Introduction

Nickel is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a
silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition
metals. Nickel is reactive enough with oxygen that native nickel is rare on Earth's surface,
being mostly confined to the interiors of larger nickel iron meteorites that were protected
from oxidation during their time in space. On Earth, such native nickel is always found in
combination with iron, in keeping with those elements' origin as major end products of
the nucleosynthesis process in supernovas. An iron-nickel mixture is thought to compose
Earth's inner core.
The use of nickel (as a natural meteoric nickel-iron alloy) has been traced as far back as
3500 BC. Nickel was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel
Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook its ore for a copper mineral. Its most important
ore minerals are laterites, including limonite, garnierite, and pentlandite. Major
production sites include Sudbury region in Canada (which is thought to be of meteoric
origin), New Caledonia and Norilsk in Russia.
There are the characteristics of nickel:
 Hard and ductile
 Significantly chemically active
 Slow rate of oxidation at room temperature
 Corrosion-resistant
 Ferromagnetic around room temperature
 High polish

Nickel is a transition element. Therefore, it has isotopes. The stable isotopes of nickel are:
 58
Ni
 60
Ni
 61
Ni
 62
Ni
 64
Ni

This is a pure nickel strip.

 This is a pure nickel that obtained by electrolysis.

General Properties of Nickel

General Properties

Name, symbol, number Nickel, Ni, 28

Element category Transition metal

Group, period, block 10, 4, d

Standard atomic weight 58.6934(4)(2)

Electron configuration [Ar] 4s2 3d8 or [Ar] 4s1 3d9(see text)

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 16, 2 or 2, 8, 17, 1

 Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Material Composition
Ni Fe Cu Cr Mo
Nickel 200 99.5 0.15 0.05 - -
Nickel 201 99.5 0.15 0.05 - -
Monel 400 66.0 1.35 31.5 - -
Monel R-405 66.0 1.35 31.5 - -
Monel K-500 65.0 1.00 29.5 - -
Inconel 600 76.0 7.20 0.10 15.8 -
Inconel 601 60.5 14.1 - 23.0 -
Inconel 617 54.0 - - 22.0 9.0
Inconel 625 61.0 2.5 - 21.5 9.0
Inconel 718 52.5 18.0 0.10 19.0 3.0
Inconel x-750 73.0 6.75 0.05 15.0 -
Hastelloy B 64.0 5.0 - - 28.0
Hastelloy C 56.0 5.5 - 15.5 16.0
Hastelloy X 48.0 18.5 - 22.0 9.0

Chemical Properties of Nickel

Atomic number 28
Atomic mass 58.71 g.mol -1

Electronegativity according to Pauling 1.8

Isotopes 10
Electronic shell [ Ar ] 3d8 4s2

Energy of first ionisation 735 kJ.mol -1

Energy of second ionisation 1753 kJ.mol -1

Energy of third ionisation 3387 kJ.mol -1

Standard potential - 0.25 V

This is the electron arrangement of nickel

Energies
Specific heat capacity 0.44 J g-1 K-1
Heat of fusion 17.48 kJ mol-1
1st ionization energy 736.7 kJ mol-1
2nd ionization energy 1752.9 kJ mol-1
3rd ionization energy 3393.4 kJ mol-1
Heat of atomization 430 kJ mol-1
Heat of vaporization 377.5 kJ mol-1

Electron affinity 111.5 kJ mol-1

 Oxidation & Electron
Shells 2,8,16,2
Minimum oxidation number -1
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale) 1.91
Electron configuration [Ar] 3d8 4s2
Maximum oxidation number 4
Maximum common oxidation number 2
Polarizability volume 6.8 Å3

Reactions & Compounds

Reaction with air: mild, w/ht ⇒ NiO
Reaction with 15 M HNO3: passivated
Oxide(s): NiO, Ni2O3
Hydride(s): NiH
Reaction with 6 M HCl: mild, ⇒ H2, NiCl2
Reaction with 6 M NaOH: none
Chloride(s): NiCl2
Reaction of nickel with air

Nickel metal does not react with air under ambient conditions. Finely divided nickel
metal reacts readily with air and in this form may be pyrophoric.

