IRRIGATION AND WATER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (IWE)

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE TECHNOLOGY (IDT)

MODULE: INTRODUCTION TO DRAINAGE

By: Twizeyimana Tharcisse

Table of contents
CONTENT.....................................................................................6
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION..................................................7
1.1.................Definition and objectives of agricultural drainage
...................................................................................................7
1.1.1.Definition of Agricultural drainage...............................7
1.1.2 Objectives and effects of agricultural drainage............8
1.2.Drainage system terms.......................................................14
1.3. Benefits of Drainage system......................................................................................................................14
1.4. Elements of drainage design......................................................................................................................23

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 1.4. Types of drainage problems.......................................................................................................................27
1.5.1 Surface-drainage problems..................................................................................................................27
1.5.2 Subsurface-drainage problems.............................................................................................................28
1.5.2.1 Basin-type free-water table...........................................................................................................29
1.5.2.2Water table over an artesian aquifer...............................................................................................29
1.5.2.3 Perched-water table.......................................................................................................................30
1.5.2.4.Lateral ground-water flow problems.............................................................................................31
1.6. Differences in drainage in humid and arid areas........................................................................................32
1.7.Crop Requirements.....................................................................................................................................33
1.7.1. Effects of excess water on crops.........................................................................................................33
1.7.2. Drainage requirements determined by crops......................................................................................33
1.7.3. Crop growth and the water table.........................................................................................................34
1.8. Surface and Subsurface drainage principles..............................................................................................35
1.8.1 Subsurface-Drainage Principles...........................................................................................................35
1.8.2.Surface drainage principles..................................................................................................................42
1.9.Theories of open drain/ditch and subsurface drainage systems..................................................................43
1.9.1.Classification of drainage theories by basic assumptions....................................................................43
1.10. Design criteria..........................................................................................................................................45
1.10.1 Points to be considered for planning a drainage system....................................................................45
CHAPTER 2: DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.................................................................................................46
2.1. Reconnaissance..........................................................................................................................................46

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 2.2 Design survey..............................................................................................................................................49
2.3. Investigationand planning of surfacedrainage systems..............................................................................54
2.3. INVESTIGATION FOR SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE............................................................................64
2.4.Auger-Hole Test for Hydraulic Conductivity..............................................................................................68
2.5. Piezometer Test for Hydraulic Conductivity..............................................................................................76
2.6. Single well draw down test........................................................................................................................78
2.7.Ring Permeameter Test...............................................................................................................................79
2.8. Test for determining infiltration rate..........................................................................................................84
CHAPTER 3: FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOIL.........................................................................................86
3.1.Saturated and unsaturated flow...................................................................................................................86
3.2. Occurrence of ground water.......................................................................................................................89
3.3. Darcy's law.................................................................................................................................................92
3.4.Capillary flow above the water table..........................................................................................................97
3.5. Critical water table depthmeasurement of hydraulicconductivity.............................................................98
3.5.1 Moisture Concentration........................................................................................................................99
3.5.2 Pore Water............................................................................................................................................99
3.5.3 Drainable Pore Space or Drainable Porosity (Pd)...............................................................................99
3.6. Soil salinity control..................................................................................................................................104
3.6.1 Salinity Control by Leaching.............................................................................................................105
5.7. The leaching requirement.........................................................................................................................105
CHAPTER 4: DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS.................................................................................................112

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 4.1 Plant processes..........................................................................................................................................112
4.1.1. Photosynthesis...................................................................................................................................112
4.1.2. Plant respiration................................................................................................................................117
4.2. Plant structure and function......................................................................................................................118
4.3.Factors controlling the production............................................................................................................121
4.4. The soil environment and aeration requirement.......................................................................................124
4.5.Diagnosis and improvement of salt affected soils.....................................................................................126
4.6. Plant response to salinity..............................................................................................................................2
4.7.Situation in which drainage problem exist....................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 5: DRAINAGE SYSTEM..................................................................................................................13
5.1. Investigation procedure..............................................................................................................................13
5.2. Moisture holding capacity in the root zone................................................................................................18
5.2.1. Measuring Soil Water Holding Capacity............................................................................................19
5.3. Annual irrigation schedule.........................................................................................................................20
5.4.Deep percolation from irrigation.................................................................................................................23
5.5. Sources causing high water table conditions.............................................................................................24
5.6.Determination of barrier zone and drain locations......................................................................................25
References.............................................................................................................................................................27

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CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2: DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS
CHAPTER 3: FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOIL
CHAPTER 4: DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER 5: DRAINAGE SYSTEM

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
Excess water may be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water, but may also have other origins
such as canal seepage or floods.
The removal of excess water either from the ground surface or from the rootzone, is called drainage.
In very dry areas there is often accumulation of salts in the soil. Most crops do not grow well on salty soil. Salts
can be washed out by percolating irrigation water through the rootzone of the crops.
To achieve sufficient percolation, farmers will apply more water to the field than the crops need. But the salty
percolation water will cause the water table to rise. Drainage to control the water table, therefore, also serves to
control the salinity of the soil

1.1 Definition and objectives of agricultural drainage

1.1.1.Definition of Agricultural drainage

Agricultural drainage can be defined as the removal of excess surface water and/or the lowering of the
groundwater table to below the root zone in order to improve plant growth.
Land drainage, as a tool to manage groundwater levels, plays an important role inmaintaining and improving
crop yields:
- It prevents a decrease in the productivity of arable land due to rising watertables
- Alarge portion of the land that is currently not being cultivated has problems of waterlogging and salinity due
to the accumulation of salts in the root zone.

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Drainage is the only way to reclaim such land.
The definition of land drainage, as given is the removal of excess surface and underground water from theland
to enhance crop growth, including the removal of soluble salts from thesoil.
Drainage of agricultural land, as indicated above, is an effective method to maintain a sustainable agricultural
system.

1.1.2 Objectives and effects of agricultural drainage

The overall objective of agricultural drainage, as part of agricultural water management, is toenhance crop
growth and to maintain the soil productivity. The immediate objectives of agriculture drainage are (Figure 1):
• To remove excess surface and subsurface water;
• To remove excess soluble salts with the (excess) water from the drained soil profile;
• To maintain groundwater levels at a desired level.

1.2.Drainage system terms

Drainage nomenclature is complex and hasbeen developed from conditions such as the source of water to be
moved, whenand where the drains are to be built, and their function.
Drain may be surface or subsurface, open or pipe, constructed concurrently with projectdevelopment or
deferred.
They sometimes consist of wells (recharge, relief, orpumped) and may fall within various functional
classifications:
The five typesof drains are designated: relief, interceptor, collector, sub outlet, and outlet.
Relief and interceptor drains have the principal function of controlling ground-water levels. They form the
upstream portion of the land drainage system,and the distinction between them is based on the slope of the
ground-water bodythey control. Both relief and interceptor drams may be constructed as either open or pipe
drains.

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They are designed as open drains when they are required to receiveirrigation surface waste and excess
precipitation from adjacent fields.
Drainage key definitions
 Waterlogging is the accumulation of excess water in the root zone of the soil.
 Salinization is the accumulation of soluble salts at the surface, or at some point below the surface of the
soil profile, to levels at which they have negative effects on plant growth and/or soils.
 Ponding is the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface. When rain or irrigation continues,
pools may form on the soil surface, and this excess water needs to be removed. This standing water on
the soil surface is called ponding water.
 drainage system is an artificial system of land forming, surface and/or subsurface drains, related
structures, and pumps (if any), by which excess water is removed from an area.
 Texture refers to the size distribution of the mineral particles smaller than 2 mm (2000 µm). These are
usually divided by size into
Sand (60 - 2000µm), Silt(2 - 60µm) and Clay (< 2 µm)
 Leaching is the removal of soluble salts by the passage of water through soil.
 Collector drain: A drain that collects water from the field drainage system and carries it to the main
drain for disposal. It may be either an open ditch or a pipe drain
 Drainage basin: The entire area drained by a stream in such a way that all stream flow originating in
the area is discharged through a single outlet.
 Drainage coefficient: The discharge of a drainage system, expressed as a depth of water that must be
removed within a certain time.
 French Drain – A trench filled with coarse aggregate (with or without a pipe) for intercepting and
conveying ground water.
Perforated Pipe – Pipe that is manufactured with holes or slits.
 Envelope (filter material): Material placed around pipe drains to serve one or a combination of the
following functions: (i) to prevent the movement of soil particles into the drain; (ii) to lower entrance
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 resistances in the immediate vicinity of the drain openings by providing material that is more permeable
than the surrounding soil; (iii) to provide suitable bedding for the drain; (iv) to stabilize the soil material
on which the drain is being laid.
 Wetlands: Lands that are inundated or saturated by surface water or groundwater at a frequency and
duration sufficient to support a prevalence of hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for plant and
animal life in saturated soil conditions.

 Land reclamation: Making land capable of more intensive use by changing its general character: by
draining excessively wet land, by recovering submerged land from seas, lakes, and rivers; or by
changing its saline, sodic, or acid character.
 Interceptor drain: A channel located across the flow of groundwater and installed to collect subsurface
flow before it re-surfaces, normally used on long slopes and on shallow permeable surface soils
overlying relatively impermeable subsoils.
 Leaching requirement: The fraction of water entering the soil that must pass through the root zone in
order to prevent the soil salinity from exceeding a specific value.
 Main drain: The principal drain of an area, receiving water from collectors, diversion drains, or
interceptor drains, and conveying this water to an outlet for disposal outside the area.
 Mole drain: an unlined underground drainage channel, formed by pulling a solid object, usually a solid
cylinder with a wedge-shaped point at one end, through the soil at the proper slope and depth, without a
trench having to be dug.
 Open drain: A channel with an exposed water surface that conveys drainage water.
 Outlet drain: A drain that conveys collected water away from the drained area or project, either in the
form of a natural channel or as a constructed drain.
 Pipe drain:a buried pipe - regardless of material, size, or shape - which conveys drainage water from a
piece of land to a collector or to a main drain.

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 Watertable: the locus of points at which the pressure in the groundwater is equal to atmospheric
pressure. The watertable is the upper boundary of groundwater.
 Cesspitan enclosed container used for storing sewage.
 Combined Sewer A sewer system that is designed to carry both blackwater from homes and
stormwater (rainfall). Combined sewers must be much larger than Separate Sewers to
account for the high volume.
 Faecal Sludge Is the general term for the undigested or partially digested slurry or solid that
results from the storage or treatment of blackwater or excreta
 FaecesRefers to (semi-solid) excrement without any urine or water
 SeptageLiquid and solid material pumped from a septic tank, cesspool or other primary treatment
source.
 Sewage: General name given to the mixture of water and excreta (urine and faeces),
although more technically it should be referred to as blackwater.
 Sewer an open channel or closed pipe used to conveying sewage
 Sewerage All the components of a system used for collecting, transporting and treating sewage
(including pipes, pumps, tanks, etc.)
 Sludgethe thick, viscous layer of materials that settles to the bottom of septic tanks, ponds, and other
sewage systems. Sludge is comprised mostly of organics, but also sand, grit, metals, and various
chemical compounds.
 Sullage Old word for greywater: includes wastewater from cooking, washing, and bathing,
but does not include any excreta
 Urban drainage includes the removal of all unwanted water from urban areas. It includes wastewater
– including sewerage and greywater - and stormwater. Greywater, sometimes called sullage, is
domestic wastewater predominately from baths, basins and washing machines.

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Relief drains are used to effect a lowering of ground water over relatively large flat areas where percolation
from precipitation or irrigationserves as the water source, and where gradients of both the water table
andsubsurface strata do not permit sufficient lateral movement of the groundwater.
Interceptor drains are used to cut off or intercept ground water which is moving downslope from some source.
Collector drains receive water from subsurface relief or interceptor drains and from farm surface drains
carrying irrigation surface waste and stormrunoff. Because collector drains control ground water as well as
receive flowfrom tributary subsurface drains, they must be designed with a normal watersurface at or below the
depth which will provide effective subsurface drainagein adjacent or tributary areas. They may be either open
or pipe drains dependingon the volume of water to be handled, the available gradient, and whethertheir
tributaries are open or pipe drains.
Open and Pipe Drains.-Open drains are channels with an exposed watersurface.
Pipe drains are buried pipe regardless of material, size, or shape.
Generally, all of the nomenclature for other types of drains may be applied toeither open or pipe drains. Drain
size and purpose, physical condition of the soils,topography, required drain spacing, and annual operation and
maintenance costslargely dictate whether drains are to be open or pipe.
Suboutlet drains have the principal function of conveying water from collector drains to the outlet drain. In
general, they are located in topographiclows such as draws and creeks but can also be constructed drains. These
drainsreceive inflows from a number of collector drains and canal and lateralwaterways.
Sub outlet drams resemble collector drains in function, except theyusually are not required to serve as
subsurface drains in the control of groundwater to prescribed elevations. They may be located entirely within
the projectarea or they can be the outlet for lands not included in the project.
Outlet drains convey collected water away from the drained area orproject.
The outlet drain is usually a natural channel in the topographic lowfor the area to be drained, but where a
natural channel does not exist, one canbe constructed.
Hydraulic conductivity:refers to movement of a particularwater in a particular soil under specified conditions

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Depression storage: Naturaldepression on the surface of the ground that needs to be filled by rainfall before
runoff can take place.
Discharge: The volume of liquid flowing through a cross-section of conduit per unit of time.
French drain/ filter drain:The use of a granular trench filled with stone to convey and infiltrate stormwater
runoff.
Interception: The process by which rainfall may be prevented from reaching the ground, for example by
vegetation.
Ponding: the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface.
Water logging: the accumulation of excess water in the root zone of the soil.
Inlet:
(1) A connection between the catchment area and a drain or sewer for the admission of surface or storm water.
(2) A structure at the entrance end of a conduit.
(3) The upstream end of any structure through which water may flow.
Runoff:Water from precipitation that flows off a surface to reach a drain, sewer or receiving water.
Runoff coefficient: The proportion of total rainfall that appears as total runoff volume after subtracting
depression storage, infiltration and interception.
Sedimentation: The process of deposition and consolidation of suspended material carried by water,
wastewater or other liquids, by gravity.

Sediment concentration: The ratio of the weight of the sediment in a water-sediment mixture to the total
weight of the mixture, sometimes expressed as the ratio of the volume of sediment to the volume of mixture.
Sediment transport: The movement of solids transported in any way by a flowing liquid.
Sluice gate: A gate constructed to slide vertically and fastened into or against masonry of dams, (penstock)
tanks or other structures under which flow takes place when open.
Soakaway: A pit into which surface water is drained to infiltrate into the ground.
Surface water: Water from precipitation that has not seeped into the ground and is discharged to the drain or
sewer system directly from the ground or from exterior building surfaces.

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Suspended solids: Insoluble solids that either float on the surface of, or are in suspension in water, wastewater
or other liquids.
Time of concentration:Time between the start of a runoff event and the time when the entire catchment is
contributing flow to a specific point in the network.
Wastewater:Water used and discharged to drain.
Water-table:The surface within soil or rock strata at which groundwater saturation occurs.
Weir:An overflow structure across a channel that may be used for controlling upstream surface level, or for
measuring discharge, or for both; usually horizontal and constructed as either broad- or sharp-crested.

1.3. Benefits of Drainage system

Agricultural, environmental and socio-economic benefits of drainage
The primary benefits of drainage go beyond the control of excess soil water and accumulation of excess salts in
the crop root zone. The coincident environmental and socio- economic benefits associated with disease vector
control and public health must be fully recognized. One of the major environmental benefits of drainage is its
positive impact on improving the health of humans, plants and farm animals.
Drainage of wet, swampy areas has led to a reduction in mosquito breeding sites in all parts of the world.
Drainage also reduces or eliminates mildew infections and various root rots of plants. The overall impact of
improved drainage has been an improvement in hygienic conditions, in the health sector and in the productivity
of human beings. By growing high value food crops in well-drained soils, the health, nutrition and economic
status of rural populations can be improved. There are also increased opportunities for employment, as new
industries may develop in prosperous areas.
Where drainage is used to reclaim salinized and waterlogged lands, it is an environmentally beneficial practice,
because the land is returned to its full productive potential. The adaptation of subsurface drainage systems to
serve as sub-irrigation or controlled drainage systems leads to other benefits, i.e., the reduction of nitrate
pollution.

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  Agriculture
• Increase agricultural land
• Increase crop yields
• Diversified crop patterns
• Prevention of water logging and soil salinity
• Increase value of the land
• Increase of farm incomes
 Environment and Health
• Control pollution
• Protect groundwater quality
• Save fresh water
• Limits environmental degradation
• Prevent water borne diseases
 Urban industry
• Flood prevention
• Improve sanitation and domestic water supply
• Less damage in built-up areas
• Increase in land value
The field-scale benefits of drainage can be summarized as follows:
i. Drainage promotes beneficial soil bacteria activity and improves soil tilth.
ii. There is less surface runoff and soil erosion on drained land.
iii. Improved field machine trafficability reduces soil structural damage. Soil compaction is reduced and less
energy is required for field machine operations. Drainage also allows for more timely field operations.
Consequently, the growing season can be lengthened and crops can achieve full maturity.
iv. Crop yields are increased because of improved water management and uptake of plant nutrients.
v. Higher value crops can be planted, and there is flexibility to introduce new and improved cropping systems.
vi. In general, land value and productivity are increased.

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vii. Farm income is increased and income variability reduced.
viii. Drainage maintains favorable salt and air environments in the crop root zone.

Needs for Drainage

Surface irrigation has both blessings and curse on agricultural lands. It is a blessing only if it is practiced with
great care.
Only optimum amount of water is to be applied to the crop in accordance with proper irrigation scheduling.
Excess water that the root zones of the crops fail to retain, moves down and adds to the underground water and
raises the water table.
Most of the time, optimum agricultural production depends on provision of proper drainage system of soils
having problems like water logging; high water table; high salt content etc.

 Drainage to control ponding

(1) To remove ponding water from the surface of land, surface drainage is used.
Normally, this consists on digging shallow open drains.
To make easy the flow in these drains, the field is given an artificial slope.
This is known as land shaping or land grading.
(2) Surface drainage is the removal of ecxess water from the surface of the land by diverting it into
improved natural or constructed drains, by shaping and graiding of the land surface towards such drains.

 Drainage to control water logging

(1) To remove excess water from the root zone, subsurface drainage is used.
This is done by digging open drains or installing pipes, at depths varying from 1 to 3m .
The excess water flows down through the soil into these drains or pipes so that the water table can be
controlled.

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 (2) Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from soils via ground water
flow to the drains so that the water table and root-zone salinity are controlled.

Figure I: The relationship of subsurface drainage to root development is illustrated in the following figure I:
A high water table in the rainy season inhibits root development, leaving a plant with an inadequate root system
during the dry season, allows maximum root development for such drainage conditions.

Figure 1

 Drainage to control salinization

(1) To remove salts from the soil, more irrigation water is applied to the field than the required quantity
by crops.

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 The extra water infiltrates into the soil and percolates trhough the root zone.
While water is percolating, it disolves the salts in the soil and removes them through the subsurface
drains.
This process, in which water washes the salts out of the root zone, is called leaching.

(2) Leaching is the removal of soluble salts by water percolating through the soil.

(3) The extra water required for leaching must be removed from the root zone by drainage, otherwise
tha water table will rise and this will bring the salts back into the root zone.
i.e salinity is controlled by a combination of irrigation and drainage.

 Needs to control field water table

o The water table is the upper boundary of the ground water;
o The water table is at atmospheric pressure;
o Below the water table, all the soil pores are filled with water: This is known as
the saturated zone;
o Most of the flow groundwater towards the drains takes place in the saturated
zone;
o A bove the water table, there is a zone where the soil pores are partly filled with water and partly
filled with air: This is the unsaturated zone or the zone of
aeration.
o The unsaturated zone is very important for plant growth: This is the zone where root take up
water i.e capillary water.
o The water table fluctuates with time: afte irrigation or rainfall, there is a sudden
rise of the water table, followed by a gradual fall due to the flow of water
towards the drainage system.

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Sometimes in some areas, irrigation may not be required when there is need for drainage.
Implementation of drainage schemes need to be taken up simultaneously with irrigation schemes so as to avoid
the problems of waterlogging and development of salinization and alkalinisation problems later on. Thus,
drainage as a means of disposal of excess water is necessitated due to various factors such as:
 Water accumulation on the land surface is usually the result of heavy precipitation and/or over bank
spill combined with deficiency of drainage system
 Excess water on the land surface may be the result of waterlogging or stagnation in depressions and low
areas
 Rise of sub-surface water due to excessive irrigation and percolation from other sources
 Water accumulation on land surface can also result due to seepage from canals and ponds and sub-soil
flow from lands situated at higher places
 Water stagnation due to obstruction in the natural flow of drainage as a result of construction of roads,
rail lines, buildings etc.

Classification of drains

Natural drains vs Artificial drains

1) Natural drains
 These are the lowest velley line between 2 ridges
 The natural drainage should be improved by removing debris from the waterways (waterway
under the road bridges, culverts waterways, etc…)

2) Artificial drains

These are the constructed drains, generally alined along the drainage line.

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Open drains vs closed drain

1) Open drains or surface drains

 Surface drains are normally used for the removal of ecxess surface irrigation water or for the
disposal of storm water
 They remove water before it has entered the soil
 Deep surface drains with bed level below water table also can be used to drain
surface water and seepage water.

2) Closed drains or subsurface drains

 Closed drains or field buried drains are known as tile drains. They remove water which has
entered the soil.
 They are usually laid 1 to 1.5m below the ground surface at a suitable spacing and grade to
lower down the GW table.

