. Hickson A,P.P. Co-ord. Bub. Oom.
Armour of Varied Hardness
301 I Fourth ProK""'" Iteport on the Investigation of & ... 10 Effect in Annollr Ponetl'ation. D. O. oopwith N.P.L. Paper No. 80 September. IDf.&
I
The OJltimllm Hardne88 of Homol!8nooll8 Annollr for ll.eBi8Lanoe to I'erforation at A.P.P. Co-ord. Bub. Com.
Normal AtLaek by i'rojectil.", of Dilfercnt Bi......
~
..... 3112 I FOllrth Il.eport on an Inveatigation of the Mecbanical Properties of Seleeted Annollr P. J. HiKgH N.P.I •. PaJler No. III i:leptember. I Df.&
Plate A.P.I'. Co-ord. !illb. Com.
363 I C',ommenta on Naval Re8eareh Lahoratory Il.eport Nu. 0-2263 .. V"locity Lo88 of a D. O. Sopwith N.P.I•. Paper No. 83 Ootober. 1Df.&
• inch Model Projeotile Wben it Pllnetrates 1/32 inch Cold-rolled Shoot SteeL" A.P.P. Co·ord. Sub. Com.
384 J Tbe Ballistio Properties of a Mild !iteel at Normal AtLack D. O. Sopwith N.P.L. Paper No. 84' October, 11144
A.P.P. Co-ord. Sub. Com.
365 I Report on the Vibration of A.P. Shot after Impact V. M. Hickman N.P.L. A.P.P. Co-ord. Sub. Com.
Paper No. 94
366 J Report on Fiimll TrialB with 2·pr. A.P.C.B.C. Shot ago.inst I.T.!IOD Quality Plate at A. F. C. Brown and A.P.I'. Co-ord. Suh. Com.
Angles of AtLack from Nonnal to 00 d"grees V. M. Hickman Paper No. 9li
3671 The Dynamic Compl't'JlRive Yield Strength of a Nickel-Chrome Stool R.R.L.• M.O.S. M.O.S./3I1O/ll. L.D. P. Augu8t. 1944
3118 The Elementary Theory of Shatter Diagrams in the Attack of Armour- Parta II and III E. A. Milne 0.13. A.P.P. Co-ord. Sub. Com.
Paper No. 78
369 I A Note on Stl'lll!8 and Momentum Curves when a Shot or SheU l'erforatea a Plate I N. Hinchcliffo I O_B. A. P. P. Co·ord. Sub. Com.
I Febnlary, 194&
Paper No. 97
370 J Penetration into Wood I R. Hill and D. C. Paok A.R.D. S.T.A. Report No. 19/44 JUlie, 1944
 Nil. I TillA Aliliulia ~_ __ 1_.. 10,,, .... lI .... I~J ItnID ....:UUlG 11.. 1.0

