CAT 2 Portion PDF

Rapid Manufacturing Technologies
Course code: MEE2016
Slides for CAT 2
Course Instructor
Prof. Raghukiran, N.
School of Mechanical & Building Sciences (SMBS)
VIT University – Chennai campus
Module 3:
Rapid Manufacturing Processes, Materials and their
application
Rapid Manufacturing technologies 2

Classification of RP techniques
1. Liquid-based
• Liquid-based RP systems have the initial form of its material in
liquid state. Through a process commonly known as curing, the
liquid is converted into the solid state.
Examples:
a. 3D Systems’ Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA)
b. Cubital’s Solid Ground Curing (SGC)
c. Sony’s Solid Creation System (SCS)

2. Solid-based
• Except for powder, solid-based RP systems are meant to
encompass all forms of material in the solid state. In this context,
the solid form can include the shape in the form of a wire, a roll,
laminates and pellets.
Examples:
a. Cubic Technologies’ Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
b. Stratasys’ Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
c. Kira Corporation’s Paper Lamination Technology (PLT)
d. 3D Systems’ Multi-Jet Modeling System (MJM)

3. Powder-based
• In a strict sense, powder is by-and-large in the solid state. However,
it is intentionally created as a category outside the solid-based RP
systems to mean powder in grain-like form.
Examples:
1. 3D Systems’s Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
2. Z Corporation’s Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)
3. Optomec’s Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
4. Acram’s Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
5. Precision Optical Manufacturing’s Direct Metal Deposition (DMDTM)

Examples of Components made by Additive mfg.






Are 3D-Printed Homes the Future of Affordable Housing?

Stereolithography

Stereolithography
1. Stereolithography (SL), also called Laser Photolithography; is a 3-

dimensional (3D) printing process that uses a laser beam
directed by a computer onto the surface of a photo-curable
liquid (resin) to produce physical copies of solid or surface
models.
2. It is the most widely used among the available RP processes
because of its superior part building accuracy.
3. Stereolithography (SL) builds three-dimensional prototypes layer
by layer through selective photo-polymerization of a liquid
polymer held in a vat.

Stereolithography: pre-build Processes
1. The process sequence starts with a solid or surface model of the

part created in a suitable CAD system.
2. The solid model is to be tessellated and presented as an .STL file.
3. Determine the optimal part orientation.
4. Supports are to be incorporated.
5. Both the part and supports are mathematically 'sliced' by the
computer into a series of parallel horizontal planes.
6. Merge the part and the supports.
7. The final pre-build process involves ensuring that the level of the
liquid resin in the vat is at the proper z-level for optimum laser
focus.

Stereolithography: Part Building
1. The entire machine is a sealed system (to prevent the fumes

from escaping) consisting of several subsystems.
2. A liquid photopolymer resin is held in a vat.
3. A laser device senses the level of the resin.
4. A servo-controlled vertically movable table (elevator) holds a
base-plate (platform) on which the prototype would be built.

Stereolithography

Stereolithography

Stereolithography

Polymarization
1. The earliest polymers were made of natural materials such as

cellulose.
2. Subsequently, other types of polymers were produced by
subjecting natural polymeric materials to certain chemical
reactions. For instance, cellulose was modified into cellulose
acetate to make photographic film (celluloid).
3. The earliest man-made (synthetic) polymer was phenol-
formaldehyde developed by Baekaland in 1906 under the trade
name of Bakelite.
4. However, the development of commercial synthetic polymers
began only in the 1920s when it had become possible to extract
the raw materials needed from coal and petroleum products.

Polymarization
1. All polymers are organic in nature, i.e., they contain carbon as an
essential element Most polymer molecules also contain
hydrogen atoms.
2. In addition, they may contain a toms of Cl, F, O, or N and
'pendant groups‘ such as CH3.
3. Organic compounds with no double or triple bonds are called
saturated compounds.
4. A polymer consists of repeated units called monomers (from
Greek mono "one" and meros "part").
5. A monomer is a simple molecule of a compound of relatively low
molecular weight and consisting of simple unrepeated structural
units, but capable of reaction to form a polymer.
6. Examples: Ethylene, styrene, methyl methacrylate, vinyl acetate,
butyl acrylate, butadiene, acrylonitrile
Photo-polymerization of SL resins
1. Typically, UV lamps in the wavelength range 200-400 nm are

used in the conventional photo-curable coating industry.
2. Use a photo-curable liquid resin as the part material.
3. There are many types of liquid photopolymers that can be
solidified by exposure to electromagnetic radiation, including
wavelength in the gamma rays, X-rays, UV and visible range, or
electron-beam.
4. The process through which photopolymers are cured is called
photo-polymerization.

Multi-layer curing
1. In general, a photo-polymerizable resin remains liquid when the

total exposure is below a threshold value, Ec
2. When the exposure is equal to EC , the resin is said to be at its
'gel' point corresponding to the transition from the liquid to the
solid phase.
3. It must be noted that, owing to the parabolic shape of each
cured strand, there could be uncured regions
4. The size of the uncured region decreases as overlapping of scan
lines increases

Multi-layer curing

Recoating
1. Recoating is the process of establishing a new layer of fresh resin

over the previously cured layer.
2. since the resin is usually highly viscous, it takes quite sometime
for a uniformly thick fresh layer to be established
3. To reduce the time thus wasted, the liquid above the previously
cured part section is smoothed with the help of a horizontally
movable recoater blade (also called the squeegee).
4. A successful recoating step is one that is capable of establishing
a fresh layer of liquid resin of thickness exactly equal to the
desired thickness, Lp, within a reasonably short time.