At higher temperatures, the reaction between nickel metal and oxygen appears not to
proceed to completion but gives some nickel(II) oxide.

2Ni(s) + O2(g) → 2NiO(s)

Reaction of nickel with water

Nickel metal does not react with water under normal conditions.

Reaction of nickel with the halogens

Nickel metal does react with fluorine gas, F2, but only slowly. This makes nickel an
important metal for containers of fluorine.
The dichloride, NiCl2, dibromide, NiBr2, and diiodide, NiI2, are formed in the reactions
of nickel metal and chlorine, Cl2, bromine, Br2, or iodine, I2.

Ni(s) + Cl2(g) → NiCl2(s) [yellow]

Ni(s) + Br2(g) → NiBr2(s) [yellow]
Ni(s) + I2(g) → NiI2(s) [black]

Reaction of nickel with acids

Nickel metal dissolves slowly in dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing the
aquated Ni(II) ion together with hydrogen gas, H2. In practice, the Ni(II) is present as the
complex ion [Ni(OH2)6]2+.

Ni(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Ni2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2(g)

The strongly oxidizing concentrated nitric acid, HNO3, reacts on th surface of iron and
passivates the surface.

Reaction of nickel with bases

Nickel does not react with aquaous sodium hydroxide.

Physical properties of Nickel

Property Value
Phase Solid
Density at room temperature (g/cm3) 8.908
Liquid density at melting point (g/cm3) 7.81
Melting Point (K) 1728
Boiling Point (K) 3186
Atomic Radius (pm) 124
Specific Heat (@20°C J/g mol) 0.443
Fusion heat (kJ/mol) 17.48
Vaporisation Heat (kJ/mol) 377.5
Molar Heat Capacity (J·mol−1·K−1) 26.07
Lattice Constant (A) 3.520
Electrical Resistivity (20 °C) 69.3 nΩ·m
Thermal Conductivity 90.9 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal Expansion (25 °C) 13.4 µm·m−1·K−1

Table 1

Table 1. Typical physical properties for nickel

Mechanical Propertiesof Nickel

Property Value
Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 140 - 195
Offset or Yield strength (MPa) 14 - 35
Young Modulus (GPa) 200
Poisson Ratio 0.31
Brinell Hardness (MPa) 700
Shear Modulus (GPa) 76
Bulk modulus (GPa) 180
Mohs hardness 4.0
Vickers hardness (MPa) 638
Mineral hardness 4
Annealed tensile strength at 20°C (MPa) 450
Annealed 0.2% proof stress at 20°C (MPa) 1500
Elongation (%) 47

Table 2

Table 2. shows the typical mechanical properties for nickel

Commercially pure nickel is actually about 99,5% Ni + Cobalt. This metal has good
mechanical properties and excellent resistance to many corrosive environments. The
alloy retains much of its strength at elevated temperatures and is tough and ductile at low
temperature. The alloy contains some carbon (up to 0,1%). The lower the carbon content
the lower the risk of work hardening and the higher the ductility.
 Enthalpies
Enthalpy of fusion 17.2 kJ mol-1
Enthalpy of vaporisation 378 kJ mol-1
Enthalpy of atomisation 431 kJ mol-1

Crystal Structure of Nickel

Nickel has a face-centered cubic atomic structure. The structure of nickel is cubic close-
packed. The cell parameters of nickel are:

 a: 352.4 pm
 b: 352.4 pm
 c: 352.4 pm
 α: 90.000°
 β: 90.000°
 γ: 90.000°

For F.C.C structure, the atoms are located at each of the corners and on the centers of all
the faces of cubic unit cell. This provide more planes for the flow of dislocations,
combined with the low level of interstitial elements (elements that lock the dislocation
chain), gives this material its good ductility.

