CHAPTER 6: INTEGRATION

6.1 Anti-Derivatives
In Chapter 5 we deal with differential calculus. We were given a function f and used the rules
of differentiation to get the derivative f ' of the given function.

In this chapter, integration of calculus is the reversed process. Here, we are given the derivative
of a function f ' and have to find the original function f .

For example,
f ' ( x)  10

Using trial and error, we can conclude that the function f ( x)  10 x has the derivative of
f ' ( x)  10 . Another function that having the same derivative is f ( x)  10 x  5 or in general
linear function that has slope equals to 10 but different y-intercepts.
We can write the general function as f ( x)  10 x  c where c is a constant. The constant c is
referred to as the constant of integration. Hence, equation f ( x)  10 x  c is called anti
derivative of f ' ( x)  10 which is denoted as  10 dx . It is read as “the indefinite integral of 10
w.r.t.x. Therefore, we can write

 10 dx  10 x  c
6.2 Rules of Integration
6.2.1 Constant Functions

 k dx  kx  c , where c is a constant   9dx  9 x  c

6.2.2 Power Rule
1 n 1 1 61 1
x dx  x  c, n  1  x dx  x  c  x7  c
n 6

n 1 6 1 7

6.2.3 Constant Times a Function

 k f ( x) dx  k  f ( x) dx   (4 x  4) dx  4 ( x  1) dx
2 2

 x 21 
 4  x  c 
 2 1 
3
4x
  4 x  4c
3

6.2.4 Sum or Difference of Functions

1|Page
 If  f ( x) dx and  g ( x) dx exist, then   f ( x)  g ( x) dx   f ( x) dx  g ( x) dx
 5 5 
   4 x 7  2  dx    4 x 7  5 x  2  dx
5

 x   
5
  4x 7
dx   5 x 2 dx
 4 x12 7   5 x 1 
   c1     c 2 
 12   1 
 7 
12
7
7x 5
  c
3 x

6.2.5 Power Rule Exception

1
x  x 1
1
dx  In x  c Recall that: f ( x)  In x , f ' ( x) 
x

  (2 x 3  x 2  x 1 ) dx  2 x 3 dx   x 2 dx   x 1 dx
2 x 2 x 1
   In x  c
2 1
 x 2  x 1  In x  c

1 x 1 x
a dx  a c  9 dx  9 c
x x

In a In 9

 ax  b dx  a In ax  b  c   5x  2 dx  5 In 5x  2  c
1 1 1 1

6.2.6 Base-e Exponential Function

e dx  e x  c
x

1 ax 1
e dx  e c  e dx  e 3 x  c
ax 3x

a 3

  (3x  1) e
x x
dx  e x c
3 3
f ' ( x) e f ( x ) dx  e f ( x )  c  2 x

6.2.7 Specific Function Form

2|Page
 10 x  3

f ' ( x)
dx  In  f ( x)  c    5x 
dx  In 5 x 2  3x  c 
f ( x) 2
 3x

 f ( x)n1  c x 
 3x x  6 dx 
5
3
6
 f ' ( x ) f ( x
n
)  dx   2 3 4
c
n 1 5

6.3 Techniques of Integration

6.3.1 Integration using substitution method

 f g ( x)g ' ( x) dx   f (u) du where u  g (x)

Example:

By using substitution u  3  2x , find  x(3  2 x)

10
dx .

Solution:
u 3
u  3  2x , x 
2
du du
 2 or dx 
dx 2

 u  3  10 du
 x(3  2 x) dx    u
10

 2  2

1 11
4
Rearrange,  u  3u 10 du

1  u 12 3u 11` 
   c
4  12 11 

1  (3  2 x)12 3(3  2 x)11` 

Substitute back,    c
4  12 11 

(3  2 x)12 3(3  2 x)11

Simplify,   c
48 44

6.3.2 Integration using the integration by parts method

3|Page
  udv  uv   vdu
6.3.3 Integration using partial fractions method

6.4 Definite Integrals

b
If  f ( x) dx  F ( x)  c , thus  f ( x) dx  F (b)  F (a)
a
is the definite integral of f (x) w.r.t.x

between x  a and x  b .
The properties of definite integrals are as follows. If f and g are continuous in the interval
a, b:
b
(a)  f ( x) dx  0 if
a
f (x ) exists.

b a
(b) 
a
f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx if a  b
b
b
(c)  k dx  k (b  a) if k is a constant
a
b b
(d)  kf ( x) dx  k  f ( x) dx if k is a constant
a a
b b b
(e)   f ( x)  g ( x)dx   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx
a a a
b c b
(f)  f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
a a c
if a  c  b

b
(g)  f ( x) dx  0 if
a
f ( x)  0 for a  x  b

6.4 Area and Integrals

4|Page
6.4.1 Area Between a Function and the x-axis
Definite integrals can be used to find the area between the curve of a function and the x-axis.
This may be in several different forms:
a) f ( x)  0
b) f ( x)  0
c) f ( x)  0 and f ( x)  0

Area between a Function and the x-axis with f ( x )  0

The graph of f lies above the x-axis. The area which is bound by f, the x-axis, x  a and x  b
, is determined by
b

 f ( x) dx
a

Example:
Determine the area below f ( x)  2 x and above the x-axis between x  2 and x  4 .

Solution:
When using the definite integral to determine area, we should make a rough drawing of the
region was involved.