Recoating issues

Stereolithography: advantages
1. Round the clock operation. The SLA can be used continuously

and unattended round the clock.
2. Build volumes. The different SLA machines have build volumes
ranging from small to large to suit the needs of different users.
3. Good accuracy. The SLA has good accuracy and can thus be used
for many application areas.
4. Surface finish. The SLA can obtain one of the best surface
finishes amongst RP technologies.
5. Wide range of materials. There is a wide range of materials, from
general-purpose materials to specialty materials for specific
applications.

Stereolithography: disadvantages
1. Requires support structures. Structures that have overhangs and

undercuts must have supports that are designed and fabricated
together with the main structure.
2. Requires post-processing. Post-processing includes removal of
supports and other unwanted materials, which is tedious,
timeconsuming and can damage the model.
3. Requires post-curing. Post-curing may be needed to cure the
object completely and ensure the integrity of the structure.

Stereolithography: applications
1. Models for conceptualization, packaging and presentation.

2. Prototypes for design, analysis, verification and functional
testing.
3. Parts for prototype tooling and low volume production tooling.
4. Patterns for investment casting, sand casting and moulding.
5. Tools for fixture and tooling design, and production tooling.

Important!!!
Refer some of the case studies related to
Stereolithography applications

Solid ground curing

Solid ground curing
1. The Solid Ground Curing (SGC) System is produced by Cubital Ltd.

Process
a. data preparation
b. mask generation
c. model making

Solid ground curing

Solid ground curing

Solid ground curing: principle
1. Parts are built, layer by layer, from a liquid photopolymer resin

that solidifies when exposed to UV light.
2. The image of the layer is generated by masked illumination
instead of optical scanning of a laser beam.
3. The mask is created from the CAD data input and “printed” on a
transparent substrate (the mask plate) by an nonimpact
ionographic printing process, a process similar to the Xerography
process used in photocopiers and laser printers.
4. After exposure, the electrostatic toner is removed from the
substrate for reuse and the pattern for the next layer is similarly
“printed” on the substrate.
5. Multiple parts may be processed and built in parallel by grouping
them into batches

Solid ground curing: Principle
1. Each layer of a multiple layer run contains cross-sectional slices

of one or many parts. Therefore, all slices in one layer are
created simultaneously.
2. Layers are created thicker than desired. This is to allow the layer
to be milled precisely to its exact thickness, thus giving overall
control of the vertical accuracy.
3. This step also produces a roughened surface of cured
photopolymer, assisting adhesion of the next layer to it. The next
layer is then built immediately on the top of the created layer.
4. The process is self-supporting and does not require the addition
of external support structures to emerging parts since
continuous structural support for the parts is provided by the
use of wax, acting as a solid support material.

Solid ground curing: advantages
• Parallel processing
• Self-supporting
• Unique part properties
• CAD to RP software
• Minimum shrinkage effect
• High structural strength and stability
• No hazardous odors are generated

Solid ground curing: advantages
• Entire layer is solidified at once, reducing the part creation time.

• All the resin within a layer is completely cured by this method, so
parts may be more durable than the hatched prototypes created
using other processes and no postcuring is required.
• Supports are unnecessary because wax is used to fill the gaps in
the resin and also to brace the part

Solid ground curing: disadvantages
1. Requires large physical space

2. Wax gets stuck in corners and crevices
3. Waste material produced
4. Noisy

Solid ground curing: disadvantages
• The machine is noisy and large and needs to be constantly

manned.
• It wastes a large amount of wax since the used wax cannot be
recycled after being removed in a hot water or citric acid bath

Solid ground curing: applications
1. General applications: Conceptual design presentation, design

proofing, engineering testing, integration and fitting, functional
analysis, exhibitions and pre-production sales, market research,
and inter-professional communication.
2. Tooling and casting applications: Investment casting, sand
casting, and rapid, tool-free manufacturing of plastic parts.
3. Mold and tooling: Silicon rubber tooling, epoxy tooling, spray
metal tooling, acrylic tooling, and plaster mold casting.
4. Medical imaging: Diagnostic, surgical, operation an
reconstruction planning and custom prosthesis design.

Important!!!
Refer some of the case studies related to solid ground
curing applications

Fused Deposition Modelling

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
1. The technology was first developed by Scott Cramp in 1988 and

the patent was awarded in the U.S. in 1992.
2. FDM uses the extrusion process to build 3D models.
3. A geometric model of a conceptual design is created on a CAD
software which uses IGES or STL formatted files.
4. The CAD file is sliced into horizontal layers after the part is
oriented for the optimum build position, and any necessary
support structures are automatically detected and generated.
5. The slice thickness can be set manually to anywhere between
0.172 to 0.356 mm (0.005 to 0.014 in) depending on the needs
of the models. Tool paths of the build process are then
generated which are downloaded to the FDM machine.





Fused Deposition Modeling : principle
1. The principle of the FDM is based on

a. Surface chemistry,
b. Thermal energy, and
c. Layer manufacturing technology
2. The material in filament (spool) form is melted in a specially
designed head, which extrudes on the model.
3. As it is extruded, it is cooled and thus solidifies to form the
model.
4. The model is built layer by layer, like the other RP systems.
5. Process parameters: material column strength, material flexural
modulus, material viscosity, positioning accuracy, road widths,
deposition speed, volumetric flow rate, tip diameter, envelope
temperature, and part geometry
Fused Deposition Modeling
1. The modeling material is in spools.
2. The filament on the spools is fed into an extrusion head and
heated to a semi-liquid state.
3. The semi-liquid material is extruded through the head and then
deposited in ultra thin layers from the FDM head, one layer at a
time.
4. Since the air surrounding the head is maintained at temperature
below the materials’ melting point, the exiting material quickly
solidifies.
5. Moving on the X–Y plane, the head follows the tool path
generated
6. When the layer is completed, the head moves on to create the
next layer.
7. Road width varies between 0.250 to 0.965 mm
Fused Deposition Modeling
1. Two modeler materials are dispensed through a dual tip

mechanism in the FDM machine.
a. For the model geometry
b. For the support structures