Figure 2 shows a
F.C.C structure.
 Application of Nickel
 Nickel is used in many products some of you may use everyday including electric
guitar strings, magnets and rechargeable batteries. The magnetic properties of nickel
actually make it very important for use in computer hard drives.

This is a magnet that made up of nickel

 Nickel is added to a very important metal alloy- stainless steel. Stainless steel has
numerous applications. It is used in cookware, cutlery, kitchen appliances, hardware,
surgical instruments, storage tanks, firearms, car headlights, jewelery and watches.

This is nickel round vegetable baskets.

 Various bronzes and brasses are made using nickel alloyed with other metals. Heat
and electrical resistant alloys can also be made from nickel.
 Nickel is also added to superalloys. To find out more about these types of alloys see
the post uses of cobalt.
 Nickel is still used in many parts of the world in coins. The American nickel (worth 5
cents) is actually 75% copper and 25% nickel.
 Nickel foam or nickel mesh is used in alkaline fuel cells as part of the gas diffusion
electrodes.
 Nickel is used in a process known as fire assay. This process helps identify the types
of compounds in an ore, metal or alloy. Nickel is able to collect all the platinum group
elements in this process. It also partially collects gold.
 In the science laboratory, nickel is typically used as a catalyst for a hydrogenation
reaction.
 chiefly valuable for the alloys it forms such as stainless steel and other corrosion-
resistant alloys
 tubing made of a copper-nickel alloy is extensively used in making desalination plants
for converting sea water into fresh water
 used extensively in coinage and in making nickel steel for armour plate and burglar-
proof vaults
 nickel added to glass gives a green colour
 nickel plating is often used to provide a protective coating for other metals
 finely divided nickel is a catalyst for hydrogenating vegetable oils
 batteries
 electroplating

Phase Diagram
1) Figure 1 shows the nickel-chromium alloy phase diagram

Figure 1
According to the Ni-Cr phase diagram above, the melting point of nickel and chromium
at the pressure of 101325 Pa is 1455°C and 1907°C, respectively. The Ni-Cr binary
system has a eutectic reaction at 1345°C, the eutectic composition being 51 wt. % Cr.
Two solid solutions — face-centered cubic (FCC) nickel and body-centered cubic (BCC)
chromium — are formed during the eutectic reaction.

Figure 1. Ni-Cr phase diagram shows which phases are to be expected at equilibrium for
different combinations of chromium content and temperature.

Picture 1. Nickel chromium alloy wire

Picture 1. Nickel chromium alloy

2) Figure 2 shows the Fe-Ni alloy phase diagram.

Figure 2
Figure 2. Equilibrium Fe-Ni phase diagram shows which phases are to be expected at
equilibrium for different combinations of nickel content and temperature. The melting
point of iron and nickel at the pressure of 101325 Pa is 1538 °C and 1455 °C,
respectively. The Fe-Ni binary system has a peritectic reaction (liquid + delta =
gamma) at 1517 °C and 4.6 wt. % Ni.
The phase relations between the alpha phase (kamacite) and the gamma phase (taenite)
are best described by means of the Fe-Ni diagram.

In pure iron, the A4 (1394 °C) and A3 (912 °C) transformations take place at constant
temperatures. If an element enters into solid solution in iron — forming in that way a
binary alloy — each of these transformations are required by the Phase Rule to occur
over a range of temperature.

Some elements, such as nickel, raise the A4 and lower the A3 transformation temperatures
(see Figure 1), expanding and stabilizing the gamma field in the iron-carbon phase
diagram.

Above 912 °C, there is a region of complete solid solubility (the gamma field). Below
912 °C, the alpha phase is stable in pure iron. The increase of the amount of nickel
stabilized the gamma phase.

The transformation of the gamma phase into the alpha phase in the Fe-Ni binary system
takes place quite sluggishly, due to the slow diffusion of nickel. Thus, the phases that
form when Fe-Ni alloys are ingot-cast, for example, bear little relation to the equilibrium
diagram. When cooled to low enough temperatures, the gamma phase transforms into a
supersaturated, non-equilibrium, body-centered cubic (BCC) phase called α2, whose
chemical composition is the same as the original gamma phase. The temperature at which
the α2 phase forms is referred to as the Ms temperature.