371 I The Diatribution of St.- in a Deoeleratina Elaetio Sphere W. R. Dean .1 A.R.D.· I S.T.A. RellOrt No. 33/44 I June, 1944
I. 1'(. Sooddon &lid
H. W. Parson
1112 I Oal/llal.lon l'hellOm,mlJlI In UuuUle Mat.etiAle lnd the Dynalllio '1'Ilrm In ~he n..tatanoa I n. Hili A.n.D. I 8. T.!. Reamt No. MI" I Augut,l944
to Penetration
313 I Too Problem of Dieoinll of Armour. Plate W. R. l)po.n and A.R.D. I B.T.A. Report No. 36/" I Anauat. 1944
t. N. Mnoodoll
3,. I Protection in AirontJ\ aaainat :0 mm. A.P. BullelAl I C. A. Adam&, H. R. I A.R.D. T.B. Report No. 1/46 I May, 1001
CaIVllrt, H. F. HiIhI
abd J. Vennart
3111 The Calculation of SheD Cavitlee from the Baaia of Statio ExperimenlAl O.O.Bainee A.R.D. T.H. Report No. 2/43 January. 1945
816 An Inveetigation of Flakiq In Tank Armour by Statio Punohinll Meth0d8 O.O.Rain6l!l A.R.D. T.B. Report No. 3/46 IrIaroh, 19411
377 the Beale }I~ltllllfl In l!ltA&till l'8IIeltlltloh O. O. bainll8 A..R.D. T.B. Retmt No. 6/46 Jul),,1\K/I
378 Nato on the Performanoo of Bpaced TarplAlliiainat Low Velooity Attack C. A. Adalllil and A.R.D. T.B. RelJUtt Nil. 8/.8 July, 1945
H. t. HUla
IS
379 DetorminaUon of th" rllnctfon oC Vt.l'lollali;,rlB of the P"netrative Cap of an Armour A.R.D. T.R Report No. 7/46
Piercing Ca~cl Shot In nerc8ting the atdllttOO Fa"" of IL Conl!lr1t.M 1IIato and in
Prevonting , aU... r "gallUlt nOh1Olleneou~ PlaIA! of M&Ilhln""blo ~uality
380 I Tho "IItlnlum Calibre L&nath (I/d) Ratio of TunKBten Carbido (',onlll A.H.D. T.B. Report No. A'.P. April, 1945
12/43
. 381 I Stool8 for Armour l'ierolnll BuUet Corell. A Review of their Hoat '1'roat,""nt~lInetio W. N. Hindley A.R.D. Met. Report No. 116/46 May,llK6
Hardn_, Vloker. Diamond Hardneu and Co""lation of tb_ PhYRioal pertiea
with B.A.A. Penetration of Standard Armour PIlOte
382 I German 711 mm. and 88 mm. A.P.C.B.C. Ammunition lOt Oblique Impaot D.T.D. Report No. M·6DI(A/40
No.1
383 I Aircraft Annour. Art ltn\llrltAl AJItll'UAoh t..o tltll P!ffic1llnt" Deeigh or Armour fot J. F. 8ulbvah Onlnanm Drpt. U.S.A. B.R. '1/44/2994 I Januat)', IIH-I
Aircraft W.A.L. No. 710/506
384 I Tomper Brittienl!ll8 In Cast and Rolled Armour Plate W.A. Report No. W.A.L. B.R. 7/44/1500 Deoomber, 1943
71O/671!
38Ii I Principle of Armour Protoction. Third Partial Report W.A. Report No. W.A.L. I S.R. 7/46/101 Junto, 11144
71O/6U7-2
386 I Third I'artia\ Report on tbe &lIiatio ReeullAl Obtained on RoUed HOmOjl1lnOOUR Armour A.P.O. S.R. 7/.,,/2927
Submitted for Acoeptanco und"r Specification A.X.S. 488-1 Report No. A.D./6711
 No. I
~ Titlo Authors ~_ 1II8uing authority Reference Date