Fused Deposition Modeling : advantages
1. Fabrication of functional parts:

a. able to fabricate prototypes with materials that are similar to that
of the actual
b. able to fabricate fully functional parts that have 85% of the
strength of the actual molded part
c. useful in developing products that require quick prototypes for
functional testing molded product
2. Minimal wastage: only the material needed to build the part
and its support are used
3. Ease of support removal: support structures generated during
the FDM building process can be easily broken off or simply
washed away.
4. Ease of material change: build materials can be changed readily

Fused Deposition Modeling : disadvantages
1. Restricted accuracy: the filament used has a diameter of 1.27

mm and this tends to set a limit on how accurately the part can
be built.
2. Slow process: The whole cross-sectional area needs to be filled
Building speed is restricted by
a. the extrusion rate and
b. the flow rate of the build material from the extrusion head
c. As the build materials used are plastics and their viscosities are
relatively high, the build process cannot be easily speeded up
3. Unpredictable shrinkage: Extrudes the build material from its
extrusion head and cools them rapidly on deposition, stresses
induced by such rapid cooling invariably are introduced into the
model

Fused Deposition Modeling : applications
1. Models for conceptualization and presentation: Models can be

marked, sanded, painted and drilled and thus can be finished to
be almost like the actual product.
2. Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing:
a. The system can produce a fully functional prototype
b. The resulting parts have 85% of the strength of the actual molded
part.
c. Thus actual testing can be carried out
3. Patterns and masters for tooling: Models can be used as
patterns for investment casting, sand casting and molding

Important!!!
Refer some of the case studies related to fused
deposition modeling applications

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

1. The process consists of three phases: pre-processing; building;

post-processing.


1. In the building phase, thin layers of adhesive-coated material are

sequentially bonded to each other and individually cut by a CO2
laser beam
2. LOMSliceTM creates a cross-section of the 3D model measuring
the exact height of the model and slices the horizontal plane
accordingly.
3. The software then images crosshatches which define the outer
perimeter and convert these excess materials into a support
structure.
4. The software then images crosshatches which define the outer
perimeter and convert these excess materials into a support
structure.

1. The computer generates precise calculations, which guide the

focused laser beam to cut the cross-sectional outline, the
crosshatches, and the model’s perimeter.
2. The laser beam power is designed to cut exactly the thickness of
one layer of material at a time. After the perimeter is burned,
everything within the model’s boundary is “freed” from the
remaining sheet.
3. The platform with the stack of previously formed layers
descends and a new section of material advances. The platform
ascends and the heated roller laminates the material to the stack
with a single reciprocal motion, thereby bonding it to the
previous layer.

• Materials:
a. Any sheet material with adhesive backing can be utilized in
Laminated Object Manufacturing.
b. Plastics, metals, and even ceramic tapes can be used

• Principle:
1. Parts are built, layer-by-layer, by laminating each layer of paper
or other sheet-form materials and the contour of the part on
that layer is cut by a CO2 laser.
2. Each layer of the building process contains the cross-sections of
one or many parts. The next layer is then laminated and built
directly on top of the laser-cut layer.
3. The Z-control is activated by an elevation platform, which lowers
when each layer is completed, and the next layer is then
laminated and ready for cutting. The Z-height is then measured
for the exact height so that the corresponding cross sectional
data can be calculated for that layer.
4. No additional support structures are necessary

Laminated Object Manufacturing : advantages
• Wide range of relatively cheap materials can be used - parts may

be made using paper for example, or from more expensive
materials such as plastic or fibre-reinforced glass ceramic.
• The parts may be large compared with those produced by other
RP methods.
• Speed is another strong feature of LOM. As only the outlines of
the parts need to be traced, this method is about 5 - 10 times
faster than other processes

Laminated Object Manufacturing : advantages
1. Wide variety of materials

2. Fast build time
3. High precision
4. Separate support structure not required
5. Post-curing not required

Laminated Object Manufacturing : disadvantages
1. Precise power adjustment: so that the laser cuts only the

current layer of lamination and not penetrate into the previously
cut layers
2. Fabrication of thin walls: not well suited for building parts with
delicate thin walls, especially in the Z-direction
3. Integrity of prototypes: The part is essentially held together by
the heat sealed adhesives. The integrity of the part is therefore
entirely dependent on the adhesive strength of the glue used,
and as such is limited to this strength.
4. Removal of supports: The most labor-intensive part process is
its last phase of post-processing when the part has to be
separated from its support material within the rectangular block
of laminated material.

Laminated Object Manufacturing : disadvantages
1. Hard to make hollow parts due to the difficulty in removing the

core and there are serious problems with undercuts and re-
entrant features.
2. A large amount of scrap, the machine must be constantly
manned
3. Parts need to be hand finished and
4. The shear strength of the part is adversely affected by the
layering of adhesive and foil
5. Because the laser cuts through the material, there is a fire
hazard which means that the machines need to be fitted with
inert gas extinguishers.
6. The drops of molten material (dross) which form during the
cutting process also need to be removed


Laminated Object Manufacturing : applications
1. Visualization
2. Form, fit and function
3. Manufacturing
4. Rapid tooling

Important!!!
Refer some of the case studies related to laminated
objected manufacturing applications

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS),
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) and
Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
1. Layer by layer,
2. Uses CAD-data generated in a CAD software
3. Uses powdered material
4. Uses heat generated by a CO2 laser
Procedure
The CAD data in the STL file format are sliced and then the SLS
process starts as follows…
1. A thin layer of heat-fusible powder is deposited onto the part
building chamber.
2. The bottom-most cross-sectional slice of the CAD part under
fabrication is selectively “drawn” (or scanned) on the layer of
powder by a heat-generating CO2 laser.

