Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 28, No. 5.

1999

Conflict Management With Friends and Romantic

Partners: The Role of Attachment and Negative
Mood Regulation Expectancies
Gary Creasey,1 Kathy Kershaw,2 and Ada Boston3
Received April 25, 1998; accepted May 24, 1999

The degree to which attachment orientations are related to negative mood reg-
ulation expectancies and conflict management strategies with best friends and
romantic partners was examined for a sample of late adolescent, female college
students (N = 140). Correlational and multiple regression analyses yielded results
that were generally consistent with theoretical expectations. Adolescents with more
insecure attachment orientations were likely to report having difficulties manag-
ing conflict with attachment figures and had less confidence regulating negative
mood than individuals who endorsed more secure orientations. In addition, more
avoidant and ambivalent attachment orientations often predicted specific conflict
management difficulties, and confidence in negative mood regulation partially me-
diated these associations. The results are discussed in relation to previous research
on attachment theory and implications for interventions are offered.

INTRODUCTION

Because of the large volume of theory suggesting that the transition to adult
roles can be greatly enhanced by close emotional relationships with attachment

This research was supported by grants from the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
awarded to the first author. The study results were presented at the 1998 Biennial Meeting of the
Society for Research on Adolescence, San Diego, CA.
1
Professor, Illinois State University. Received Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from Virginia Com-
monwealth University, and postdoctoral training at University of Vermont. Research interests include
attachment and the development of conflict management skills. To whom correspondence should be
addressed at 4620 Psychology Department, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790-4620.
2
Graduate student, Counseling Psychology, Illinois State University. Received M.S. in Psychology
from Illinois State University. Research interests include gender schema theory and attachment.
3
Graduate student, Human Development, University of Illinois. Received M.S. in Psychology from
Illinois State University. Research interests include adult attachment and parent-infant attachment
development.

523
0047-2891/99/1000-0523$16.00/0 C 1999 Plenum Publishing Corporation
524 Creasey et al.

figures (e.g., Bowlby, 1980; Main, 1996), the current study examined relations
between late adolescent attachment orientations and interpersonal conflict skills
with best friends and romantic partners within a collegiate environment. While it is
evident that these social contacts do not represent a complete picture of the support
network available to the college student, considerable theoretical and empirical
work suggests that best friends and romantic partners are important ingredients to
the adolescent's social environment (Furman and Buhrmester, 1992; Furman and
Wehner, 1994; Hazan and Shaver, 1994; Sullivan, 1953).
The important emotional role these attachment figures play in the lives of
late adolescents is underscored by several considerations. First, an ability to main-
tain close relationships with friends and romantic partners is consistently asso-
ciated with positive adolescent mental health (Armsden and Greenberg, 1987;
Buhrmester, 1990) and self-esteem (Connolly and Konarski, 1994). In addition,
although continued support from caregivers is an important predictor of adaptive
functioning among college students (Greenberg et al., 1983; Kenny and Donaldson,
1991; Larose and Boivin, 1998), these youth also clearly value support received
from the peer group. For example, at least one study has found that college students
often mention romantic partners first when queried about attachment figures that
are central to their lives (Buhrmester, 1996). Indeed, professionals working in uni-
versity counseling centers are well aware that difficulties with friends, roommates,
and romantic partners are a chief reason this population often seeks services in the
first place.
Our interest in specifying correlates of conflict management skills with these
social agents was based on a number of important tenets. First, unlike disagree-
ments with parents, in which winning an argument is often the goal, and submis-
sion or withdrawal of one party is often a common consequence of a disagreement
(Montemayor and Hanson, 1985; Laursen, 1993), there is growing evidence that
adolescents manage conflict with close friends and romantic partners more con-
structively through negotiation, compromise, and stop actions (i.e., stopping the
disagreement and discussing the issue at later time) (Laursen and Collins, 1994).
It is theorized that one reason that adolescents cope with peer conflict in such
a manner is due to their realization that explosive outbursts, domination, or sud-
den withdrawal may seriously compromise evolving relationships with attachment
figures outside the family system (e.g., Cooper and Cooper, 1992; Laursen and
Collins, 1994). Thus, the art of conflict negotiation appears particularly critical for
maintaining close relationships with peers during adolescence.
Similarly, while there is some consensus that the occasional quarrels and
disagreements adolescents have with their friends and romantic partners solidify,
rather than weaken, attachments (Laursen and Collins, 1994), long-term unre-
solved conflicts between adolescents and peers is linked to relationship instability
(Berndt and Keefe, 1992). In addition, while peer relationships during late ado-
lescence may lack permanence, one cannot ignore the possibility that corrosive
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 525