Components of a drainage system

1) A field drainage system, which prevents ponding water on the field or controls the water table
Field drainage systemis a network that gathers the excess water from the land by means of field drains
and possibly supplemented by measures to promote the flow of water into these drains
2) A main drainage system, which conveys the water away from the farm
3) An outlet, which is the point where the drainage water is led out of the area.

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 .

1.4. Elements of drainage design

Generally, the installation of a drainage system like any similar application of the sciences include desired goal,
a survey of existing conditions, previous experience with similar conditions, and preparations of designs and
plans.

In Soil Conservation Service operations, the principal elements of drainage design are:
1. design criteria
2. crop requirement,
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 3. site investigations, and
4. plans and specifications

At several points, in the design procedure, it may be necessary to choose between alternate locations, methods
and materials.
The choice depends on the managementand economic aspects of the farm as well as on the physical
requirementsof the site. The designer may need to present to the landowner alternate methods or intensities of
drainage, so that the owner may take the final choice or decision.

The same technical design elements for individual farm systems are present forlarge group-drainage systems,
but public or community-type factors areinvolved. These factors include the drainage organization (drainage
enterprise),legal requirements for rights-of-way and water disposal or use, financial arrangements and cost
allocation. Such projects require complete, detaileddocumentation of the surveys, plans, and construction.

Development of drainage-design criteria

Design criteria are developed in two general ways:
(a) From empirical datacollected through evaluation of existing drainage systems, and
(b) From atheoretical analysis of the problem, applying known physical laws and testing the theory through
evaluation of existing drainage systems.
An example of empirical criteria is the drainage coefficient used in designof drains in humid areas. Such
drainage coefficient is the removal rate for excesswater, found by experience with many installed drainage
systems, to provide acertain degree of crop protection.

Such protection has been assessed carefullyagainst observed crop response and production, measurements of
flow from drainagesystems providing good drainage, and measured heights of water table. Since empirical

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criteria based substantially on experience and assessments ofnumerous interrelating factors, care must be taken
in transposing their use from one localityto another.
Theoretical analysis applies proved principles or laws to problems having known limiting conditions.

The resulting mathematical expression explains the observedaction of existing drainage systems and permits
the rational design of newsystems. Usually several variable site factors enter the expression.

An example of the theoretical analysis is the ellipse equation for spacing subsurface drainsin irrigated land,
where known site characteristics are accounted for in theequation. In one form of the ellipse equation, the
variables are hydraulic conductivityof the soil , depth to impermeable layer, depth to the water table at midpoint
between the drains , and rate water is to be removed. By substituting known or estimated values for these
factors, the equation may be applied to a variety of society, as long as the site conditions are within the limits
for which the equation was derived
This last requirement is all important in using thiskind of theoretical approach.
Whichever method is used to establish drainage-design criteria, it is evident that its value depends not only on
sound analysis of the drainage situation but also on evaluation of installed drains to check their performance.

Following the above definition ofdrainage, ‘the removal of excess water’ indicates that land drainage is an
action by man, who must know how much excess water should beremoved.
Hence, when designing a system for a particular area, thedrainage engineer must use certain criteria to
determine whether or notwater is in excess. A ground-water balance of the area to be drained is the
mostaccurate tool to calculate the volume of water to be drained.
Before the water balance of the area can be made, a number of surveys must beundertaken, resulting in
adequate hydrogeological, hydropedological, and topographicmaps. Further, all (sub-) and surface water
inflowsand outflows must be measured or estimated.

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Precipitationand the relevant evapotranspiration data from the area must be analyzed.
In addition, all relevant data on the hydraulic properties of the soil shouldbe collected. The above processes in
drainage surveys should be basedon a sound theoretical knowledge of a variety of subjects.
Any drainage installation is sizedaccording to the probability of occurrence of an expectedpeakdischargeduring
the design life of the installation. This, of course, is related to the intensity and duration of
rainfalleventsoccurring not only in the direct vicinity of the structure, but alsoupstream of the structure. In snow
zones, peakdischarge may be the result of an intense warmingperiodcausingrapidmelting of the snowpack.

The water that reaches the ground in the form of rain, some will percolate into the soil to be stored until it is
taken up by plants or transported through pores as subsurface flow, some will evaporate back into the
atmosphere, and the rest will contribute to overland flow or runoff. Streamflow consists of stored soil moisture
which is supplied to the stream at a more or less constant rate throughout the year in the form of subsurface or
groundwater flow plus water which is contributed to the channel more rapidly as the drainage net expands into
ephemeral channels to incorporate excess rainfall during a major storm event. The proportion of rainfall that
eventually becomes streamflow is dependent on the following factors:

1. The size of the drainage area. The larger the area, the greater the volume of runoff. An estimate of basin
area is needed in order to use runoff formulas and charts.
2. Topography: runoff volume generally increases with steepness of slope. Average slope, basin elevation,
and aspect, although not often called for in most runoff formulas and charts, may provide helpful clues
in refining a design.

3. Soil: runoff varies with soil characteristics, particularly permeability and infiltration capacity. The
infiltration rate of a dry soil, by nature of its intrinsic permeability, will steadily decrease with time as it
becomes wetted, given a constant rainfall rate. If the rainfall rate is greater than the final infiltration rate

23
 of the soil (infiltration capacity), that quantity of water which cannot be absorbed is stored in
depressions in the ground or runs off the surface. Any condition which adversely affects the infiltration
characteristics of the soil will increase the amount of runoff. Such conditions may include
hydrophobicity, compaction, and frozen earth.

A number of different methods are available to predict peak flows. Flood frequency analysis is the most
accurate method employed when sufficient hydrologic data is available. For instance, the United States
Geological Survey has published empirical equations providing estimates of peak discharges from streams in
many parts of the United States based on regional data collected from "gaged" streams. In northwest Oregon,
frequency analysis has revealed that discharge for the flow event having a 25-year recurrence interval is Most
closely correlated with drainage area and precipitation intensity for the 2-year, 24-hour storm event. This is, by
far, the best means of estimating peak flows on an ungaged stream since the recurrence interval associated with
any given flow event can be identified and used for evaluating the probability of failure.
The probability of occurrence of peak flows exceeding the design capacity of a proposed stream crossing
installation should be determined and used in the design procedure. To incorporate this information into the
design, the risk of failure over the design life must be specified. By identifying an acceptable level of risk, the
land manager is formally stating the desired level of success (or failure) to be achieved with road drainage
structures. Table 25 lists flood recurrence intervals for installations in relation to their design life and
probability of failure.

1.4. Types of drainage problems

Successful drainage of a wet area depends on a correct diagnosis of the problem.
Atsome sites, a brief field study and comparison with previous installations under similar conditions may be
sufficient basis for design. More complexdrainage problems require more detailed reconnaissance and
preliminary surveys to determine the source of damaging water, how water reaches the wet area, and what

24
design criteria apply. The drainage system may be designed, however, only after the nature of the problem has
been identified.
The following typical drainage problems have been divided into surface and subsurfaceproblems for
convenience.
Actually, wet land may involve both surfaceand subsurface water, and the drainage design should consider their
inter-dependence.

1.5.1 Surface-drainage problems

Flat and nearly flat areas of land are subject to ponded water caused by:
1. Uneven land surface with pockets or ridges which prevent or retard natural runoff.
Slowly permeable soils magnify the problem.
2. Low-capacity-disposal channels within the area which remove water soslowly that the high water level
in the channels causes ponding on the land for damaging periods.
3. Outlet conditions which hold the water surface above ground level, such as high lake or pond stages, or
tide water elevations.

Sources of surface water are rainfall or snowmelt on the area itself, irrigationsurfacewater, runoff or seepage
from adjoining higher land, or overflow fromstream channels.

Surface-drainage methods, such as land grading or smoothing and field ditches, are used on fields to collect and
convey surface water to natural channels orconstructed disposal systems. Inadequate outlets may require
downstream-channelimprovement, levees with culverts and flap gates, or drainage pumps. Diversion systems
are efficient in preventing or reducing the ponding of surface water where the source is outside the area to be
protected.

25
1.5.2 Subsurface-drainage problems
Subsurface-drainage problems arise from many causes. Flatland tends to be poorlydrained, particularly where
the subsoil permeability is low.
There are many wetareas, however, where there is no evident connection between the area of seepage, or a high
water table, and the topography of the site . High water tables may occur where the soil is either slowly or
rapidly permeable, where the climate is either humid or arid, and where the land is either sloping or flat.
For these reasons, it is convenient to classify subsurface-drainage problems bythe source of excess ground
water and the way it moves into and through theproblem area. This method of identifying subsurface conditions
is especiallyuseful for the more complex drainage problems because it also indicates the kindof drainage
system needed. The reconnaissance and preliminary surveys are carriedout to obtain the needed information on
ground-water occurrence and other site conditions.
Asexperience with subsurface-drainage problems accumulates for a given area,the amount of preliminary
information needed to identify certain problem typesusually is reduced.
New areas or new kinds of drainage problems require greater emphasis at the preliminary stage of planning.

1.5.2.1 Basin-type free-water table

In valley bottoms and on wide benchlands, the free ground water saturates the sediments down to the first
impervious barrier. Typically, the water table slopes gently down valley.
This large, very slowly moving body of ground water is fed by springs, surface streams, or subsurface
percolation around the perimeter of the valley; and by infiltrating rainfall, irrigation losses or surface runoff on
the valley floor itself.
Eventually, the ground water discharges effluent seepage at streambanks or at the ground surface in low areas,
or exceptfor ground water used by plants or that pumped from wells, it escapes through aquifers at the lower
end of the valley or bench land. Height of the water table fluctuates with the seasonal variation of accretions to
the ground water basin.

26
The general slope of the water table varies only slightly in response to these changes inflow.
Where salts are present in the soil, they tend to move upward to the surface as capillary rise replenishes the
evaporation from the ground.

1.5.2.2Water table over an artesian aquifer

Ground water may be confined in an aquifer so that its pressure surface (elevation to which it would rise in a
well tapping the aquifer) is higher than the adjacent free-water table. The pressure surface may or may not be
higher than the ground surface. Such ground water is termed artesian. Pressure in theaquifer is from the weight
of a continuous body of water extending to a sourcehigher than the pressure surface. Leaks at holes or weak
points in the confininglayer above the aquifer create an upward flow, with hydraulic head decreasing in
the upward direction. The ground water moves in response to this hydraulic gradient and escapes as seepage at
the ground surface above, or it escapes laterally through other aquifers above the confining layer.
A water table supported by artesian a n pressure usually is more difficult to lower and maintain at the desired
height than a water table not subject to suchpressure. This is because water is continuously replenished from the
higher source and because it is difficult to remove or control water at the source.
Wet areas overlying water under artesian pressure require relatively deep and closely spaced drains, relief wells,
or pumped drainage wells that tap the aquifer. Such areas may be impractical to drain.
The drainage system required to control artesian flow may depend on the kind ofunderlying material. The
upward flow from the source aquifer may reach thewater table through a stratum of fairly uniform material, or
it may pass throughfractures or other narrow openings in sandstone, clay, lava, limestone, or other materials
that in themselves are practically impermeable. Surface seeps in some places are caused by artesian flow that
wells up through relatively small openings in the confining material, causing ground-water mounds or surface
seeps.

27
Thiskind of seep usually may be drained by placing a relief drain as deep as practicablethrough the seepage
zone. Additional intercepting drain may be needed topick up flow that escapes laterally above the confining
layer.

1.5.2.3 Perched-water table

Sometimes the percolated water cannot move down due to an impervious stratum in the sub soil zone and
stands over it forming a perched aquifer. This perched aquifer creates problems in drainage.

In stratified soil, a subsurface-drainage problem may be caused where excesswater in the normal root zone is
held up by a layer of low permeability so thatthe perched water is disconnected from the main body of ground
water. This mayoccur when surface sources build up a local water table over the slowly permeablelayer. Lateral
percolation is too slow to drain the perched water naturally.
Drainage systems for perched-water tables are based on the particular site conditions.
Usually they consist of relief drains, but an interception drain maybe effective in cutting off lateral seepage into
wet area.
Theoretically, perched water could be drained downward by drilling vertical drains(wells) through the
restrictive layer. A collection-drain system probably would benecessary, however, and the vertical drains might
be impractical outlets foreconomic or other reasons.
Perched-water tables in irrigated areas may be subject to control by reducing seepage from canals, by
improving irrigation practices,or by providing adequate surface drainage.

1.5.2.4.Lateral ground-water flow problems

This group of subsurface-drainage problems is characterized by more or lesshorizontal ground-water
percolation within or toward the crop-root zone. Theflow pattern is strongly influenced by soil stratification and
other natural barriers to flow.

28
Adjacent soil layers often have permeability that differ a hundred or a thousandfold.
According to Darcy's law of flow, the effective velocity under agiven gradient varies directly with the
permeability.
The depth, orientation and inclination of the strata determine the drainage method andlocation.
For example, hillside seepage may appear where ground water moves laterally over bedrock or over a layer of
fine sediments to a point where it emerges at the surface. One or more intercepting drains may be used to cut
offthe flow which otherwise would reach the root zone.

1.6. Differences in drainage in humid and arid areas

Drainage in humid areas has to do largely with excess water resulting from precipitation in arid and semi-
aridareas; the need for drainage arises principally from irrigation, with foreign ground water and important
source in some areas.
Surface-drainage systems may be required in either humid or in irrigated areas
Surface drainage isusually an integral part of irrigation systems on slowlypermeable soils or in areas of high
precipitation rates.

The purpose of subsurface drainage is to lower the water table to appoint where it will not interfere with plant
growth and development. The minimum depth at which the water level should be maintained varies according
to both the crop requirement and the soil.
One of the principal factors in the height of thewater table in arid areas is the control of salinity and alkalinity
in the soil and ground water. This is a major reason for the difference in the subsurface drainage of humid and
of arid climates.
The depth of drains in humid climates is generally 1to 1.5 m. Water is relatively pure, there usually is a natural
excess of water over plant requirements,and there is a net downward movement of ground water.

29
Soils in semi-arid or arid climates require subsurface drains at least 1.5 to 2 m deep. Most of the water needed
by the crop is added by irrigation. Usuallyground water is somewhat saline because of salts in the soil or the
irrigation water or both.
Awater table as high as 0.5-0.7 m below the surface, suitable in many humid areas would create a harmful salts
concentration in the root zone.

1.7.Crop Requirements

1.7.1. Effects of excess water on crops

The growth of most agricultural crops is sharply affected by continued saturation of any substantial part of the
root zone or by ponded water on the surface.
Poorly drained soil depresses crop production in several ways:

1. Evaporation, which takes heat from the soil, lowers soil temperature.
Also, wet soil requires more heat to warm up than does dry soil dueto the high
specific heat ofwater as compared to that of soil. Thus,the growing season is
shortened.
2. Saturation or surface ponding stops air circulation in the soil and prevents bacterial activity
3. Certain plant diseases and parasites are encouraged.
4. High water table limits root penetration.
5. Soil structure is adversely affected.
6. Salts and alkali if present in the soil or ground water tend to beconcentrated in the root zone or at the
soil surface.
7. Wet spots in the field delay farm operations or prevent uniformtreatment.

30
1.7.2. Drainage requirements determined by crops
Different crops have widely differing tolerances for excess water, both as to amount and time. While water
itself may not be injurious to plants roots, saturation of the root zone results in oxygen deficiency and
accumulation oftoxic gases. A short term of oxygen deficiency can reduce water uptake, nutrient uptake, and
root respiration and build up toxins which leads to death of cells and roots, and, if extended, the death of the
plant itself.
However, complete saturation of roots over an extended period may cause no serious damage if itoccurs during
dormant periods of plant growth.
The designer of a drainage systemrecognizes these differences in crop requirements by selecting an
appropriatedegree or intensity of drainage (often termed the drainage requirement) for the site. The drainage
requirement is based on
(a) the maximum duration and frequencyof surface ponding,
(b) the maximum height of the water table , or
(c) the minimum rate at which the water table must be lowered.

1.7.3. Crop growth and the water table

The water table may be defined as the upper surface of the saturated zone of free unconfined ground water. The
soil-moisture content for a significant height above a water table is substantially greater than field capacity. For
this reason, plant-root growth is affected by a water table much more than the height of water table alone
indicates.

Another important feature of water table is their fluctuation, both seasonal and short-period. Water tables are
seldom static . They respond to additionsand depletions of ground water from natural or artificial causes.
Sources suchas distant-influent seepage from precipitation and streamflow are seasonal, and their effects on the

31
wet area may be delayed for months or even years. Direct precipitation and irrigation, percolation wastes, may
change thewater-table height almost immediately.

Pumping from deep wells may cause a gradual lowering of the water table as wateris taken from a large basin
of free ground water. In other areas, pumping maymake significant immediate changes in the height of water
table due to pressure changes in confined water which "supports" the water table.

In the field of drainage, it is important to think of the true relation of thewater table to root development and
crop production. The term "water table" is sometimes misleading. Capillary forces and fluctuating ground-
water flows result in soil-moisture conditions that are different from the erroneous concept of asharp break
from saturation to a much lower moisture content such as field capacity. A considerable amount of ground
water is present and moves throughthe saturated and nearly saturated soil immediately above the water table.

1.8. Surface and Subsurface drainage principles

1.8.1 Subsurface-Drainage Principles

Forms of soil water
Gravitational water
Water that is free to move downward through the soil by the force of gravity is called gravity water. At
saturation, all pores are filled and the soil holds the maximum amount of water that can be absorbed without
dilation.(Dilation is the bulking or flotation of soil grains.)

Capillary water

32
Capillary water is held in the soil against gravity. It includes the film of water left around the soil grains and the
water filling the smaller pores after gravity water has drained off.
If gravity water is allowed to drain from a saturated soil(not influenced by a water table ), the quantity of
capillary water held is called field capacity.

Close to the water table, the quantity of capillary water held in a granular material is greater than field capacity.
The amount of water held a t a given point depends on the distance above the water table , as well as on the soil
pore sizes and shapes. This form of capillary water is sometimes called fringe water.
Just above the water table, fringe water completely fills the capillary pores, and in this relatively narrow zone,
saturation occurs at slight negative pressure (tension).
Openings so large that capillary rise in them is negligible are called super capillary openings. Examples of
materials containing supercapillary openings are gravel, boulders, some forms of lava, structurally fractured
rock or clay, solution openings in rock, and soil containing rootholes.

Hygroscopic water
When a granular material is completely dried by heating, then exposed to the air, it absorbs atmospheric
moisture. This water, when in equilibrium with the atmospheric moisture, is called hygroscopic water.

The water table and the capillary fringe

The water table is the upper surface of the saturated zone of free ground water.
Free ground water is defined as water neither confined by artesian conditions nor subject to the forces of
surface tension. At the water table, water pressure is at atmospheric pressure. Thus the water table is the
imaginary surface separating capillary water (under tension) from the free ground water below.
The water table in granular material is not an observable, physical surface because capillary water saturates the
material just above the water table and decrease in amount gradually upward. An exception is water in super
capillary openings, in which the water is in equilibrium with the atmosphere.

33
Auger holes and piezometers are super capillary in size and open to the atmosphere, and so
they fill to the true water table level when bored or driven just into the water table.
When an auger hole is bored to locate the water table in a fine or mediurn textured soil, the observer finds it
difficult to recognize the top of the saturated zone because of the gradual change from moist to saturated soil.
Also, it may take hours or even days for an auger hole to register the water table in slowly permeable soils.
Small wells or piezometers react more quickly than large ones because less water need flow through the soil to
fill the smaller openings.
Water in the capillary fringe may be a significant proportion of ground water moving toward subsurface
drains--as much as 20 percent or more under some conditions.
An auger hole or pipe should penetrate the saturated zone only a short way if the water-table elevation is to be
measured accurately. This is particularly important where upward flow or confined flow would be tapped by a
deeper hole. An auger hole that penetrates two or more aquifers in a stratified soil containing confined water
would register the highest hydraulic head modified by leakage from the aquifers of higher hydraulic head to
those of lower head.
These characteristics of the water table have a significant bearing on the kind of field measurement to be made,
on the devices used to make the observations,and on the interpretations of data for drain-system design.

1.8.2.Surface drainage principles

34
Surface drainage is accomplished in two general ways:
(a) Excess water iscollected and removed from the ground surface within the affected area; or
(b) By means of construction outside the area, water is diverted away from thearea to be protected. In either
case, the system is conveniently divided intothree functional 'parts:

1. Collection system: Bedding, field ditches, row ditches, or diversion ditches are part of the system that
first picks up water from the land.

2. Disposal system:This is the part of the system that receives waterfrom the collection system and
conveys it, usually in an open ditch , to the outlet

3. Outlet: This is the end point of the drainage system under consideration.

35
Fundamentally, surface drainage uses the potential energy that exists due to elevation to provide a hydraulic
gradient.
The surface-drainage system createsa free-water-surface slope to move water from the land to an outlet at a
lower elevation. The design of collection systems, such as bedding or field ditches in flat land is based mostly
on empirical criteria i.e., the design is based on field observations of drainage-system performance. The rate at
which surfacewater must be removed from the land is a function of the crop requirement andthe source of
excess water.
The water-surface profile is the starting point in the design of the disposalsystemditches.
In open ditches, the hydraulic gradeline is the water-surface profile. Usually, the survey of the surface-drainage
outlet establishes the lower hydraulic-control point for the design of the disposal system. Other control points
are the land elevations at critical low areas and restrictions inthe ditch, such as culverts, bridges, and weirs.
The design of a disposal systeminvolves, therefore, the computation of a water-surface profile through the
control points, for known or trial ditch cross sections.