!Jtfl J 1~.IIIOI"I"'l1lal 1.11110111 1IIIIIIIIIIun 'I'amlMlI.,..1 IIUIII U(lD(1D.1I111 1.INI."a.I.. ,., .»I .. iaIUII, (/". tl. Wullln A.I'.II. IUt. 7/U(J73U . May. liN'
(JIlIIoral Motora UofllUration Report No. A.().·6611
388 I Sbattor of Brine Quenched and Air Quenched Calibre 60 F.X.S.·318 Stool (;orca H. W. ":uker and Frankfonl AI1Il",al 8. R. 7/45/3618 April, 1946
T. A. Head Report No. (t-616
380 Pt",,,tratinn of "01001l"".'OU8 Plat.e of One TolUlile !Strength (110,000 p.a.i.) by 3 inohos u.s. Navy Dopt. 8.a. 7/44/1968 April, IOU
M·70 ProjeclilC8-l'artial Report Dahlgren Report No. 8-44
300 Penetration of Homogenoou. Plate by 3 inchos 13·0 lb. }<1at Nosed I'rujllotilos fitted Dahlgren Report No. 19/44 8.R. 7/44/3466 July. IOU
with Willdabiel.lH. oooond PartiaJ Report
3111 Penetration of "olllollenooua Plat., of ono Tensile Strength (125,000 p.a.i.) by 3 inchos Dahlgren Report No. 20/44 B.a. 7/44/3663 July. 19«
M·70 A.P. PnJjeutiles. &.oood Partial Report
302 A Compilation of Infom.al Rcport.a Sublllitted in Advance of }<'ormal ltoporte (15th R. J. Emrich N.D.ll.C. Ordnance and B.R.7/44/2958 August. 1944
July to llith AultUat 1044) Cappoo l'roiectil08 at Hypor-velocitios T.B. Itoport No. O. T.B.·I
O.S.R.D. f077
3113 I A Compil.. tion of Inform .. 1 Reporte Submitted in Advance of Formal Reporte (15th J. Emrich and Ordnanco and T.B. B.R.7/45/76 November. 1944
October to llith Novemher 19«). A I:Itatiatieal Study of tbo l:lbatter Velocity of A. M. Mood ltoport No. O.T.B_-4
Projectiles at Hyper-velooiti08 O.S.R.D. 4367
31141 A Compilation of Inform ..1 Reportel:lubmitted in Advanco of Formal Reports (Ilith C. V. Curtis Ordnance and T. B. B.R. 7/45/144 December, 1944
~ November to 15th Decomber 1044) .. Shatter" of Tungsten Carbide Projectiles Report No. O. T.B.-II
O.S.R.D. 4477
3U5 A Compilation of Informal IWporte Submitted in Advanco of Formal Itoports (15th It. A. Beth Ordnance and T.B. B_R.7/45/1I81 February. 19f6
January to 15th }<'ebruary 11145) Penetration Theory: Estimation of Velocity and Report No. 0.T.8..7
Timo during Penetration O.S.R.D. 4720
306 A Compilation of Informal ltoports Submitted in Advanoo of }<'ormal 1W.llOrts (15th C. W. Cllrtis and Ordmm.-e and T.R. B.R.7/45/14'11 M&reb,I946
jo'ebruary to 15th March): Subcalibre SIroI Projcetilll8 It. J. Emrich ltoport No. O:r.B.·8
0.S.R.D.4820
307 A Compilation of Informal Reports HllbmiU,ml in Advanl'" of FormlLl ltuportH (161.10 C. W. Curti. OrdnILnce and T. B. B.R. 7/46/1876 April. ID46
March to 15th April 1940): Oblique Impacts with Tllngaum Carbide Projootilull ItoIM.rt No. O.T.n.-O
{I.S.R.n.494R
308 A Camr.ilation of Informal Reports Submitt.od in Advance of FonnaJ ltoport.a (16th C. W. Curtis and Ordnance and T. n. S.R. 7/"/2199 May. 1945
Apnl to 16th May 1945): Effeot of Armour Piercing Cap 01'1 Porforation Limit.a R. J. Emrich Itoport No. O.T.8.-IO
O.B.R.D. IiOII4
300 Higb V"lucity Terminal llalli.\,ic Pllrformanoo of Calibre: 0·30 A.}'.M.2 Stue Cofll8 It. J. to;mricb a/;d Armour and Onlnsnoo B.R. '/44/2721 July lM4·
C. W. Curtis ltoport No. A·2H2
0.S.R.D.3880
 . I
~ Title Authol'll lI&ulnll authority Reforenoe Date
I
.1"1 I Th" I"IIIAII,," A'''' 1·'''''''IIAII,," .. 1 Ih" 1·1 .... 11 .. Z"",, I"" MU.. tII",,1 '1"",",1 •." ""r J. Mlk,.... Ih 1l",M,rl Nil. A-;\II\I
O.KIt.O.4612
1i.lt.1/4G/lJt2. " ..nuH)', 1943