Nickel iron alloy is a

strong magnet.
 3) This figure 3 shows the copper-nickel phase diagram.

Figure 3
This Cu-Ni system is an isomorphous system.From the figure 3, we can see the diagram
has three different phase regions, the alpha region (solid state), the liquid region (liquid
state), and the alpha + liquid region (solid +liquid state), which are defined by
specific compositions and temperatures as illustrated in figure 3. Both points A and B are
located in the alpha and the alpha + liquid regions respectively. The phase boundaries are
separated by two lines. The line separating the liquid region and the alpha + liquid
regions is the liquidus line. The line separating the alpha region and the alpha + liquid
regions is the solidus line. The intersection points of the liquidus line and the solidus line
signify the melting temperatures of the two constituents individually. The Cu-Ni system
is especially noted for its complete liquid and solid solubility of its constituents. Thus, the
Cu-Ni system is identified as an isomorphous system.

Figure 4
A section of the copper-nickel phase diagram is contained in Figure 4. Both the
compositions and the phase amounts of each constituent will be determined at point B.

In figure 3 at point A, the alpha region is the only phase present; therefore, the
composition at 1085°C is 60 wt% Ni – 40 wt% Cu. For a double phase region, the
procedure intensifies. One has to first draw a horizontal line (tie line) at the given
temperature from the first phase boundary to the second phase boundary, which is
depicted at point B in figure 4. Next, at the intersection of each phase boundary with the
tie line, vertical lines are drawn straight down until they intersect the x-axis where the
composition of each constituent is identified. The composition of the liquid phase, CL, is
32 wt% Ni - 68 wt% Cu. Thus, the composition of alpha phase, Ca is 43 wt% Ni - 57 wt%
Cu.

Through the use of the lever rule, one can also determine the amount of each phase
present. In a one phase region, the alloy is composed of 100% of that phase, such as the
alpha region in figure 4 at point A. For a two phase region, one has to rely on the
combination of the tie line and the lever rule expression.

As stated previously with the determination of phase compositions, the tie line is drawn
at the specified temperature between the two-phase region and the composition of the
alloy is identified (figure 4). The percentage of one phase is calculated by dividing the
length of the tie line from the overall composition of the alloy to the phase boundary for
the second phase by the length of the total tie line, which is denoted by subtracting the
compositions of the constituents, and multiplying by one hundred. The percentage of
phase two is calculated by using the same procedure.

In both the alpha and the liquid phases (figure 4), the tie line is drawn at point B. the tie
line is specified at 1250 °C. The overall composition of the alloy is 35 wt% Ni, the
composition of the alpha phase is 43 wt% Ni – 57 wt% Cu, and the composition of the
liquid phase is 32 wt% Ni - 68 wt% Cu.

The mass fraction for the alpha phase maybe computed similarly. The lever rule may be
used to assist in the calculations of the relative amounts phases of the fractions of phases.

For a 35 wt% Ni - 65 wt% Cu alloy at 1250 °C, the relative amount of each phase present
in terms of mass fraction.
 Figure 5
This Figure 5 represents the development of microstructure during the equilibrium
solidification of a 35 wt% Ni - 65 wt% Cu alloy. At 1300 °C with an alloy composition
of 35 wt% Ni - 65 wt% Cu, we will observe the cooling process slowly (figure 5).
Equilibrium will be continuous in the given phase as long as cooling occurs very slowly.
At point a, the alloy is fully liquid. This microstructure, which is represented by the circle
inset in the figure, can be viewed by clicking on point a in figure 5. As the cooling
process takes place, we reach the liquidus line. Here we reach a change in both the
microstructure and the composition of the alloy. Point b is located roughly around
1270 °C with its composition defined by the tie line. At point b in figure 5, solidification
process begins. The first solid (alpha) begins to form. As cooling continues from this
point further, both compositions and relative amounts of each of the phases will change.
With continued cooling, the fraction alpha phase will increase, as the fraction of the
liquid will decrease. At point c, the number of the alpha increases. It is obvious that the
compositions and relative amounts of each phase will change; however, the overall alloy
composition does maintain consistent at 35 wt% Ni - 65 wt% Cu.