Bernoulli's theorem is used to compute the hydraulic gradeline for steady-flowconditions. Losses of head due to
friction are computed by an open-channelformula, usually Manning's. Head losses at constructions causing
nonuniform flow, such as at bridges or culverts , are computed by formula using appropriate loss coefficients.
The field survey must include sufficient information forevaluation of the roughness and cross-section factors,
including head loss throughobstructions.

In drainage design, non-steady flow may occur as in discharge into tidal streams.
Such problems may sometimes be solved by dividing time into convenient increments
within each of which the varying flow may be taken as a constant, mean-flow rate.
Principles of flow in the saturated zone

36
Flow of water in the saturated zone involves mechanical, chemical, and thermalenergy, and molecular
attraction. A full discussion of soil-water movement isin numerous publications on soil physics and soil
permeability. Here only themechanical forces tending to move water through soils will be considered.

Hydraulic head
In saturated flow through soils, as in open channel flow, the total energy content (E) of water is the sum of the
kinetic pressure, and gravity components.
As expressed in Bernoulli's equation:
E = kinetic energy + pressure potential + elevation potential.

Velocities in ground-water flow are almost always low, making the velocity (kinetic) term negligible.
Essentially, then, the energy causing flow is thesum of the two potential energy items, pressure and elevation.
This potential for flow is called "hydraulic head."

37
(a)
Figure II

38
(b)
Piezometers convert pressure at a point to a physical pressure head the heightof the water column in the
piezometer. This height is not hydraulic head, sinceit is only the term P/W in the equation.
To find the hydraulic head at the point(lower end of the piezometer) the elevation (Z) of the point above the
datum mustbe added to the pressure head. The elevation of the water surface in the piezometer, referred to the
datum, is P/W + Z, and so is numerically equal to thehydraulic head at the lower end of the piezometer.

39
1.9.Theories of open drain/ditch and subsurface drainage systems
Water movement in the saturated zone may be analyzed by applying Darcy's Law to the particular set of
boundary conditions at the drainage-problem site. If it were possible by field surveys to determine the exact
location of impermeable layers, the location and hydraulic head of all inflow to and outflow from thesystem,
permeability in all parts of the system, time and rate of changes in flow,symmetry of the system--all the factors
which affect the amount and pattern offlow--then the problem would be completely defined and subject to
direct andexact solution.
Drainage problems are seldom so completely defined in practice , however. Usuallythey consistof a more or
less complex combination of different problems. Theprocedure is to determine the boundary conditions, first
approximately, then in as much detail as necessary by means of the reconnaissance and preliminary surveys.
Drainage theories have been developed to describe or to attempt to describe the action of a given saturated flow
system. They are useful and approximate solution to actual field problems. To use them, the designer must
compare the field situation with the underlying assumptions on which the drainage theories are based. He then
applies such of them as his judgment indicatesmostapplicable.
The following approximate theorieshave been applied to one orboth types of problems.

1.9.1.Classification of drainage theories by basic assumptions

 Horizontal flow theories

These approximation theories are based on two assumptions:

(a) that all streamlines in a gravity flow system are horizontal, and
(b) that the velocity along these streamlines is proportional to the slope of the free-water surface, but
independent of depth.

40
Although it can be shown that these are erroneous assumptions, the theory of horizontal flow gives sufficiently
accurateresults if its application is restricted to situations where the flow is largely horizontal.

Three field conditions of this kind are:

1. Open ditches that are shallow compared to their spacing and that penetrate to or are close to an impermeable
layer.
2. Open ditches that are excavated in stratified materials.
3. Buried drains under conditions 1 and 2, particularly if the backfilled trench is more permeable than the
undisturbed material.

 Radial flow theories

A tile line may be thought of as a horizontal well, with water approaching the tile along radial streamlines. This
analogy is the basisfor the radial flow theories, which assume
(a) a homogeneous isotropic soil of infinite depth, and
(b) a flat water table .
This method can give a good approximation of actual flow conditions if the curvature of the water table is small
(as with a low rainfall rate and relatively high permeability.

1.10. Design criteria

Agricultural drainage criteria’ can be defined as criteria specifying the highestpermissible levels of the
watertable, on or in the soil, so that the agricultural benefitsare not reduced by problems of waterlogging.

41
If the actual water levels are higher than specified by the criteria, an agriculturaldrainage system may have to
be installed, or an already installed system may haveto be improved, so that the waterlogging is eliminated. If,
on the other hand, drainagesystem has lowered water levels to a depth greater than specified by the criteria, we
besides employing agricultural drainage criteria, we also employ technical drainagecriteria (to minimize the
costs of installing and operating the system, while maintainingthe agricultural criteria), environmental drainage
criteria (to minimize theenvironmental damage), and economic drainage criteria (to maximize the net benefits).
This chapter deals mainly with the agricultural criteria. The technical criteria will be discussed later, but some
examples will be given in this chapter.
A correct assessment of the agricultural drainage criteria requires knowledge of the various possible types of
drainage systems
- An appropriate index for the state of waterlogging;
- An adequate description of the agricultural objectives;
- Information on the relationship between index and objective.

1.10.1 Points to be considered for planning a drainage system

In understanding the drainage problems of an area and planning for drainage systems, following points need to
be considered:
i. Period and amount of water standing on the soil surface during rainy season
ii. Number of days for which soil is workable for agricultural operations
iii. Salinity of top soil layer at the time of sowing/planting
iv. Seasonal salinity of the root zone
v. Average depth of water table during the cropping season and number of days it is at critical level of
the crops
vi. Average depth of water table during non-cropping season
In addition to the above mentioned points other factors to be considered are:

42
 a) Intensity and frequency of rainfall of different durations
b) Infiltration capacity of the soil
c) Permissible depth and duration of submergence which varies from crop to crop
d) Economics of drainage system

CHAPTER 2: DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS

When drainage is considered, an investigation is necessary to determine the feasibility of the project.
Theinvestigation should provide a clear understanding ofthe problem, the kinds and amounts of
practicesnecessary, and an estimate of the cost and expectedbenefits and impacts of the project.
This information often can be obtained from a reconnaissance of a small problem area.
More detailedexaminations and surveys are made where the size ofthe area, lack of defined drainage pattern, or
suchspecial situations as riparian vegetation, wetlands, orrock outcrops may require. Environmental
considerationsmust be a part of the planning process andinvestigations necessary for habitat enhancement
ormitigation and for environmental protection should bean integral part.

2.1. Reconnaissance
The first step in analyzing the problem is to visit thearea proposed for drainage. Wetland determinationsare to
be made if not readily available. Determinationsrelated to cultural resources and endangered or
threatenedspecies of flora and fauna for the region shouldalso be investigated. If a standard soil survey map
ofthe area is available, it is a valuable source ofinformation.

The investigator should walk over thearea and become acquainted with the problems, topographicconditions,
and physical features. The idealtime to do this is immediately after an intensive rainfallor an irrigation

43
application. The investigator canmark low areas and other important features on a mapwhile in the field. Some
field surveys may be needed toidentify or locate low areas.
Special emphasis must be given to ground waterinvestigations for subsurface drainage and water tablecontrol
systems. The primary purpose of such watermanagement is to lower and control water table levels.At the time
of the reconnaissance, a determination ismade of the average or usual depth to the water table,as well as the
water table level during the growingseason.

Landowners and operators may have a good estimate of water table levels based on their farmingexperience. In
the absence of such information, localwells can be checked and, if necessary, a few boringscan be made at
selected locations to get some estimateof water table levels. If a high water table does existand subsurface
drainage or water table control isrecommended, a more detailed investigation is requiredbefore planning and
designing a system.

The vegetative cover should be observed and associatedwith certain ranges of water table levels or
surfacepondingMaps, a hand level, and a soil auger should be used inthe reconnaissance.
A standard soil survey report,aerial photographs, are helpful sources of information. They are useful asa guide
in recording data, such as soil information,limits of areas to be improved, location of outlets,natural and
artificial channels and improvements,probable location of proposed improvements, generalland slopes, channel
slopes, wetlands to be protected,and watershed boundaries. Pacing or scaling from amap and hand level shots
provide a means of estimatingapproximate channel grades, depths, and sizes.
The soil auger, with extensions, provides a means ofmaking essential subsoil examinations and
determiningwater table levels at depths commonly needed formost sites.
The following items should be noted:
1. Location and extent of any wetlands.
2. The areas in which crops show damage, aspointed out by the farmer, indicated by
theaerial photograph, or noted in personalobservations.

44
 3. Personal observations of unique landscapefeatures, ecologically significant areas,
landuse patterns, operation (land management)aspects, and site visibility.
4. Topography and size of the watershed area.
5. Size, extent, and ownership of the area beingconsidered for drainage.
6. Location of the drainage outlet and its condition.
7. Location, condition, and approximate size ofexisting waterways.
8. Presence of cultural resources.
9. Potential impacts outside the area being evaluated.
10. General character of soil throughout the areaneeding drainage, including land
capability,land use, crops and yields, and salinity orsodicity.
11. High-water marks or damaging floods anddates of floods.
12. Utilities, such as pipelines, roads, culverts,bridges, and irrigation facilities and
theirpossible effect on the drainage system
13. Sources of excess water from upslope land orstream channel overflow and
possible disposalareas and control methods.
14. Condition of areas contributing outside waterand possible treatment needed in
these areasto reduce runoff or erosion.
15. Condition of any existing drainage system andreasons for failure or inadequacy.
Old subsurfacedrainage systems that have failed becauseof broken or collapsed
sections may well bethe cause of a wet area.
16. Estimate of surveys needed.
17. Type and availability of construction equipment.
18. Feasibility.
For small jobs, this information may be obtained bythe technician who goes over the land with the landowner.
The technician can then obtain engineeringand other survey data.
The intensity of this investigation and the makeup ofthe investigation partly depend upon the size of thearea
and complexity of the problem.

45
In all cases, asmuch information as possible should be obtained fromlocal farmers and residents. The
investigation must beextensive enough to provide a clear picture of the sizeand extent of the drainage problem.

2.2 Design survey

The objective of a survey for design purposes is toobtain elevations, topography, and other field
informationnecessary to design the system and prepare plans,specifications, and estimates of quantities of work
tobe performed. Only the field information needed forthis purpose should be gathered

a) Physical survey: The size and complexity of the area to be draineddetermines the kinds and number
of surveys needed.For the smaller, simpler jobs, the technician may onlyneed a few elevations at key
locations and make a fewsoil borings to determine soil texture, water tablelevels, and the need for
subsurface drainage. Determinethe approximate drainage area, and estimate theapproximate
cost.The seasonal considerations of field surveys is important.The dormant period versus cropping
and/orirrigation season are major periods to evaluate.
Weather patterns and significant rainfall/runoff eventsshould also be evaluated.
Concepts for physical surveys have dramaticallyimproved in recent years. Laser levels, GeographicInformation
Systems (GIS), and Global PositioningSystems (GPS) are now common tools to modernizeand simplify the
physical surveys required for investigation
and planning related to maintaining drainagesystems.

These tools can facilitate the proper developmentof field information to protect valuable wetlandor other habitat
areas when working on the maintenanceof drainage systems. Information needs for thedrainage system are
detailed in this section.

46
The mostefficient tools to use in obtaining proper and thoroughdata require judgment and responsibility to
assure theinformation obtained presents the environmentalpicture in perspective with other resource and
developmentimprovement suggestions.

The first major engineering survey job is to determinethe location and adequacy of the drainage outlet.

Enough level readings and measurements should bemade to reach a sound decision.
The proper functioningof the entire drainage system hinges upon thispoint. The following requirements should
be met indetermining adequacy of outlets:
• The depth of outlet should be such that anyplanned subsurface drains may be dischargedabove normal low
water flow. Pumping maybe considered as a last alternative.

• The capacity of the outlet should be such thatthe design flow can be discharged at an elevationat or below the
design hydraulic grade line.If the outlet is a channel, the stage-dischargerelationship should be determined
taking intoconsideration the runoff from the entire watershed.

• The capacity of the outlet also must be suchthat the discharge from the project are will notresult in damaging
stage increases downstreamof the project.

• The quality of drainage water and its impact ondownstream areas should be considered.

• Submerged outlets may in some cases bedesirable. Special care must be taken to obtainthe desirable drainage
on the cropland, yetkeep the outlet free of undesirable vegetation,sediment, and rodent entry. This situation
mayalso be a common practice in tidal areas wherethe daily water surface fluctuation allows freedischarge part
of the time and submergencepart of the time. Spacing and depth of a drainagesystem would need to be adjusted
to recognizethis condition.

47
(2) Topographic survey
Topographic information of the area to be drainedmust be obtained. This information is used in theflatter areas
for planning land forming or for locatingfield ditches, drains, or other facilities
The amount and kind of topographic surveys dependupon the drainage problem and the topography of theland.
The surveys vary from a detailed grid or contourmap to random elevations, valley cross sections, andlocation of
important features. The type of gradecontrol equipment used by local contractors, such aslaser, should be
considered in determining the needfor topographic surveys.
• Where random ditches are to be used todrain depressions or pockets, the amount ofsurvey data should be
varied according toground conditions. Elevations at close intervalswill be necessary if depressed areas
arenumerous, whereas a few random shots maysuffice for areas that have few depressions.

In either case the survey should be made insufficient detail to locate and determine elevationsof depressed areas
and the best outlets.

• Physical features of adjacent land should bespecified if they affect the drainage of theproposed area. The
information should includethe location and elevation of the bottom ofdrainageways, the size of opening and
flow lineelevations of culverts and bridges, and anyother similar information needed to plan thedrainage
system.

(3) Profile survey

The followingsteps must be followed for profiles where a ditchalready exists:

• Obtain elevations of the old ditch bottomnatural ground at 100 to 500 foot intervalsalong the ditch. Elevations
of critical pointsbetween stations should also be taken. A criticalpoint may be either a high point or a lowpoint
that would affect design or system cost.

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• On existing culverts and bridges along theditch line, obtain the station, inlet and outletinvert elevations, size
of culvert (or size ofopening if different), length, alignment anglewith the ditch, and kind of material
(concrete,CMP).

Also, obtain elevations of top of roadcrossing or structures and, in the case ofbridges, the elevation of the
bottom of stringers.
Where bridges will be affected, note theelevation of the bottom of the top footings andof the bridge piers and
abutments along withtheir condition.

• Where laterals or tributaries discharge into theditch, note the station and the bottom elevationof the ditch at
the point of entrance andany other pertinent data that would be usefulin design.
• Locate, describe, and obtain elevations asrequired or any other physical features alongthe ditch that will affect
the design, such ascattle ramps, fences, surface flow enteringditch, and rock outcrops.
• Obtain soil information for channel stabilityconsiderations.Profiles on new ditch lines may differ from
profiles ofexisting ditches. Information and elevations along theproposed ditch line should be obtained as
specified forexisting ditches.

(4) Cross sections

A detailed procedure for surveying cross sections isdescribed as follows.
Some guidelines include:
• Individual shots should be taken at all prominentbreaks to accurately reflect the groundsurface.
• Cross sections should be taken at intervals of30 to 150 feet on existing ditches, dependingon the irregularity
of topography and thevariation in ditch size. Cross sections mayshow elevation and extent of low areas
needingdrainage if this information was notobtained by the preliminary profiles. Otherneeded information is

49
location of utilities,fence lines, roads, land use, and existing landscapefeatures (trees, vegetation) that mayaffect
construction or future maintenance.

2.3. Investigationand planning of surfacedrainage systems

A surface drainage system may consist of field ditchesand/or land forming with ditches and undergroundpipes
to carry the drainage water to the outlet.
Thedrainage system should provide for an orderly removalof excess water from the surface of the land.
Open drains may serve any land use. In urban usesthey are typically called open drains or surface stormdrains,
while in agricultural fields they are usuallyreferred to as ditches.
Current legislation and regulations require care toavoid environmental damage to existing wetlands.
Maintenance of drainage systems is critical to thesustainability of agriculture and for other land uses.

(a) Field ditches

Field ditches are shallow ditches for collecting andconveying water within a field.
They generally areconstructed with flat side slopes for ease in crossing.
These ditches may drain basins or depressional areas,or they may collect or intercept flow from land surfacesor
channeled flow from natural depressions,plow furrows, crop row furrows, and bedding systems.
State drainage guides and standards and specificationshave criteria regarding side slopes, grades, spacing,and
depth of drainage field ditches.

(b) Types of open drain systems

Drains should be located to fit the farm or other landuse operations and should have capacity to handle
therunoff and not cause harmful erosion. The drain systemshould cause excess water to flow readily fromthe
land to the disposal drain. Five common drainsystems are described in this section.

(1) Random drain system

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This type system is adapted to drainage systems onundulating land where only scattered wet areas
requiredrainage. The ditches should be located so theyintercept depressions and provide the least
interferencewith farming operations. The ditchesshould be shallow and have side slopes flat enough for farm
equipment to cross. Precision of land forming andsmoothing help to assure the removal of surface waterfrom
less permeable soil.

(2) Parallel drain system

This type system is applicable to land where the topographyis flat and regular and where uniform drainage
isneeded. The ditches are established parallel but notnecessarily equidistant.
Thedirection of the land slope generally determines thedirection of the ditches. Field ditches are
generallyperpendicular to the slope, and laterals run in thedirection of the slope. The location of diversions,
crossslope ditches, and access roads for farming equipmentcan also influence the drain location. Spacing of
thefield ditches depends upon the water tolerance ofcrops, the soil hydraulic conductivity, and the uniformityof
the topography. Landforming can reduce thenumber of ditches required by making the topographymore
uniform. Where possible, spacing should beadjusted to fit the number of passes of tillage andharvesting
equipment.

(3) Cross slope drain system

This system is used to drain sloping land, to preventthe accumulation of water from higher land, and toprevent
the concentration of water within a field.
Reconstructing cross slope drain systemfield ditches work best on slopes of less than 2 percent.
The drain is located across the slope as straightas topography will permit.
The spacing ofthese ditches varies with the land slope and should beNatural ground level
After the ditches have beenconstructed, smooth or gradethe area between the ditches.
Cross slope drains shouldbe constructed across theslope as straight and parallelas the topography permitswith
limited cutting throughridges and humps.

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Land slope
The excavated materialshould be placed in low areas or on the downhillside of the drain.
Landforming or smoothing betweenthe ditches improves operation of the system by preventingthe
concentration of flow and the occurrenceof ponding.

(4) Bedding
Bedding resembles a system of parallel field ditcheswith the intervening land shaped to a raised,
roundedsurface. This drainage system generally isused where slopes are flat and the soil is slowly
permeableand where other types of drainage are noteconomically feasible. A bedding system generally is
insmall land areas and is installed using farm equipment.
Beds are established to run with the land slope or inthe direction of the most desirable outlet. Local
informationshould be used to determine the width of beds,the crown height, construction method, and
maintenance.

(5) Narrow raised beds

A narrow bed system has a raised bed wide enough forsingle or double cropping rows to provide an
aeratedsurface profile. This system facilitates surface watermovement and aeration of the shallow root
zone.When used with plastic covers for weed control,evaporation control, and nutrient management, thenarrow
bed system can be extremely effective forsome cropping systems.

(a) Drainage runoff

Runoff is determined above and below the outlet ofcontributing ditches and streams, at points of changein the
channel slope, at culverts and bridges, and at theoutlet.Runoff calculations generally begin at the upper end
ofthe drain and proceed downstream. An empiricalprocedure, termed the 20-40 rule, should be used
incomputing the required capacity for a drain below ajunction with a lateral. For large drainage areas,

52
theapplication of the procedure may have considerableeffect on the drain design. In small areas the change
inrequired drain capacity may be so small that the procedureneed not be applied.

(b) Drain alignment

The natural topography and aesthetics should beconsidered in determining drain alignment. Where it
isnecessary to change direction of the drain or fieldditch, a simple curve should be used. Where the drain flows
are smalland of low velocity, gentle curvature is not as important.

(c) Hydraulic gradient

The hydraulic gradient is the slope of the hydraulicgradeline (water surface) and is important in
determiningflow velocity. Proper location of the gradelineis more important as drain flows become greater.
Theprofile of the channel should be plotted showing thelocation and elevation of control points.
The controlpoints help to select the maximum elevation of thehydraulic gradeline desired for the drain. They
mayinclude, but are not limited to, the following:

• Natural ground elevations along the route of theproposed drain.

• Location, size, and elevation of critical low areasto be drained. These are obtained from the
topographic data.

• Hydraulic gradeline for side ditches or lateralsestablished from the critical areas to the designdrain. Plot the
elevation where the side drainhydraulic gradeline meets the design drain as acontrol point.

• Where laterals or natural streams enter thedesign drain, use the same procedure as that for hydraulic gradeline
for side ditches.

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• Bridges across drainage ditches should notreduce the area of the design cross section. Wherefeasible to do so,
the hydraulic gradeline should beplaced 1 foot below the stringers of the bridge. Theallowable head loss on
culverts should be keptlow.
On agricultural drainage the allowable headloss generally should not exceed 15 cm.

• Elevations of buildings or other property withinthe area to be protected from overflow.

• If the drain being designed is to outlet into anexisting drain or natural stream, the elevation ofthe water in the
outlet drain or stream againstwhich the designed drain must discharge shouldbe used as a control point.
The water surfaceelevation in the outlet ditch may be determinedfrom recorded data, historic observation, or
highwater marks. Another method of obtaining thiselevation is to determine the depth of flow in theoutlet ditch
by applying the same flow designbasis as that used for the proposed ditch.

