Mechanical Properties of Materials

SOLID MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Volume 190

Series Editors: G.M.L. GLADWELL

Department of Civil Engineering
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3GI

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The fundamental questions arising in mechanics are: Why?, How?, and How
much? The aim of this series is to provide lucid accounts written by authoritative
researchers giving vision and insight in answering these questions on the subject of
mechanics as it relates to solids.

The scope of the series covers the entire spectrum of solid mechanics. Thus it
includes the foundation of mechanics; variational formulations; computational
mechanics; statics, kinematics and dynamics of rigid and elastic bodies: vibrations
of solids and structures; dynamical systems and chaos; the theories of elasticity,
plasticity and viscoelasticity; composite materials; rods, beams, shells and
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Joshua Pelleg

Mechanical Properties
of Materials

123
Joshua Pelleg
Materials Engineering
Ben Gurion University of the Negev
Ben Gurion Street
Beer Sheva
Israel

ISSN 0925-0042
ISBN 978-94-007-4341-0 ISBN 978-94-007-4342-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4342-7
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To my wife Ada, children Deenah, Ruth
and Asher and their families
Preface

As the title implies, the purpose of this textbook is to present a different approach
to the teaching of Materials Science and Engineering than the one that is now
commonly used. In earlier times, studies of materials were usually referred to
as “metallurgy”. Currently most textbooks still begin by introducing the student
to basic concepts, accompanied by laboratory exercises relevant to each concept.
These exercises are usually quite self-explanatory and have no special prerequisite –
except for some common sense – to perform them. In the preparation of this new
text, the author has been influenced by two guiding principles. The first is that the
student should begin by acquiring some degree of knowledge of and experience with
performing mechanical tests. Thus, Chap. 1 places its emphasis on developing this
skill. This lays the groundwork for the student to begin performing laboratory tests
simultaneously and in parallel with their studies of new concepts throughout the
course. Only after this chapter do we deal with basic concepts such as dislocations,
plastic deformation, etc.
The second guiding principle was the assumption that students exposed to a
course of mechanical behavior of materials in its various forms are if not at a junior
then at least at a sophomore level and sometimes even at a senior level. Thus they
should already have been exposed to the basic concepts of mechanical and structural
fundamentals. Consequently, in this text elements of the theory of elasticity and
plasticity are not covered, but rather the student is referred to appropriate books
or other publications. Inherent in this assumption is the belief that students at this
level are already familiar with the concepts of strain and stress tensors, principal
stresses, normal stress, and to the description of stress at a point. The same approach
is applied to other basic structural principles, and the elements of crystallography,
assuming familiarity of students with the fundamentals of materials science and
engineering materials.
Chapter 1 sets the framework of mechanical testing, excluding investigation
of dynamic stresses (fatigue) and the effect of temperature on applying static
load on materials (creep). These are considered separately. Chapter 2 introduces
the basic concept of dislocations that are needed to explain various observations
of mechanical behavior. Dislocations are essential in this regard and the chapter

vii
viii Preface

is devoted to describing this concept, their motion and generation. In Chap. 3,

plastic deformation is discussed in terms of dislocation motion; slip and slip
planes are introduced and their association with acting shear stress is considered.
Strengthening mechanisms such as strain (work) hardening are treated in Chap. 4.
Chapter 5 is completely devoted to creep, the effect of temperature on materials
which are loaded statically and which can lead to failure either by not being able
to carry the applied load or by stress rupture. The concept of cyclic or repeated
stress and its effect on material response in terms of fatigue failure is discussed in
Chap. 6. Fracture, both brittle and ductile, is considered in Chap. 7. It discusses
fracture occurring in static loading such as in simple tension, in creep as influenced
by the effect of time and temperature and fracture resulting from the application of
cyclic stresses. Finally, Chap. 8 is devoted to the mechanical behavior of small-size
specimens where the dimensions are in the micron and nano scales.
The book is intended as a text for materials engineering students in the junior
or possibly senior years of their studies. Students in other related disciplines such
as metallurgy or mechanical engineering can benefit from such a text. The scope
of the book makes it appropriate as a reference for graduate students as well and
for practicing engineers in industry who could use such a textbook to refresh their
knowledge in this field. In particular, when practicing engineers are required to
supplement or update their understanding in the field of mechanical properties of
materials, such a text can be invaluable in achieving these requirements.
I believe that there is sufficient material in this book for teaching at least a
three credit course per semester, but it can be extended for a second semester as
practiced in my university. In most universities where materials, metallurgy and
related engineering courses are being taught, this is about the level of credit hours
devoted to the subject of mechanical properties. The content of this textbook –
except for Chap. 8 dealing with specimens of small dimensions – is not new and it
can be found in many good text and reference books, or in research papers published
in journals. The book is based on my lectures given while I was teaching this course
at the Ben Gurion University of the Negev for junior undergraduate students, taught
as a three credit course for two semesters.
Finally I would like to express my gratitude to all publishers and authors for
permission to use and reproduce some of their illustrations and microstructures.