401 I High Speed Coml'l'OIIIIion TOliting of Copper Cl'Wlhcr Cylinders and Spheree II O. H. Will8low and lteport No .. A-:124 IUt. 7/45/2191
W. H. HeoRey O.l3.R.O. 0039
402 I l'mliminary Tollllile Teall! with Threadod SllOOllDell8 Oil III inch--{;Iua H Armour R. M. Trimhle and University of North B.R. 7/45/1211 January, 1943
SI.oeI F. CooMgen Carolina
Progreaa lteport No. 19
403 I BtuwOII of Bizo ElI'eet in Heavy CIB811 B Armour Steel A.E.Ruark UniverBU,y of North B.R. 7/45/1272
C/lrolina
ProgrnBII ReJlort No. 20
((M I The Penetration of Bpherical Proieetilll8 into Ca.et 'Lead O.S.I.It.. RR. L. A.P.P. Co.onl. BuL. Com. I Ja.nuary, 194~
M.O.S./422/H.L.D.P.
A.UJ. Paper No. 00
4051 The Penetration and Limiting DimelUliolUl of 1000 Ih. BomLs of Va.riOUH ('"alibres A.P.p. ('.(l-ord. Sub. Com. I' Ootober,l944
~ Striking Concrete Normally at UiOO n./Me. M.O.S./4OII/H. L.D.P.
Paper No. 91
406 I Thlterminatioll8 of the Foroe on a 2 :pr. Bhot Peoetrating Armour PIa"" from Deooleration A.P.P. ('.(l-ord. Sub. Com. I February, 1946
Reoorda M.O_S,f483/W.J.O.B.
Paper No. 106
407 The Theory of Indentation and HardnOllH Teata n. F. lJishop. R. Hill M.O.S. B. T.A. Report No. 41/44 Octooor, III«
and N. F. Mott A.R.D. Woohvloh
~ The Theory of Wedao Indentation of Ouotlle Materiala R. Hill, K H. Lee A.R.D. Woolwioh B.T.A. Report No. 10/46 April,l946
and B. J. Tupper
409 The AnalYBiB of Projectilo Penetration of Non· Ferrous Ductile Materials R. Hill A.R.O. Woolwich B. T.A. Report No. 8/46 April, 1945
410 The Plane Prohlem in the Mathematical Theory of PIB.Hticity for the CB.HC of External B. Christianovitoh A.R.D. Woolwioh B. T.A. TranBla.tioQ No. August, 1945
}'OrcOll Applied to a CIOII6d Contour 1/45
411 I The Influenoo of HardnOll8 of Tilted Plates }'.V.D.O. Materia.ls D·"noh , September, 1946
Report No. M6083A/16
No. I
412 I Device for MllB.8uring the Acoolcration of a Shot when it Strikea au Armour Pia"" H.E.C. B.I.O.S,/G, •. 2/H.E.C.
No. 695
,
413 I MiscclianoouB Penetration and Ballistie Data H.E.C. B.1.0.8./0p_2/1U':.C.
No. 634
 Nil. 'l'IUn Authlll'll 18811illll o.utherity llof"renoo