Forsmall outlet ditches in rather flat topography, thewater elevation may be estimated at the bank
fullstage.Control points should be connected with a line on theprofile. The hydraulic grade line is drawn
through orbelow the control points.

The grades should be as longas possible and should be broken only where necessaryto stay close to the control
points
If the hydraulic grade line has been well established, itwill not be altered except at structures that have
headlosses. At these control points, the head loss will beshown upstream from the structure as a
backwatercurve. This will change the hydraulic gradient, althoughgenerally for only a short distance.

If the channel is in an area of flat topography and thehydraulic gradeline is located near field elevation,
thehydraulic gradeline may need to be broken at culvertsin amounts equal to the required head, otherwise,
thebackwater curve above the culvert may cause problems.

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(5) Determination of ditch velocity
Manning's equation is used in determining the averagevelocity in a ditch section.

Q= AxV V= Q/A

where:
V = velocity (m/s)
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m) = A/P
S = slope (m/m)
A = cross-sectional area below hydraulic gradeline
(m2)
P = wetted perimeter (m)

(6) Value of roughness coefficient n

The value of n is a factor in Manning's formula forcomputing velocity. It indicates not only the roughnessof the
sides and bottom of the channel, but also othertypes of irregularities of the channel, such as alignmentand
vegetation. The value of n is used to indicatethe net effect of all factors causing retardation of flow.The
selection requires judgement in evaluating thematerial in which the channel is constructed, theirregularity of
surfaces of the ditch sides and bottom,the variations in the shape and size of cross sections,and the obstructions,
vegetation, and meandering ofthe ditch.

55
(7) Ditch bottom width
The machinery used for construction of the ditchshould be considered in the selection of ditch bottomwidth. A
bulldozer or blade equipment is used toconstruct V-shaped ditches. Flat bottom ditches frequentlyare designed
if scrapers, hydraulic hoes, ordraglines are to be used to construct the ditch. Depthof ditch and soil conditions
affect the type of equipmentused. Specified minimum bottom widths areoften based on the available
equipment.

(8) Relationship between depth and bottomwidth

The most economical ditch cross-section approachesthat of a semicircle. A deep, narrow ditch generallycarries
more water than a wide, shallow ditch of thesame cross-sectional area. An excessively wide, shallowditch tends
to develop sand or silt bars, whichcause ditch meandering and bank cutting, and a fairlydeep, narrow ditch
tends to increase velocities andreduce siltation and meandering. Because the crosssectionselected is a matter of
judgment, all factorsinvolved should be considered. Ditches shall be designedto be stable. In some cases
economy and hydraulicefficiency must be sacrificed in the interest ofditch stability and maintenance.

(9) Calculation of ditch capacity

The volume (Q) of water passing a ditch cross sectionis calculated in cubic feet per second (ft3/s) and is
theproduct of the flow area cross section (A) in squarefeet (ft2) and the average velocity in the cross section(V)
expressed in feet per second (ft/s). The formula is:
Q =AV
Various curves, tables, and computer software, allbased on Manning's formula for velocity, have beenprepared
to determine ditch capacities

(10) Ditch berms

56
Berms should be designed to:
• provide roadways for maintenance equipment;
• provide work areas;
• facilitate spoil-bank spreading;
• prevent excavated material from washing backinto ditches; and
• prevent sloughing of ditchbanks caused byplacing heavy loads too near the edge of theditch.

(11) Spoil banks

Spoil-bank leveling or shaping is a common and desirablepractice. The degree of leveling, the placing of
thespoil, and other practices related to the spoil generallyare determined locally and are specified in local
drainageguides or State standards and specifications.

(12) Bridges and culverts

Design criteria for structures required for drainageditches, or where irrigation canals cross drainageditches, are
specified by the authority responsible forthe structure. The capacity requirement for the structuremay be for
flood flows that are much more intensethan the drainage requirement. On some township,private, and field
roads the only requirement maybe that the structure carry drainage flow. The followinginformation is limited to
this type of structure.
The structure must meet two requirements:
• They must be of sufficient size and located so asto pass the design flow within the allowable head
loss.
• They must have adequate strength, size, anddurability to meet the requirements of traffic.
The following formula can be used to computethe minimum culvert length without headwalls.
Existing structures should be measured to determinetheir capacity. An existing structure may be
consideredadequate if it will pass the design drainage flowwith a head that does not cause overbank flow
abovethe structure. As a safety factor, new culvert installationsgenerally are designed for 25 percent
morecapacity than the ditch design. A new bridge should bedesigned to span the ditch, have the bottom of

57
thestringers placed at least 1 foot above the hydraulicgradeline, and preferably have no piers placed in thecenter
of the ditch.
The hydraulic gradeline at structures does not need tobe broken as long as the head loss required to pass
thedesign flow does not cause overbank flooding abovethe structure. The hydraulic gradeline should be
adjustedif such flooding will occur. The gradeline maybe broken and dropped down at the structure at
anamount equal to the head loss.
Head loss is negligible through bridges where thechannel cross section is not restricted. Head loss
through culverts ordinarily should not exceed 15 cm.It can be reduced by increasing the size of the structure.

(13) Culvert flow

Culverts are used for several types of flow. Detailedknowledge of hydraulics is necessary under somesituations
for the design of culverts. The followingsituations commonly occur where culverts are used:
• Culverts flowing full with both ends submerged.
• Culverts flowing full with unsubmerged or freedischarge.

(14) Ditch junctions

The bottom grades of ditches having about the samedepth and capacity should be designed to meet at ornear the
same elevation. The bottom of a shallow,small capacity ditch may be designed to meet a largerditch at or near
the normal or low flow elevation of thelarger ditch.
A transition is designed where a shallow ditch enters amuch deeper ditch.
Where the difference in the elevation of the ditchgradelines is considerable and transition grades
seemimpractical, a structure should be used to control thedrop from the shallow ditch to the deeper ditch.

(15) Surface water inlets to ditches

All drainage into mains and laterals should be throughplanned inlets, rather than at random, which can
causerills or severe bank erosion. This may be accomplishedby installing chutes, drop spillways, pipe drop
inletspillways, culverts, or other suitable structures
58
(16) Swinging watergates, cattle guards, andramps
Where applicable, watergates, cattle guards, andramps should be used on open ditches to managelivestock and
to protect the ditches.

2.3. INVESTIGATION FOR SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

Subsurface drainage removes or controls free waterfrom the soil surface and below the surface of theground.
The principal function of subsurface drainageis to prevent, eliminate, or control a high water table.
Lowering the water table can improve growing conditionsfor crops, the condition of the soil surface,
andtrafficability on the field as well as around the farmstead.
It also facilitates tillage practices.
Subsurface drainage also provides a period to applyagricultural wastes during high and prolonged
rainfallseasons, and it maintains water intake and soil profilestorage capacity, thereby reducing runoff during
highrainfall periods. This type of drainage functions inirrigated areas to control saline and sodic soil
conditionsby removing excess salt accumulations, to providefor subirrigation, to help control seepage
fromcanals and laterals, and to remove excess irrigationwater from sources upslope as well as onsite.
Subsurfacedrainage is accomplished by various kinds ofburied or open drains.

(a) Plans
A plan should be made of every subsurface drainagelayout. The size and detail of the plan vary in
differentlocations; however, the plan should have the basicinformation required for the construction of the
subsurfacedrainage system.

(b) Soils
Subsurface drainage is applicable to saturated soilconditions where it is physically and economically
feasible to use buried conduits to remove or controlfree water from the root zone.
59
The need for and the design of subsurface drainagesystems are related to the amount of excess waterentering
the soil from rainfall, irrigation, or canalseepage; the permeability of the soil and underlyingsubsoil material;
and the crop requirements. In soilswith slow permeability that causes water to flowslowly into the drain, the
drains must be closelyspaced. Consequently, installation may be consideredtoo expensive for use of subsurface
drains.
Soils must have sufficient depth and permeability topermit installation of an effective and
economicalsubsurface drainage system. Some sandy soils andpeat and muck have large pore spaces that allow
rapidmovement of water. Wetness occurs in these soilsbecause of a high water table, particularly in the springin
nonirrigated areas, late in summer, or during theirrigation period. For maximum crop yields, the
wetnessproblem must be corrected by drainage. Thesesoils can be successfully drained.
Some fine sand soils have insufficient colloidal materialto hold the sand particles together. This can
causeexcessive movement of the particles into the drains.
Special precautions, such as filters or envelopes, areoften required.
In highly permeable, coarse sands and some peat soils,excessive lowering of the water table causes a
moisturedeficiency during periods of drought. Such soilshave limited capillary rise and are unable to
deliverwater up into the plant root zone of certain crops if thewater table falls much below the root zone.
Watertable control systems should be used for these conditions.
Other soil conditions make construction of drainshazardous or impractical. In some soils, boulders orstones
make drainage costs prohibitive. In others, thetopsoil is satisfactory, but it is underlain by unstablesand at the
depth where drains should be installed,thus making installation more difficult. A chemicalaction, which takes
place in soils that have glauconite,iron oxide, or magnesium oxide, can cause drain jointsor perforations to seal
over.
In soils where iron is present in soluble ferrous form,ochre deposits in drain lines can be a serious problem.
If the problem is recognized, it can be solved by makingadjustments in design and maintenance of thedrainage
system.

60
Ochre is formed as a combination of bacterial slimes,organic material, and oxidized iron. It is a highlyvisible,
red, gelatinous, iron sludge that often occurs inthe valleys of the corrugations of drain tubing as wellas at the
drain outlets.

1In-Place Hydraulic Conductivity Tests below a Water Table

Objective.
-A number of tests for determining the in-place hydraulicconductivity below a water table have been developed.
Two tests that have beenfound to be the most adaptableuse, the auger-hole and piezometer test procedures.
Both procedures measure the rate of change of the water level in a hole or thedifference of water-level elevation
with time. Any procedure that can accuratelymeasure water-level change with time is satisfactory.
For aquifers, the well pumping method is used to determine the hydraulicconductivity and transmissivity of
gravels and gravelly materials below a watertable where the coarse materials interfere with conduction
preparations forauger-hole test.The well pumping method, an expensive test both in time and materials,is used
mainly for determining the suitability of an area to be drained by pumping rather than by horizontal drains.

2.4.Auger-Hole Test for Hydraulic Conductivity

The auger-hole test measures the average horizontal hydraulic conductivity of thesoil profile from the static
water table to the bottom of the hole. This test can berun in the presence of a barrier either at or below the
bottom of the hole.
This section describes the equipment, procedures, and calculations used inmaking this test.
Equipment requirements for the auger-hole test are flexible,but the following items have been used
successfully:

61
(1) A 80-millimeter (nominal 3-inch) diameter auger with three 1.5-meter(S-foot) extension handles and a 1 lo-
millimeter (nominal $-inch) diameter auger.-A 80millimeterdiameter auger is used initially for the auger-
holetest. In the finer textured soils, the pressure required for the initial augeringcauses a thin, dense seal to form
on the sides of the hole. This seal is hard toremove even with a hole scratcher.

However, reaming the 8Omillimeter hole with a 1 lo-millimeter-diameterauger applies less pressure to the sides
of the hole and the resulting seal is verythin and easier to remove. The removal of this thin seal is essential to
obtainreliable data from the test. Three 1.5meter extension handles for the augersare usually sufficient for most
test holes.
The Durango- and Or&a&type augers are suitable for most soils, but theDutch-type auger is preferable for
some of the high clay and cohesive soils.
Samples from the Durango-type auger am less disturbed than those from theother two types, thus permitting a
more reliable evaluation of soil structure.

Figure 3-l shows photographs of the different types of soil augers generallyused in drainage investigations.

Equipment used to record changes in water table elevation.-Twotypes of equipment have been used to record
the recovery of the water table.
The first type consists of a data logger with a preprogrammed logarithmicsampling schedule connected to a
pressure transducer. The second typeconsists of a recorder board, recording tape, and float apparatus. The
datalogger setup can record recovery data points beginning at time zero, which isimpossible to do using the
float and recorder board. This capability allows thetest to be conducted in materials with higher hydraulic
conductivity rates thancan be done with a float apparatus. The high initial costs of a data logger wouldbe
difficult to justify if only a limited number of auger-hole tests are to beconducted.
Water table recovery data collected on a data logger can be downloadeddirectly to a computer.

62
Recorder board, recording tape, and float apparatus.-This equipmentis preferable to manual measuring
equipment such as an electric sounderbecause it is less expensive, easier to construct, simpler to operate,
andprovides a permanent record. The board commonly used is 50 millimeters
(2 inches) thick by 100 millimeters (4 inches) wide by 250 millimeter
(10 inches) long. A notch 65 millimeters (2-l/2 inches) long and wide enoughto hold a nylon roller is made 25
millimeters (1 inch) from one end and15 millimeters (l/2 inch) from a side. A nylon roller, which can be taken
froma regular chair caster, is installed in the notch and fastened in place. A pointer
is fastened directly over the roller to act as a reference point during the test. A50millimeter (2-inch) diameter
recess is drilled near the roller to hold thestopwatch and is located so that the operator can observe the
stopwatch andmark on the recording tape without looking up from the stopwatch. A threadedmetal plate for
attaching a tripod is attached to the underside of the board onthe opposite end from the roller and stopwatch.
The float should be less than 75 millimeters (3 inches) in diameter an+weighted at the bottom. It should also be
sufficiently buoyant and counterbalancedto prevent any lag in the rise of the float as the water table rises in
thehole. A counterweight that weighs slightly less than the float is used to keep
the float string tight. The float should have sloping shoulders so it will be less

Bored or augered wells

This method of excavation consists of shaving or cutting material from the bottom of the hole by the rotation of
a cylindrical tool with one or more cutting lips. The process is quite analagous to boring a hole in wood or
metal with an auger or drill. The excavated earth normally feeds upward and is contained in the body of the
auger where it remains until the auger is emptied. The auger is both rotated and raised and lowered by means of
a vertical shaft which extends upward from the auger to a convenient point above ground level from which it
can be rotated. Rotation is frequently accomplished by human power applied to a handle attached to the vertical
shaft. However, the auger may be driven by other power sources such as animal or engine power. In this case,
the power source drives a horizontal ring gear. Two projections extending upward from the ring gear drive a bar

63
known as a "kelly" which lies across a diameter of the ring. A square section of the auger shaft fits through a
square hole at the centre of the kelly bar which causes the auger shaft to rotate with the kelly bar while allowing
it vertical freedom.
Each time the auger is filled with excavated material, it must be brought out of the hole for emptying. In order
to accomplish this, the auger shaft must be divided into sections which can be uncoupled and set aside.
Several types of earth augers have been used successfully for boring wells.
The cylindrical bucket auger is a sheet metal cylinder with an attachment for the auger shaft at the top. The
bottom has a helical form with a single cutting lip. It may be hinged and latched, so that it can be opened for
emptying. The two-bladed auger consists of two cylindrical blades attached to the auger shaft. The blades are
cut and bent at the bottom to form cutting lips. This type of auger is frequently used for boring post holes.
Figure 3: Earth augers (a) cylindrical bucket auger

Fig. 3.Earth augers. (b) two-bladed auger

64
Figure 3.Earth augers. (c) helical auger

Fig. 3.Earth augers. (d) tubular auger

65
A third type of earth auger (Figure 4) has a spiral of helical form. This type of auger normally has two cutting
lips, one of which is mounted on the leading edge of the helix. It is sold commercially for power boring of
holes or for planting trees.
A fourth type of "auger" device (Figures 5 and 6) has been used by the author in sticky or heavy clay soils
where conventional augers with cutting lips did not function well. This consists of a slotted piece of tubing or
pipe with the lower end cut into a tooth and flared configuration. The upper end was attached to a conventional
auger shaft. This auger is alternately rammed downward and then rotated. The downward motion causes soil to
be forced up inside the auger where it adheres and the rotation breaks this soil free from the bottom of the hole.
A small quantity of water may be maintained at the bottom of the hole for lubrication.
Most types of augers work well on a wide variety of soils. The type used may depend largely on what can be
obtained or built locally. When selecting or building an auger, several principles should be observed:
- the cutting lips or edge should cut a diameter slightly larger than the body of the auger above them, so that the
auger will not drag on the sides of the hole
- the cutting lips should be angled in such a way that only the cutting edge and not the surface behind it comes
into contact with the surface to be penetrated; this improves penetration and reduces drag
- as the height to diameter ratio of an auger increases, the straightness of the hole tends to increase (i.e. a tall,
small diameter auger tends to bore a straighter hole than a short, large diameter auger)
- the body of the auger must be capable of holding the excavated material until the auger can be removed from
the hole for emptying. Finely divided material has a tendency to flow out of the auger if openings are too large.
When the water table is reached, augers cannot normally retain the cuttings and deepening of the well must be
carried out by one of the other methods described. \
Tripod is used to support auger during drilling.
Augers cannot normally penetrate stone. However, thin layers or small pieces of stone can sometimes be
pulverized or dislodged and removed by means of a percussion bit or a spiral auger ("ram horn") made of steel

66
rod in a form similar to a corkscrew. If the stone can be penetrated or removed, boring can be continued. If not,
a different process or new location must be tried.

The necessity of emptying the auger each time it is filled places some practical limits on the depth of augered
holes. Since the sections of the auger shaft must be uncoupled each time the auger is emptied, the time required
for emptying increases with the depth of the hole. To minimize the number of couplings, the lengths of auger
shaft or "extensions" should be made as long as practical. Frequently, auger shafts are made from lengths of
water pipe which range in length from 6.1 to 6.4 metres (20-21 ft). Extensions (Figures 7 and 8) may be
coupled by means of a socket attached to the top of each one. The bottom of the next extension is inserted into
this coupling and held there by a pin through the socket.
Normal threaded pipe couplings do not make satisfactory attachments, since they wear under prolonged use. An
overhead structure of some type is needed to steady the long extensions and to ensure that they are maintained
vertical during the drilling operation. It is also convenient to lean the extensions against this structure when
they are uncoupled. The overhead structure for steadying and guiding the extensions might consist of a tripod
with a crosspiece between two legs (Figures 9 and 10) or of two vertical posts set in the ground with a
crosspiece between them. The handle or other device for rotating the auger shaft should be designed to mount at
any point along the extensions, so that it can be maintained at a suitable working height (Figure 11).

Fig. 7 Auger extension and handle

67
The succeeding extension is pinned in place by a 10 mm bolt. During coupling or uncoupling the bottom of the
coupling is supported by the notched board. The short length of rod is inserted to prevent the extension from
being accidentally dropped down the hole.

Fig. 9 Tripod used to support long auger extensions during drilling

68
After the approximate well location has been selected, the overhead support can be set up, and the exact
location determined by hanging a plumb line from the overhead auger guide. A small starting hole for the auger
can then be dug. It is important to get the auger starter as close to vertical as possible.
The deepest hand augered well known to the author is approximately 38 metres (125 feet). This well was bored
by a crew of workers who were paid by the metre and was bored at a very reasonable cost. However, under
other economic conditions the practical limit for hand boring may be less. When augering becomes too slow, it
may be more practical to continue with a different method.
Some earth augers may be equipped with a blade for reaming to the desired well diameter (Figure 12). Boring
an exploratory hole prior to digging a large diameter well may also be a good investment where conditions are
uncertain.

69
2.5. Piezometer Test for Hydraulic Conductivity

(a) Introduction.-
The piezometer test measures the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of individualsoil layers below a water table.
This test is preferred over the auger-hole test whenthe soil layers to be tested are less than 18 inches thick and
when individual layersbelow the water table are to be tested. In subsurface drainage investigations, animportant
application of this test is to provide data for determining which layerbelow a proposed drain depth functions as
the effective barrier layer. This testalso provides reliable hydraulic conductivity dam for any soil layer below
thewater table.

Suggested equipment required for the piezometer test is:

(1) Casing of minimum 25-milliieter (l-inch) i.d. (inside diameter) 40- to5O millimeter is recommended)
consisting of a thin-walled electrical conduitfor depths to 4 meters and black iron pipe with smooth inside walls
for depthsgreater than 4 meters.

(2) Ship auger which fits inside the casing.

(3) Pipe-driving hammer, consisting of a piece of 5Omillimeter (2-inch)iron pipe which fits over the casing
with a Gilogram (lo-pound) weight fixedto the pipe. A small sledge hammer can be used in place of the
Wilogram(lo-pound) weight.
(4) Hand-operatedpitcher pump with hose and foot valve, or a bailer whichwill fit inside the casing.
(5) Recorder board, recording tapes, and float apparatus or an electricalsounder. The float resembles the float
made for the auger-hole test, but is ofsmaller size to fit into the smaller diameter casing. The counterweight
mustbe adjusted accordingly.

(6) Computation sheets, clipboard, stopwatch, measuring tape or rod,windshield, and casing puller.

70
(7) Bottle or vegetable brush for cleaning soil film from inside of test pipe.
The brush should be fitted with a coupler that attaches to the auger handle.