3. The interaction of the laser beam with the powder elevates the
temperature to the point of melting, fusing the powder particles
to form a solid mass.
a. The intensity of the laser beam is modulated to melt the powder
only in areas defined by the part’s geometry. Surrounding powder
remain a loose compact and serve as supports.
4. When the cross-section is completely drawn, an additional layer
of powder is deposited via a roller mechanism on top of the
previously scanned layer. This prepares the next layer for
scanning.
5. Steps 2-4 are repeated, with each layer fusing to the layer below
it. Successive layers of powder are deposited and the process is
repeated until the part is completed.



• the powder not melted or fused during processing serves as

built-in support. structure.
• There is no need to create support structures within the CAD
design prior to or during processing and thus no support
structure to remove when the part is completed.
• Parts may then require some post-processing or secondary
finishing, such as sanding, lacquering and painting, depending
upon the application of the prototype built.
• In theory, a wide range of thermoplastics, composites, metals
and ceramics can be used in this process, thus providing an
extensive range of functional parts to be built.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): Principle
1. Parts are built by sintering when a CO2 laser beam hits a thin
layer of powdered material.
2. The interaction of the laser beam with the powder raises the
temperature to the point of melting, resulting in particle
bonding, fusing the particles to themselves and the previous
layer to form a solid.
3. The building of the part is done layer by layer. Each layer of the
building process contains the cross-sections of one or many
parts. The next layer is then built directly on top of the sintered
layer after an additional layer of powder is deposited via a roller
mechanism on top of the previously formed layer.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): Advantages
1. Good part stability. Parts are created within a precise controlled
environment. The process and materials provide for directly
produced functional parts to be built.
2. Wide range of processing materials. A wide range of materials
including nylon, polycarbonates, metals and ceramics are
available, thus providing flexibility and a wide scope of
functional applications.
3. No part supports required. The system does not require CAD
developed support structures. This saves the time required for
support structure building and removal.
4. Little post-processing required. The finishing of the part is
reasonably fine and requires only minimal post-processing such
as particle blasting and sanding.
5. No post-curing required. The completed laser sintered part is
generally solid enough and does not require further curing.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): disadvantages
1. Large physical size of the unit. The system requires a relatively

large space to house it. Apart from this, additional storage space
is required to house the inert gas tanks used for each build.
2. High power consumption. The system requires high power
consumption due to the high wattage of the laser required to
sinter the powder particles together.
3. Poor surface finish. The as-produced parts tend to have poorer
surface finish due to the relatively large particle sizes of the
powders used.

Direct Metal Laser Sintering
1. A process used exclusively by EOS that sinters layers of

powdered metal in a chamber of inert gas.
2. When a layer is finished, the powder bed moves down, and an
automated roller adds a new layer of material which is sintered
to form the next section of the model.
3. Repeating this process builds up the object one layer at a time.
4. DMLS is a metal additive manufacturing technique similar
to Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), the main difference being that
DMLS refers specifically to metal sintering and is not used for
plastics.
5. Nevertheless, the term SLS is often used interchangeably with
DMLS.

Direct Metal Laser Sintering
1. DMLS only works with multi-component alloys, but theoretically,

almost any metal alloy can be used in DMLS once it has been
fully developed and validated.
2. DMLS is often differentiated between SLS because the
proprietary metal powder EOS machines use is a finer ground
(20 microns) than the powder that other metal SLS machines
might use (120 microns).

Selective LASER Melting
• Unlike in SLS, the powder is not merely sintered together, but is

actually melted into a homogenous part.
• SLM is desirable because of its improved strength; fewer or no
pores (voids) prevent part failure.
• Operating parameters:
• Laser power, laser speed, distance between laser scan lines,
scanning strategy and powder layer thickness.
• The process is also sometimes referred to by the trade names
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) or LaserCusing.



SLS vs. DMLS vs. SLM: What exactly is the difference??
1. The beautiful explanation is given by Joris Peels, 3D printing
consultant for additive manufacturing & 3D printers.
2. Please follow the below link to read it through….
https://www.quora.com/3D-Printing-Whats-the-difference-
between-Selective-Laser-Sintering-SLS-and-Selective-Laser-Melting-
SLM
Summary:
SLS and DMLS are similar except for the SLS is used for all kinds of
materials including plastics whereas DMLS is used with metals only.
In both SLS and DMLS, the powder sintering technology is being
used (no full melting of the powder takes place)..this means they
work only with alloys (nickelalloy, Ti64 etc.).
In SLM, the powder melts to form the layer and hence can work with
single component metals such as aluminum.
Important!!!
Refer some of the case studies related to SLS, DMLS
and SLM applications

Electron Beam Melting
1. The part to be produced is first designed in a 3D CAD program.

2. The model is then sliced into thin layers, approximately a tenth
of a millimeter thick.
3. An equally thin layer of powder is scraped onto a vertically
adjustable surface.
4. The first layer’s geometry is then created through the layer of
powder melting together at those points directed from the CAD
file with a computer-controlled electron beam.
5. Thereafter, the building surface is lowered and the next layer of
powder is placed on top of the previous layer. The procedure is
then repeated so that the object from the CAD model is shaped
layer by layer until a finished metal part is completed.