414 I Inro8tigation ofSpeci6c Impact Enel'J(iee of 1·3 cm., 2·0 em. and 3'7 em. A.I'. Project.ilee H.Ke. B.l.0.B./OJl.2/H.E.C.
Fired Agaill8t Armour PlatAl No. 740
41n I PIDUlil1 "'n_ DIUI nlll,I ... " ur MolAl. Ii"lIIulh I'AIUAI 1l('1)"lll. Tho Enotlt. til' till.t" I ,I. II. Ilullnn,.n 0 ..10."...·..... '''I'L. ll.H.A. H.ll. 7/U/171l April, mu
Ita .......... T"n1lltlrILLuro 011 tbe Meehani.,..1 I'rol"'rti"" 01 MotllLs W.A. Report No.
W .A. L./732/IO·3
416 I Dovclopmellt oC Projectile Steels. Second Parti ..1 Report D. van Winkle IUld W.A. 1l".M'.rt No. B.R. 7/46/1200 May, 1944
P. u,ner W.A. L. 321/4·1
417 I Principles of Projectilo Dctiign for Penetration. Third I'artialllcport D. M. vall Winkle W.A. IWport No. B.R.7/46/4274 June, 1944
W.A. L. 762/231·3
418 I Principles of Projectile Ucsign for l'enetralion. Fiftb Parliailloport C. lAmer o.nd W.A. Mllmo. lwport No. B.R. 7/45/4276 .June, 1944
B. Ward 726/231·6
419 I RcflC&rcb of Metallurgical Pbysics Section at Watertown .Anlcnal during World War 11 W.A. Morno. Itcport No. B.R.7/46/673 Mareh, 11145
Il00/86
420 I Histonal Review of I.be Comllation of Ballistio and Metallurgical Cbaracteristics of M. Bolotllky W.A.Report No. W.A.L.
J)omestio Armour at Watertowu Arsenal 71O/79li
421 I On the lJotermi'lBfion of Statistical HaJlistio Limit Volocitics by tbe Method of Maxi· L. H. ThomM A. P.O. IWl'ort No. 573 B. R. 7/41i/4431 September, 11146
mum I..ikolihood
4')') Penetration of lIomogenllou8 Plate of 0110 T~nsile Sf.rongtb (110,000 II.S.i.) by 3·incb u.s. Navy Ilcpartment B.lt. 7/46/3443 May, 1945
.8 Capped M.62 A.I'. i'rojectilll8. }'irst Partial Report N.I'.G. Do.hlgren
Itcport No. 6--46
423 I Theory of the 1'l&8tie Delormation of Thin Plates with Applicationll J. M. Riebardson N.D.R.C. Roport No. B.R. 7/40/4'1.66 Ootober, 11145
A.344 O.S.lt.D. No. 5600
424 I Tho Improvement of l..ow·Alloy Armour Steel. Part XVI.-A Study of the ~;ffO(ll Udy. Il.oac;'UII,I. N.n.R.C. B.R. 7/46/4253 Novewber, 1114&
of lloron on Steels Suitablo for Use in Armour from 3 to 6 incbes in Tbicknll8ll Manning and LoriII' O.S.lU)., No. 62114
425 I The Improvoment of l..ow.AlIoy Armour St.,el. l'art XVIII.' -Continuation of Udy. M'Lnrtilll(. N.D.R.C. B.R.7/41i/4324 November, 1946
Dilatometric Studies of Armour with U.·... JlCct to Qucnch·Cracking 1tosenthal 0.11'\ l.orig O.S.lU). No. 6200
426 I AdviSOry lloport on Indexing of Division 18 N.D.R.C. Re"urte: ItcportH on Cut and Helen L. l'urdum N.l>.R.C. B.R. 7/46/768 February, 1946
Itolled Armour O.S.lt.l>. No. MOli
427 I Pcrforation J..imitll for Non·Shattering Projectilcs Against Thick Homogeneous Armour C. W. Curtis o.lId N.IUl.C .• lloport No. B.R. 7/46/956 Ma.rch. i 946
at Nonnal Incidence R. L. Kramer A.31l3 O.~.It.l>. 64M
428 I TllrminlLl Ro.lliBtice of Tungsten Carbide l'rojcclilll8: Mechanical !:;tnmgth of Core c. W. Curtis /Llld N.l>.Re. IlcJlort No. B.R. 7/46/1007 Mo.r"'.,IM6
Material It. L. KrlLlnor A·3114 n.S.Rl>. 1>465
421l I Torminal Ballilltics of TUllgsten Carbide l'rojectilcs: Length Test C. W. Curtill. It. J. N.Il.Re. Iloport No. S.R. 7/46/954 Mo.rcb, lIMO
"~mrich and A·306 O.S.RD. 6406
R. L. Kramer
430 I Terminal Ballistics of TUllgsten earhido Projectiles: Effect of Carrier. Part II It. J. Emricb N.R.D.C. lloport No. B.R. 7/46/1045 Maroh. 1046
A·300 O.KRD. 6467
 TII.!fI A"I,hura """,11111 authority ICeferolloo I DaCe
~I I I
431 Temlinal &lIisti'ce of Tunll1lten Carbido Projoctiloa: EH"od of Carrier, Part III It. J. Emrich N.n.R.C. IWport No. B.R.7/.e/OIiO .Maroh, 1946 ,
A·47ft O.H.Il,J). 00:19
U9 '1'ollhinar.l 11.111 •• 1.... II' "''''"IUDlflll 1 1,,1 •• 1,1 .. 1·1~.Ju .. lillla. IIn.• lv I,' ... IIIIIC">Q 0, \\,,, • :ullia N." nli. 1l..c1,IiI ..'I, Nil. H.lt. '1/.0/10.., &l&<ull,III(O
A·47t1 O.ti.lt.U, tIMO
433 Terminal DallilltiCII of Tunll1lten Carbide ProJ~tileH: Artillory Typo Ca(lll R. L. Kramer N.U.R.C. ICeport No. B.R. 7/46/10. , Marob. 1946
A-477 O.S.Jl.D. 6641
m 1'b" Terminal Ballilltl.,. of Annour·pj"",lng l'roJootll08 C. W. Curtis N.D.R.C. Report No. B.R, 7/46/1066 Maroh,I946
A478 O.8.RD. 6642
436 High Ohliquity Att&ck of Deck T&J'II1lts hy 20 OlIO. model Shell H. R. ealvort and A.R.D. A.R.D. T.B. Report. 7/4li July, lING
J. Vcnnart

436 High Ohliqulty Attack of Deck Tafll8ts. Part II H. R. Calvort and A.RU. A.R.D. T,B. Report 2/46 February, 194&
J. VCJlnart

• 37 Finh ProgreM Report on the InvllBtigation of HealD KfIOc~ bl Armour PcnetratJon P. J. Ilh!1I8 and N.P.L . N.P.L. EIII(. Dlv.312/47 DeOlllD'-,IN7
V. M. Hickl!On

