Aeroelasticity

Lecture 9:
Supersonic Aeroelasticity

G. Dimitriadis

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 1

 Introduction
•  All the material presented up to now
concerned incompressible flow.
•  In this lecture we will present a simple
treatment of 2D supersonic flow
aeroelasticity.
•  The discussion will concern the same
pitch-plunge airfoil treated in the 2D
incompressible case.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 2

 Pitch-Plunge airfoil
•  Flat plate airfoil
with pitch and
plunge degrees
of freedom.
•  Equations of
motion:
# m S & ) h˙˙, # K h 0 & ) h , ) −l(t) ,
% (* - + % ( * - = *m (t)-
$ S Iα ' +α˙˙ . $ 0 Kα ' +α . + xf .

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 3

 Supersonic flow
•  In order to complete the model, we need to derive
expressions for the lift and moment around the flexural
axis, in the presence of a supersonic free stream.
•  The supersonic free stream is defined by:
–  Airspeed U∞,
–  Pressure P∞,
–  Temperature T∞,
–  Density ρ∞,
–  Speed of sound a∞,
•  Furthermore, the air is described by the ratio of
specific heats at constant pressure and constant
volume, i.e.
cp
γ= = 1.4
cv
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 4
 Steady Potential equation
•  For supersonic flow, the steady potential
equation, in terms of perturbation
potential, is given by
2 2
∂ φ ∂ φ
( ∞ ) ∂x 2 ∂y 2 = 0
1− M 2
+

∂φ ∂φ
•  Where = u, =v
∂x ∂y
•  And u, and v are small local velocity
perturbations from the free stream
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 5
 Linearized Small Disturbance Equation

•  For unsteady flows, the potential equation includes

unsteady terms.
•  The Linerized Small Disturbance Equation is given
by: 2 2 2
∂φ ∂φ 2
M∞ ∂ φ 1 ∂φ
(1 − M ∞2 ) +
∂x ∂y
2 2 − 2 −
a∞ ∂x∂t a∞ ∂t
2 2 =0

•  Where, again, the potential represents a small

perturbation.
•  This equation is difficult to solve. As a first
approximation, a 1D method known as piston
theory can be used.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 6

 Piston theory
•  The aerodynamics of the moving wing are
calculated with the piston theory assumption:
–  Flow disturbances spread in a direction normal to the
wing’s surface. The wing’s movement is equivalent to
the movement of a piston in a column of air.
–  All disturbances are isentropic
•  Under this assumption, the pressure on the
surface of the wing is given by 2γ
% γ − 1 w(x,t) ( γ −1
p( x,t ) = p∞ '1 + *
& 2 a∞ )
•  Where w(x,t) is the downwash velocity

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 7

 Downwash
•  The downwash velocity of the wing is
given by
%'− U α ( t ) + h˙ ( t ) + x − x α˙ ( t )
( ( ) ) upper surface
f
w ( x,t ) = &
∞

'( U ∞α ( t ) + h˙ ( t ) + x − x f α˙ ( t )
( ) lower surface

•  As usual, the pressure difference is

calculated from Δp = pl − pu
•  But the 2γ/γ-1 exponent makes this
calculation difficult.
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 8
 Binomial series
•  The binomial series is a special case of a
Taylor series.
•  For |x|<1:
a
∞
" a% n
(1 + x ) = ∑$ ' x
n =0 # n&

•  where
" a% n
a − k + 1 a( a − 1) ( a − n + 1)
$ '=∏ =
# n& k =1 k n!
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 9
 Binomial expansion
•  Assume that the downwash velocity is much smaller
than the speed of sound, we can use a binomial series
on the pressure equation:
2γ
# γ −1 w(x, t) & γ −1
p ( x, t ) = p∞ %1+ (
$ 2 a∞ '
# 2 3 &
w γ (γ +1) # w & γ (γ +1) # w &
≈ p∞ %1+ γ λ + % ( λ +
2 3
% ( λ ((
%
$ a∞ 4 $ a∞ ' 12 $ a∞ ' '
M∞
•  Where λ = is a correction factor
M∞ − 1
2