conflict management routines that are utilized and practiced within such relation-
ships may have important implications for coping with conflict in future adult
relationships (e.g., marriage) (cf. Martin, 1990).
Although the importance of adolescent conflict management abilities is ev-
ident, much less is known about variables that may antecede this coping skill.
However, several important theories exist that may partially explain why some
adolescents possess such skills while others do not. For example, contemporary
theories of relationship development (e.g., Collins and Read, 1994; Karney and
Bradbury, 1995) would suggest that interpersonal behavior exhibited in these re-
lationships is influenced by cognitive coping skills. For example, an individual's
expectancies regarding his ability to control his own emotions, or attributions one
makes about an attachment figure's behavior, are both potential cognitive vari-
ables presumed to underlie relationship behavior. While a large volume of research
supports the idea that cognitive beliefs, attributions, and expectancies are tied to
ongoing behavior in adult attachment relationships (e.g., Bradbury and Fincham,
1993), few studies exist documenting such associations with adolescent popula-
tions (see Collins, 1996, for an exception). Thus, one purpose of the present study
was to examine how one cognitive coping strategy—confidence in negative mood
regulation abilities—was related to conflict management strategies used by adoles-
cents. Our interest in this particular variable rests with the fact that these efficacy
expectancies are closely associated with relationship behaviors among older adults
(Baucom et al., 1989), and because such relationship cognitions are amenable for
change via cognitive-behavioral interventions (Baucom and Epstein, 1990).
While it is quite apparent that relationship cognitions and behaviors are inter-
related, it is also true that relationship behavior is influenced via other important
variables. For example, relationship development theories (Collins and Read, 1994;
Karney and Bradbury, 1995) would suggest that developmental history (e.g., di-
vorce; exposure to family conflict) may also play a role in explaining behavior
in adolescent peer relationships. The social learning, or intergenerational trans-
mission perspective (Barahal et al., 1981), would assume that affective/behavioral
responses exhibited during conflict exchanges are a direct result of such devel-
opmental history. For example, individuals less skilled at resolving conflict may
be from family systems where conflict was poorly resolved on a consistent basis.
However, while associations have been drawn between exposure to interparent
conflict and adolescent/adult conflict management skills (Martin, 1990), research
supporting these relations also verifies the contention that family discord is only
a risk factor for problematic outcomes, since not all adolescents residing in such
households show continuity in dysfunction. Thus, the relation between conflict
exposure history and current conflict management skills with new attachment fig-
ures may not be consistent, and is further complicated by the fact that exposure
to interparent conflict may coexist with other forms of family dysfunction (e.g.,
parent mental health problems; child abuse; etc.).
526 Creasey et al.

Bowlby's (1982) attachment theory may provide a more useful perspective to

explain the current status of conflict management skills among adolescents. This
perspective suggests that individuals develop internal working models of attach-
ment of self and others based upon repeated interactions with primary caregivers,
as well as with other important individuals (e.g., grandparents) within one's broad-
ening social network (Bowlby, 1982). Internal working models of attachment are
conceptualized as the adolescent's current state of mind regarding attachment, are
thought to reflect both conscious and unconscious processes, and are theorized to
provide the individual with an active "set of rules for the organization of informa-
tion relevant to attachment and for obtaining or limiting access to that information"
(Main et al., 1985, pp. 66-67). It is further theorized that these internal working
models of attachment ultimately predict conscious, broad expectancies (e.g., abil-
ity to trust others; worthiness of self as an attachment figure) regarding emerging
peer and romantic relationships during adolescence and adulthood (Simpson and
Rholes, 1998).
Broad relationship expectancies regarding emerging adult relationships are
conceptualized as attachment styles or attachment orientations. In the spirit of
contemporary attachment theory (e.g., Main, 1996), individual differences in at-
tachment styles have been documented. Adolescents and adults can be theoretically
classified as having secure (e.g., values emotional attachment; views self as a vi-
able attachment figure for others; is comfortable relying on others for emotional
support); avoidant/dismissing (e.g., discomfort at idea of developing close relation-
ships; emotionally distant; unwillingness to trust others); or anxious/preoccupied
(e.g., concern over acceptance by others; perception that attachments with oth-
ers are vital for self-esteem) attachment representations (Collins and Read, 1994;
Simpson et al., 1992).
Since current attachment representations are theorized to influence both ado-
lescent and adult intimate relationships (e.g., Simpson and Rholes, 1998), at-
tachment theory is highly applicable to the study of adolescent conflict resolution.
Furthermore, a basic tenet of such theory is that attachment styles may guide affect
and behavior during interactions within emerging attachment relationships. This
assertion becomes even more compelling when one considers that late adolescents
with insecure working models of attachment have problems with affect regulation
and social skills (e.g., Kobak and Sceery, 1988), suggesting that such individuals
might have fundamental difficulties with conflict management. In addition, be-
cause individual differences in attachment representations are theoretically more
pronounced when relationship security is challenged or threatened (e.g., Bowlby,
1980), conflict exchanges between adolescents and other attachment figures may
provide a particularly salient context for the activation, as well as resulting expres-
sion of, attachment orientations.
Current research would also suggest a connection between attachment repre-
sentations and adolescent conflict management behavior. For example, a number
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 527