EBM vs. SLM

Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)

1. A deposition head supplies metal powder to the focus of a high
powered Nd:YAG laser beam to be melted.
2. The laser is focused on a particular spot by a series of lenses, and a
motion system underneath the platform moves horizontally and
laterally as the laser beam traces the cross-section of the part being
produced.
3. The fabrication process takes place in a low-pressure argon
chamber for oxygen-free operation in the melting zone, ensuring
that good adhesion is accomplished.
4. When a layer is completed, the deposition head moves up and
continues with the next layer. The process is repeated layer by layer
until the part is completed.
5. The entire process is usually enclosed to isolate the process from
the atmosphere. Generally the prototypes need additional
finishing, but are fully dense products with good grain formation.

Principle
1. A high powered Nd:YAG laser focused onto a metal substrate

creates a molten puddle on the substrate surface. Powder is
then injected into the molten puddle to increase material
volume.
2. A “printing” motion system moves a platform horizontally and
laterally as the laser beam traces the cross-section of the part
being produced. After formation of a layer of the part, the
machine’s powder delivery nozzle moves upwards prior to
building next layer.

Applications
1. Build mold and die inserts

2. Producing titanium parts in racing industry
3. Fabricate titanium components for biological implants
4. Produce functionally gradient structures

Laser Engineered Net Shaping

1. Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) is an emerging Solid

Freeform Fabrication (SFF) process which is capable of producing
fully dense metallic parts with complex shapes directly from a
computer aided drawing (CAD) without the need for molding or
tooling.

1. Directly from CAD

2. 1mm-1m feature sizes
3. many Metals -Ti, SS, Ni…
4. High Power Laser
5. Inert Environment
6. Excellent Material Props
7. Aerospace & Defense
8. Medical Devices


LENS for repair applications
Small Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
• Very precise deposition requiring less material removal

during post processing

Graded Alloy Deposition by LENS
1. Fabricate tri-alloy gradient samples for advanced Army turbo-

shaft engines

Other applications

Printing Processes

Polyjet 3D Printing Process

1. Material jetting is the name for any 3D printing technology that

jets a liquid (the build material) from a print head, which is then
solidified by UV light.
2. In most material jetting processes, the build material is a
photopolymer.
3. PolyJet 3D printers deliver high quality, multi-material printing
and that too in multi-color format.
Source: https://www.designtechsys.com/articles/polyjet-printers-working
1. The jetting heads deposit a single layer of the build material
(typically photopolymers) by sliding to and fro along the X axis.
2. The depth of each layer of photopolymer deposited by each
jetting head is selectively controlled by software.
3. Raster scanning the head across the build platform delivers the
capability to produce precise models.
4. The liquid photopolymer is sprayed from a multi-nozzle, inkjet-
style print head.
5. As soon as the droplets of these liquid photopolymers are jetted,
they are immediately cured and hardened by an UV light.
6. Once a layer is complete, the build platform drops along the Z
axis, and the next layer of photopolymers is ejected from the
heads.
7. The process is repeated till the object is complete.
Polyjet 3D Printing Process: advantages
1. There can be a number of jetting heads that allow different build materials to be
ejected at the same time. This makes it possible for 3D PolyJet printers to produce an
object with different levels of flexibility in a single build. PolyJet 3D printers hence are
useful to build complex objects with a smooth finish.
2. As 3D PolyJet printers have multiple jetting heads, they allow for using photopolymers
with different colours in a single build. You can therefore build multi-coloured objects
easily.
3. Since the build platform is typically lowered after an iteration of layer, there is more
control over accuracy. High quality 3D PolyJet printers have an accuracy of 16 microns
(0.016 mm). This allows for excellent detailing. Once a model is complete, it is
perfectly structured and does not require additional curing or processing. If a support
material is used, it is easily removable. In most cases, it can be simply washed off with
water.
4. There is a wide choice of raw material that is available for printing. At present, there
are more than 100+ types of build material available for 3D PolyJet printers, and their
number is increasing.

Polyjet build process: advantages
1. Low cost
2. High speed, Scalability,
3. Ease of building parts in multiple materials, and
4. The capability of printing colors.
5. Printing machines are much lower in cost than other AM
machines, particularly the ones that use lasers.
6. In general, printing machines can be assembled from
standard components (drives, stages, print heads)

Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)
1. Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP) was invented at MIT and has

been licensed to more than five companies for
commercialization.
2. 3DP prints a binder into a powder bed to fabricate a part.
3. Only a small portion of the part material is delivered through the
print-head; most of the part material is comprised of powder in
the powder bed.
4. Typically, binder droplets (80 µm in diameter) form spherical
agglomerates of binder liquid and powder particles as well as
provide bonding to the previously printed layer.
5. Once a layer is printed, the powder bed is lowered and a new
layer of powder is spread onto it

Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)

Advantages of Binder Printing
1. It can be faster since only a small fraction of the total part

volume must be dispensed through the print heads. However,
the need to recoat powder adds an extra step, slowing down
binder processes somewhat.
2. Second, the combination of powder materials and additives in
binders enables material compositions that are not possible, or
not easily achieved, using direct methods.
3. Third, slurries with higher solids loadings are possible with
binder printing, compared with direct printing, enabling better
quality ceramic and metal parts to be produced.
4. Binder printing processes lend themselves readily to printing
colors onto parts.

Polymers used in rapid manufacturing technologies

Polymers
1. A polymer is made of multiple repeating molecular structures.

2. The name Polymer comes from two Greek words poly and meres
meaning "many parts”
3. Polymers have an amorphous or a semi-crystalline structure.
4. Polymers have lower density, strength and stiffness than metals.
5. They also have very low electrical conductivities, which makes
them suitable for use as insulation material.

