Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) Working Principle | Single Blade, Two Blade, Three-Blade

Wind Turbine
This section introduces the horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT), which is by far the most common type
of wind turbine. Horizontal-axis wind turbines may produce less than 100 kW for basic applications and
residential use, or as much as 6 MW for offshore power generation. Even larger turbines are on the drawing
board.
Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine Working Principle
The horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) is a wind turbine in which the main rotor shaft is pointed in the
direction of the wind to extract power. The principal components of a basic HAWT are shown in Figure 1.
The rotor receives energy from the wind and produces a torque on a low-speed shaft. The low-speed shaft
transfers the energy to a gearbox, high-speed shaft, and generator, which are enclosed in the nacelle for
protection.
Notice how the blades are connected to the rotor and to the shaft. This shaft is called the low-speed shaft
because the wind turns the rotating assembly at a leisurely 10 to 20 revolutions per minute (rpm) typically.

Figure 1 Basic Parts of a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine

The low-speed shaft connects to the gearbox, which has a set of gears that increase the output speed of the
shaft to approximately 1,800 rpm for an output frequency of 60 Hz (or a speed of 1,500 rpm if the frequency
is 50 Hz). For this reason, the shaft from the gearbox is called the high-speed shaft.
The high-speed shaft is then connected to the generator, which converts the rotational motion to AC
voltage. This speed is critical if it is used to turn the generator directly because the frequency of the ac from
the generator is related directly to the rate at which it is turned.
Almost all horizontal-axis wind turbines have similar components to those discussed in this article, but
there are some exceptions. For example, direct-drive wind turbinesdo not have a gearbox, and they
usually have a DC generator rather than an AC generator. These may or may not include a converter to AC
(which can be located at the tower base).
In commercial turbines, a computer or programmable logic controller (PLC) is the controller. The controller
takes data from an anemometer to determine the direction the wind turbine should be pointed, how to
optimize the energy harvested, or how to prevent over-speeding in the event of high winds.
 Controlling the Output Frequency of Wind Turbine
Controlling the output frequency and keeping it constant despite varying winds can be done in one of three
ways.
One way is to control the speed at which the generator shaft turns, which can be accomplished by adjusting
the pitch and yaw.
Pitch is the rotational angle of the blades on a wind turbine; yaw is the direction the wind turbine blades
and nacelle are facing.
 Pitch and yaw can be adjusted so that a high-speed shaft runs at a constant rate to produce the required
output frequency (typically 50 Hz or 60 Hz) from the generator.
 HAWTs may also use a gearbox or set of gears, which changes the slow rotation of the blades into a
faster rotation for the generator.
 The optimum blade rotation is generally between 10 and 20 rpm, and the gear ratio can be used to make
the high-speed shaft rotate at the speed the generator requires.
The second method for controlling the frequency is to allow the turbine to run freely at any speed that is
within its ratings and send the voltage to a power electronic frequency converter. This method is also used
with vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs).
 When a frequency converter is used, the rotational speed of the turbine is not controlled until the
maximum speed is reached, at which point speed controls take over.
 The frequency converter consists of the features shown in Figure 2. The inverter accepts single-phase or
three-phase AC to its input circuits within a specified range of frequency and voltage level.
 The AC is filtered and converted to DC by the rectifier and smoothed with passive filters to remove any
trace of the input frequency.
 The next section has an inverter that converts the DC voltage back to single-phase or three-phase AC
voltage at the precise frequency and phase required by the grid.
This method has the advantage of having a wider range of operating conditions without requiring more
complicated gearing.

Figure 2 Block Diagram for Power Electronic Frequency Converter

A few applications can use pure DC, which can be obtained from a point before the inverter.