Point c signifies that the cooling process is half complete. The microstructure displays an
approximate equal amount of alpha and liquid. At point d, there is a definite increase in
alpha. Very little liquid can be viewed. Finally, point e is located after crossing the
solidous line. The remaining liquid solidifies. The outcome has a uniform 35 wt% Ni - 65
wt% Cu composition which is then a polycrystalline alpha-solid solution (point e, figure
5). If the alloy is cooled beyond point e, there will be no microstructural or compositional
changes.

The solidification process is very extensive for equilibrium conditions must be

maintained at all temperatures. Cooling has to take place slowly in order for the
readjustments to occur in the compositions of the two phases, which will yield in the one
phase diagram previously viewed. The diffusion process is the driving mechanism for the
composition readjustments. Just as diffusion depends on time in order to maintain
equilibrium during cooling, the composition readjustments need sufficient time.

This is a nickel copper alloy wire.

This is the microstructure of nickel copper.

It consists of 70% nickel and 30% copper.
 4) Figure 6 shows the nickel molybdenum alloy phase diagram.

Figure 6

The phase diagram consists of phase of Ni, Ni4Mo, Ni3Mo, Ni2Mo, NiMo, Ni17Mo, and
Mo. The metastable phases of nikcel molybdenum alloy are Ni2Mo, Ni3Mo, Ni4Mo, and
Ni17Mo5.

Phase Composition, wt % Mo
Ni 0 -38 (a)
Ni4Mo 29
Ni3Mo 35.3
NiMo 63.9 – 65.7
Mo 98.9 – 100 (b)
 (a) At 1309 °C (b) At 1362 °C

Microstructure of nickel molybdenum alloy.

5) The Figure 7 shows the titanium nickel alloy phase diagram.

Figure 7
The phase diagram of nickel titanium alloy contain the phase of βTi, αTi, ω, Ti2Ni, TiNi’,
TiNi, γ”TiNi3, TiNi3, γ’TiNi3 and Ni. The metastable phases of nickel titanium alloy are
TiNi’, ω, γ”TiNi3, γ’TiNi3.
Phase Composition, wt% Ni
βTi 0 - 12
αTi 0 – 0.3
ω ~0
Ti2Ni 38.0
TiNi’ ~ 54 - 58
TiNi 54.6 – 62
γ”TiNi3 ~ 77
TiNi3 79
γ’TiNi3 ~ 86 – 90
Ni 88.4 – 100

6) The figure 8 show nickel tungsten alloy phase diagram.

Figure 8
The nickel tungsten alloy phase diagram contain the phase of Ni, Ni4W, NiW, NiW2, and
W.
Phase Composition, wt % W
Ni 0 – 39.9
Ni4W ~ 44
NiW ~ 75.8
NiW2 86.3
W 99.9 - 100

7) The figure 9 illustrates the nickel lead alloy phase diagram.

Figure 9
The phase diagram of nickel lead alloy consists of phase of Ni, NiPb, and Pb. NiPb is a metastable
phase.

Phase Composiition, wt % Pb
Ni 0 - ~4.1
NiPb 77.9
Pb 99.9 - 100
 8) The figure 10 shows the nickel zinc alloy phase diagram.

Figure 10
The phase diagram of nickel zinc alloy that shows in figure 10 contain the phase of Ni, β,
β1, γ, , and zinc. The  might have orthorhombic structure.

Phase Composition, wt % Zn
Ni 0 – 41.9
β 50 – 60.9
β2 48.0 – 54.5
 72 – 86
 ~90
Zn 100
 9) The figure 11 illustrates the nickel aluminium alloy of phase diagram.