Polymers
Polymers are classified into three groups:
1. Thermoplastics: have a linear or branched structure and can be
resoftened by heating and then reshaped.
2. Thermosets: have cross-linked structures that develop upon
curing (controlled heating to promote cross linking). Once cured,
they cannot be reshaped.
3. Elastomers: also have a cross-linked structure. They possess
elastic behavior similar to that of natural rubber.
Polymer Structures (a) Liner and (b) Cross-Linked (each circle

represents a mer)
Polymers used in Rapid Prototyping: ABS Polymer
1. This polymer has an amorphous structure and is made of three

monomers: Acrylonitrile (C3H3N), Butadiene (C4H6), and Styrene
(C8H8).
2. The combination of these monomers leads to the formation of
two different co-polymer phases to make up the ABS polymer.
a. a hard styrene-butadiene co-polymer and
b. a rubbery styrene-acrylonitrile co-polymer
3. ABS polymers are used in several applications including
automotive, consumer electronics, and appliances.


1. The polymer has several desirable properties such as its good

strength and relatively high toughness.
2. The properties can be manipulated by adjusting the amount of
each monomer.
3. It is used in
a. stereolithography (STL)
b. fused deposition modeling (FDM) and
c. selective laser sintering (SLS)

Polymers used in Rapid Prototyping: Acrylics
1. Acrylics are polymers with an amorphous structure that are

obtained from acrylic acid.
2. They are noted for their good transparency, which allows them
to transmit about 90% of incident light
3. Available in many colors
4. Example: Plexiglas
5. They are used in automotive and optical instrument applications
6. Acrylics are used to produce prototype parts using the STL
technology

Cellulose
1. Cellulose is a natural polymer with an amorphous structure and

the chemical composition C6H10O5
2. Wood, which is composed of 50% cellulose, is one of the primary
natural sources of this polymer.
3. Four groups of cellulose-based polymers are commercially
available
a. Cellulose acetate
b. Cellulose acetate butyrate
c. Cellulose acetate propionate
d. Cellulose nitrate
4. Cellulose is used in laminated object manufacturing (LOM) rapid
prototyping technology.

Nylon
1. Nylons are members of the polyamide (PA) family and have

mostly crystalline structures.
2. The most commonly used Nylons are Nylon6 (PA6) Nylon6,6 and
(PA6,6).
3. Nylons have good wear resistance and their strength can be
improved by reinforcing them with glass fiber.
4. Nylons are the main prototyping materials used by
a. the laser sintering (LS) rapid prototyping technology and
b. the FDM technology.

Polycarbonate
1. Polycarbonates are polymers with the composition of

[C3H6(C6H4)2CO3]n
2. They have an amorphous structure and are characterized by
their good creep resistance and good toughness.
3. The have excellent resistant to heat compared with other
polymers.
4. They are used in automotive windshield applications as well as
product housings.
5. They are used for STL prototyping applications.

Thermoplastic Polyester
1. Polyesters are polymers of a semi-crystalline structure and are of

two types: thermoplastic polyesters and thermosetting
polyesters.
2. Two commonly used types of polyesters are polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
3. PBT is used in the manufacture of automotive luggage racks and
headlight components
4. PET is used by the packaging, automotive, and electrical
industries due to its high toughness and temperature resistant.
5. Polyesters are used in SLS rapid prototyping technology.

Polyethylene (PE)
1. Polyethylene has a semi-crystalline structure and is of the

chemical composition [C2H4]n.
2. Polyethylene has good toughness and relatively excellent
resistance to chemical attack.
3. It can be processed by almost any thermoplastic processing
method, thus it is the most commonly used type of
thermoplastics.
4. Polyethylene has two major types: low density polyethylene
(LDPE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE).
5. Polyethylene is used in FDM technology.

Polypropylene (PP)
1. Polypropylene has a semi crystalline structure with a high degree

ofcrystallinity.
2. PP, which has the chemical composition [C3H6]n is the lightest of
all currently available plastics.
3. It has good resistance to chemical attack and has properties that
are comparable with HDPE.
4. It is used in the manufacture of one-piece plastic hinges
5. It is used in the FDM rapid prototyping technology.

Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
1. Polyvinylchloride has an amorphous structure with the chemical

composition [C2H3Cl]n.
2. The rigidity of PVC is inversely proportional to the amount of
plasticizer it contains.
3. In addition, PVC contains stabilizers in order to control its
instability when subjected to light and heat.
4. PVC is used in SLS rapid prototyping technology.

Polymers used in Rapid Prototyping

Typical polymers

Typical polymers

Module 4: Post-Processing
Chapter No. 16 in the textbook by Gibson

(Uploaded to Moodle in the beginning of the semester)

Need for post-processing of AM components
1. Most AM processes require post-processing after part building

to prepare the part for its intended use.
2. Depending upon the AM technique, the reason for

postprocessing varies.
3. For purposes of simplicity, this chapter will focus on

postprocessing techniques which are used to enhance
components or overcome AM Limitations.

Postprocessing techniques
1. Support Material Removal

2. Surface Texture Improvements
3. Accuracy Improvements
4. Aesthetic Improvements
5. Preparation for use as a Pattern
6. Property Enhancements using Non-Thermal Techniques
7. Property Enhancements using Thermal Techniques

1. Support Material Removal
1. The most common type of post-processing in AM is support

removal.
2. Support material can be broadly classified into two categories:
a. Material which surrounds the part as a naturally-occurring by-
product of the build process (natural supports)
b. Rigid structures which are designed and built to support, restrain
or attach the part being built to a build platform (synthetic
supports)

Natural Support Post-Processing
1. Part being built is fully encapsulated in the build material

2. The part must be removed from the surrounding material prior
to its use
3. Processes which provide natural supports are primarily powder-
based and sheet-based processes.
4. Specifically, all powder bed fusion (PBF) and binder printing
processes require removal of the part from the loose powder
surrounding the part
5. Bond-then-form sheet metal lamination processes require
removal of the encapsulating sheet material.