•  Retaining only the linear# term leads to

& w
p ( x, t ) ≈ p∞ %1+ γ λ (
$ a∞ '
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 10
 Pressure difference
•  Then the pressure difference is given by
) U ∞α + h˙ + x − x f α˙ ,
( )) U ∞α + h˙ + x − x f α˙ ,
( )
Δp = pl − pu ≈ p∞ +1 + γ λ. − p∞ +1− γ λ.
* a∞ - * a∞ -
U ∞α + h˙ + x − x f α˙ ( )
•  So that Δp ≈ 2 p∞γ λ
a∞
•  Then the total lift acting on the airfoil is
given by:
2 p∞γλ c
U ∞α + h˙ + x − x f α˙ dx
c
l = ∫ Δpdx ≈
0 a∞ 0∫ ( ( ))
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 11
 Lift force
•  So that the lift force becomes
c 2 p∞γλc * ˙ *c , ˙,
l = ∫ Δpdx ≈ . U ∞α + h + + − x f - α /
0 a∞ + 2 -

•  Noting that the the speed of sound is:

p∞
a∞ = γ
ρ∞
•  We finally obtain
2 ρ∞U ∞ λc ' ˙ 'c ) ˙)
l= + U ∞α + h + ( − x f * α ,
M∞ ( 2 *

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 12

 Moment around flexural axis
•  The moment around the flexural axis is
given by
2 p∞γλ c
U ∞α + h˙ + x − x f α˙ (x − x f )dx
c
mxf = ∫ Δp(x − x f )dx ≈
0 a∞ 0∫ ( ( ))
•  Which leads to:
2 ρ∞U ∞ λc & & c ( &c (˙ 1 2 (
mxf = +U ∞ ' − x f ) α + ' − x f ) h + c − 3cx f + 3x f α˙ ,( )
2

M∞ ' 2 2 3 )

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 13

 Lift and moment
•  Remembering from lecture 1 that
#c % m 2
S = m − x f , Iα =
$2 & 3
c − 3cx f + 3x 2f( )

•  We can simplify the lift and moment

expressions such that:
2 ρ∞U ∞ λc & ˙ S (
l= U ∞α + h + α˙
M∞ ' m )
2 ρ∞U ∞ λc & S S ˙ Iα (
mxf = U ∞ α + h + α˙
M∞ ' m m m )

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 14

 Equations of motion
•  Substituting the lift and moment
expressions into the aeroelastic equations
of motion gives:
) #
U ˙ + S α˙ & ,
h
# m S & ) h˙˙, # K h 0 & ) h , 2 ρ∞U ∞ λc 3 $ ∞
− α +
m ' 3
% (* - + % (* - = * -
$ S Iα ' +α˙˙ . $ 0 Kα ' +α . M∞ 3 S S ˙ Iα 3
U ∞ α + h + α˙
+ m m m .

•  i.e. the complete supersonic aeroelastic

model
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 15
 In matrix form
•  In matrix form the equations of motion can
be written as:
# m S & ) h˙˙, 2 ρ∞U ∞ λc # 1 S /m & ) h˙ , # K h 0 & )h ,
% (* - + % (* - + % (* -
$ S Iα ' +α˙˙ . M ∞ $ −S /m −Iα /m' +α˙ . $ 0 Kα ' +α .
0 U ∞ & )0,
2 ρ∞U ∞ λc #
+ %% S( =* -
M ∞ $ 0 −U ∞ (' +0.
m

•  These are quasi-steady, small disturbance

equations. They are valid for M∞>1.2.
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 16
 Solution
•  The equations of motion are 2nd order linear
ODEs and can be solved as usual.
•  At each value of the Mach number and
airspeed, the eigenvalues, χi, i=1,…,4, can be
evaluated.
•  From the eigenvalues, natural frequencies,
ωi, and damping ratios, ζi, can be calculated.
•  The natural frequency and damping ratio
variation with airspeed can be plotted for
each Mach number.
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 17
 Example 1
Eigensolution for a free
stream Mach number of
1.5 . The natural
frequencies and
damping are plotted for
all airspeeds between 0
and 700m/s.

There is a flutter point at

approximately 607m/s.