Procedure
A two-man team is desirable in performing the piezometerfield test for hydraulic conductivity. The test layer
should be at least 300 millimeters(12 inches) thick so that a NO-millimeter (4-inch) length of uncased hole,or
cavity, can be placed in the middle of it. This placement is especially important
if amarked difference in the texture, structure, or density of the layers exists aboveand below the test layer.
After the test layer has been selected, the topsoil isremoved from the ground surface, and a hole is augered to
within 0.5 meter(2 feet) of the test layer. Some operators prefer to auger 150 to 300 millimeters(6 to 12 inches),
then drive the casing and repeat this process for the entire depthof the hole. However, this method is slow, and
experience shows its use isgenerally not warranted. Other operators jet the casing to within 0.5 to 0.75 meter(2
to 3 feet) of the test layer and then auger and drive the casing the remainingdistance. This procedure requires
additional equipment that usually cannot bemoved in to a waterlogged field. The augering and driving
procedure is alwaysused for the last 0.5 meter (2 feet) to assure a good seal and also to minimize
soildisturbance. The casing is stopped at the depth selected for the top of thelOOmillimeter (4&h) long cavity,
and the cavity is then augered below the casing. After some recovery has occurred, the pipe should be cleaned
with a bottlebrush to remove the soil film that the float may cling to.
The size and shape of the cavity am important in the test, so care should betaken to assure that it is the
predetermined length and diameter. If the soil in thetest layer is so unstable that the cavity will not remain open
during the test, screensshould be made that can be pushed down inside the casing.
For a 25millimetern (l-inch) i.d. casing and a lOOmillimeter (4-inch) cavity, the screen should be125
millimeters (5 inches) long and have a 24-millimeter (H/16-inch) o.d.(outside diameter). A rigid point should be
welded on the bottom of the screen tofacilitate pushing it down inside the casing. A pole about 20 millimeters
(3/4 inch)in diameter can be used to push the screen to the bottom of the cavity. A smallbent nail or hook placed

71
on the opposite end of the pole will allow the screen tobe reclaimed at the end of the test by hooking the nail
into the screen and pullingit out. The cavity is cleaned by gently pumping or bailing water and sediment outof
the hole until the discharge is clear.
After the water table has returned to equilibrium, the recorder board and floatapparatus are set up and the float
dropped down the casing. Figure 3-2 shows theequipment setup. When the float comes to rest, the pointer is set
at zero on therecorder tape, the float is removed from the hole, and the water is pumped orbailed out. A small
foot valve for the suction line can be made similar to largercommercial types, or a bailer similar to that used in
the auger-hole test can bemade. After pumping or bailing the water, the float is immediately dropped downthe
casing. When the float starts to rise, a tick mark is made on the recorder tapeand at the same time the stopwatch
is started. Select a convenient time intervalbetween observations and make corresponding tick marks on the
recorder tape.
Removal of all of the water from the piezometer is not essential because measurementscan be obtained and
used anywhere between the static water table leveland the initial bailed-out level. Obtaining three or four
readings during the fusthalf of the water rise will give consistent results.

2.6. Single well draw down test

Single Well Drawdown Test for Hydraulic Conductivity.-Coarscsands and gravels usually make the auger-hole
(pump-out) and piezometer testsdifficult to run. An alternative pump-out test can be made to obtain a
roughestimate of hydraulic conductivities in these materials. The test is a small-scaleversion of a regular pump
test for large wells.
Equipment for the test is the same as that used for the auger-hole test exceptthe recorder board and tripod are
not used.A gasoline-driven pump with a valveddischarge should be used. A calibrated bucket and a stopwatch
should be used todetermine flow rate.
Hole preparation is much the same as for the auger-hole test; however, handaugering is usually too difficult.
Once the hole is prepared and the static waterlevel is measured, water is pumped from the hole at a constant

72
rate. After sometime, the water level in the hole will reach a steady-state level. Steady state canbe assumedto
exist when the water level in theh ole dropslessthan 30 millimeters(0.1 foot) in 2 hours. When steady-
stateconditions exist, the flow rate and depthof water in the hole are recorded.
This method should be used only in highly permeable sands and gravels toobtain an estimate of hydraulic
conductivity when the auger-hole or piezometertests fail to give satisfactory results.

2.7.Ring Permeameter Test

Introduction.
-In drainage studies, thelateral hydraulic conductivity of the soil must be known to determine drainspacing.
Usually the vertical hydraulic conductivity is assumed to be sufficientto permit deep percolation from irrigation
and rainfall to reach the saturated zonein which it moves horizontally. However, slowly permeable layers
interfere withpercolation and cause temporary perched water tables in the root zone. Thus, ameans of
determining the vertical hydraulic conductivity of such a tight layer isdesirable.
The ring permeameter test is a specialized in-place method of obtainingvertical hydraulic conductivity of a
critical zone. The test is based on Darcy ‘s lawfor movement of liquids through saturated material. The test is
time consumingwhen compared with the auger-hole test, but the results are uniformly dependable.Tensiometers
and piezometers are used to confii existence of saturated conditions,absence of a perched water table, and
fulfillment of the requirements ofDarcy’s law.

Equipment required for the ring permeameter method is asfollows:

(1) AlCgauge-steel, welded-seam cylinder, 457millimeter (M-inch) i.d.by 508 millimeters (20 inches) high,
with a reinforcing band on top andsharpened bottom edge (seam weld must be ground flush).
(2) A 50%millimeter (20-inch) diameter by 12.7-millimeter (l/2-inch)thick driving disk with a 45Omillimeter
(17-3/4-inch) diameter by 12.7-m&limeter (l/2-inch) thick center ring. This disk fits inside the 457-millimeter

73
Procedure.-
A two-man team can efficiently install the equipment andconduct the ring permeametertest:After the site has
been selected and the zoneof critical hydraulic conductivity determined, a l-meter-diameter hole is excavatedto
within 75 millimeters (3 inches) of the test zone. The last 75 millimetersare excavated when the equipment is
ready for installation, taking care not to walkon the area to be tested. The testing area, which will be inside the
1%inch cylinder,is checked with a carpenter’s level to assure that it is level before the cylinder isplaced. The
cylinder is marked with chalk 150 millimeters (6 inches) from thebottom edge and driven 150 millimeters into
the soil with the driving disk andhammer. The cylinder should be kept level during driving, and the blows
shouldbe as powerful and steady as practicable. After the cylinder has been driven tothe desired depth, the soil
immediately against its inside and outside wall istamped lightly to prevent channeling along the sides. About 25
millimeters ofclean uniform, permeable sand is spread over the area inside the cylinder tominimize puddling of
the soil surface during the test. The outside periphery ofthe cylinder is also tamped to keep water from
channeling down along the sidesand causing erroneous tensiometer readings.
Next, the two 450-millimeter (Winch) piezometers ate marked 230 millimeters
(9 inches) from the sharpenedbottom and installed on opposite sidesof thecylinder and about 75 to 100
millimeters (3 to 4 inches) distant from it. Thepiezometers ate installed by driving them 50 to 75 millimeters
into the soil,augering out the core, and continuing this process until the 230-millimeter(g-inch) mark is at
ground level. Care should be taken that the piezometers do notturn or come up with the auger during
installation. A lOO-millimeter (4-inch) longcavity is then augeted below each piezometer and filled with clean,
fine sand.
Asan additional means of preventing channeling along the sides, a 1: 1 bentonite-soilmixture is tamped around
the piezometers. Caution should always be exercisedto ensure that no bentonite falls into the piezometers or
into the testing ring. Thepiezometers am filled with water and checked to assure that they are
functioningproperly. If the water falls in the piezometem, the installation is satisfactory. Asmall can should be
placed over each piezometer to keep out dirt and water during

74
the remainder of the installation. If the water does not fall, the piezometers shouldbe flushed with a stinup
pump and reaugered if flushing does not clear them.

The two calibrated and tested tensiometersa m then installed on opposites idesof the cylinder and 75 to 100
millimeters (3 to 4 inches) from it on a line at rightangles to that of the piezometers. The calibration and testing
should be done inthe laboratory. Instructions for calibrating and testing can be obtained from themanufacturer.
During the calibration, 100 on the scale shouldbe set at zero tensionso that pressures caused by a rising water
table can be observed if the water tablerisesabovet he tensiometerc up. The holes for the tensiometers are
excavatedw itha 25-millimeter (l-inch) soil auger to a depth of 230 millimeters (9 inches). Asmall amount of
dry soil is then dropped into the hole, followed by a small amountof water. The tensiometer is then placed in the
hole, with the glass tubes facingaway from the sun, and worked up and down in the mud to obtain good co
between the porous cup, the mud, and the undisturbed soil. The annular spacearound the tensiometer is filled
and tamped with dry soil to within about25 millimeters (1 inch) of the soil surface. .A 1:l bentonite-soil mixture
is thenadded to prevent channeling. Mercury is placed in the reservoir cup and thetensiometer tubes fuled with
water. A small air syringe is used to remove air fromthe tensiometer tube by forcing water through the system.
The carburetor float apparatus is installed and adjusted to hold a constant150millimeter (6-inch) head in the
cylinder, and the carburetor is connected tothe head tank with rubber tubing. If the test water contains
suspended material, a filter tank should be installed with the tubing as described in section 3-7.

Thetank should always be anchored, and the gauge should always face away fromthe sun. The cylinder is then
filled with water to the 15Omillimeter (dinch) markand the tank valve opened. The hole outside the cylinder
should also be filled withwater to a depth of 150 millimeters (6 inches) and should be kept to
this150~millimeter (6-inch) depth during the entire test period. The extra tank andcarburetor am used for this
purpose. When all adjustments have been made andthe tensiometers am full, the time and water content of the
tank are recorded.

75
The head tank should be checked at least two or three times a day, dependingupon the percolation and hydraulic
conductivity rates, and filled as necessary.
Each time the site is visited, a record should bemade of the time, volume of waterin the tank, gaugereadingsof
the tensiometersandpiezometers,temperature,andthe hydraulic conductivity. When the tensiometer gauges read
approximately100 (zero tension), no water shows in the piezometer, and water is movingthrough the
150~millimeter (6-inch) test layer at a constant rate, the requirementsof Darcy’s law may be assumed to have
been met and valid test results can beobtained to calculate hydraulic conductivity. Tensiometer readings
sometimesfluctuate when the soil is at or near saturation, and it is not always possible to getthe 100 reading.
Gauges fluctuating between 100 and 105 are probably indicatingsaturated conditions for that particular soil.
Also, it is not necessary for both
tensiometers to have the same reading providing they both read in the 100 to105 range.

If the saturated front should reach a zone less permeable than the test layerbefore the requirements of Darcy’s
law are met, a mound of water will build upinto the test zone. When this buildup occurs, the hydraulic gradient
will be lessthan unity, and the pressure at the base of the soil column being tested will begreater than
atmospheric. Both the piezometers and tensiometers will indicatethis condition. When the piezometers show
that a mound has reached the bottomof the cylinder, the test will no longer give a true hydraulic conductivity
value.
When this condition occurs, the test will either have to be stopped or the moundlowered below the bottom of
the cylinder. When the material between the bottomof the cylinder and the less permeable zone has a fair rate of
hydraulic conductivity,it is sometimes possible to lower the water table mound by augering anumber of holes
around the outside periphery of the cylinder approximately250 millimeters (10 inches) from the sides. These
holes, when fflled with sand, will act as inverted drainage wells and, under most conditions, will lower
themound. If the holes do not provide the necessary drainage, the testing equipmentshould be lowered to
the less permeable zone and the test rerun

76
At the close of the test, the soil is excavated from around the outside of thecylinder and cut for a short distance
under the cylinder. A chain placed aroundthe cylinder and pulled by a truck will usually break the soil across
the bottom toallow examination for root holes, cracks, and possible channeling.

Test pit method.

The test pit can be of three different shapes: (1) a circular test pit ofdiameter a, (2) a square test pit with side
dimensions of a, and (3) a rectangulartest pit with side dimensions a by 2~.
The test should be conducted in only one textural classification such as acobbly, coarse gravelly, or loamy sand.
A backhoe, power auger, or hand toolscan be used to excavate down to the test zone. The test pit is then
carefullyexcavated to the desired shape and depth by hand. For the different shaped pits,an avalueo f 0.3 meter
(1 foot) should be adequateL. argersizescan be used,butwill requite proportionally more water. Small cavities
left when cobbles areremoved, or a few small cobbles sticking out into the test pit, will cause littledifference in
the quantity of water entering the test pit, the average diameter of acircular pit, or in the side dimensions of a
square or rectangular pit.

Matrices with textures such as fme sands, silts, silt loams, and very fine sandstend to slough into the pit when
saturated.F or thesec onditions,t he pit shouldb efilled with a clean (washed) fine gravel before water is applied.

Procedure
After the test pit has been excavated and, if required, backfilledwith fine gravel, it is filed to a predetermined
depth with clean water. Allwater entering the pit should be filtered to remove the suspended silts and clays.
The depth of water in the hole can be maintained by using bypass hoses and alarge carburetor for the finer
regulation to keep the water depth reasonablyconstant. The carburetor can be installed by placing it in a
perforated tin canlocated in the middle of the test pit. This test normally takes only a short time torun, so the
water depth in the pit can be maintained by hand if a carburetor is notavailable. A clear plastic cover should be
placed over the pit to keep material fromblowing in.

77
2.8. Test for determining infiltration rate
Although the drainageengineer is mainly concerned with the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, theinfiltration
rate is also important in determining the deep percolation and runoffthat must be carried by the drains.
Infiltration is generally considered as the rateat which water enters the soil surface.
Hydraulic conductivity is considered as therate at which water will move through a unit cross section of soil
under a unithydraulic gradient. The two terms need not be and generally are not identical.
Infact, they are identical only if all the following conditions are true:
(a) The soil must be homogeneous throughout.
(b) A zero head of water must be maintained at the soil surface.
(c) No lateral movement of the water may occur.
(d) The surface soil may not restrict the water movement.
(e) Atmospheric pressure must exist at all times at the base of the downwardadvancing waterfront.

These conditions might occur in a sandy soil before the water reaches animpervious layer or a water table.
Usually, in an infiltration test the infiltrationrate will be greater in the initial stage than the hydraulic
conductivity rate. Theinfiltration rate will be greater because of some lateral movement and because

78
CHAPTER 3: FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOIL

Storage or retention of water by soils is a result of attractive forces between the solid and liquid phases.

Adhesion is the attraction of dissimilar substances for eachother; cohesion is the mutual attraction of particles
of the same substance.

3.1.Saturated and unsaturated flow

The amount of water present in the soil at any given moment, can be described in various ways. Some
of the terms are subject to a subjective interpretation, such as dry and wet, which refers to a general
condition of the soil, without quantifying the amount of water. Other terms, such as saturated and
unsaturated, are slightly more exact, but still do not quantify the soil water content fully.
During rain or irrigation, the fields become wet. The water infiltrates into the soil and is stored in its pores.
When all the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated and no more water can be absorbed;
when rain or irrigation continues, pools may form on the soil surface
Saturationrefers to the condition where the pores of a soil is completely filled with water, while
unsaturatedrefers to any soil water content lower than that of saturation.

79
Figure 3.1:
Part of the water present in the saturated upper soil layers flows downward into deeper layers and is replaced by
water infiltrating from the surface pools.
When there is no more water left on the soil surface, the downward flow continues for a while and air re-enters
in the pores of the soil. This soil is not saturated anymore.
However, saturation may have lasted too long for the plants' health. Plant roots require air as well as water and
most plants cannot withstand saturated soil for long periods (rice is an exception).
Besides damage to the crop, a very wet soil makes the use of machinery difficult, if not impossible.
The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the groundwater reservoir. As a
result, the groundwater level (often called groundwater table or simply water table) rises. Following heavy
rainfall or continuous over-irrigation, the groundwater table may even reach and saturate part of the rootzone.
Again, if this situation lasts too long, the plants may suffer. Measures to control the rise of the water table are
thus necessary.
Fig. 3.1.(a)After heavy rainfall the groundwater table may rise and reach the rootzone

80
(a) BEFORE HEAVY RAINFALL

(b)
AFTER HEAVY RAINFALL

81
3.2. Occurrence of ground water
When precipitation falls it may:
(i) be evaporated from the earth's surface or from the leaves of plants (evapotranspiration) whose roots
have taken up the moisture from the soil;
(ii) flow along or near the surface of the earth in watercourses of ever-increasing size until it reaches the
ocean;
(iii) infiltrate down through the pores or crevices of the earth's mantle either at the point where it falls or at
some distant point to which surface flow has carried it. Water which evaporates from the earth's surface or
bodies of water is ready to start the cycle over again as precipitation.
When water is added to dry or unsaturated soil it is held in the voids between particles by capillary forces.
Once the voids are saturated, however, the water is free to descend under the effect of gravity. As long as there
is sufficient water to maintain saturation, the water will descend until it is stopped by some impervious layer,
such as rock or highly impervious clay. The water can then flow laterally through the voids or rock crevices
above the barrier. If there are significant differences in surface elevation, the water may flow out along the
impervious layer at some lower point called a spring. If a hole is made vertically down into the saturated layer,
water will flow into the hole. If the saturated layer has sufficient interconnected voids, water will flow through
it relatively rapidly. When the saturated layer yields water in economic quantities, it is called an aquifer and the
hole made into it could be developed into a well. The lack of resistance to flow through porous material is
called permeability. In general, fine grained material such as clay or silt is low in permeability; sand is of
medium permeability, and gravel is most permeable. Fractured rock varies in permeability depending on the
degree and pattern of fracture. The quantity of water which can be stored in an aquifer is equal to the total
volume of voids between the solid particles. The fraction of the total volume of an aquifer made up of voids is
called porosity. If the voids are interconnected, aquifers of high porosity also tend to have high permeability.
Fig. 1 Hydrologic cycle

82
Sometimes groundwater is trapped under an impervious layer. An aquifer thus located is called a confined
aquifer.
If the inflow area to a confined aquifer is higher than the confining layer where a well penetrates it, the water
will be under pressure and will rise in the well to some level above the confining layer. Such a well is referred
to as artesian.
If water rises to the top of the well a "flowing well" results.
Obviously some locations offer better chances for successful wells than others. Clues which can be helpful in
selecting well locations are

(i) locations and depth to water of existing wells;

(ii) existence of springs and/or streams;

83
(iii) relative locations of infiltration areas and rock outcroppings which might constitute an impervious
layer; and (iv) existence of known phreatophytes (plants requiring abundant water, whose roots
frequently extend to the water table).

In some areas of uniform geology, such as certain alluvial deposits in valleys, wells can be constructed
anywhere with equal success.
In the absence of any clues or data, a test boring can be carried out by one of the methods described under small
diameter wells. Such a boring can be carried out relatively quickly and cheaply and can save considerable time,
money and frustration in the long run.
When a well is pumped, the water in it drops to some level below the static level (Figure 2). The water surface
in the aquifer then forms a "cone of depression" as it slopes from the static level at some fairly large radius, R,
to the well whose radius is r. If the well completely penetrates the aquifer with the static height of water being
H and the height of water during pumping, h, then theoretical considerations give:

where:

Q = yield or rate of pumping (e.g. m3/hr, litres/sec, etc.)

K = permeability of the aquifer
(H - h) is known as the "drawdown" of the well.
If the drawdown is small compared to H, then the term (H + h) is approximately equal to 2H and the yield, Q, is
approximately proportional to the product of H times the drawdown.
This shows the importance of penetrating the aquifer to an adequate depth. By contrast the yield, Q, is much
less responsive to changes in well diameter, since it is inversely proportional to the natural log of the ratio,
(R/r).

84
Fig. 2 Flow into a well

3.3 Flow of water through soil (Darcy‘s Law)

85
3.3. Darcy's law
One of the fundamental equations that govern groundwater flow is called Darcy’s Law (equation 2-1),

Q = K A dh/dl (Equation 2-1)

where:
Q = discharge [L3/T]
A = cross sectional area [L2]
K = hydraulic conductivity [L/t]
dh/dl= hydraulic gradient or change in hydraulic head (h) per change in distance (l) [ · ]

In plain English, this equation states:

Discharge (i.e., volumetric flow) through a cross sectional area is directlyand linearly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient, and the constant of proportionality that relates discharge to the hydraulic gradient is
aquantity called the hydraulic conductivity

We will get into the details of the equation later in the course, but for now, let’s focus on the little “h” in
thehydraulic gradient term, i.e., hydraulic head.

Darcy'slaw is an equation that describes the flow of a fluid through a porous medium.
The lawwasformulated by Henry Darcybased on the results of experiments on the flow of waterthroughbeds of
sand, forming the basis of hydrogeology, a branch of earth sciences.
 what drives groundwater flow?
o water flows from high elevation to low elevation and from high pressure to low pressure,
gradients in potential energy drive groundwater flow
o groundwater flows from high to low head

86
 o how do you measure the head or potential? => drill an observation well, the elevation of the
water level in the well is a measure of the potential energy at the opening of the well
 in 1856, a French hydraulic engineer named Henry Darcy published an equation for flow through a
porous medium that today bears his name (Fig. 6.3)
 Q = KA (h1-h2)/L or q = Q/A = -K dh/dl, h: hydraulic head, h = p/rg + z
 thought experiment: hydraulic head distribution in a lake
 q = Q/A is the specific discharge [L/T], dh/dl is the hydraulic gradient
 K is the hydraulic conductivity [L/T]
 the law is very similar to Ohm's law for electrical curcuits I = 1/R * U (current = voltage divided by
resistance)
 the orginal Darcy experiment yielded these data (Fig 6.4)
 the analogy between Darcy's law and Poiseulle's law suggests that K = (const*d2)*rg/m
 the first term (const*d2) is k, the intrinsic permeability [L2], summarized the properties of the porous
medium, while rg/m describe the fluid
 hydraulic conductivities and permeabilities vary over many orders of magnitude (Fig 6.5)

Example: calculation of a typical hydraulic gradient of 1/100 in a salt formation with a hydraulic conductivity
of 10-10 m s-1 will produce a specific discharge of 10-12 m s-1, or less than 1 mm per 30 years!
 T = Kb [L2 T-1] is called the transmissivity of the aquifer, this term is often the more useful parameter for
estimating the yield of an aquifer
 specific discharge has the dimension of a velocity, but it is not the velocity at which the water flows in
the porous medium, the water has to squeeze through the pores
 tagged parcels that are averaged together, will appear to move through a porous medium at a rate that is
faster than the specific discharge
 porosity is the fraction of a porous material which is void space f = Vvoid/Vtotal
 the mean pore water velocity is then: v = q/f (Fig) (experiment)

87
  Darcy's law has been found to be invalid for high values of Reynolds number and at very low values of
hydraulic gradient in some very low-permeability materials, such as clays.
 example :
o K= 10-5 m/s, h2-h1 = 100m, L = 10km, A = 1m2> Q = 3.15 m3/y; the K value above is typical for
a sandstone aquifer
o the actual flow velocity v may be calculated with the following formula: v=Q/(A*f)=q/f, f is the
porosity, and q the specific discharge
o if the porosity n is 30%, the flow velocity in the example above is 10.