438 Penlltration of Bteel under Statio and Dynamio Conditions. Part XIII.-8tatio O. O. Bainoa A.RD. T.B. Report 4/43 -
Penetration with Lubricated Punches
~ 439 Statio Punohing Experiments on Mild Steel up to 3'1i tid 0, O. l1aill08 A.R.U. T.B. Report 6/46 -
440 Detennination of the Co-efficients of Friction of Steel 011 Steel at High Velocities O. OrolAcb and (Advisory Council on Z.O.S.S. Vol. 3G Nos. I 4; 2 JanuaryJ 1940
Eo Plake Sciclltifio Researoh and all
Technical Dovelopment I February, I~
A.C.5012)
441 Invc8tigation8 on the Penetration of Armour Plate H. Kmtz Rericht 166 -
. -
Lilienth .. IK.,,,,,llecbaft
442 Tho Rcbavlourof Piercing Ca(lll and tbt. Mecbanism ofSh .. tter asll\U8tfILW.i hy Multiple V. A. AdamH .. lid A.R.D. T.B. Report 6/4.1 -
Spark Photographs. Part I.-Attack of Homo. Uard Plate by f'.app"d ..nd Un- H. It'. Hills
capped 0·303 inch Model tihot
443 Report on Bend Tests on Three TYJIIl8 of Proiectile SteIll B. D. Durns and N.P.L. Eng. Div. A.R.D. T.B. Report 12/46 -
P. J. Higgs Itc.,ort 236/46
444 The Theory of Armour Pcnotration by 'fungtlten Carbide Shot and tho Effect of Hood It. Hill A.R_D. T.B. Report 29/46 -
Sh&J18 on Peformanco at High Vclocitill8
445 Tbe Theory of Woogo Indentation at Oblique Incidence and its Application to the ll. llill and A.R.U. T.H. Report 1/46 -
Calculation of Forces on a Yawed tlhot Impacting on Armour at any Angle R. H. Lee
446 The Break.up of Sbot on Thin Obliquo Plates - D.T.U. Armour H.... ncb Report -
No. 6367A/14, No. I
447 Spaced Armour A888mhlics Depending for Elfectivone811 on the Broak.up of Shot J. W. Thomll8On M.O.t:i. Penna mont Rcoorde of -
R.8la.rcb and Dovelop-
ment No. 5'OU
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 INDEX .

..!qle attack. elect on plate 10

EtJed on projectile ... 9. 25. 26. 27, 50, 51
..!.rIDo ar p Latoe. UIIt'IISIIlent of quality 1
Typical dLlDage 1
..!.rIDoured dea 56
A.DaL preua~ i.n shot dae to inertia of plate 14

Baek damage, types of 2

B.a.ekpetall.ing 2. 5
B.allirtic cap 5i, 62
B.&llistic Limi' Ii
~ damage 'I;) shell 16
Bending &t~ in shell 11. 12. 51
In a rigid rod 50
Bhlnt headed mot 11. 12
Breakage plata 56
Break-up of s!:.rt. 12
B:-inell hardn_ number 18. 31. 32, 33
Bciging 3

Ca.p action 14. 15. 27, 52

Ca.p strippiIlg 5i
C~buruing U
C~ annour 6
Caritation 44
With con>Ci shot 64
CompLex targ~ 53
0:u1II pressive st.."1!ngth req aired in shot 4.'i
Ccanpressive r...-eea in shot 11
CC!~ projec~ii!I ... 2. 45, 80
Composite :igid 62
Sabot 6:2
Sqaeeze bc-"e 62
C:-:..icaL velocl;:o" for cap ~eakage 57
Cavitation 45
PeIletratic3 10, 12. 17. 35. 36. 60. 54
Shatter 13

Th&.hlgren pro......3.g ground 21

Ds.mage to &moar plate. types of 1
n-ign of sheil 46
Di:JICing 2.6
D:--Sog coeflicien\ !O
D,=,ctility of plJ.:.e 24
I>y-r.amic meaac-ementa of plate resistance 39
~amic peIlet<:"Ation i
~amic resis-.....:tDe to penetration 34, 47

E4nic defonu:ion in thick platee ... 2.43

El:i:.Stic vibra~i~ in shot 40. 4i
ELLstic theory :i resistance to penetration '" 42
Ellt!!rgy for pia .. perforation i. 8. 19.35
ElIjer .8
Er?ansion of I ~lindriC&L or spherical hole in an iafinite medium 20. 41
 PAGII

FaCE-Oardened plate 14, 2;