Figure 3: World’s Largest Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine

Vestas has plans for the world’s largest wind turbine. The blades for this wind turbine will be 164 meters
(538 feet) in diameter and will have a rated capacity of 8 megawatts. The new wind turbine will be an
offshore wind turbine located near Aberdeen Bay in Scotland.
The internal parts for a commercial power electronic frequency converter are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Power Electronic Frequency Converter

The third way to control the output frequency of the generator is to use a double-feed, inductive-type
generator in which the AC field current is tightly controlled to the required output frequency by feeding the
current through an electronic circuit that produces an exact frequency.
HAWT Towers
The tower for a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine maybe 40 to 100 m (approximately 130 to 328 ft) high so
that it is tall enough to position the turbine blade into the strongest wind flow. Most sites have the strongest
winds well above ground level.
Today, most towers for larger wind turbines used to produce electrical power for utilities are in the range
of 65 to 100 m tall.
The Encore E126, recently installed in Germany, has a tower that is 138 m (453 ft) high. The blades are
located on the main shaft, on a rotor at a considerable distance in front of the tower, so they are far enough
out to clear the tower when the blades are rotating.
Controller
The blade pitch and the direction the turbine faces have already been described as functions monitored by
the controller.
The controller also uses sensors to measure the generator output (voltage and frequency), turbine blade
speed, vibration, turbine and drive train parameters, and other parameters such as a number of complete
rotations of the vertical axis (yaw control).
Some systems limit the number of full rotations made by the turbine yaw in one direction before reversing
directions. The data from these sensors is usually stored for operators to review as necessary.
Figure 5 shows all the parts in the horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT).
 Figure 5 Typical Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
Number of Blades
Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines may be designed with one, two, three, or more blades. The fewer blades
a wind turbine has, the faster the blades must turn to harvest the same amount of energy as a wind turbine
with more blades.
For example, a three-blade wind turbine does not have to turn as fast as a two-blade wind turbine to
harvest the same amount of energy. Therefore, the tip speed ratios of a two-blade wind turbine and a three-
blade wind turbine are different.
Smaller, residential-size units are designed for cost efficiency and the size of the electrical load of the home.
Turbines used for commercial production of electric power may be two-blade, three-blade or five-blade, all
of which are designed for much larger energy loads.
The vast majority of horizontal-axis wind turbines used in the commercial production of power for utility
companies are three-blade turbines.
 Single-Blade Turbines
Single-blade wind turbines are used in a few limited applications, but they are the least used of all the
Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines.
To rotate smoothly, single-blade turbines must have one or two counterbalances. Figure 6 shows a single-
blade wind turbine with two counterbalances.
The advantage of this type of wind turbine is the lower cost because of the use of only one turbine blade
(and the small weight savings), but single-blade turbines must run at much higher speeds to convert the
same amount of energy from the wind as two-blade or three-blade turbines with the same size blades.
Because the single-blade turbine must run at higher speeds, more wear and fatigue are generated on the
blade and bearings in the mounting mechanism, which in turn means higher maintenance costs over the life
of the turbine.
 Single-blade turbines also require extensive setup procedures to ensure that the blade is mounted perfectly
and is balanced to limit oscillation and vibration. Because of these problems, very few single-blade turbines
are in use today.

Figure 6 Single-Blade Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine with Two Counterbalances.

 Two-Blade Wind Turbines
Compared to three-blade turbines, two-blade wind turbines have the advantage of saving on the cost and
the weight of the third rotor blade, but they have the disadvantage of requiring higher rotational speed to
yield the same energy output. This is a disadvantage in terms of both noise and wear of critical bearings,
shafts, and gearboxes.
Two-blade turbines have experienced high-fatigue failures of the blade and other mechanical parts, so they
have limited application. Figure 7 shows a two-blade wind turbine.