Figure 11
The x-axis of the phase diagram above is the weight fraction of nickel. The phase diagram of
thenickel aluminium alloy contain the phase of Al, Al3Ni, Al3Ni2, AlNi, Al3Ni5, AlNi3, and Ni.

Phase Composition, fraction of Ni

Al 0 – 0.024
Al3Ni 0.25
Al3Ni2 0.37 – 0.42
AlNi 0.45 – 0.59
Al3Ni5 0.64 – 0.67
AlNi3 0.73 – 0.76
Ni 0.9 – 1.0
 10) The figure 12 shows the nickel carbon binary phase diagram.

Figure 13
The binary phase diagram of nickel carbon alloy contain the phase of Ni, C(graphite), and
Ni3C. Ni3C is a metastable phase. At 1326 °C, composition of C are 0 – 0.6 wt % C.
However, the composition of C can be extended to 1.6 wt % C at 1314 °C.

Phase Composition, wt % C
Ni 0 – 0.6
C (Graphite) ~100
 11) The figure 14 shows the nickel boron alloy phase diagram.

Figure 14
The phase diagram of nickel boron alloy consists of phase of Ni, Ni3B, Ni2B, Ni4B3, NiB,
NiB2, NiB12, and βB.

Phase Composition, wt % B
Ni 0
Ni3B 6
Ni2B 8.4
Ni4B3 11.5
Ni4B3 12.5
NiB 16
NiB2 26.9
NiB12 68.8
βB 100
 12) The figure 15 show the nickel ytterbium phase diagram.

Figure 15
The phase diagram in figure 15 contains the phase of Ni, Ni17Yb2, Ni5Yb, Ni3Yb, Ni2Yb,
αNiYb, Yb, βYb, and αYb.

Phase Composition, wt % Yb
Ni 0
Ni17Yb 25.7
Ni5Yb 37.2
Ni3Yb 49.6
Ni2Yb 59.5
αNiYb 74.7
Yb 100
βYb 100
αYb 100
 Ways to Strengthen Nickel
 Annealing
As applied to nickel and nickel alloys, annealing consists of heating the metal at a
predetermined temperature for a definite time and then slowly or rapidly cooling it, to
produce a change in mechanical properties - usually a complete softening as a result of
recrystalization.
Nickel and nickel alloys that have been hardened by cold working operations, such as
rolling, deep drawing, spinning or severe bending, require softening before cold working
can be continued. The thermal treatment that will produce this condition is known as
annealing, or soft annealing.
The differences in chemical composition among nickel and nickel alloys necessitate
modifications in annealing temperatures as well as in furnace atmospheres. The
precipitation-hardening alloys must be cooled rapidly after annealing if maximum
softness is desired.
Three soft-annealing methods in general commercial use
 Open annealing
 Closed annealing
 Salt bath annealing

1. Open annealing
Open annealing is used most often. The nickel or nickel alloys to be annealed is
heated at the selected temperature and protected from oxidation by the products
of combustion in a fuel-heated furnace, or by a reducing gas introduced into an
electric furnace. Temperature control is critical because the annealing period is
short.

2. Closed annealing
Closed annealing requires more time than open annealing because of the lower
temperatures used. Temperature control is less critical than in open annealing. In
most instances, the weight of the container exceeds that of the work;
consequently, the amount of fuel required, heating time and costs are greater than
in open annealing.

3. Salt bath annealing

Salt bath annealing is used for special work with small parts. The hardened
material is never bright, and must be fresh pickled to restore the natural color.
Inorganic salts, such as chlorides and carbonates of sodium, potassium and
barium, which are relatively stable at temperatures considerably above their
respective melting points, are fused in large metallic or refractory containers at
temperatures up to about 700oC. At higher temperatures, heat-resisting Fe-Ni-Cr
alloy pots or refractory containers should be used. Excessive fuming of the bath
 is an indication of its maximum usable temperature. The material to be annealed
is placed in molten salts and absorbs heat rapidly. After being annealed, the work
metal is quenched in water to free it from particles of the salt mixture. The
annealed material will not be bright and may be flash pickled to achieve a bright
surface.