Darcy's law is a simple mathematical statement which neatly summarizes several familiar properties that
groundwater flowing in aquifers exhibits, including:

 if there is no pressure gradient over a distance, no flow occurs (these are hydrostatic conditions),
 if there is a pressure gradient, flow willoccurfrom high pressure towardslow pressure (opposite the
direction of increasing gradient — hence the negativesign in Darcy'slaw),
 the greater the pressure gradient (through the same formation material), the greater the discharge rate,
and
 the discharge rate of fluidwilloften be different — throughdifferent formation materials (or eventhrough
the samematerial, in a different direction) — even if the same pressure gradient exists in both cases.

88
89
3.4.Capillary flow above the water table

The capillaryfringe is the subsurface layer in which groundwaterseeps up fromawater table by capillary action
to fill pores. Pores at the base of the capillaryfringe are filledwith water due to tension saturation. This saturated
portion of the capillaryfringe is lessthan total capillaryrisebecause of the presence of a mix in pore size. If pore
size is small and relativelyuniform, it is possible that soils can be completelysaturatedwith water for
severalfeetabove the water table. Alternately, when pore size is large, the saturated portion willextendonlya few
inchesabove the water table. Capillary action supports a vadose zoneabove the saturated base within which
water content decreaseswith distance above the water table. In soilswithawide range in pore size, the
unsaturated zone can be several times thickerthan the saturated zone.

3.5. Critical water table depthmeasurement of hydraulicconductivity

•To understand the mechanism how drainage influence the water balance in the soil and control the subsurface
hydrology,
90
•we should understand the basic concepts regarding soil (pore space) water and
•their retention or release characteristics.

91
3.5.1 Moisture Concentration
The moisture concentration is defined as the volume of water per unit volume ofsoil.

3.5.2 Pore Water

Water that is held in the soil pores is termed as pore water.

3.5.3 Drainable Pore Space or Drainable Porosity (Pd)

Drainable pore space or drainable porosity is the air-filled pores present when thesoil is drained to field
capacity (i.e., after gravity drainage). Alternatively, the macroporespaces which releases or drains water due to
gravity drainage is termed asdrainable porosity. This can be estimated as

Pd (%) = soil porosity (%) − soil moisture at field capacity (%)

It is influenced by soil texture and structure. Coarse-textured (sandy) soils havelarge drainable porosity,
whereas fine-textured (clayey) soils have smaller drainableporosities. This implies that for a certain amount of
water drained, asandy soil shows a smaller water-table drop than that of a clay soil.

By definition,
Drainable porosity (%) = (Volume of drainable pore spaces in total volume of soil)×100/total volumeof
soil

Drainable water is that water which can be drained from a saturated soil by gravity or free drainage.

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The amount of drainable water in the soil depends on the amount of “drainable pore space” or drainable
porosity.
In drainage system, drainable water is expressed in units of depth (meter or millimeter).
Expressing drainable water in this way assumes that its depth applied to a unit area (i.e., square meter or
hectare).
The volume of water from this depth can be computed simply by multiplying the depth of drainable water by
the area of drainage (area of interest), making sure to keep the units consistent.

Drainable water” can be measured directly from a predetermined drainage area.

It can also be estimated indirectly from drainable porosity, as:
Drainable water (m3) = drainable porosity (%) ×drainable volume (m3)
Dw = Pd ×Dv.

Water Balance in a Drained Soil

In a crop-soil system, the term “water balance” describes the fate of precipitation and various components of
water flow in and around the soil profile.
Drainage affects soil-water, and thus other components of the water balance are also affected.
Subsurface drainage influences the hydrology of heavily drained regions significantly and permanently, by
substantially reducing surface runoff, shortening periods of surface pondage, and lowering of water table.
Water balance on a soil profile with good natural drainage and in an artificially drained soil profile is depicted
in

In the typical natural drainage system, precipitation (rainfall, snowmelt) (P), irrigation
(IR) (if applied) are the major water input to the system affecting surfacerunoff (R), crop evapotranspiration
(ET), deep percolation (DP), and changes insoil-water storage (S).

P + IR − R − ET − DP = S

93
Schematic of water balance (b) natural drained soil

94
P + IR − R − ET − DP = S
If the deep percolation continues, there is an opportunity for the water table to rise.
It is evident from the water balance that the amount of deep percolation depends on the extent to which the
precipitation and/or irrigation input to the soil is reducedby R, ET, and S.

In case of artificially drained soil profile, similar water balance equation holds true. However, the drainage flow
becomes a major component of the water leaving the system. The water balance equation can be written as:
P + IR = R + ET + DP + S + D

95
As in case of natural drainage, the amount of drainage is dependent on how muchprecipitation is lost to R, ET,
and the drainage capacity itself. In artificial drained

Example
An agricultural soil contains 47% pore space, and the moisture content after gravity drainage is 39% (by
volume).
Find the void ratio, drainable porosity, and drainable water volume from a 20 m ×15 m plot having 1.0 m root
zone depth.

SOLUTION

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3.6. Soil salinity control

Soilsalinity control relates to controlling the problem of soilsalinity and reclaimingsalinized agricultural land.
The aim of soilsalinity control is to preventsoildegradation by salination and reclaimalreadysalty (saline) soils.
Soilreclamation is alsocalledsoilimprovement, rehabilitation, remediation, recuperation, or amelioration.
The primary man-made cause of salinization is irrigation. River water or groundwaterused in irrigation
containssalts, which remainbehind in the soilafter the water has evaporated.

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3.6.1 Salinity Control by Leaching

When the build-up of soluble salts in the soil becomes or is expected to become excessive, the salts can be
leached by applying more water than that needed by the crop during the growing season. This extra water
moves at least a portion of the salts below the root zone by deep percolation (leaching). Leaching is the key
factor in controlling soluble salts brought in by the irrigation water. Over time, salt removal by leaching must
equal or exceed the salt additions from the applied water or salts will build up and eventually reach damaging
concentrations. The questions that arise are how much water should be used for leaching and when should
leachings be applied?

5.7. The leaching requirement

To estimate the leaching requirement, both the irrigation water salinity (ECw) and the crop tolerance to soil
salinity (ECe) must be known. The water salinity can be obtained from laboratory analysis while the ECe
should be estimated from appropriate crop tolerance data given in the tables in Section 2.4.3 of this paper.
These tables give an acceptable ECe value for each crop appropriate to the tolerable degree of yield loss
(usually 10 percent or less).
The necessary leaching requirement (LR) can be estimated from Figure 7 for general crop rotations. For more
exact estimates for a particular crop, the leaching requirement equation (9) (Rhoades 1974; and Rhoades and
Merrill 1976) should be used:

where: = the minimum leaching requirement needed to control salts within the tolerance (ECe) of
LR
the crop with ordinary surface methods of irrigation
ECw = salinity of the applied irrigation water in dS/m

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 ECe = average soil salinity tolerated by the crop as measured on a soil saturation extract. Obtain
the ECe value for the given crop and the appropriate acceptable yield from Table 4. It is
recommended that the ECe value that can be expected to result in at least a 90 percent or
greater yield be used in the calculation. (Figure 7 was developed using ECe values for
the 100 percent yield potential.) For water in the moderate to high salinity range (>1.5
dS/m), it might be better to use the ECe value for maximum yield potential (100 percent)
since salinity control is critical to obtaining good yields.

The total annual depth of water that needs to be applied to meet both the crop demand and leaching requirement
can be estimated from equation (7).

where: AW = depth of applied water (mm/year)

ET = total annual crop water demand (mm/year)
LR = leaching requirement expressed as a fraction
(leaching fraction)
1
In many texts, the Terms ‘leaching fraction (LF)’ and ‘leaching requirement (LR)’ are used interchangeably.
They both refer to that portion of the irrigation which should pass through the root zone to control salts at a
specific level. While LF indicates that the value be expressed as a fraction, LR can be expressed either as a
fraction or percentage of irrigation water.

99
Fig. 7 Effect of applied water salinity (ECw) upon root zone soil salinity (ECe) at various leaching fractions (LF)
ii. Timing of leachings

100
It takes time to accumulate salts in the root zone to a concentration that reduces yield. Most irrigation water is
of such good quality that, without leaching, two or more years of irrigation will be required before salinity
accumulates sufficiently to affect yield. Further, the later in the growing season the salts reach damaging
concentrations, the less will be their effect. This suggests that if salts are low enough at the start of the irrigation
season, efficiency of water use during the growing season can be 100 percent (no leaching) without loss of
yield due to salinity. For the next season, rainfall, dormant season and pre-plant irrigations, singly or in
combination, can be used to replenish deep soil moisture and leach soils free enough of accumulated salts to
allow efficient water use again during the next growing season. It is often difficult to supply both essential crop
water and leaching water during the hot summer season. The key factor to remember is that leaching is not
needed until accumulating salinity is expected to exceed crop tolerance and reduce yield.
The timing of leachings does not appear to be critical provided crop tolerance is not exceeded for extended or
critical periods of time. This certainly does not mean that leaching is relatively unimportant. The leaching
requirement must be satisfied to prevent excessive salt accumulation. Leaching can be done at each irrigation,
each alternate irrigation or less frequently, such as seasonally or at even longer intervals, as necessary to keep
salinity below the threshold above which yields may be unacceptably reduced. In many instances, the usual
inefficiencies of water application satisfy the leaching requirement and additional leaching is wasteful of water
(see Example 3). Where low leaching fractions (<0.10) are needed, as with good quality water, inefficiencies in
irrigation water application will almost always apply sufficient extra water to accomplish leaching. In other
instances, particularly with higher salinity water, meeting the leaching requirement is difficult and requires
large amounts of water, possibly adding to a drainage problem. It can be assumed that an appreciable portion of
the total deep percolation losses from normal irrigation practices is useful in controlling salinity.

EXAMPLE 3 - LEACHING REQUIREMENT CALCULATION

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A maize crop is irrigated by furrow irrigation. The crop is planted in a uniform loam soil and river water, which
has an ECw = 1.2 dS/m, is used for irrigation. The crop evapotranspiration (ET) is 800 mm/season. The
irrigation application efficiency is 0.65. Therefore the total amount of water that must be applied to meet crop
ET demand is 800 mm/0.65 = 1230 mm/season. How much additional water must be applied for leaching?

Given: ECw = 1.2 dS/m

ECe = 2.5 dS/m (from Table 4 for maize at a 90 percent yield potential)
ECe = 1.7 dS/m (from Table 4 for maize at a 100 percent yield potential)

Explanation: The leaching requirement can be calculated using equation (9) and substituting the appropriate
ECe value for the desired yield potential (from Table 4).

The actual amount of water to be applied to supply both crop ET and leaching (long-term salt
control) can be found by using equation (7).

Since a 1230 mm depth of applied water is needed to ensure that the maize crop is adequately irrigated to meet
the 800 mm ET demand and, since this 1230 mm is in excess of the calculated depth of 890 mm required to
meet both crop ET demand and the leaching requirement, the question arises whether the losses in excess of ET
are deep percolation losses and whether these losses may be satisfying the leaching requirement. Water losses

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due to deep percolation are often greatly in excess of the leaching fraction of 0.15 assumed in the crop tolerance
tables (Table 4) as being typical of efficient irrigated agriculture. If, in this example, the losses are due to deep
percolation, no additional leaching to control salinity is necessary since the required leaching fraction of 0.10 or
0.16, as calculated above, will be satisfied by irrigation inefficiency (losses) during water application.
Rainfall must be considered in estimating the leaching requirement. Rainfall that enters the soil is effective in
meeting both crop ET and the leaching requirement. Rainfall that infiltrates into the soil (effective rainfall)
replaces ET losses. If in excess of ET, it becomes drainage water and will satisfy part or all of the leaching
needed to control salts. The advantage of rainfall in accomplishing all or part of the leaching is that it uniformly
applies an almost salt-free water (ECw< 0.05 dS/m). Leaching is further enhanced if the rate of rainfall is below
the infiltration rate of the soil. If the total amount of rainfall infiltrated is sufficient, it will reduce the average
salinity used for the applied water (ECw) in calculating the leaching requirement (LR) and thus reduce
proportionately the required leaching. Figure 8 shows how rainfall quickly reduces the salinity in the crop root
zone.
In low rainfall years or low rainfall areas, precipitation may not be adequate to refill the soil to its water holding
capacity, in which case no leaching occurs to reduce accumulated salinity other than to move the salts from the
upper part of the root zone deeper into the soil. The upper portions of the rooting depth will then reflect the
very low salinity levels of the rainfall which can enhance germination.
In areas where rainfall occurs in the cooler months or winter season, it may be possible to enhance winter
leaching even in a dry year. It is recommended that a heavy autumn or early winter irrigation be given to refill
the soil profile with water before the rains. Winter rains will then complete the soil-water replenishment and
accomplish all or part of the required leaching with low-salt water. If the rewetting or leaching is still not
complete by crop planting time, the deep percolation losses from extended early season irrigations may
accomplish the soil rewetting and salt leaching. Figure 9 shows how winter rains have leached salts from citrus
plantings in Cyprus.

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The leaching requirement can be calculated (Equation 9) but we can only make estimates of the amount of
leaching that is actually taking place. Soil and crop monitoring are useful tools to determine the need for
leaching. Considerable variation occurs from one cropping season to the next; therefore, monitoring should
stress long-term trends and changes in soil salinity.
Several studies, field trials and observations suggest procedures that might increase the efficiency of leaching
and reduce the amount of water needed. These will not be covered in detail here but will be mentioned as they
apply to many irrigation situations:

 leach during the cool season instead of the warm to increase the efficiency and ease of leaching since
the ET losses are lower;
 use more salt tolerant crops which require a lower LR and thus a lower total water demand;
 use tillage to slow overland water flow and reduce the number of surface cracks which bypass flow
through large pores and decrease efficiency in leaching;

CHAPTER 4: DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS

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4.1 Plant processes
A basic understanding of some major plant processes will help you understand the causes behind specific
growth problems, and what precautions can be taken to solve them.

4.1.1. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which sugars are manufactured in a plant:

Importantly, if carbon dioxide, water or light energy are in limited supply, then photosynthesis will be
restricted. The end result is a reduction in growth due to insufficient sugars being available for respiration.
Hence the following factors will have a negative impact on photosynthesis:
1. Restricted carbon dioxide supply due to poor ventilation.
2. Restricted light supply due to inadequate lighting or overcrowded foliage.
3. Insufficient water supply due to poor system design or nutrient management.

4.1.2. Plant respiration

Respiration is the process of converting sugars that are produced during photosynthesis, into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the energy source that is used by plants for the following processes:
1. Growth in buds, shoots, root hairs and root tips.
2. Nutrient uptake.
3. Movement of sugars into the phloem for distribution to other areas of the plant.
Respiration occurs in 'mitochondria', a component of all plant cells. These are very concentrated in the areas of
the most active growth.
Respiration occurs as follows:

105
The above equation shows that respiration rates decrease if oxygen availability is limited. Oxygen availability
can be hindered by several factors:
1. Insufficient new root growth. See section on ‘roots’.
2. Insufficient oxygen in the nutrient solution due to
inadequateaeration.
4.1.3 Photorespiration:This occurs when plants are subjected to
excessive heat and light - specifically when the temperature exceeds
~35OC (95OF). In this process plants burn sugars without converting
them into ATP. Depending upon how much sugar is wasted, this
causes plant growth to slow or even cease.
Photosynthesis and the transport of water containing minerals ions
transport are key processes in the growth of healthy plants.

Transpiration
Transpiration is the process of water evaporating from a plant. This
loss of water effectively draws water, nutrients and oxygen from the
growing medium and distributes them throughout the plant. These
ingredients are essential for photosynthesis and respiration.
Transpiration mostly occurs through the leaves. As the leaf warms
during the day, water is converted into vapour which then diffuses

106
into the atmosphere via the leaf’s stomata. Most of the energy absorbed from sunlight is used to warm up the
leaf for transpiration – less than 5% is used for photosynthesis.
Most of the water absorbed by plants is transpired. The remainder is used as a reagent in photosynthesis, in
keeping cells turgid (or hydrated), and in enabling various chemical reactions to occur.
Inadequate transpiration will cause poor distribution of nutrients. In cucumbers and tomatoes this results in
symptoms such as 'blossom-end rot' which is due to a calcium deficiency at the plant's extremities. Factors
restricting transpiration are:
1. Highhumidity.
2. Low air temperature.
3. Inadequate lighting.
Causes of excessive rates of transpiration are very bright light, high temperatures and strong winds.

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Germination is the process by which plants emergefromseeds and begingrowth. The growth of the embryonic
plant from the seedforms a seedling. Germination is controlled by abiotic (non-living) factorssuch as light
levels, temperature and water availability. The seed is dormant until is germinates. During the vegetativegrowth
stage, the plant growsrapidly, providing most of the stem, leaf and rootgrowth in order to provide the plant with
the nutrients and water itneeds. Rapid vegetativegrowth. No flowers - no reproductive activity. Growth of
vegetative structures peaks. Plant reachessexualmaturity - flowers bloom. The flower has reachedits mature
stage and is ready to be pollinated. Male part of the flower - Anther: contains pollen grains (male gametes).
Female part of the flower - Stigma: contains the ovules (femalegametes). For sexual reproduction, pollen from
the anthers of another plant is transferred to the stigma of the plant. In asexual reproduction, the anthers of the
same plant pollinate the stigma. The pollen can be transferred by the wind, insects or animals. After the plant is
pollinated, the ovule is fertilised (male and femalegametesmeet) - thisrequires the pollen to enter the ovule via a
pollen tube. The ovarythenstarts to swell and developsinto a fruit containing the seeds. It is important for a
plant to spread itsseeds as far awayfrom the parent plant as possible - the avoidscompetition for resources.
Seeds can be containedwithin fruit or as part of a seedhead. Seeds can be spread in a number of ways: wind
water animalsburstinghumans.

Stages of plant growth

108
Sprout
Each seed contains a small parcel of nutrients that is all they need to germinate and begin growing their first
pair of leaves.

Seedling
As plants' roots develop and spread, a boost of quickly absorbed,well-balanced nutrients fuels the rapid growth
from spindly seedling to healthy plant.

Vegetative
Nitrogen is a key component of chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, so it's the critical nutrient when their
energy is focused on growing stalks and foliage.

109
Budding
Phosphorus is in extra high demand at the start of a plant's' reproductive cycle, the transition from growing
leaves to forming buds.

Flowering
Potassium plays a primary role in producing and transporting the sugars and starches plants use up as
theydevelop healthy flowers and fruit.

Ripening
When flowers and fruit are verging on full maturity, they need a week or two of just water without nutrients, a
process known as "flushing," so they can use up all of the nutrients they have already absorbed

4.2. Plant structure and function

Plant cells
Unlike animal cells, plant cells are surrounded by a cellulose cell wall. This helps to give each cell a definite
shape. Also, plant cells usually have a large fluid filled vacuole, which allows them to be much larger than
animal cells. Apart from this the cytoplasm is similar to that of animal cells, with a nucleus and many small
specialized structures such as mitochondria. Mitochondria are the sites of respiration.

Photosynthetic tissue

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Cells which are able to carry out photosynthesis contain disc-shaped chloroplasts packed with chlorophyll.
Starch grains may also be present.

Osmosis
If animal cells are placed into water or a dilute solution, excess water enters by osmosis and the cytoplasm of
the cell swells, stretching and rupturing the cell membrane. The plant cell wall stretches slightly, but it resists
the entry of excess water and prevents the cell from bursting. When a cell wall is slightly stretched it cell is firm
or turgid. Turgid cells give tissues strength. If a plant loses water the cells lose their turgidity and the plant
wilts.

Organelles
Electron microscopes have shown that cells contain many tiny structures each with specific functions to
perform. As they have complex structures they are like tiny organs, and so are called organelles. Understanding
cell structures and their functions and the chemical processes that take place allows scientists to select and
manipulate the properties of plants and the products that can be obtained from them.

Tissues
Groups of similar specialized cells form tissues, for example:
Parenchyma: large thin walled packing cells that can be used for storage;
Palisade and spongy mesophyll: cells packed with chloroplasts for photosynthesis;
Xylem: long thin hollow cells with woody thickened walls used for transporting water and mineral ions in
solution and helping to support the plant.

111
The main structures or ‘organs’ found in plants are the leaves, stems and roots. They are made up from groups
of specialised tissues that have structures suited to the jobs they perform. The table below summarises the main
features of these structures and their functions
Structures Functions
Leaves
 Thin with a large surface  Short distances for gases to
area. diffuse. Large area for
absorption of light.
 Cells contain chlorophyll  Leaves are a plant's food
in chloroplasts. factory. They are the main site
of photosynthesis, where
sugars are made from water
and carbon dioxide, using
sunlight energy that has been
absorbed by chlorophyll.