of researchers (e.g., Hazan and Shaver, 1987; Bartholomew and Horowitz, 1991;
Simpson, 1990) have found that late adolescents who endorse secure attachment
styles (i.e., general belief that one can trust other adults; comfortable depending on
others, etc.) are more likely to indicate higher levels of intimacy in romantic rela-
tionships (Bartholomew and Horowitz, 1991), better relationship quality (Collins
and Read, 1990; Simpson, 1990), longer romantic relationship length (Feeney and
Noller, 1990; Hazan and Shaver, 1987), and to some degree, more relationship
stability (Kirkpatrick and Davis, 1994) than their counterparts with insecure rep-
resentations. Thus, one might indirectly posit that if secure working models are
related to "relationship success," then secure attachment orientations would also
be related to conflict management skills.
A small number of published empirical studies have attempted to link attach-
ment measures with observations of conflict management behaviors (albeit with
adults). In two studies, researchers using a small sample of 27 married couples
correlated working models of attachment obtained from the Adult Attachment
Interview (George et al., 1996) with behavioral data garnered via a parent-child
problem solving task (Cohn et al., 1992; Cowan et al., 1996). The results indi-
cated that men with insecure working models displayed more negative affect and
engaged in more conflict with their spouses than men with secure representations.
Kobak and Hazan (1991) also examined relations between adult working
models of attachment with couple interactive behavior during a problem solving
task. Individuals with secure representations were more supportive and less re-
jecting of their spouses during these structured interactions than individuals with
insecure working models of attachment. In a similar vein, Simpson et al. (1996)
had college students evaluate perceptions of attachment behaviors in emerging
adult relationships (e.g., "I don't like people getting too close to me") and found
that general insecurity in such relationships (avoidance in men; ambivalence in
women) predicted conflict management difficulties with romantic partners during
a problem solving task.

The Present Study

The results of studies that link adolescent/adult working models of attach-

ment, or self-reports of general attachment orientations, with relationship satisfac-
tion, stability, and quality, provide some direct and indirect support that a link may
exist between attachment representations and conflict management behaviors. In
the present study, several of these central assumptions were tested by having col-
lege students complete measures assessing expectancies regarding attachment and
confidence in negative mood regulation. In addition, respondents completed an in-
strument that provided a picture of how these individuals coped with interpersonal
conflict with a best friend and romantic partner.
528 Creasey et al.