Material Open annealingoC Closed annealingoC Stress relievingoC

Nickel 200 815 to 925 705 to 760 480 to 705

Nickel 201 760 to 870 705 to 760 480 to 705

Monel 400 870 to 980 760 to 815 540 to 565

Monel R-405 870 to 980 760 to 815 -

Monel K-500 870 to 1040 Not applicable -

Inconel 600 925 to 1040 925 to 980 760 to 870

Inconel 601 1095 to 1175 1095 to 1175 -

Inconel 617 1120 to 1175 1120 to 1175 -

Inconel 625 980 to 1150 980 to 1150 -

Inconel 718 955 to 980 Not applicable -

Inconel X-750 1095 to 1150 Not applicable -

Hastelloy B 1095 to 1185 - 1095 to 1185

Hastelloy C 1215 - 1215

Hastelloy X 1175 1175 -

Table 3. shows the method of soft annealing.

Bright Annealing
The temperatures required for soft annealing of nickel and nickel alloys are sufficiently
high to cause slight surface oxidation unless the materials are heated in vacuum or in a
furnace provided with a reducing atmosphere.The protective atmosphere most
commonly used in heating nickel and nickel alloys is that provided by controlling the
ratio between the fuel and air supplied to burners firing directly into the furnace. A
desirable reducing condition may be obtained by using a slight excess of fuel so that the
products of combustion contain at least 2% carbon monoxide plus hydrogen (preferably
4%) with no more than 0.05% uncombined oxygen.
Another method of maintaining desired conditions of furnace atmosphere is to introduce
a prepared atmosphere into the heating and cooling chambers. This can be added to the
products of combustion in a direct-fired furnace. However, introduction of prepared
atmospheres is more commonly practiced with indirectly heated equipment.
Prepared atmospheres suitable for use with nickel and nickel alloys include: dried
hydrogen, dried nitrogen, dissociated ammonia, and cracked or partially reacted natural
gas.
Dead-Soft Annealing
When the nickel alloys are annealed at higher temperatures and for longer periods, a
condition commonly described as "dead-soft" is obtained, and hardness numbers will
result that are 10 to 20% lower than those of the "soft" condition. This cannot be
accomplished without increasing the grain size of the metal. Therefore, this treatment
should be used only for those few applications in which grain size is of little importance.
Torch Annealing
Some large equipment is hardened locally by fabricating operations. If the available
annealing furnace is too small to hold the work piece, the hardened sections can be
annealed with the flames of oil or acetylene torches adjusted so as to be highly reducing.
The work should be warmed gently at first, with sweeping motions of the torch, and
should not be brought to the annealing temperature until sufficient preheating has been
done to prevent cracking as a result of sudden release of stress. (Note: Torch annealing is
a poor method for general use, because it provides irregular and insufficient annealing
and produces heavily oxidized surfaces.)
Among the more important process-control factors in annealing nickel and nickel alloys
are selection of suitably sulfur-free for heating, control of furnace temperature, effects of
prior cold work and of cooling rates, control of grain size, control of protective
atmospheres, and protection from contamination by foreign material.

Hardening Techniques
Nickel alloys usually are hardened in sealed boxes placed inside a furnace, although
small horizontal or vertical furnaces without boxes may be used also. The box or furnace
should hold the parts loosely packed, yet afford a minimum of excess space. Electric
furnaces provide the optimum temperature uniformity of ± 6°C and the freedom from
contamination required for this work. Gas-heated furnaces, particularly those of the
radiant-tube type, can be made to give satisfactory results. It is difficult to obtain good
results from oil heating, even with the muffle furnaces. All lubricants should be removed
from the work before hardening.
Because of the long time of aging and the difficulty of excluding air from the box or
furnace, truly bright hardening cannot be accomplished commercially. For semibright
hardening, dry hydrogen or cracked and dried ammonia should be used. When bright or
semibright hardening is not required, other atmospheres may be used, such as nitrogen,
cracked natural gas free of sulfur, cracked city gas, cracked hydrocarbons, or a generated
gas. The use of sulfur-free gases is necessary to avoid embrittlement.