Example
Automated powder removal using vibratory and vacuum assist in a ZCorp

450 machine. (Courtesy Z Corporation)

Example
LOM support removal process (de-cubing) process, showing: (a) the finished block of
material; (b) removal of cubes far from the part; (c) removal of cubes directly adjacent to the
part; (d) the finished product (Courtesy Worldwide Guide to Rapid Prototyping web-site (C)
Copyright Castle Island Co., All rights reserved. Photo provided by Cubic Technologies.)

Synthetic Support Removal
1. Processes which do not naturally support parts require synthetic

supports for overhanging features.
2. In some cases, such as when using PBF (Powder Based Fusion)
techniques for metals, synthetic supports are also required to
resist distortion.
3. Synthetic supports can be made from the build material or from
a secondary material.
4. The development of secondary support materials was a key step
in simplifying the removal of synthetic supports as these
materials are either weaker, soluble in a liquid solution, or melt
at a lower temperature than the build material.

Example
Flat FDM-produced aerospace part. White build material is ABS plastic and black
material is the water-soluble WaterWorksTM support material. (Courtesy of Shapeways.
Design by Nathan Yo Han Wheatley.)

Example
Breakaway support removal for (a) an FDM part (courtesy of Jim Flowers) and (b) an SLA
part. (Courtesy Worldwide Guide to Rapid Prototyping web-site. (C) Copyright Castle
Island Co., All rights reserved. Photo provided by Cadem A.S., Turkey)

Supports Made from the Build Material
1. All extrusion, direct printing and photopolymer processes
require supports for overhanging structures and to connect the
part to the build platform.
2. Since these processes are used primarily for polymer parts, the
low strength of the supports allows them to be removed
manually.
3. These types of supports are also commonly referred to as
breakaway supports.
4. The removal of supports from downward-facing features leaves
witness marks where the supports were attached.
5. As a result, these surfaces may require subsequent sanding and
polishing.
6. Figures from previous two slides shows breakaway support
removal techniques for FDM and SLA.
1. Powder Bed Fusion and beam deposition processes for metals
and ceramics also typically require support materials.
2. An example dental framework, oriented so that support removal
does not mar the critical surfaces, is shown in Figure.
SLM dental framework

(# Emerald
Group Publishing Limited)

Supports Made from Secondary Materials
1. Number of secondary support materials have been developed
over the years in order to alleviate the tedious, time-consuming,
labor-intensive, error-prone manual removal of support
materials.
2. Two of the first technologies to use secondary support materials
were the Cubital layer-wise photopolymerization process and
the Solidscape direct printing process.
3. Their use of wax support materials enabled the block of
support/build material created during processing to be placed in
a warm water bath; thus melting or dissolving the wax and
leaving behind the final parts.
4. Since that time, secondary supports have become common
commercially in FDM and direct printing processes.

Supports Made from Secondary Materials
5. For polymers, the most common secondary support materials
are polymer
6. materials which can be melted and/or dissolved in a water-based
solvent. The
7. water can be jetted or ultrasonically vibrated to accelerate the
support removal
8. process. For metals, the most common secondary support
materials are lowermelting-
9. temperature alloys or alloys which can be chemically dissolved in
a solvent
10. (in this case the solvent must not affect the build material).

• AM parts have common surface-texture features that may need

to be modified for aesthetic or performance reasons.
• Common surface textures are: stair-steps; powder adhesion; fill
patterns from extrusion or beam-based systems; and witness
marks from support material removal.
• Stair-stepping is a fundamental issue in layered manufacturing
and is difficult to overcome, although one can choose a thin
layer thickness to minimize error at the expense of build time.

• The type of post-processing utilized for surface texture

improvements is dependent upon the desired surface finish
outcome.
• If a matte surface finish is desired, a simple bead blasting of the
surface can help even the surface texture, remove sharp corners
from stair-stepping and give an overall matte appearance.
• If a smooth or polished finish is desired, then wet or dry sanding
and hand-polishing are performed.
• In many cases, it is desirable to paint the surface (e.g., with
cyanoacrylate, or a sealant) prior to sanding or polishing.
• Painting the surface has the dual benefit of sealing porosity and,
by viscous forces, smoothing the stair-step effect; thus making
sanding and polishing easier and more effective.

• Several automated techniques have been explored for surface

texture improvements.
• Two of the most commonly utilized include tumbling for external
features and abrasive flow machining for, primarily, internal
features.

• There is a wide range of accuracy capabilities in AM.

• Some processes are capable of sub-micron tolerances, whereas
others have accuracies around 1 mm.
• Typically, the larger the build volume and the faster the build
speed the worse the accuracy for a particular process.
• This is particularly noticeable, for instance, in beam deposition
processes where the slowest and most accurate beam
deposition processes have accuracies approaching a few
microns; whereas, the larger bulk deposition machines have
accuracies of several millimetres.

Error Sources
1. Process-dependent errors affect the accuracy of the X–Y plane
differently from the Z-axis accuracy.
2. These errors come from positioning and indexing limitations of
specific machine architectures, lack of closed-loop process
monitoring and control strategies, and/or from issues
fundamental to the volumetric rate of material addition (such as
melt pool or droplet size).
3. Material-dependent phenomena also play a role in accuracy,
including shrinkage and residual stress-induced distortion.
4. Integration of additive plus subtractive processing is another
method for process accuracy improvement.

Model Pre-processing
1. For many AM processes, the position of the part within the build
chamber and the orientation will influence part accuracy, surface
finish and build time.
2. Thus, translation and rotation operations are applied to the
original model to optimize the part position and orientation.
3. Pre-process manipulation of the STL model will allow a scale
factor to be used to compensate for the average shrinkage of the
process chain.
4. In order to make sure that there is enough material left on the
surface to be machined, adding “skin” to the original model is
necessary.