Figure 7 Typical Two-Blade Wind Turbine

Another way to improve the efficiency of the two-blade turbine is to make the two blades thicker and
wider than traditional turbine blades so that the two blades can convert more wind energy.
The thicker blades also mean that the blades are stronger and better able to resist fatigue problems. New
composite materials allow the increased size without adding substantial weight to each blade.
These materials also allow the blade to be produced at a lower cost. Even with these more efficient blades,
however, the two-blade turbine is still slightly less efficient than the three-blade turbine.
One advantage to a two-blade turbine is that it is faster and safer to install than the three-blade version.
The two-blade turbine can be lifted into position after the turbine blades have been mounted while it is still
on the ground because the blades can be mounted in a horizontal position and easily lifted as a unit.
A three-blade turbine always has one blade pointing downward if it is raised as a unit, so it is more difficult
to get the larger wind turbines off the ground as a unit for mounting.
 Three-Blade Wind Turbines
 The majority of large horizontal-axis wind turbines use three blades, with the rotor position maintained
upwind by the yaw control. Figure 8 shows a three-blade wind turbine.
The three blades provide the most energy conversion while limiting noise and vibration. The three blades
provide more blade surface for converting wind energy into electrical energy than a two-blade or single-
blade wind turbine.
The blades for the larger horizontal-axis wind turbines are so large they must be transported individually
by a truck and trailer. This also means that one or more very large cranes are needed to set the tower and
turbine in place.
The tower to hold the larger three-blade turbine must also be larger and reinforced to support the weight
and to withstand the increased wind power that is harvested to produce its maximum output.
The blades on larger three-blade wind turbines are typically installed one at a time after the nacelle is
mounted on the tower.
On smaller three-blade turbines, the blades can be mounted to the rotor while the rotor is on the ground.
Then the entire rotor assembly is lifted with a crane and attached to the shaft after the nacelle is mounted
on the tower.

Figure 8 Three-Blade Wind Turbine

 Five-Blade Wind Turbines
A few wind turbines have five blades to produce electrical energy efficiently from low-speed winds. Figure
9 shows a five-blade wind turbine.
A five-blade wind generator normally has narrower and thinner blades, which creates issues with strength.
While they are excellent in low-speed winds, they become inefficient in high-speed winds and they are
noisier.
The tower and base are mounted into the roof of the building, which is a concrete-reinforced building. This
type of five-blade wind turbine needs a very strong base and tower to hold the wind turbine in the wind.
Notice the thickness of the tower and the cowling around the blades, which helps direct wind directly into
the blades.

Figure 9 Five-Blade Wind Turbine

Comparison of Wind Turbine Blade Types
Wind turbine blades can be compared in a number of ways, such as by size, weight, material, and the way
they are manufactured.
Wind turbine blades can be made from a variety of materials, from wood for smaller blades to aluminum
and other metals for small and medium-size blades.
Turbine blades must be stiff enough to prevent the blade tips from being pushed into the tower by high
winds, yet agile enough to convert wind power into electricity efficiently.
The largest commercial wind turbine blades are made of composite materials (carbon composition,
plastics, and fiberglass), which makes them lighter in weight yet strong enough to hold up in high winds.
The core may be filled with plastic foam or other lightweight substance to add rigidity.
A typical fiberglass blade for a 100-kW wind turbine is 9 m (30 ft) long; a typical blade for a 2-megawatt
wind turbine is 45 m long.
Blade Dynamics is a wind turbine developer in the UK that is developing a blade that will measure between
80 and 100 m long! The blade will be made from carbon fiber and assembled from smaller pieces. It will
be used for future turbines in the 8-10 MW range.
Table 1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of single-, two-, and three-blade wind turbines.
Type of
Wind Advantages Disadvantages
Turbine

1. Heavier than single- and two-blade

1. Quietest of the three types of turbines
2. Least amount of vibration
3. Available blade pitch control allows the
Three-Blade
blade to catch the maximum amount of
Turbine
wind
4. Lowest energy cost when compared to
other turbines with similar size blades
turbines
2. Most capital-expensive of the three
types
3. Requires active yaw control to make
blades face into the wind
4. Requires the largest cranes to
construct
5. Requires the largest and heaviest
tower
6. Larger blades are more difficult to
transport to the tower site

1. Initial cost and weight are lower and 1. Noisier than the three-blade turbine
Two-Blade they are simpler to mount 2. Produces less energy than the three-
Turbine 2. Produces more energy than the single- blade turbine (when blade size and
blade turbine speed are the same)

1. Least expensive 1. Noisier than the three-blade turbine

2. Easiest to erect because of its
Single-Blade
lightweight and because the blade can be
Turbine
mounted while it is on the ground
3. Requires the smallest and lightest tower
2. Must run at the highest speed to
produce the same amount of electrical
power
3. Most prone to vibration at the blade