5|Page
 4
4
 2x 2 
A   2 x dx     4  2  12 unit
2 2 2

2  2 2

Area between a Function and the x-axis with f ( x )  0

The graph of f lies below the x-axis. The area which is bound by f, the x-axis, x  a and x  b
, is determined by
b
  f ( x) dx
a

Example:
Determine the area indicated in the graph below:

Solution:
Because f is a negative function,
3
A     x 2 dx
1

6|Page
 3
  x3 
  
 3 1
 (3) 3   (1) 3  
      
 3   3  
 1
 [9    ]
 3
1
 [ 9  ]
3
1
 [ 9  ]
3
26
 unit 2
3

Area between a Function and the x-axis with f ( x )  0 and f ( x )  0

When a part of the area between f and the x-axis is above the x-axis and part is below the x-
axis, the area above the x-axis has a positive value while the area below the x-axis has a
negative value. The net are is given by
b

 f ( x) dx
a

Example:
Find the net area and total area of the region between the graph of f ( x)  2 x  1 and the x-axis
from x  0 and x  4.5 .

Solution:

To find net area, we just need to have one integral.

4.5
Net area =  (2 x  1) dx
0

7|Page
 4.5
 2x 2 
  x
 2 0

 
 x2  x 0
4.5

 (4.5)  4.5  0
2

 15.75 unit 2

To find total area, we need two integrals. One integral for the area below x-axis from x  0
to x  0.5 with a negative sign. Note that, x  0.5 is the x-intercept. Another integral for the
area below the curve but above the x-axis from x  0.5 and x  4.5 .
0.5 4.5
Total area =   (2 x  1) dx   (2 x  1) dx
0 0.5

    0.5
  x 2  x 0  x 2  x 0.5
4.5

 (0.5)  0.5  0 (4.5)

2 2
 
 4.5  [(0.5) 2  0.5]

 0.25  (15.75  0.25)

 16.25 unit 2

6.4.2 Area Between Two Curves

If the function y  f (x) lies above the function y  g (x) over the interval x  a and x  b
where a  b , the area between the two curves over the interval is

8|Page
 b

  f ( x)  g ( x)dx
a

Figure below shows a region bound by the functions y  f (x) and y  g (x) , and x  a and
x  b.

Example:

Find the area of the region bound by the curves f ( x)  x 2 and g ( x)   x 2 from x  0 and
x  3.
Solution:

3
A   [ x 2  ( x 2 )] dx
0

3
  (2 x 2 ) dx
0

9|Page
 3
 2x3 
 
 3 0

 2(3) 3 
 0
 3 

 18 unit 2

6.5 Double Integration

A double integral is something of the form


R
f ( x, y) dx dy

where R is called the region of integration and is a region in a ( x, y ) plane. The double integral
gives us the volume under the surface z  f ( x, y ) , just as the single integral gives the area
under the curve.
To evaluate double integral, we do it in stages, starting from the inside and working out, using
our knowledge of the methods for single integrals.
Example:
2 3
Evaluate   (1  8xy) dx dy
y 1 x  0

Solution:
3
Note that: The inner integral is  (1  8xy) dx with y is treated as a constant.
x 0

2 3 2 3

  (1  8xy) dx dy 
y 1 x  0
 (  (1  8 xy) dx) dy
y 1 x  0
3
2
 8x 2 y 
  x   dy
y 1 
2  x 0
2
 8(3) 2 y 
  3 
 dy
y 1  
2
2
  3  36 y dy
y 1
3
 36 y 2 
 3 y  
 2 1

10 | P a g e
  36(3) 2   36(1) 2 
 3(3)  
 3(1)  
 2   2 
 57

6.6 Consumers’ and Producers’ Surplus

Determining the area of a region has applications in economics. The figure below shows the
supply and demand curve for a product. The supply curve indicates the price 𝑝 per unit at which
producers will supply 𝑞 units. The demand curve indicates the price 𝑝 per unit at which
consumers will purchase (or demand) 𝑞 units. The point (𝑞0 , 𝑝0 ) where the two curves intersect
is called the point of equilibrium. Here 𝑝0 is the price per unit at which consumers will purchase
the same quantity 𝑞0 of a product that producers wish to sell at that price. In short, 𝑝0 is the
price at which stability in the producer-consumer relationship occurs.

Consumers’ surplus, abbreviated CS, is the total gain to consumers who are willing to pay more
than the equilibrium price. If the demand function is given by 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑞), then
𝑞 𝑞
𝐶𝑆 = ∫0 0(𝑓(𝑞) − 𝑝0 ) 𝑑𝑞 = ∫0 0 𝑓(𝑞) 𝑑𝑞 − 𝑝0 𝑞0.

Some of the producers also benefit from the equilibrium price, since they are willing to supply
the product at prices less than 𝑝0 . This gain, is called producers’ surplus and abbreviated PS,
is given by (𝑝 = 𝑔(𝑞) is supply curve)
𝑞0 𝑞0
𝑃𝑆 = ∫ (𝑝0 − 𝑔(𝑞)) 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑝0 𝑞0 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑞) 𝑑𝑞
0 0

The demand curve 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑞).

Generally, the lower the price of a
product, the more the consumer’s
will demand the product. That is,
high prices reduce demand and low
prices raise demand. So, generally,
𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑞) is a decreasing function.
The supply curve 𝑝 = 𝑔(𝑞).
Generally, the higher the price of a
product, the more the producer’s are
willing to supply. That is, high
prices increase supply and low
prices decrease supply. So
generally, the supply curve is an
increasing function.

11 | P a g e