Is this a physically
possible flutter speed?

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 18

 Unmatched flutter speeds
•  The flutter speed calculated in this example may or may
not be physical, it depends on the system’s flight
condition.
•  Consider the case where the wing is flying at sea level and
the atmospheric pressure is 1bar:
–  ρ∞=1.225kg/m3
–  p∞=101325Pa
•  Then the speed of sound is 340m/s. Therefore, the flutter
speed of 607m/s corresponds to a Mach number of 1.8.
•  But the Mach number used for the simulation is 1.5. This
case is an example of an unmatched flutter speed. The
system can flutter but not at an attainable Mach number.
•  As the flutter Mach number is higher than the simulation
Mach number, this is a safe flight condition.
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 19
 Example 2

The free stream Mach

number is still 1.5 and
the flight condition is
the same. However,
the spring stiffnesses
have been decreased
so that the flutter
speed is now 511m/s.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 20

 Matched flutter speed
•  The speed of sound is still 340m/s.
However, the new flutter speed is 511m/s.
•  This flutter speed occurs at a Mach
number of 1.5, the same as the simulation
Mach number.
•  This is an example of a matched flutter
speed: flutter occurs at the simulation
Mach number.
•  Clearly the flight condition is not safe.
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 21
 Example 3

The free stream Mach

number is still 1.5 and
the flight condition is
the usual. The spring
stiffnesses have been
further decreased so
that the flutter speed
is now 420m/s.

This corresponds to a
Mach number of 1.2.
The flight condition is
very unsafe.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 22

 International Standard
Atmosphere
•  According to the equations of motion, the
aerodynamic forces depend on the Mach number,
flight speed and air density.
•  The air density is a function of the flight altitude.
•  The altitude also defines the speed of sound.
Therefore, the aerodynamic forces only depend on
flight altitude and flight Mach number.
•  The International Standard Atmosphere
determines the variation of density and speed of
sound with altitude from sea level.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 23

 ISA Graph
Air density,
speed of sound,
pressure and
viscosity ratios
with respect to
their values at
0m.

Altitude range:
0-21000m

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 24

 Mach-Airspeed diagrams
•  For each Mach number and altitude, the
flutter speed can be determined.
•  This calculation will give rise to Mach-
Airspeed diagrams for all flight conditions of
interest.
•  The diagrams will feature a flutter speed
curve and a true airspeed curve.
•  All flight conditions for which the true
airspeed lies below the flutter speed are safe.
•  All others are unsafe.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 25

 Mach-Airspeed example 1
Pitch plunge
aeroelastic system
at 5000m.

All flight conditions

are safe for Mach
numbers between
1.2 and 5.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 26

 Mach-Airspeed example 2
The same pitch
plunge aeroelastic
system at 2000m.

All flight conditions

are safe for Mach
numbers between
1.2 and 3.5.

Flight conditions
at Mach numbers
higher than 3.5
are unsafe.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 27

 Full aircraft configurations
•  For full aircraft configurations, the linearized
small disturbance equation must be solved,
in 3D.
∂ 2
φ ∂ 2
φ ∂ 2
φ M ∂ 2
φ 1 ∂ 2
φ
(1 − M ∞ ) ∂x 2 + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2 − 2 a ∂x∂t − a2 ∂t 2 = 0
2 ∞

∞ ∞

•  This partial differential equation can be

solved using spatio-temporal numerical
integration.
•  However, it is still a potential equation and,
therefore, it can be solved using potential
solutions.
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 28
 Sub/Supersonic panel methods
•  Assume that the structure of the aircraft is
vibrating sinusoidaly with frequency ω.
Then, the potential can be written as
φ = φ ( x, y,z)e iωt

•  Substituting back into the linearized small

disturbance equation we get
M ∞ ∂φ 2 1
2 2 2
∂ φ ∂ φ ∂ φ
(1 − M ∞ ) ∂x 2 + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2 − 2iω a ∂x + ω a2 φ = 0
2