 Alloying
 The Cu-Ni alloys are single-phase throughout the full range of compositions
and many standard alloys exist within this range, usually with small additions
of other elements for special purposes. The first of these special uses was for
marine condenser tubes and there are now many others. Other Cu-Ni alloys are
used for coinage and wire mesh for the paper industry.

Nickel copper alloy strip

Nickel copper alloy wire-126

 Manganese is invariably present in the commercial alloys as a de-oxidant and
de-sulfurizer .As it add to nickel or nickel alloy, it improves working
characteristics and additionally contributes to corrosion resistance in seawater.

Microstructure of nickel manganese alloy.

This is a nickel manganese alloy.

 Iron is added (up to about 2%) to the alloys required for marine applications. It
confers resistance to impingement attack by flowing seawater and increases the
strength. This work was done to meet naval requirements for improved
corrosion-resistant materials for tubes, condensers and other applications
involving contact with seawater.

This is microstructure of nickel

iron alloy. This alloy is iron and
nickel alloy.

This is a iron nickel alloy.

This is a iron nickel alloy.

 Chromium can be used to replace some of the iron content and at one per cent
or more provides higher strength. Chromium always add to nickel to improve
their strength.

This is the microstructure of nichrome.

Nichrome is alloy of 70% Ni and 30%
Cr.

This is a nickel chromium alloy.

This is a nickel chromium alloy.

 Application of Nickel Alloy
 Nickel Alloy Storage Tanks and Piping
Due to the high levels of corrosion resistance of nickel, nickel alloys are often
used to construct tanks and piping for storing and moving water, seawater,
gasoline, and other corrosive media. As important as it is for the tanks holding
these media to resist cracking due to inter-granular corrosion, it is equally
important that the nickel alloy resist abrasion and erosion that could lead to the
contamination of the product.

This is an example of application of nickel alloy.

This is a nickel alloy storage tanks

This is a nickel alloy tube.

This is a nickel alloy tank.

 Heat Exchangers in Nickel Alloy
The controlled and predictable thermal expansion properties of many types of
nickel alloys make them an excellent choice for heat exchangers. Usually
consisting of a network of tubes, heat exchangers separate two media and
transfer heat from one medium to the other. Without controllable thermal
expansion properties, the heat exchangers are in danger of deforming or
cracking during operation.

This is copper nickel coaxial coil tube heat

exchanger.

This is a heat exchanger that made up of

nickel alloy based.

 Nickel Alloy Thermal Processing Fixtures

Nickel alloys have the ability to operate in extremely high temperatures over
much longer periods of time compared to stainless steel. Thermal processing
fixtures include the containers and other components for heat treatment furnaces,
 high temperature fans, and other nickel alloy components that are subjected not
just to heat but also to corrosive media.

This is a boiler fixtures made up of nickel alloy.

This is a nickel alloy strip. This can operate at high

temperature.

 Gas Turbines Parts in Nickel Alloy

Gas turbines exude a tremendous amount of the heat in the hot path section as
well as the combustion chamber. The heat resistant properties of nickel alloys
make them an ideal candidate for the construction of gas turbine parts.

AC-Delco made up of silver-nickel alloy.

 This is turbines components made up of nickel
alloy.

 Nickel Alloy for Seawater Vessel Parts

Both saltwater and freshwater have a highly corrosive effect on metal,
especially in marine vessels where parts are constantly submerged. With
superior corrosion resistance, nickel alloys are often used for marine vessel parts
including shafts, propeller blades, fasteners, and valves.

This is a pressure Vessels that made up

of Nickel Alloy.

This is a
glass Vessel Pop-
up drain