The current study significantly builds upon existing research in a number of

ways. First, while researchers who study relations between attachment represen-
tations and interactive behavior frequently focus on common dyadic relationships,
such as an adult and a child (e.g., Steele et al., 1996) or an adult and a romantic part-
ner (e.g., Simpson et al., 1996), data were collected on how such representations
relate to conflict behavior across two important attachment figures to adolescents—
best friends and romantic partners. Because adolescents often report that they are
emotionally closer to romantic partners than other support agents (e.g., Furman and
Wehner, 1994), it was hypothesized that respondents would indicate that conflict
management skills were better with romantic partners, and we also expected that
attachment representations would be more consistently related to these appraisals
than for best friends.
Also, while we hypothesized that attachment orientations would predict con-
flict management skills and difficulties, we also acknowledged that attachment is
not the only variable that may influence interactive behavior within close rela-
tionships. For example, as stated previously, much has been written on how other
cognitive appraisals, such as perceptions of coping efficacy, may also influence
coping choices during conflict exchanges (e.g., Karney and Bradbury, 1995). In-
deed, several studies have documented relations between such expectancies and
coping with relationship distress among college students (e.g., Mearns, 1991).
Thus, beyond examining how attachment orientations relate to the use of con-
flict management coping strategies, we also examined how confidence in negative
mood regulation also related to this construct.
While the importance of studying the impact of attachment representations
on actual conflict management behavior (e.g., Kobak and Hazan, 1991) is recog-
nized, it is also true that a number of conflict management strategies are covert
(e.g., thinking of ways to avoid conflict in the future) and not amenable to di-
rect observation (Arellano and Markman, 1995). For this reason, respondents in-
dicated behavioral, cognitive, and emotional coping strategies they used when
engaged in conflict interchanges with these attachment figures. Finally, although
a number of researchers have found that individuals with insecure attachment
representations have difficulties with conflict management, few have examined
how such representations relate to the use or non-use of conflict management
skills (for notable exceptions see Kobak and Hazan, 1991; Simpson et al., 1996).
Thus, the current study examined the use of both positive and negative con-
flict management behaviors among adolescents with different attachment ori-
entations.
This study was guided by a number of predictions based on both available
theory and research. First, since there is a strong theoretical suggestion that attach-
ment representations predict current affect regulation in relationships (Simpson
and Rholes, 1998), it was predicted that individuals who endorsed more insecure
attachment orientations would report significant conflict management difficulties
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 529

across their social networks, as well as less confidence in negative mood reg-
ulation. In addition, because both attachment theory (e.g., Bowlby, 1982) and
research (e.g., Simpson et al., 1996) suggest that individuals with avoidant attach-
ment representations are more likely to withdraw during stressful encounters with
attachment figures, we expected that this result would be replicated in the current
study.
In terms of predicting adolescent conflict management skills, we predicted
that attachment security would be positively related to self-reports of the use of
constructive strategies. Also, since avoidant individuals tend to withdraw from
conflict, have a distrust of attachment figures as viable support agents, and often
believe that efforts to display support may have little impact on strengthening
relationships (e.g., Main et al., 1985; Simpson et al., 1996), we expected that
adolescents who endorsed avoidant attachment orientations would report less use
of constructive strategies than individuals who endorsed ambivalent orientations.
Theoretically, although individuals with ambivalent attachment representations
would be expected to have conflict management difficulties, it would seem quite
possible that they may attempt to use conflict management skills since individuals
operating under such models often exhibit both positive and negative behaviors
towards attachment figures (Main et al., 1985; Main, 1996).
Finally, because both attachment representations and negative mood regula-
tion expectancies are theoretically appraisals regarding potential success or failure
of affect regulation, one potential testable hypothesis would be an expectancy that
both constructs would predict conflict management strategies in an additive fash-
ion. On the other hand, because Bowlby's theoretical approach of attachment is
actually a broad theory of affect regulation development (cf. Kobak, Cole, Ferenz-
Gilles, Fleming, and Gamble, 1993), it might also be hypothesized that attachment
orientations would predict confidence in negative mood regulation, which in turn
would predict conflict management behaviors. Thus, in the current study, this
particular mediational model was tested as well.

METHOD

Research Participants and Procedures

The initial respondents were 189 female undergraduate college students at-
tending a large midwestern university. The decision was made to control for re-
spondent gender because of recent research suggesting that males and females
may differ on a number of the study measures (e.g., Griffin and Bartholomew,
1994; Simpson et al., 1996) and because of concerns that potential higher order
interactions might be masked by a sample size that was inadequate to test such pre-
dictions. The potential participants were asked to complete a number of paper and
530 Creasey et al.

pencil measures described below; respondents (N = 140) who completed conflict

management questionnaires on both a best friend and a romantic partner were
included in the present study. The majority of respondents who did not complete
all of the study measures were individuals who did not currently have romantic
partners. Their responses on the remaining study measures were not significantly
different than the individuals who reported on both social agents.
This remaining sample was typical of this particular university. A majority
of these 18–22 year-old (M = 19.7) students were white (N = 112; African-
American N = 18; Hispanic N = 5; Asian-American N = 1) and from intact
family systems (N = 108). The respondents indicated on average, serious romantic
relationship involvement of almost 2 years (M = 21 months; SD = 19). Length
of romantic relationship involvement was not related to any of the study measures
in terms of statistical significance.