Machining Strategy
• Machining strategy is very important for finishing AM parts and
tools.
• Considering both accuracy and machine efficiency, adaptive
raster milling of the surface, plus hole drilling and sharp edge
contour machining can fulfil the needs of most parts.

• Many times AM is used to make parts, which will be displayed

for aesthetic or artistic reasons or used as marketing tools.
• In these and similar instances, the aesthetics of the part is of
critical importance for its end application.
• Often the desired aesthetic improvement is solely related to
surface finish. In this case, the post-processing options discussed
in the earlier section can be used.
• In some cases, a difference in surface texture between one
region and another may be desired (this is often the case in
jewelry). In this case, finishing of selected surfaces only is
required.

• In cases where the color of the AM part is not of sufficient

quality, several methods can be used to improve the part
aesthetics. E.g. Dipping the part into a dye of the appropriate
color.
• Another aesthetic enhancement (which also strengthens the
part and improves wear resistance) is chrome plating.
• Several materials have been electroless coated to AM parts,
including Ni, Cu and other coatings.
• In some cases, these coatings are thick enough that, in addition
to aesthetic improvements, the parts are robust enough to use
as tools for injection moulding or as EDM electrodes.

SLA part (a) before and (b) after
chrome plating. (Courtesy of
Artcraft Plating)

• Often parts made using AM are intended as patterns for

investment casting, sand casting, room temperature
vulcanization (RTV) molding, spray metal deposition or other
pattern replication processes.
• The use of an AM pattern for metal part creation using a
secondary molding or casting process is often the least
expensive way to use AM to produce a metal part, as many of
the metal-based AM processes are still expensive to own and
operate.

• The accuracy and surface finish of an AM pattern will directly
influence the final part accuracy and surface finish.
• As a result, special care must be taken to ensure the pattern has
the accuracy and surface finished desired in the final part.
• In addition, the pattern must be scaled to compensate for any
shrinkage that takes place in the pattern replication steps.
Rings for investment casting, made using a ProJet1 CPX 3D Printer (Courtesy 3D
Systems)

Sand casting pattern for a cylinder head of a V6, 24-valve car engine (left) during loose
powder removal and (right) pattern prepared for casting alongside a finished casting. (Joint
project between CADCAM Becker GmbH and VAW Su¨dalumin GmbH, made on an EOSINT S
laser sintering machine, courtesy EOS)

6. Property Enhancements using Non-thermal Techniques
• Powder-based and extrusion-based processes often create

porous structures.
• In many cases, that porosity can be infiltrated by a higher-
strength material, such as cyanoacrylate (Super Glue).
• Newer, proprietary methods and materials have also been
developed to strengthen various AM parts.
• One of the best known is the RP Tempering process of PAR3
Technology, USA.
• RP Tempering is a collection of materials and treatment
operations used to increase the strength, ductility, heat
deflection, flammability resistance, EMI shielding or other
properties of AM parts using nano-composite reinforcements.

6. Property Enhancements using Non-thermal Techniques
• A common post-processing operation for photopolymer

materials is curing.
• During processing, many photopolymerization processes do not
achieve complete polymerization.
• As a result, these parts are put into a Post-Cure Apparatus, a
device that floods the part with UV and visible radiation in order
to completely cure the surface and subsurface regions of the
part.
• Additionally, the part can undergo a thermal cure in a low
temperature oven, which can completely cure the photopolymer
and in some cases greatly enhance the part’s mechanical
properties.

7. Property Enhancements using Thermal Techniques
• After AM processing, many parts are thermally processed to

enhance their properties.
• In the case of beam deposition and PBF techniques for metals,
this thermal processing is primarily heat treatment to form the
desired microstructures and/or to relieve residual stresses.
• In these instances, traditional recipes for heat treatment
developed for the specific metal alloy being employed are
commonly used.
• In some cases, however, special heat treatment methods have
been developed to retain the fine-grained microstructure within
the AM part while still providing some stress relief and ductility
enhancement.

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Rapid Manufacturing Technologies

Course code: MEE2016

Slides for CAT 2

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 2

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 3

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 5

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 7

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 9

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 10

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 11

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 12

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 13

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 14

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 15

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 17

1. Stereolithography (SL), also called Laser Photolithography; is a 3-

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 18

1. The process sequence starts with a solid or surface model of the

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 19

1. The entire machine is a sealed system (to prevent the fumes

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 20

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 21

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 22

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 23

1. The earliest polymers were made of natural materials such as

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 24

1. Typically, UV lamps in the wavelength range 200-400 nm are

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 26

1. In general, a photo-polymerizable resin remains liquid when the

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 27

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 28

1. Recoating is the process of establishing a new layer of fresh resin

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 29

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 30

1. Round the clock operation. The SLA can be used continuously

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 32

1. Requires support structures. Structures that have overhangs and

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 33

1. Models for conceptualization, packaging and presentation.

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 34

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 35

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 36

1. The Solid Ground Curing (SGC) System is produced by Cubital Ltd.

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 37

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 38

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 39

1. Parts are built, layer by layer, from a liquid photopolymer resin

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 40

1. Each layer of a multiple layer run contains cross-sectional slices

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 41

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 42

• Entire layer is solidified at once, reducing the part creation time.

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 43

1. Requires large physical space

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 44

• The machine is noisy and large and needs to be constantly

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 45

1. General applications: Conceptual design presentation, design

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 46

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 47

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 48

1. The technology was first developed by Scott Cramp in 1988 and

Rapid Manufacturing technologies 49