Stems
 Long and cylindrical.
Woody tissues - xylem and
fibres (sclerenchyma) - add
strength.
 Contain xylem and phloem
(in ‘veins’).
 Support the leaves, flowers
and fruit. Can bend or resist
the wind.
 Transport water, minerals
to leaves and sugars to roots,
flowers, fruit and roots.

112
Roots
Branch extensively through
the soil.
Root hairs - provide huge
surface area.
Contain xylem and phloem
(in ‘veins’).
Root tip - area of cell
division.
Root cap - covers the root tip.
 Provide anchorage in the
soil.
 Enable absorption of water
and nutrients.
 Enable transport of water
and nutrients.
 Grow into the soil.
 Protects and lubricates the
growing root.

4.3.Factors controlling the production

Genetic factors
The increase in crop yields and other desirable characters are related to Genetic make up of plants.
• High yielding ability
• Early maturity
• Resistance to lodging
• Drought flood and salinity tolerance
• Tolerance to insect pests and diseases
• Chemical composition of grains (oil content, protein content )
• Quality of grains (fineness, coarseness)
• Quality of straw (sweetness, juiciness)

The above characters are less influenced by environmental factors since they are governed by genetic make-
up of crop.

113
2. External factors
A. Climatic
B. Edaphic
C. Biotic
D. Phsiographic
E. Socio-economic

A. CLIMATIC FACTORS
Nearly 50 % of yield is attributed to the influence of climatic factors.The following are the atmospheric weather
variables which influences the crop production.
1. Precipitation
2. Temperature
3. Atmospheric humidity
4. Solar radiation
5. Wind velocity
6. Atmospheric gases

1. Precipitation
• Precipitation includes all water which falls from atmosphere such as rainfall, snow, hail, fog and dew.
• Rainfall one of the most important factor influences the vegetation of a place.
• Total precipitation in amount and distribution greatly affects the choice of a cultivated species in a place.
• In heavy and evenly distributed rainfall areas, crops like rice in plains and tea, coffee and rubber in Western
Ghats are grown.
• Low and uneven distribution of rainfall is common in dryland farming where drought resistance crops like
pearl millet, sorghum and minor millets are grown.
• In desert areas grasses and shrubs are common where hot desert climate exists

114
 • Though the rainfall has major influence on yield of crops, yields are not always directly proportional to
the amount of Precipitation as excess above optimum reduces the yields
• Distribution of rainfall is more important than total rainfall to have longer growing period especially in
drylands

2. Temperature
• Temperature is a measure of intensity of heat energy. The range of temperature for maximum growth of
most of the agricultural plants is between 15 and 40ºC.
• The temperature of a place is largely determined by its distance from the equator (latitude) and altitude.
• It influences distribution of crop plants and vegetation.
• Germination, growth and development of crops are highly influenced by temperature.
• Affects leaf production, expansion and flowering.
• Physical and chemical processes within the plants are governed by air temperature.
• Diffusion rates of gases and liquids changes with temperature.
• Solubility of different substances in plant is dependent on temperature.
• The minimum, maximum (above which crop growth ceases) and optimum temperature of individual’s
plant is called as cardinal temperature.
Crops Minimum Optimum Maximum
temperature ºC temperature ºC temperature ºC
Rice 10 32 36-38
wheat 4.5 20 30-32
Maize 8-10 20 40-43
Sorghum 12-13 25 40
Tobacco 12-14 29 35

115
4.4. The soil environment and aeration requirement

116
4.5.Diagnosis and improvement of salt affected soils
Salt-affectedsoils can be defined as soils on which the growth of most crop plants is limited by an excess of
easily soluble salts. Saltsare consideredeasily soluble whenthey are more soluble thangypsum(CaSO4⭈2H2O)
in water. Salts may includechlorides, sulphates, carbon-ates and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and calcium.The diverse ionic composition of salt-affectedsoilsresults in awiderange of
physiochemicalproperties. The salt concentration in the soil solution is usuallymeasured by the
electricalconductivity (EC) of the soilsaturation extract.
According to a standard definition, a soil is saline if theEC of the soil solution is greaterthan 4 dSm.
However,plant growth may be severelyaffected or completelyhindered at muchlowerlevels of EC.

 Salt effects on plant growthAnd development

117
Cropyieldreductions in salt-affectedsoilsresultprimarilyfromalteration of variousmetabolicprocesses in plants
under salt stress. Negativeeffects of excess of salts in the soil solution includeincreasedosmoticpressure limiting
water uptake (physiologicaldrought), abnormal pH.

118
Causal Factors

Geology: weathering of primary minerals, marine

sediments, etc

Climate: evaporation exceeds precipitation

Irrigation: water with moderate to high TDS

Water table: near soil surface

Drainage: poor

Other?

119
 Terminology

• Soluble salts – major dissolved inorganic solutes

• Salinity hazard - total soluble salt content

• Sodium hazard - relative proportion of exchangeable sodium (Na+) to calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++)
ions

• Alkalinity - soil pH >7.0; “basic” soil, problems usually start at pH >7.8 as nutrient deficiencies

• Ion specific effects - effect of chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na+), or boron (B) on plants not due to osmotic stress

120
 Generalized Classification of

Salt-Affected Soils

Classification Electrical Sodium Soil pH

Conductivity Adsorption

(dS/m) Ratio

(SAR)

Saline >4.0 <13 <8.5

Sodic <4.0 >13 >8.5

Saline-Sodic >4.0 >13 <8.5

High pH <4.0 <13 >7.8

121
 Lab parameters for diagnosing salinity/sodicity problems

• pH

• Electrical Conductivity (EC)

• Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

• Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)

• CEC

• Lime Estimate

• TDS (water only)

• Anions and cations: eg. Ca, Mg, Na, Cl, SO4, CO3, HCO3

• Available gypsum and gypsum requirement

• Soil texture estimate

• Other?

122
1
2
3
 Field Diagnosis

Problem Potential symptoms

saline soil · white crust on soil surface

· water stressed plants
· leaf tip burn

saline irrigation · leaf burn

water · poor growth
· moisture stress

sodic soil · crusting or hardsetting

· low infiltration rate; runoff and erosion
· dark powdery residue on soil surface
· stunted plants with leaf margins burned

saline-sodic soil · generally, same symptoms as saline soil

124
high pH nutrient deficiencies manifesting as
· stunted yellow plants
· dark green to purplish plants

125
 Field Diagnosis – Saline Soils

• Plant may appear water stressed

• Poor germination

• Leaf burn

• White alkali on surface

• Shallow water table

126
Field Diagnosis – Sodic Soils

• loss of soil structure

• crusting or hardsetting

• low infiltration rate; runoff and erosion

• dark powdery residue on soil surface

• stunted plants

• nutrient deficiencies

127
4.6. Plant response to salinity
Salinity affects plants in different ways such as osmotic effects, specific-ion toxicityand/or
nutritional disorders. The extent by which onemechanism affects the plant over the others
depends upon many factors includingthe species, genotype, plant age, ionic strength and
composition of the salinizingsolution, and the organ in question.

 Plant growth and development under salinity stress

Plants undergo characteristic changes from the time salinity stress is imposeduntil they reach
maturity. Moments after salinization, cellsdehydrate and shrink, but regain their original
volume hours later.
Despite thisrecovery, cell elongation and to a lesser extent cell division, are reduced leading
tolower rates of leaf and root growth. Over the next days, reductions in cell divisionand
elongation translate into slower leaf appearance and size. Plants that are severelysalt-stressed
often develop visual injury due to excessive salt uptake. After weeks,lateral shoot
development is affected and after months, clear differences in overallgrowth and injury are
observed between salt-stressed plants and their non-stressed
controls.
Understanding these temporal differences in response to salinity, the concept of the ‘two-
phase growth response to salinity’ was developed. The first phase of growth reduction
happens quickly (within minutes)after exposure to salinity. This response is due to the
osmotic changes outside theroot causing changes in cell-water relations (osmotic effect).
The osmotic effectinitially reduces the ability of the plant to absorb water. This effect is
similar towater stress and shows little genotypic differences. Several minutes after the
initialdecrease in leaf growth, there is a gradual recovery of the growth rate until anew steady
state is reached, dependent upon the salt concentration outside the root. The second much
slower effect, taking days, weeks or monthsis the result of salt accumulation in leaves, leading
to salt toxicity in the plant,primarily in the older leaves (i.e. salt-specific effect). This salt
toxicity can result inthe death of leaves and reduce the total photosynthetic leaf area.
As a result, there isa reduction in the supply of photosynthate to the plant, affecting the
overall carbonbalance necessary to sustain growth. Salt toxicity primarily occurs
 Soil
Osmotic Effect

An osmotic effect lies in a decrease of osmotic potential of soil water surrounding plant root
cells due to dissolved salt ions. The osmotic effect reveals rapid, direct effects on plant root
cells as a consequence of the difference between osmotic potential of cell cytoplasm and the
surrounding soil water solution. Osmotic stress decreases water availability for the cells and it
leads to a decreased water uptake resulting in cellular dehydration. It is a non-specific effect
common to all dehydrative stresses (e.g., salinity, drought, low temperatures and some types
of mechanical wounding). Under salinity conditions, an increased activity of salt ions results
in a decreased osmotic potential as well as a passive salt ion penetration into plant cells. Both
the decreased osmotic potential and the increased salt ion activity induce specific signalling
events in plants.

4.7.Situation in which drainage problem exist

SALINIZATION
Development of Soil Salinity and Sodicity
Causes of Salinity Development
Soil salinization is the accumulation of free salts in soil to such an extent that it leads to
degradation of soils and vegetation. The salts originate from the natural weathering of
minerals or from fossil salt deposits left from ancient sea beds. Salts accumulate in the soil of
arid climates as irrigation water or groundwater seepage evaporates, leaving minerals behind.
Irrigation water often contains salts picked up as water moves across the landscape, or the
salts may come from human-induced sources such as municipal runoff or water treatment. As
water is diverted in a basin, salt levels increase as the water is consumed by transpiration or
evaporation. Salinity problems are caused from the accumulation of soluble salts in the root
zone. The problems include high total salts, excess exchangeable sodium, or both. Generally,
it is a natural process, and may results from the following:
• high levels of salt in the soils

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• irrigation with saline water
• shallow saline groundwater
• landscape features that allow salts to become mobile (movement of water table)
• climatic trends that favor accumulation of salts
• land-use practice and rainfall pattern
• man-made activity
• urban area
• seepage salting
Classification and Characteristics of Salt-Affected Soils
Salt-affected soils may be divided into three groups depending on the amounts and kinds of
total soluble salts present (estimated by electrical conductivity, EC), soil pH, and
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) :
Generalized classification of salt-affected soils

Salinity and Osmotic Potential

Salinity is correlated to osmotic potential, which is the primary cause of plant damage,
anddeath.Osmoticpotentialcausesdissolvedconstituentsinsoiltotrytoretain water, so plants have
to compete with salt for water. The presence of excessive salts in soils causes plants to
prematurely suffer drought stress even though substantial water may be present
inthesoil.Osmoticpotential is a direct resultofthecombined concentrations of dissolved Na, Ca,
K, and Mg cations, and Cl–1, SO 4 –2, HCO 3 –1, and CO3–2 anions which are common
constituents in salty water.

Engineering Practices for salinity control (Drainage to control salinization)

There are several engineering approaches to mitigate salinity hazard and facilitate crop
production. These include leaching, drainage, artificial recharge through tube well (known
as “recharge well”), harvesting rain water at farm ponds and canals, etc.
(A)Leaching consists of applying enough good quality water to thoroughly leach excess salts
from the soil. Leaching is accomplished on a limited basis at key times (saline sensitive stages
of crop) during the growing season, particularly when a grower may have high quality water
available. There are two ways to manage saline soils using this approach:
(i) First, salts can be moved below the root zone by applying more water than the plant needs.
This method is called the leaching requirement method.
(ii) The second method, where shallow water tables limit the use of leaching, combine the
leaching requirement method with artificial drainage (Leaching plus artificial drainage). For
proper management of salinity problem, the irrigator should monitor both the soil and
irrigation water salinity.
To remove salts from the soil, water is used as a vehicle: more irrigation water is applied to
the field than is required for crop growth. This additional water infiltrates into the soil and
percolates through the root zone. During percolationthe water takes up part of the salts from

3
the soil and removes these through the subsurface drains. This process, in which the water
washes the salts out of the root zone, is called leaching.

The additional water required for leaching must be removed from the root zone by means of
drainage, otherwise the water table will rise and this will bring the salts back into the root
zone. Thus salinity control is achieved by a combination of irrigation and drainage measures.
For leaching, water should be added in sequential applications, allowing time for the soil to
drain after each application. The quantity of water necessary for leaching varies with initial
salt level, desired salt level, irrigation water salinity, and how the water is applied.
(B) Drainage
Wherethesubsoilsarepermeable, naturaldrainagemaybesufficient. Otherwise, drainage system
may be needed. Various types of drainage are used throughout the world, such as surface
drainage, subsurface drainage, mole drainage, vertical drainage.
Surface drainage: Ditches are provided on the surface so that excess water will run off
before it enters the soil.
Subsurface drainage: For the control of groundwater table to a certain depth (safe position
for the crop), deep open ditches or tile drains or perforated plastic pipes are installed below
ground level.
Mole drainage: Shallow channels left to a bullet-shaped device are pulled throughout the
soil. This acts as a supplementary drainage system connected to the main drainage system.
Vertical drainage: pumping out excess water from tubewells when the deep horizons have an
adequate hydraulic conductivity.
The depth and spacing of the drainage system should be based on soil type (subsoil strata) and
local economic considerations.
Artificial Recharge of Rainwater to Aquifer Through Recharge Well
Through recharge tubewells, excess rainwater can be conveyed to aquifer. Large amount of
water can be recharged through recharge well. As a result, the salinity of the aquifer water will
be lower due to dilution and become within acceptable range. In flat topography, where
aquifer with good transmissibility exists at shallow depth (in the first aquifer of 20–60 m
depth), recharge structures with tubewellsare often better choice than surface storage. In areas
having alluvial aquifers with good transmissibility, hydraulic conductivity and specific yield,
recharge tubewells improve water quality and availability more quickly than gradual

4
percolation from percolation tank or check dams. The following Figure illustrates the design
of a recharge well. It is similar in construction to a discharge well (well for pumping).

Schematic of a recharge well

Harvesting Rainwater at Farm Pond or Canal

The rain water can be harvested at the excavated farm pond or canal to cultivate dry-season
crop, when the soil salinity is high and there is no source of fresh water. Ali and Rahman
(2008b) found 20:1 ratio of land area to pond area is sufficient to cultivate low-water
demanding dryland crops (other than rice) in saline area.

Waterlogging
An agricultural land is said to be waterlogged, when its productivity gets affected by the high
water table. The productivity of land infact, gets affected when the root zone of the plants get
flooded with water, and thus become ill-aerated. Ill-aeration reduces crop yield, as explained
below:

The life of a plant, infact, depends upon the nutrients like nitrates, and the form in which the
nitrates are consumed by the plants is produced by the bacteria, under a process called
nitrification. these bacteria need oxygen for their survival. The supply of oxygen gets cutoff
when the land becomes ill aerated, resulting in the death of these bacteria, and fall in the
production of plant’s food (i.e. nitrates) and consequent reduction in the plant growth, which
reduces the crop yield. Apart from ill-aeration of the plants, many other problems are created
by water-logging, as discussed below:
(i) the normal cultivation operations, such as tilling, ploughing, etc. cannot be easily
carried out in wet soils. In extreme cases, the free water may rise above the surface
of the land, making the cultivation operations impossible. In ordinary language,
such a land is called a swampy land.

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 (ii) Certain water loving plants like grasses, weeds, etc. grow profusely and
luxuriantly in water-logged lands, thus affecting and interfering with the growth of
the crops
(iii) Water-logging also leads to salinity, as explained below:
If the water table has risen up, or if the plant roots happen to come within the capillary fringe,
water is continuously evaporated by capillarity. Thus, a continuous upward flow of water
from the water table to the land-surface, getsestablished. With this upward flow, the salts
which are present in the water, also rise towards the surface, resulting in the deposition of
salts which are present in the root zone of the crops. The concentration of these alkali salts
present in the root zone of the crops has a corroding effect on the roots, which reduces the
osmotic activity of the plants and checks the plant growth, and the plant ultimately fades
away. Such soils are called saline soils. From the above discussion, it becomes evident that
the water-logging ultimately leads to salinity and water-logging are treated as atwin problem
“salinity and water logging”.

Symptoms which develop under circumstances of water logging are yellowing, reddish, or
stippled (dotted) appearance of the leaves.

To remove excess water from the root zone we use subsurface drainage.
By subsurface drainage we control the water table, and excess water is removed from the
underground
a) by gravity throughdeep openor perforated pipedrains installed at depths varying
from 1 to 3 m.

6
b) Bytubewell drainage whichis a special type of subsurface drainage where excess
water is removed by pumping from a series of wells drilled into the ground to a depth of
several tens of metres. The pumped water is then discharged into open surface drains.

7
Tubewell drainage is a technique of controlling the watertable by removing the excess water
from the (more permeable) underground.

Categories of waterlogging
Waterlogging in agricultural lands can be of various types categorized according to:
a) Causes:
(i) Natural, e.g. natural swamps and valley bottoms
(ii) Human-induced waterlogging, e.g. through agricultural and other activities.
b) Permanence
(i) Temporary – whereby waterlogging lasts a few days to several months
(ii) Permanent waterlogging – which occurs throughout the year.
c) Source of water
(i) Rainfed - mostly source of excess water is direct rainfall
(ii) Irrigated agriculture – waterlogging caused by water supplied for irrigation
d) Located on
(i) Agricultural lands – including cultivated lands
(ii) Other utility lands e.g. built up areas, urban areas.
Causes of waterlogging
Waterlogging is a drainage problem that results of high water inflow caused by rain, runoff,
interflow, rise in groundwater, over irrigation or flooding. Drainage problems can be caused
by low water outflow due to low infiltration rate, low hydraulic conductivity, flat terrain, lack
of outlet or restricted outlet in the soil. In irrigated agriculture, drainage should be part of the
overall design and implementation to avoid problems of waterlogging. Waterlogging can be
caused by natural conditions or human induced activities, as follows:

Natural causes

Physiography of a watershed
Physiography, i.e. the topography, its slope, shape and drainage pattern has an important
bearing on the drainage of a watershed. Areas that lie in valley bottoms, depressions and other
flat lowlands tend to become waterlogged naturally as surface flows concentrate in these
lowlands, causing natural swamps.

8
 a) Geology
Some areas have an impervious stratum below the top soil which obstructs the infiltration of
rainfall. This creates a false water table or perched water table. Also, Areas with shallow
soils, high water tables or a hard pan close to the ground surface are likely get waterlogged,
particularly if subjected to high rainfall events.

b) The weather
Areas that receive heavy rainfall for prolonged duration can get waterlogged temporarily
or permanently.

c) Soil type
Heavy clay soils such as black cotton soils are prone to waterlogging, as they hold moisture
for long periods. Also, soils prone to surface sealing cause temporary waterlogging.

d) Seepage inflows
Seepage and interflow from other water bodies e.g. lakes, rivers and shallow aquifers can
cause waterlogging of adjacent lands. Also, subsoil flows from upper regions to lower areas
may result in waterlogging
Human-induced causes of waterlogging
Human induced causes of waterlogging in agricultural lands are usually associated with bad
water management whether under irrigated or rainfed agriculture. For instance:

a) Irrigation
Irrigation, if not well planned, can cause drainage problems for the irrigated lands and
adjacent ones. This is because irrigation adds extra water to the soil profile, over and above
the naturally occurring rainfall. There are several ways in which irrigation can increase
waterlogging. They include:
(i) Over irrigation: over irrigation and intensive irrigation result in waterlogging. The
excess water from irrigation and without proper drainage contributes to rise in the
water table.
(ii) Seepage from canals: Excessive seepage from unlined canal system and water
courses result in the rise of water table leading into waterlogging
(iii) Inadequate drainage: in irrigated areas, water losses from canal system and water
courses continuously contribute to water table.
(iv) Poor irrigation management: poor irrigation and cropping management by the
cultivator
(v) Obstruction of natural drainage: interception of natural drainage by the construction of
canals, roads, railways, water courses, etc.
(vi) Land locked parches having no outlets: Waterlogging develops due to absence of
outlet todrain excess irrigation or rain water.
b) Rainfed systems

(i) Excessive rainfall: Rain, apart from irrigation, is the major cause of water logging
when it is in excess and in the absence of adequate drainage.

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 (ii) Flat topography: Flat terrain with depressions lead to waterlogging as disposal of
excess water is delayed resulting in increased percolation into the soil .
(ii) Occasional spills by floods: Occasional flooding of the countryside and storm floods
water not quickly drained off gives rise to water table.
(iv) Closed/contour water conservation structures – Construction of soil and water
conservation structures on the contour can impound too much water causing waterlogging.

Effects of waterlogging
Waterlogging can have both beneficial and negative effects. Beneficial effects include being a
habitat for certain plants and animals e.g. mudfish. Also, the wetlands regulate the
hydrogeology, resulting in more sustainable river flow. However, for agricultural purposes,
waterlogging can have negative impacts on the soil, crops and farm operations.

