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Cambridge Ultrasonics Ltd, Church Farm Barn, Horse Ware, Over, Cambridgeshire CB24 5NX, UK.
camben@cambridgeultrasonics.com
Abstract: Finite element (FE) modelling of region) but the disadvantage is that receiver signals
ultrasonic propagation using Comsol Multiphysics, do not provide views of the propagation path that
or indeed any other FE software, inevitably can be directly compared with Comsol videos.
involves large computations because two or three However, another approach to validation, which is
dimensional time-stepping models are needed to less well-known but highly effective, is to render
predict the behaviour of these kinds of travelling visible ultrasonic waves in transparent materials
mechanical waves. Comsol can be used to create using a combination of stroboscopic illumination
video of waves in these models, which is both and contrast enhancement, for example: polarized
attractive and informative. Unfortunately, for time- light or schlieren or shadowgraph techniques, and
stepping solutions, it is possible for numerical by these means create videos and still images that
instabilities to grow sufficiently large to dominate can be compared directly with Comsol videos and
the solution so that the eventual FE prediction does still images. The combination of FE modelling with
not match physical behaviour. Any design of successful experimental visualization provides a
transducer that is based upon such flawed FE high degree of confidence in the FE models and
models alone is unlikely to perform as expected allows rapid development of complex ultrasonic
and will almost certainly result in delayed and transducers to proceed efficiently and cost-
costly development. It is valuable, if not essential, effectively. Examples of video and still images of
therefore, to have independent experimental FE predictions and examples of experimental
observations of wave propagation that can give a visualization of ultrasonic waves propagating from
good degree of validation of FE predictions. One transducers are presented and compared to illustrate
approach to providing experimental validation is to the usefulness of this kind of validation.
use receiver transducers, such as hydrophones (in
water) and microphones (in air), to sample the Keywords: ultrasound, sound, transducer,
ultrasonic wave at a point (or integrated over some propagation, schlieren, visualization, validation,
FE.
Transducer can generate ultrasonic waves with However, there is an important consideration in
special characteristics, for example: both the time-domain and the spatial-domain,
which is: does the fineness of time/spatial elements
Collimated plane waves. permit the features of the solution to evolve
Omni-directional waves. accurately? In FE models of wave propagation this
Focussed waves. generally depends upon the frequency and
Waves in a controlled burst or chirp. wavelength of the ultrasound and is related to
Waves with controlled frequency and Nyquist sampling of signals (Sklar, 1988): if the
amplitude. spatial element size (mesh size) is larger than or
equal to half the wavelength then the numerical
In most cases receivers are required to generate model will generate errors and likewise if the time-
electrical signals that are faithful representations of step size is longer than or equal to half the period
the incoming waves. Consequently they must of the highest frequency of wave then there will be
generally have these desirable properties: errors. In practice, to obtain good quality results,
the spatial-domain and time-domain sampling must
Good sensitivity.
be substantially finer than these Nyquist-like limits.
Matched to the spatial distribution of
wave-fronts expected to arrive. An added problem is non-linear propagation
Matched to the frequency distribution of (Beyer, 1974). All materials exhibit non-linear
wave-fronts expected to arrive. effects during the passage of mechanical waves.
Sufficient bandwidth for the task. Linear waves have infinitesimally small
amplitudes. Finite amplitude waves, such as those
2 Ultrasonic transducer design and development used in echo-location and also the large amplitude
waves used in high power ultrasound, all have non-
Since the advent of inexpensive, powerful
linear effects associated with them. Gases are
computers it has become possible to perform FE
compressible and they are weakly non-linear;
and finite difference modelling of ultrasonic wave
liquids are virtually incompressible and
propagation and of transducers. The multiphysics
consequently they are more strongly non-linear
capability of Comsol allows problems involving:
than gases and the same is true of solids.
piezoelectric physics, linear and non-linear
mechanical wave propagation, heat generation and The effects of non-linearity are progressive with
thermal diffusion to be solved simultaneously, distance travelled by the wave: (a) waves that are
which is an advantage. Some difficulties associated initially sinusoidal generate harmonics which turn
with solving the wave equation and the associated the sinusoid into a saw-tooth wave-form (the
equations of state for the propagation of elastic compressed half-cycle travels faster than the
waves through solids and fluids are considered rarefaction half-cycle), (b) when two waves of
next. different frequencies mix spatially they generate
new waves at the sum and difference of their
3 Mechanical wave propagation
frequencies. The existence of harmonics such as
Wave propagation problems are currently solved in 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th and sum frequencies means there
FE by dividing the time-domain of the solution into is the potential for Nyquist-like sampling problems
small intervals or time-steps, in much the same way to emerge; for example, if the mesh size is larger
that the spatial-domain is divided into small spatial than half the wavelength of the highest harmonic
elements by a mesh. Effectively, the problem is that then that harmonic can cause instabilities in the
of solving a 4-dimensional problem if 3- numerical solution. High order harmonics are
6 Results
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