Table 1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Single-, Two-, and Three-Blade Wind Turbines
 Review Questions
1. What are the major parts of a horizontal-axis wind turbine?
2. If a one-blade rotor and a two-blade rotor of the same diameter are producing the same power with a
certain wind speed, will there be a difference in noise level? Explain.
3. What do you think is the primary reason that three-blade rotors are more widely used than other types?
4. Why does a single-blade wind turbine need one or more counterbalances?
5. Identify three ways a wind turbine can provide a voltage at the correct frequency for the grid.
Answers
1. The tower, rotor and rotor blades, low-speed shaft, gearbox, high-speed shaft, generator, and controller;
there may also be electronic frequency converters
2. Yes. Because they are both producing the same power, the one-blade rotor is turning twice as fast as the
two-blade rotor and is therefore noisier.
3. Three-blade turbines produce more energy for their investment than other types.
4. To prevent vibration
5. Three ways are (1) control the speed of the turbine using pitch and yaw control, (2) allow the turbine to
free run and control the output frequency with an electronic converter system, and (3) use a double-feed
inductive-type generator in which the ac field current is tightly controlled.

UNIT-3 WIND ENERGY

The Wind turbines convert wind movement (K.E.) into mechanical energy. Most modern wind turbines
are used to create electricity. That is what is referred to as a wind generator. If the mechanical energy is
used only for mechanical movement, it is a windmill. In the commonly used wind generator, the wind
turns the blades, which turn the shaft. The shaft spins in a generator and electromagnetism in the
generator produces electricity.
TERMS USED IN WIND ENERGY
1. Wind speed: The speed at which the wind is flowing. 2. Cut-in speed: The minimum speed
of turbine at which the turbine starts developing power. e.g. 5 m/s 3. Cut-off (Furling) speed: The
maximum speed of turbine at which the turbine stops developing power. e.g. 30 m/s .Its for safe
operation of wind turbine. 4. Power of wind, P = 0.5 ρ A V3 . Where A – Swept area of rotors, V-Velocity
of wind , ρ – Density of air 5. Betz’ limit or law: The theoretical maximum possible power can be extracted
from the wind energy. Its value is 59.3% of power available in the wind. 6. Power co-efficient is the ratio
of power output of the turbine to the power available in the windI.
 2. W ND DATA AND ITS ENERGY ESTIMATION The wind data includes wind speed, speed variation along
the altitude, wind direction over the long term, air density and turbulence intensity. The energy
estimation can be done based on the wind data.
3. FACTORS INVOLVED IN SITE SELECTION FOR WIND MILLS 1. The availability of wind with sufficient
kinetic energy. 2. The magnitude of wind velocity should be high 13 3. The wind availability should be
throughout the year 4. The site should be free from obstacles 5. Availability of vast open land on a flat
terrain at a lower land cost 6. The construction materials should be available and cheaper 7. Availability
of skilled workers 8. Away from the populated places but not away from load centre. 9. No possibility
of storms, floods, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.
4. ADVANTAGES OF WIND MILLS : Free of energy cost, No pollution, No water required, low operating costs etc.
Disadvantages: Fluctuation in wind speed, occupies more land, Noisy TYPES OF WIND MILL Based on no. of
rotor blades: 1. Single blade 2. Multi-blade rotors Based on axis of rotation : 1. Horizontal Axis (HWAT) 2.
Vertical Axis (VWAT) HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE (HWAT) The Rotor blades are fitted on the main shaft
in a horizontal hub. This direction of wind is parallel to the axis of rotation of rotor blades. The horizontal hub
is connected to a gearbox and generator, which are located inside the nacelle. The nacelle houses the electrical
components and is mounted at the top of the tower. There is a supporting tower to withstand the rotor and
nacelle as well as wind kinetic energy.
5. VERTICALAL AXIS WIND TURBINE (VWAT) The Rotor blades are fitted on the main shaft in a vertical
hub. This direction of wind is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of rotor blades. The main shaft is
connected to a gearbox and generator. There is a supporting wire to withstand the rotor as well as
wind kinetic energy. 14 Rotor diameters on modern turbines can be more than 80 meters. The
turbines rotor diameter determines its swept area. The swept area is the area through which the
rotors of a wind turbine rotate. Larger swept areas usually translate to higher output machines.
Machine capacity can range anywhere from a few hundred kilowatts to 5 megawatts. Currently, 1.5-