Effects of waterlogging on soils

(i) Lack of aeration: Waterlogging expels air from the soil pores resulting in a saturated
condition. Without air, plant roots degenerate and crops can die. Certain microorganisms
cannot survive resulting in reduced microbiological activity necessary for formation of plant
food. Waterlogging also increases acidity build up which is harmful to most food crops.
(ii) Reduced soil temperature: waterlogged soil is slow to warm up. Lower soil temperature
restricts root development, depresses biotic activity in the soil resulting in lowered rate of
production of available nitrogen hampering seed germination and seedling growth. Reduction
of soil temperatures; results in stunted growth and reduced production of nitrogen. (iii)
Salinization: Salinity build up is increased when water from lower soil layers which may
contain salts is brought up to the soil surface by capillary action . Thus, high salinization and
deposits of sodium salts in the soil at or near the ground surface are created which may be
toxic or lead to the formation of alkaline conditions.
(iv) Inhibiting activity of soil bacteria: when soil structure is affected and tillage and
cultivation of wet soil takes place, bacteria tend to reduce normal biotic activity and this
affects root development.
(v) Denitrification: Denitrification occurs because of the competition for nitrogen by the soil
micro-organisms that thrive in saturated soil and reduction in numbers of nitrifying organisms
due to lack of aeration. There is reduction of nitrogen in the soil which in affects plant
nutrients uptake
(vi) Retards cultivation: Difficulty in carrying out normal cultivation in waterlogged soil.

Effects on crops
(i) Delayed cultivation operations: normal cultivation operations of tillage and
ploughing are adversely affected due to presence of excess water in the soil.
(ii) Aquatic weeds. Water-loving wild plants grow profusely and have competition with
the crops, thereby affecting the growth of useful crops weed removal also entails extra
investments and in extreme waterlogged conditions, only wild grow is there.
(iii) Diseased crops: Waterlogged conditions cause physiological disease to crops. Decay
of roots, external symptoms on the foliage and fruits are common.
(iv) Loss of cash crops: Cash crops desired to be grown cannot be cultivated and the land
is restricted to few crops like paddy rice.

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(v) Low yields: Maturity period of crops is reduced resulting in low yields. The yield of
crops is adversely affected if the water table is within 90 cm (sugarcane), 60 cm (rice), 90
cm (gram and barley), 90-125 (wheat), 120 cm (fodder), 125 cm (maize and cotton), and
210-240 cm (lucerne).
(vi) Oxygen depletion: In saturated soil, plant roots are denied normal circulation of air;
the level of oxygen declines and that of carbon dioxide increase resulting in wilting and
ultimately death of plants. The rotting of the plant roots under conditions of reduced
supply of oxygen, causes yellow color to leaves. The lack of air in the soil causes
precipitation of Manganese that is toxic to plants.
Water logging generally leads to a deceleration in the rate of decomposition of organic
matter.
Effects on the environment
Waterlogging results in stagnant water which can host disease vectors such as malaria,
snails and slugs. It impairs sanitary conditions and can bring on diseases like malaria and
bilharzias, resulting in unhealthy environment for human population, animals and plants
in an area.
water ponding
To remove excess (ponding) water from the surface of the land we use surface drainage.
This is normally accomplished by shallow open field drains. In order to facilitate the
flow of excess water towards these open drains, the field is usually given an artificial
slope by means of land forming.
Land forming is defined as changing the micro-topography of the land to meet the
requirements of surfacedrainage or irrigation. This is done by removing low spots where
water accumulates.
Three land-forming systems are distinguished: bedding, land grading, and land
planing.
 Bedding is the oldest surface drainage practice. Under this system the land surface
is formed into beds by manual labour, animal traction, or farm tractors. The beds
are separated by parallel shallow, open field drains oriented in the direction of the
greatest land slope. The water drains from the beds into the field drains, which
discharges into a collector drain constructed at the lower end of the field and
perpendicular to the field drains. Bedding is a surface drainage method
accomplished by ploughing land to form a series of low narrow ridges, separated
by parallel field drains.

A bedding system

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 The bedding system is normally used for grassland. In modern farming, bedding is not
considered an acceptable drainage practice for row crops, because rows adjacent to the
field drains will not drain satisfactorily. To overcome the disadvantages of the bedding
system, two other methods of land forming have been developed: land grading and land
planing.
 Land grading is the process of forming the land surface to predetermined grades,
so that each row or surface slopes to a field drain.
Land grading for surface drainage consists of forming the landscape by cutting, filling, and
smoothing it to plane continuous surfaces. It is a one-time operation, involving the transport
of earth according to specified cuts and fills based on the predetermined grades. Land grading
for surface drainage differs from land levelling for irrigation in that, for drainage, a non-
uniform grade is required. The grades can be varied as much as is necessary to provide
drainage with the least amount of earthmoving. After land grading it is sometimes necessary
to break up the soil which has become compacted by the construction machinery. Compared
to bedding, land grading reduces the number of field drains, thus reduces the needfor weed
control and maintenance, and enables better land utilization.

Land grading for surface drainage is the forming of the land surface to predetermined
grades
 Land planning is the process of smoothing the land surface with a land plane to
eliminate minor depressions and irregularities without changing the general
topography. It is frequently applied in conjunction with land grading, because
irregular micro-topography in a flat landscape in combination with heavy soils can
cause substantial crop losses.

Land planing for surface drainage is the process of smoothing the land surface.
Smoothing is done using land levelers or planes.

12
CHAPTER 5: DRAINAGE SYSTEM

5.1. Investigation procedure

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14
15
16
17
5.2. Moisture holding capacity in the root zone
One of the main functions of soil is to store moisture and supplyit to plants between rainfalls
or irrigations. Evaporation from the soil surface, transpiration by plants and deep percolation
combine to reducesoil moisture statusbetween water applications. If the water content
becomestoolow, plants becomestressed. The plant available moisture storagecapacity of a
soilprovides a buffer which determines a plant’scapacity to withstand dry spells.
When soil is saturated, all the pores are full of water, but after a day, all gravitational water
drains out, leaving the soil at field capacity.
Plants then draw water out of the capillary pores, readily at first and then with greater
difficulty, until no more can be withdrawn and the only water left is in the micro-pores. The
soil is then at wilting point and without water additions, plants die.
Moisture-holding capacity is the physical property of the soil that determines
the maximum amount of water held in the root zone under free-drainage conditions.
However, only a portion of this capacity can be used by plants, and this
portion is called the available moisture (AM). This available moisture is the
amount of water held in the soil between field capacity and the wilting point and
is usually expressedin millimeters per meter (inchesper foot) of soil.
The total available moisture (TAM) in a root zone is not readily available to
plantsbecauseo f root distribution and the pattern of water use from the root zone.
‘Ihe water that is readily available in a given root zone is called total readily
available moisture (TRAM). This is the amount of water available for rapid plant
growth. It is a physical characteristic of a given soil profile limited in depth to a
specific crop root zone and moisture extraction pattern. With good irrigation The amount of
water available to plants is therefore determined by the capillary porosity and is calculated by
the difference in moisture content between field capacity and wilting point. This is the total
available water storage of the soil. The portion of the total available moisture store, which can
be extracted by plants without becoming stressed, is termed readily available water. Irrigators
must have knowledge of the readily available moisture capacity so that water can be applied
before plants have to expend excessive energy to extract moisture.
The amount of soil water available to plants is governed by the depth of soil that roots can
explore (the root zone) and the nature of the soil material. Because the total and available
moisture storage capacities are linked to porosity, the particle sizes (texture) and the
arrangement of particles (structure) are the critical factors. Organic matter and carbonate
levels and stone content also affect moisture storage.
Poor structure, low organic matter, low carbonate content and presence of stones all reduce
the moisture storage capacity of a given texture class.
Clays store large amounts of water, but because they have high wilting points, they need
significant rain to be able to supply water to plants. On the other hand, sands have limited
water storage capacity, but because most of it is available, plants can make use of light
showers regardless of how dry they are before the shower. Plants growing in sand generally
have a more dense root system to enable them to access water quickly before the sand dries
out.

5.2.1. Measuring Soil Water Holding Capacity

18
Firstly, establish the depth of the root zone, either by observing the depth to which roots from
the previous crop have extended, or by noting the depth to a restrictive layer. The roots of
most annual field crops occur in the top 120cm of soil, if there are no restrictive layers. Some
perennial species may extend roots to 600cm or more if soil conditions are ideal and moisture
is present.
The water holding capacity of a soil is calculated by summing the capacity of each layer in the
root zone.

Step 1 Determine the crop rooting depth, RD (m), (Table 1)

Step 2 Determine the available water storage capacity of the soil, AWSC (mm/m), (Table 2 )

Step 3 Calculate the total soil water storage, SWS (mm)

SWS (mm) = RD (m) x AWSC (mm/m) (Equation 1)

Step 4 Determine the availability coefficient of the water to the crop, AC (%), (Table 3)
Step 5 Calculate the maximum soil water Deficit, MSWD (mm)

MSWD = SWS (mm) x AC (%) (Equation 2)

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5.3. Annual irrigation schedule

The determination of when and how much to apply requires a knowledge of the available
water capacity (AWC) of the soil, the management allowed depletion (MAD) or plant stress
level for the specified crop, the crop peak consumptive use, crop rooting depth, and the
critical periods in the growing season when the crop should not be stressed.
Most crops should be irrigated before more than half of the available moisture in the crop root
zone has been used. Some crops, however, are thought to do better at higher moisture levels
(less moisture deficiency at time of irrigation), Crops. Generally, however, the need for
irrigation is doubtful until the moisture deficit approaches one-third of the AWC of the crop
root zone.
Irrigation must begin in time so that the entire irrigated area can be covered before the
available moisture level in the last portion of the field to be irrigated reaches a point to cause
unfavorable moisture stress of the crop. This aspect of management is crucial for systems that
may need several days to irrigate the entire field area. Examples of such systems may be
traveling gun systems, hand move lateral systems, and traveling lateral systems. One of the
most effective ways of determining when and how much water to apply is to measure or
estimate the soil water content.
 Measurements should be made in that part of the soil from which plant roots extract
their moisture and according to the moisture-extraction pattern of the particular crop.
There are other methods being developed to determine when to irrigate, but measuring
soil moisture is the most effective method in use now.
 Measurements should be taken weekly in spring and fall and more frequently during
the hot weather and critical growth periods of the crop.
The irrigator may be able to reduce the frequency of readings after he or she has become
familiar with the pattern of moisture depletion. To accurately predict moisture levels,
measurements should be taken and recorded regularly, regardless of the time of year or the
stage of crop growth. Comparison of yearly records with crop yields helps the irrigator to
improve his or her management of the irrigation system.

Irrigation scheduling utilizes two important principles:

20
  When an adequate supply of available moisture is present in the effective root zone,
the rate of consumptive use by a given crop depends primarily on. the stage of growth
and climatological conditions.
 When the moisture content of the effective root zone is known at any given time, the
moisture content at any later time can be computed by crediting moisture gained from
effective rainfall or irrigation and subtracting the daily moisture withdrawals during
the elapsed time.
To apply the above principles, the following requirements are essential:
 Soil with good internal and surface drainage.
 An adequate irrigation system and water supply.
 Daily consumptive use values for the crop.
 Accurate total available moisture values.
 Determination of the effective root zone of the crop.
 Measurements of effective rainfall and irrigation applications at the site.
Available soil moisture maintained above the lower limit of withdrawal (25 to 30 percent of
the total available moisture.) It is desirable to make periodic soil moisture checks to determine
actual available moisture.

Water budgeting
Water budgeting is estimating
1. how much crop can be grown with the available water (particularly relevant for annual
crops), or
2. how much water is needed to achieve the required quantity and quality.
Water budgeting allows you to plan your irrigation management and make the changes you
needed during the season.
The factors that help determine the water budget are
 the local climate
 the annual requirements of the crop
 the available supply
Local climate
 What is the average rainfall?
 What is the probability of above or below average rainfall?
 When does rainfall occur – how will this affect irrigation and dam supplies?
Annual requirements of the crop
 Do you know the annual requirements for your crop
 What scope is there to adjust water within acceptable quality and quantity
 boundaries
Available supply
 How much stored water is available?
 How much water will be lost from the storage by evaporation?
 How much water can be pumped from streams or bores?
 Can water be transferred or purchased? How much will this cost versus the
 benefits?
 Is water quality an issue at low flows?
 What are the chances of summer “freshes”?
Calculating the water budget

21
At the beginning of each season you need to estimate what area of crop you can irrigate if you
account for all of the factors. Divide the total amount of water available by the amount of
irrigation water you expect your crop to use for the season.
In water budgeting, you need to consider the overall efficiency of your system and, allowing
for this, you can estimate the maximum area of crop you can irrigate.

Example 1:
You are growing pasture under spray irrigation and you have 60 ML available.Your system is
about 80% (0.8) efficient; ie., about 80% of the water that you pump reaches the rootzone of
the pasture.Pasture requires about 5 ML/ha of irrigation water in a season of average rainfall
in most areas of Tasmania. Assuming the water is available from a stream or bore or district
Scheme, the maximum area that can be watered is:= (60 * 0.8)/5 = 9.6 ha
Irrigation Scheduling Methods

the following methods are used to schedule when and how much water to apply. These
include: soil and crop monitoring methods; the checkbook method; and computer
assisted methods. Growers are recommended to use either of these methods depending on
their management preference.
Soil moisture content should be monitored to determine if an irrigation is needed based on
predetermined critical levels for certain crops. The crop stress index method measures plant
condition and compares that status to a well known reference for a well watered plant
condition. Soil moisture monitoring before, during, and after the crop growing season is
perhaps the most accurate irrigation scheduling tool.
Monitoring actual soil moisture is like receiving your bank statement from the bank, it affirms
or cautions you when an error may exist or other adjustments may be needed. It is used
together with the Checkbook Method of irrigation scheduling. This method has proven very
useful for scheduling irrigations by providing a running account of available moisture in the
effective root zone. Similar to bank account records of deposits (irrigation and rainfall) and
withdrawals (evapotrans-piration), the account balance provides the irrigator with information
as to when to irrigate and how much water to apply.
 The method requires a daily recording of rainfall, estimated consumptive use, net
irrigation amounts, and moisture balance throughout the growing season of the
irrigated crop.
 With internet access, growers can enroll in Weather Station Network which offers
computerized irrigation scheduling using real time climate data to compute daily crop
evapotranspiration. Using this service, the computer facilitates irrigation water
management data as well as record keeping on the farm. (computer assisted checkbook
method).

5.4.Deep percolation from irrigation

 Increased groundwater recharge
 waterlogging
 soil salinity
increased groundwater recharge stems from the unavoidable deep percolation losses occurring
in the irrigation scheme. The lower the irrigation efficiency, the higher the losses. Although
fairly high irrigation efficiencies of 70% or more (i.e. losses of 30% or less) can occur with

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sophisticated techniques like sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation, or by well
managed surface irrigation, in practice the losses are commonly in the order of 40% to 60%.
This may cause the following issues:
 rising water tables
 increased storage of groundwater that may be used for irrigation, municipal,
household and drinking water by pumping from wells
 waterlogging and drainage problems in villages, agricultural lands, and along roads -
with mostly negative consequences. The increased level of the water table can lead to
reduced agricultural production.
 shallow water tables - a sign that the aquifer is unable to cope with the groundwater
recharge stemming from the deep percolation losses
 where water tables are shallow, the irrigation applications are reduced. As a result, the
soil is no longer leached and soil salinity problems develop
stagnant water tables at the soil surface are known to increase the incidence of water-borne
diseases like malaria, filariasis, yellow fever, dengue, and schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) in many
areas. Health costs, appraisals of health impacts and mitigation measures are rarely part of
irrigation projects, if at all
 to mitigate the adverse effects of shallow water tables and soil salinization, some form
of watertable control, soil salinity control, drainage and drainage system is needed
 as drainage water moves through the soil profile it may dissolve nutrients (either
fertilizer-based or naturally occurring) such as nitrates, leading to a buildup of those
nutrients in the ground-water aquifer. High nitrate levels in drinking water can be
harmful to humans, particularly infants under 6 months, where it is linked to "blue-
baby syndrome"

5.5. Sources causing high water table conditions

Introduction:
High water table and water logging of the land pose a serious problem in humid areas .
Mostly, excess and high intensity rainfall and absence of proper drainage have been the
primary causes of water logging and development of high water table in crop lands.
The sustainability of crop production and soil health are under great threat in irrigated area
owing to improper irrigation practices, particular over irrigation. Lack of proper drainage
system has made the situation worse.

Causes of water logging and development of high water table

Water logging is caused in location where the inflow of water into it exceeds the outflow
resulting in progressive rise of water table. The inflow may be due to excessive and high
intensity rainfall, seepage from canals, reservoirs, flood and over-irrigation. The outflow
declines with impaired drainage, lack of adequate drainage, rise of water table owing to
construction of reservoirs, rise in water level in rivers.
The causes are:
1.Heavy rainfall with high intensity affecting quick disposal of water through natural and/or
artificial drainage systems.

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2.Heavy infiltration of rainwater owing to its standing on the land surface for a long time
recharging the groundwater and raising the water table
3.Accumulation of rainwater in low-lying flat land surrounded by high lands affecting natural
drainage.
4.Presence of hard pan and impervious soil layer causing poor percolation of water and
accumulation of water on the soil surface.
5.Shallow soils and presence of bedrock at shallow depth preventing deep percolation of
water and causing its accumulation on the land surface.
6.Low infiltration rate in heavy soils causing accumulation of water on the surface
7.Absence of adequate natural drainage or, obstruction of natural drainage by construction of
irrigation channel, rail, road or embankment.
8.Obliteration of the natural drainage by occupying part of the drain area for growing crop.
9.Unauthorized occupation of natural drain area for other purposes.
10.Inadequate carrying capacity or absence of artificial drainage system.
11.Natural obstruction to outflow of ground water leadsing to perched or false high water
table.
12.Over-irrigation helping to raise the water table.
13.Seepage from high –rise canals that are particularly unlined.
14.Seepage from water reservoir.
15.Development of weed growth and silt deposition in drain bed lowering the drain capacity.
16.Rise of water table due to excess rainfall and poor hydraulic slope for fast movement of
excess water to the natural drainage.
17.Artesian aquifer may lead to excess water at some specific locations due to upward flow of
water from aquifer or rise of water table.
18.Over-flow of water from canals and drainage ditches during period of excess rainfall.
19.Flood water which is, of course, seasonal and occurs in certain areas.

5.6.Determination of barrier zone and drain locations

The barrier is a stratum or layer that restricts the movement of water. Geology is often a key
in determining the barrier-also known as the barrier stratum, barrier layer, or barrier zone.
These terms are often used in drainage engineering and are related to the relative hydraulic
characteristics of various strata.Since strata in irrigated areas are found in a generally
horizontal attitude relative to the ground surface, the barrier zone is usually considered as a
barrier to the vertical movement of water.

This is not exclusively the condition, however, because in areas of unconformity or folding of
geologic strata, a vertical barrier may also restrict the horizontal movement of water.
When water percolating downward under the force of gravity reaches the top of a barrier
zone, a saturated condition develops, resulting in differential pressures. Most of the water
moves laterally above the barrier zone. Therefore, in ground-water hydraulics, the barrier
zone limits the depth of material available for the movement of ground water.

This depth-of-flow zone, together with the material’s hydraulic conductivity, greatly
influences drainage requirements for a given area. A typical drainage investigation requires a
great deal of effort to identify the barrier zone and its depth below the ground surface. This

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depth-to-barrier dam is used to determine the depth-of-flow zone available to a drainage
system.

Drain Location

There are no fixed rules or methods to direct the drainage engineer in locating every drain.
Each location presents an individual problem which can be solved by analyzing the conditions
involved. Wherever possible, outlet, suboutlet, and collector drains should be located in
natural drainageways. Relief and interceptor drams should be located where they will produce
the best drainage results.
The location and spacing of drains require careful study and intuitive judgment on the part of
the drainage engineer.

As tentative dram locations are decided upon, they should be located on a map of the area.
The centerlines of the drains should then be staked out on the site.,Fmquently, unmapped
buildings, etc., at the construction site will make c&ges necessary in location or alignment of
drains. In these instances, drain locations on the site should be changed as required and the
tentative map locations revised to show the new alignments. Dram centerlines on the map
should be scaled and stations marked for future reference

After the centerline has been staked on the ground, holes should be drilled along the
centerline at various intervals down to the proposed drain depth to confinm that the drain is
properly located in permeable material. Holes offset from the centerline should also be drilled
for this purpose. Data collected from centerline drilling should be logged to provide
information on construction conditions in addition to drainage parameters. This information
should be provided to potential bidders as a part of the contract specifications.

Those holes can also be used to confirm the gravel envelope design for the soils at actual
drain depth. Stationing should start at the mouth of the outlet drain and proceed upstream. In
some instances, first-order surveys may be required to establish centerlines, but quite often, in
an open location, the line may be staked out visually with the use of range poles. In
considering ditch locations, allowance should be made for sufficient right-of-way, usually 30
meters (100 feet).

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REFERENCES

KIRKHAM, D. 1949. Flow of Ponded Water into Drain Tubes i n Soil Overlying an
IMPERVIOUS LAYER. AM. GEOPHYS. UNION TRANS. 30: 369-385.

TODD, D. K. 1955. Flow i n Porous Media Studied by Hele-Shaw Channel. C i v.

Engr. 25: 51.

WESSELING, J. and VAN WIJK, W. R. 1957. Height of Water Table. Drainage of

Agricultural Lands. Vol. VII of Agronomy Monographs, pp 498-503, American Society of
Agronomy. Madison, Wisconsin.

Link:
https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/RollupViewer.aspx?hid=17092

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