Fail~ of adapter 16
5!i81l 15
5hot 12
Fairbairn. 20
Fighting vehicles 14.27
Figl:ung Vehicles Desigu Department:-
Firing tnaJa 25
Penetration formula 2:.!
Flanng 2. 6
Flu:e-hardening '" 14
Fla~eaded &hot ... 11, 12
Fnc-jon coefficient in penetration 2,33
!.D static pnnching ... 33

Harci.nea gradient in' shot 11.45.46.51

H~esa of plate 24. 25. 31, 34, 36
Of shell 15. 16
Of shot 24. 46, 57
Heaci failure in shell 1.5
H eaci resistance 31
Hea.i shape 9. 10. 11, 12. 39
Hi:l<:ruiffe 22
Hi~-eing a.ct..ion 10

Inerol& of plate 13, 14

Kinruc energy tranaferred to plate ... 42. 43

La=ar cracks 4. 5
Lan: vehicles 5j, 58. 59
Li? vldth 9
,. L::.lejohn ., projectiles 62
Lo.c to periorate plate. simple theory 7
Lo&~ in dynamic test 39
In static test 33
~ub:-:cation in static tests 33

de Hure 9.22
Ma.r.mwn loads in static testing 35
Mi::..e 22
von J.li_ condition of plasticity 42

S.P .L. firing trials 26.34

S.P .L. penetration formula for normal attack 23
NaT'&1 Research Laboratory, Washington 39
XOr:l&1 attack of armour plate 1.2

Obh:;rle attack (see angle attack).

Oginl head fonn 17
 Pennration. modes of 1
PeD!Uation formuhe 9, Ii
Cored projectil. 64
Dimensional aBpeci IB
Empirical forma 22
de Marre.
Milne and HinchliHe.
'[.5. Navy.
Fairbairn 20
S.P.L. formula 23
Oblique attaCK 25,26
?Iastic deformat.ion theories 20
?oncelet tbeory IB
?seudo-elastic deformat.ion theory 21
Robins and Euler 18

Per.-,rn tion Ii
Pet.Lling. back 2
:ront 1. 2
Pie=ng caps 14. 15, 27, 52
PIBC:lc deformation in plate 2. 4
Plas::Ic strain in abot, propagation of 48
pu.Oi! thickness 2. 3, 7, 25, 26, 36, 38, 6S
Pinging 2. 3, 4, 7, B, 9, 10
POD!!!let coefficient 44
Pon:elet theory lB. 19, 20, 44
pr.1L""i!ton ("ni ... ersity firing trials 26

Raw of strain 4i
B.ea:t;ion on shot 10, 31
.. B.-.iie... ed adapter" 16
Rf'S,:uAI \'E']ocity 19
RE'·".t.AlIl'e to penetration i
Re.l:dation measurements in penetration 39
RH-:,!;,et 10. 12, 46, 54
Rov.:lS 18
RoW armour plate 4. 6
R.P.L. firiug trials. against thin plates 26
:-or uynam ic retardation measurements 39

~ahtt: proj<'Ctiles 62
Snl! effect 23. 24
Stot-lP in shell 15. 16
:.0 shot 13. 14
ShE-:::er failurE' ]3
Shelr iracture in plate 2
Sbeu stress in plate 2. 3,5,8
. 5hen:hs for rored shot 61. 62
Sit::r>red corE'S 61
Sop';th 23
Spa,!>d armour 53.54.56,58
Spot".lIic limit energy IB
Sq~ borE' projectiles 6:.!
5tf.' cracking 3. 5
StE"C punching i, 33, 34
St""'BeS in a rigid rod 50
St~ ... _ in shot 11, 31, 49
 SECRET.
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Taylor :.est for yield litre. 48

Tensile nrength of plate 5
Tensile nreuea in shot ... 11, 12, 13, 15
. TheaI'! of deep penetration 20,41,63
Thicknesa of plate 2, 3, 7, 25, 26, 36, 38, 63
Thin piueB, perforatioD of Zl,505
Topple 12,56
T~ carbide coree ... t .. 2,40, eo, 61
Turning of shot in oblique attack 10, 11, 50

Velocity for cavitatioD 45

For penetratioD 12, 13, 17
For shatter 13
Vicken diamoDd hardn_ 46,61

WarshiPl 14, 27, 55

Wave p:-opagatioD in target 43
Wedge :':'deDtatioD 42,51
Work urdeDiDg of plate material 4.

Yaw 53,54,55
Yield~ 41, 47, 48, 49

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