2 MW machines are quite popular. The blades rotate at a speed of 10-30 revolutions per minute at
constant rate although an increasing number of machines operate at a variable speed. The amount of
power produced is a direct result of the wind speed. Excessive wind speeds, though, require the
temporary shutdown of turbines to protect internal components. Most wind turbines have gearboxes,
even though an increasing number of modern turbines operate using direct drive systems. The yaw
mechanism turns the turbine (horizontal motion) so that it faces the wind. Sensors are used to
monitor wind direction and the tower head is turned to be in line with the wind. Towers are mostly
cylindrical and made of steel, generally painted light grey. Lattice towers are used in some locations.
 Towers range from 25 to 75 meters in height. There are many different turbine designs, with plenty
of scope for innovation and technological development. The dominant wind turbine design is the up-
wind, three bladed, stall controlled, constant speed machine. The next most common design is similar,
but is pitch controlled. Gearless and variable speed machines follow, again with three blades. A
smaller number of turbines have 2 blades, or use other concepts, such as a vertical axis. 15 Three
mechanical controls of HWAT 1. Pitch Control: Tilting of rotor blade angles from 0 -30° to absorb more
energy from the wind. The pitch angle is the angle between the direction of wind and the direction
perpendicular to the planes of blades. 2. Teethering Control: The up and down movement (swinging
motion like see-saw) of nacelle in the vertical direction. Higher wind speed, the nacelle is inclined. 3.
Yaw Control: The horizontal movement of nacelle to face the wind. Its orientation or steering control
for the axis of wind turbine in the direction of wind.
6. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN HWAT 1. The height of the wind energy converter (WEC) should be more
than 30 m altitude. There only the wind velocity is higher 2. Few Narrow long blades to withstand the
extreme winds 3. The structural dynamics to be studied completely to avoid fatigue failures of rotors
PERFORMANCES OF WIND TURBINES The ideal efficiency of 59.3% is based on Betz’s limit. And the
various turbine configurations like single rotor, Darrius rotor, multi-blade rotors etc are given in the
following graph: The range of speed ratio with the power co-eff is compared. The three blade 16 rotor
machine performs better in the speed ratio as well as power developed. The Savonius rotor works at
lower speed ratio but the power co-efficient is also very low. WIND TURBINE PHYSICS: FACTORS
AFFECTING PERFORMANCE The efficiency of wind turbines depends on various factors such as
location, geographical factors, mechanics, rotor shape/ size, etc. Output can be regulated by a
constant or variable rotational speed, as well as adjustable and non-adjustable blades. POWER IN THE
WIND The importance of accurate wind speed data becomes clear when one understands how the
speed affects the power. Let A – Swept area of rotors, V-Velocity of wind. Power of wind, P = 0.5 ρ A
V3 AERODYNAMICS OF BLADES A careful choice of the shape of the blades is crucial for maximum
efficiency. Initially, wind turbines used blade shapes, known as airfoils, based on the wings of
airplanes. Today’s wind turbines still use airfoils, but they are now specially designed for use on rotors.
Airfoils use the concept of lift, as opposed to drag, to harness the wind’s motion. The idea behind lift
is that when the edge of the airfoil is angled very slightly out of the direction of the wind, the air moves
more quickly on the downstream (upper) side creating a low pressure that essentially lifts the airfoil
upward. The amount of lift for a given airfoil depends heavily on the angle that it makes with the
direction of the relative wind, known as the angle of attack,?. With a certain range, an increased angle
 of attack means increased lift, but also more drag, which detracts from the desired motion. When the
angle of attack gets too large, turbulence develops and drag increases significantly, while lift is lost.
The angle of attack on wind turbine blades can be changed either by creating a specific geometry for
the blades along the longitudinal axis/ span, also known as pitch control, or by allowing them to rotate
around the axis perpendicular to their cross sections (along the span). This movement of turning the
wind turbine rotor against the wind is known as the yaw mechanism. The wind turbine is said to have
a yaw error, if the rotor 17 is not perpendicular to the wind. Changing the angle of attack is important
to maintain a precise amount of lift so the rotor turns at a constant speed. LOADS, STRESS, AND