Beer Sheva, Israel Joshua Pelleg

Contents

1 Mechanical Testing of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Tension Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Elastic Deformation and the Relations Between
Stress and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 The Elastic and Proportional Limits . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.3 Plastic Deformation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.4 The True Stress/Strain Relation . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.5 Elongation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.6 The Reduction of Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.7 Necking .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.8 Instability in Tension.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.9 The Shear Stress and Shear Strain . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2.10 The Elastic Strain Energy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2.11 Resilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2.12 Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.13 Fracture Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3 Compression Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3.2 The Compression of Brittle Materials. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3.3 The Compression of Ductile Materials .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.4 The Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure on Compression .. . . . . . 34
1.4 The Hardness Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.4.1 Indentation by Spherical (Ball) Indenters .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.4.2 Indentation by Pyramid and Cone Indenters .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4.3 Indentation by Cone (or Spherical) Indenters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.4.4 Comments on Hardness Tests . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.5 The Torsion Test (Shear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.5.1 Torsion in the Elastic Region .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.5.2 Torsion in the Plastic Region . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

ix
x Contents

1.5.3 Axial Change in Torsion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

1.5.4 Fracture by Torsion Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.6 The Impact Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.7 Anelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.7.2 The Elastic After Effect.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.7.3 The Thermoelastic Effect .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.7.4 Energy Losses/Hysteresis Loop . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.7.5 Internal Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Appendix I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Appendix II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2 Introduction to Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2 The Theoretical Strength of Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.3 Seeing (Dislocations) Is Believing .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.3.1 Etch Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.3.3 Field Ion Microscopy (FIM) .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.4 The Geometrical Characterization of Dislocations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.5 The Formation of Dislocations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.6 The Motion of Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.6.1 Conservative Motion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.6.2 Non-conservative Motion (Climb) . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.7 The Energy of Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.7.1 Screw Dislocation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.7.2 Edge Dislocation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.8 Line Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.9 The Stress Field of a Dislocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.9.1 Screw Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.9.2 Edge Dislocations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.10 The Forces Acting on Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.10.1 The Glide Forces .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.10.2 Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.11 The Forces Between Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.11.1 Screw Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.11.2 Edge Dislocations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.12 The Intersection of Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.13 Dislocation Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.14 Partial Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.14.1 Shockley Partial Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.14.2 Frank Partial Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.14.3 The Cross Slip of Partial Dislocations . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.14.4 The Thompson Tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.14.5 Lomer-Cottrell Locks .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Contents xi

2.15 Dislocation Pile-Ups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

2.16 Low (Small)-Angle Grain Boundaries .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3 Plastic Deformation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.2 Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS) . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.3 Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.3.1 FCC Structures .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.3.2 BCC Structures.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.3.3 HCP Structures .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.4 The Slip in Polycrystalline Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.5 Twinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.6 Yield Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.6.2 Sharp Yield .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.6.3 Lüders Bands .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.6.4 Stain Aging .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.6.5 The Cottrell-Bilby Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.7 The Bauschinger Effect (BE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.8 The Effect of Impurity (Solute), Temperature and Orientation .. . . . . 180
3.9 Polygonization .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.10 Deformation in Polycrystalline Materials . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.10.1 Preferred Orientation (Texture).. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.10.2 The Bauschinger Effect (BE) . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.11 Grain Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4 Strengthening Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.2 Strain Hardening .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.2.1 Stage I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.2.2 Stage II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.2.3 Stage III (Dynamic Recovery).. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.3 Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.4 Theories of Strain Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.4.1 Stage I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.4.2 Stage II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.4.3 Stage III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.5 Strain Hardening in Polycrystalline Materials . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.6 Solid Solution Strengthening.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.6.2 Strengthening by Interstitial Atoms .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.6.3 Strengthening by Substitution Atoms . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.7 Grain Boundaries and Grain Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
xii Contents