∞ ∞

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 29

 Non-dimensionalize
•  Define non-dimensional coordinates
x" = Lβx, y" = Ly, z" = Lz
•  where L is a characteristic length and
β = 1 − M ∞2
•  The equation becomes
$ 1 − M 2 ' ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ LM ∂φ L2
&& ∞
) + + − 2iω ∞
+ ω 2
2 φ =0
% 1 − M ∞ ( ∂x, ∂y, ∂z, βa∞ ∂x, a∞
2 ) 2 2 2

•  So 2that 2
∂ φ ∂ φ ∂ 2φ LM ∞ ∂φ L2
+ + − 2iω + ω 2
2 φ = 0 for M ∞ < 1
∂x$ ∂y$ ∂z$
2 2 2
βa∞ ∂x$ a∞
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ LM ∞ ∂φ 2 L
2

2 +
−Aeroelasticity + 2 − 2i ω +9ω 2 φ = 0 for M ∞ > 1
∂x$ ∂y$ ∂z$ 2 Experimental
βa∞ ∂x$ a∞
AERO0032-1, and Aerodynamics, Lecture 30
 Modified potential
•  Furthermore, define a modified potential
such that
φ ( x#, y#, z#) = φ ( x#, y#, z#)e iνM x #
∞

•  Where ν is the compressible reduced

frequency given by
kM ∞ ωL
ν= , and k =
β U∞
•  Then we obtain: ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ + + ν 2
φ = 0 for M ∞ < 1
∂x$ ∂y$ ∂z$
2 2 2

∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
− − + ν 2
φ = 0 for M ∞ >311
∂x$ ∂y$ ∂z$
2 Lecture
29 2
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics,
 Potential solutions
•  Applying Green’s theorem to this latest equation, it can be shown
that solutions can be obtained in terms of a sum of singularities,
such as sources, vortices or doublets.
•  Using sources and doublets and transforming back into the original
coordinates we obtain
1
φ ( x, y,z) = −
Eπ
∫∫ σ ( x , y ,z )e
1 1 1
iνM ∞ ξ
KdS +
S

1 ∂
+
Eπ
∫∫ µ( x1, y1,z1)e iνM ∞ξ ∂n
KdS
S

•  Where σ is the source strength, μ is the doublet strength, E=4 for

M∞<1, E=2 for M∞>1, n is a vector normal to the surface and:
e −iλR cos( λR)
K= for M ∞ < 1, K = for M ∞ > 1
R R
x1 − x y1 − y z1 − z
R = ξand+Experimental
2 2
µη + µζ 2
, ξ = Lecture,9 η = , ζ=
βL L L
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity Aerodynamics, 32
 Surface discretization
Source and
doublet panels
are placed on
the surface of
the aircraft.
The geometry
can be
significantly
simplified by
this process.
The wake can
also be
discretized.

Drawing from ZAERO

manual.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 33

 Boundary conditions
•  The source and doublet strengths are
obtained from the application of the non-
penetration boundary condition over the
complete surface of the aircraft.
•  This boundary condition is unsteady, since
the aircraft structure is vibrating.
•  It can be written in terms of the modal
displacements of the structure. In this case,
the complete unsteady aerodynamic forces
can be written in modal space.
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 34
 ZAERO Example
Trapezoidal wing with wing-
tip tank and pylon-store.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 35

 Discussion
•  This full aircraft approach is satisfactory for both
subsonic and supersonic aeroelastic problems.
•  However, at transonic flight conditions, the
aerodynamics become very complicated. Shock
waves can oscillate on the wing surfaces, introducing
nonlinearity and causing Limit Cycle Oscillations.
•  Furthermore, the oscillating shock waves can interact
with the boundary layer, forcing its separation. Even
higher levels of nonlinearity can be generated.
•  Under these circumstances, linearized methods
cannot be applied and higher fidelity aerodynamic
modelling is required.

AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 36

 Conclusions
•  Practical aeroelastic calculations for full
aircraft configurations are carried out using
panel methods, whether subsonic or
supersonic.
•  Higher fidelity methods exist but they are
reserved for challenging flowfields, such as
transonic flow.
•  Even so, they are very computationally
expensive and are not routinely used for
aircraft design purposes.
AERO0032-1, Aeroelasticity and Experimental Aerodynamics, Lecture 9 37