FATIGUE Aside from optimizing the blade shape and the yaw direction, a vital consideration in the
construction of a wind turbine is the lifetime of the machine. Wind turbines are currently designed to
last at least 20 years. The blades must be strong enough to withstand all the loads and stresses from
gravity, wind, and dynamic interactions. Blades are carefully manufactured and then extensively
tested to make sure they can achieve the desired lifespan. Types of loads are static, steady, cyclic,
transient, impulsive, stochastic, and resonance induced. Static loads are constant and occur even with
a non-moving turbine. These include steady wind and gravity. Steady loads are constant when the
turbine is in motion and are caused by a steady wind. Cyclic loads are periodic, usually due to the
rotation of the rotor. They occur from gravity, wind shear, yaw motion, and vibration of the structure.
Transient loads are time varying with occasional oscillation. Braking by the inner gears and mechanics
will cause this type of load. Impulsive loads are time varying on short scales, such as a blade being
shadowed when passing the tower. Stochastic loads are random, usually around a constant mean
value, and are primarily caused by turbulence. Resonance-induced loads, which are to be avoided as
much as possible, occur when parts of the wind turbine are excited at their natural frequencies and
then vibrate and can induce other parts to vibrate also, putting considerable stress on the turbine.
7. POWER CONTROL AND AERODYNAMIC BRAKING SYSTEM As the angle of attack is one of the most
important variables in determining the performance of a wind turbine, both in terms of power output
and over-speed induced stress protection, it is important to understand the rotor pitch behavior. An
increasing number of larger wind turbines (1 MW and up) are being developed with an active stall
power control mechanism. Technically the active stall machines resemble pitch controlled machines,
since they have pitch able blades. In order to get a reasonably large torque 18 (turning force) at low
wind speeds, the machines will usually be programmed to pitch their blades much like a pitch
controlled machine at low wind speeds. On a pitch controlled wind turbine, the turbine's electronic
controller checks the power output of the turbine several times per second. When the power output
 becomes too high, it sends an order to the blade pitch mechanism which immediately pitches (turns)
the rotor blades slightly out of the wind. This is actually the aerodynamic braking system, which is the
primary braking system for most modern wind turbines. This essentially consists of turning the rotor
blades about 90 degrees along their longitudinal axis. Conversely, the blades are turned back into the
wind whenever the wind drops again. The rotor blades thus have to be able to turn around their
longitudinal axis/ span (to pitch)
Wind Turbine Components
While wind turbines can vary considerably, as to height, blade length and generating capacity, they all
have the same basic design. The following are the main components of a wind turbine that must be shipped.
Rotor: Sometimes called the hub, this is used to connect the blades to the gear box and power generation
train within the nacelle. Nacelle: an enclosure which contains the electrical and mechanical components,
namely the gear box, the brake, the speed and direction monitor, the yaw mechanism and the generator. i)
Gearbox: Many turbines have a gearbox that increases the rotational speed of the shaft to match the
required rotation speed of the generator/alternator. Some smaller turbines (under 10 KW) use direct drive
generators that do not require a gearbox.
ii) Generator: Wind turbines typically have an AC generator (housed in the nacelle) that converts the
mechanical energy from the wind turbine’s rotation into electrical energy. Synchronous generators require
less rotational speed than asynchronous ones and thus are often operated without gearbox even in bigger
wind turbines.
Tower: Towers are usually tubular steel structures (about 80 m/260 feet high) which support the rotor and
nacelle. It also raises the rotor high in the air where the blades are exposed to stronger winds. They consist
of several sections of varying heights. The tower sits on a reinforced concrete foundation, so that it is well
fixed onto the ground. Blades: The modern rotor blades are made of composite materials, making them
light but durable. Blades are often made of fiberglass, reinforced with polyester or woodepoxy. Vacuum
resin infusion is a new material which is gaining popularity among manufacturers. Most wind turbines have
three blades. Blades are generally 30 to 50 meters (100 to 165 feet) long, with the most common size around
40 meters (130 feet). Blades typically represent approximately 22% of the value of a wind turbine.