4.8 Second-Phase Hardening (Precipitates and/or Other Particles) . . . . . 246

4.8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.8.2 Orowan Loop Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.8.3 The Strength of Obstacles and Break-Away Stress. . . . . . . . . 249
4.8.4 Cutting Through the Second Phase . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.8.5 The Mott-Nabarro Concept .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
4.8.6 Summary of Second-Phase Strengthening .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5 Time Dependent Deformation – Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.2 Creep in Single Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.3 Creep in Polycrystalline Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.4 Mechanisms of Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.4.1 Nabarro-Herring Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
5.4.2 Dislocation Creep and Climb . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.4.3 Climb-Controlled Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.4.4 Glide via Cross-Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.4.5 Coble Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.5 Grain-Boundary Sliding .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5.6 Creep Rupture.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.7 Recovery (Relaxation) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
5.8 The Prediction of Life-Time (Parametric Method).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.8.1 The Larson-Miller Approach .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.8.2 The Manson-Haferd Approach .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.8.3 The Orr-Sherby-Dorn (OSD) Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
5.8.4 The Monkman-Grant Approach .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
5.9 Concepts of Designing (Selecting) Creep-Resistant Materials . . . . . . 332
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
6 Cyclic Stress – Fatigue .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6.2 The Endurance Limit; S-N Curves .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
6.2.1 The Endurance Limit in Ferrous Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.2.2 The Endurance Limit in Non-ferrous Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.3 The Stress Cycles .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
6.3.1 Low-Cycle Fatigue Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.3.2 High-Cycle Fatigue Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6.3.3 Very High Cycle Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6.4 Fatigue Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6.4.1 The Stress-Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6.4.2 Strain-Based Life-Times .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.5 Work Hardening (Softening) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.6 Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.7 The Mean Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Contents xiii

6.8 Underloading (UL), Overloading (OL), Coaxing

and Cumulative Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
6.8.1 Underloading (UL).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
6.8.2 Overloading (OL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
6.8.3 Coaxing .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
6.8.4 Cumulative Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
6.8.5 Variable-Amplitude Loading (Intermittent Loading).. . . . . . 395
6.9 Structural Observations in Fatigued Specimens ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
6.9.1 Progression Markings (Beach Marks) and Striations . . . . . . 398
6.9.2 The Dislocation Structure in Fatigue .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
6.10 The Notch Effect.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
6.11 Failure Resulting from Cyclic Deformation (Fracture by Fatigue) .. 415
6.12 The Effects of Some Materials and Process Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
6.12.1 Surface Effects on Fatigue .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
6.12.2 The Residual Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
6.12.3 Introduction to Residual Stresses. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
6.13 Miscellaneous Variables .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
6.13.1 Grain Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
6.13.2 The Effect of Temperature .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
6.13.3 Specimen Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
6.13.4 The Environment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
6.14 Thermal Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
6.15 Design for Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
7 Fracture .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
7.2 Fracture Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
7.3 Brittle Fracture .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
7.4 Theories of Brittle Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
7.4.1 Griffith’s Theory on Fracture .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
7.4.2 Orowan’s Fracture Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
7.4.3 Brittle Fracture in Crystalline Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
7.4.4 The Dislocation Theory of Brittle Fracture .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
7.5 Factors Causing Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
7.5.1 Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
7.5.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
7.5.3 Aqueous-Environment Embrittlement (AEE)
or Stress-Corrosion Cracking.. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
7.5.4 Temper Embrittlement (TE) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
7.6 Fracture Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
7.7 Ductile Fracture .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
7.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
7.7.2 The Process of Neck Formation .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
xiv Contents

7.8 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition (Transition Temperature) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

7.8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
7.8.2 The Features .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
7.9 Fatigue Fracture.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
7.9.1 Crack-Tip Blunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
7.9.2 The Effect of Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
8 Mechanical Behavior in the Micron and Submicron/Nano Range . . . . . 521
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
8.2 Mechanical Behavior in the Small-Size Range . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
8.2.1 An Explanation of the Size Effect .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
8.3 The Static Properties.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
8.3.1 Single Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
8.3.2 Polycrystalline Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
8.3.3 Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
8.3.4 Free-Standing Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
8.3.5 Whiskers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
8.3.6 Twinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
8.3.7 The Hall-Petch Relation (H-P) in Materials of
Small Dimensions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
8.3.8 Superplasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
8.4 Time-Dependent Deformation (Creep) . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
8.5 Fatigue Behavior .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
8.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
8.5.2 Fatigue in Micron-/Submicron-Sized Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
8.5.3 The Fatigue of Nanocrystalline (NC) Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
8.6 Fracture.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
8.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
8.6.2 The Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
8.7 Epilogue .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629