Materials

Participants were administered a questionnaire packet that included the fol-

lowing components.

Attachment Orientations

Attachment orientations were assessed using the Relationship Styles Ques-

tionnaire (RSQ; Griffin and Bartholomew, 1994), a 30-item measure that assesses
general orientations to close relationships. Each item is scored on a 5 point scale
ranging from "Not at all like me" to "Very much like me." This instrument has good
internal consistency and derived attachment orientations correlate well with attach-
ment data provided by other informants pertaining to the respondent (e.g., Griffin
and Bartholomew, 1994). In addition, similar measures of attachment orientation
have shown that attachment dimensions (e.g., secure-avoidant; secure-ambivalent)
garnered from such instruments correlate with observations of conflict manage-
ment behavior (Simpson et al., 1996) and support seeking (Simpson et al., 1992)
with attachment figures in predictable ways.
To construct relationship dimensions in the current study, a principal compo-
nents factor analysis of the 30 RSQ items was conducted followed by varimax ro-
tation. Similar to other researchers (e.g., Griffin and Bartholomew, 1994; Simpson
et al., 1996), two major attachment dimensions were confirmed. The first dimen-
sion (eigenvalue = 8.76), accounting for 29% of the variance, contains items that
reflect an individual's tendency to avoid relationships and hold negative views of
others. Ten items (e.g., "I find it difficult to depend on other people"; "I am some-
what uncomfortable getting close to others") from the RSQ loaded highly on this
dimension (.40 or greater) with low scores indicating greater security and high
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 531

scores indicating more avoidance. The internal consistency of this dimension was
good (alpha = .84).
The second dimension (eigenvalue = 4.41), accounting for an additional 15%
of the variance, includes items that reflect an individual's beliefs about worthiness
of self as an attachment figure and reflects a general sense of ambivalence regarding
relationships. Eight items (e.g., "I worry about being alone"; "I find others are reluc-
tant to get as close as I would like") from the RSQ loaded highly on this dimension
with low scores indicating greater security and high scores reflecting more am-
bivalence. This dimension also was internally consistent (alpha = .83) and was not
significantly correlated with the secure/avoidance dimension (r = .10, p < .22).

Negative Mood Regulation Expectancies

The negative mood regulation scale (NMR; Catanzaro and Mearns, 1990)
was used to assess confidence in negative mood regulation. The NMR is a 30-item
scale in which respondents on a 5-point scale (1 = "strongly disagree" to 5 =
"strongly agree") endorse the degree of certainty that one has in their ability to
alter negative emotions (e.g., "When I'm upset I can do something to make myself
feel better."; "When I'm upset I'll end up feeling really depressed"). Higher scores
indicate more confidence in negative mood regulation. The NMR has established
psychometric properties, and high scores on this measure have been found to neg-
atively correlate with measures of depressive symptoms and maladaptive coping
strategies in a number of populations (e.g., Catanzaro, 1994; Catanzaro et al.,
1995). The internal consistency of this scale for the current sample was excellent
(alpha = .91).

Conflict Management Strategies

Respondents separately rated conflict management strategies with a best

friend and a steady romantic partner on the 109-item Managing Affect and Dif-
ferences Scale (MADS; Arellano and Markman, 1995). The MADS contains sub-
scales theoretically designed to assess positive communication between attachment
figures. The subscales include: (1) Love and affection ("This person is affection-
ate toward me"); (2) Emotional expressivity ("I tell this person when I'm disap-
pointed"); (3) Validation ("I try to understand this person's complaint"); (4) Fo-
cusing ("When we drift off topic, I try to get us on track"); (5) Communication
over time ("We confide in each other more than in the past"); (6) Editing ("I try
to focus on the positive side of the situation"); (7) Feedback ("I summarize this
person's message to make sure that point of view is understood"); (8) Stop actions
("When conflicts get out of hand, we agree to stop and talk about things later");
and (9) Leveling ("When upset about something I have done, this person tells
me"). This instrument also contains conflict management difficulty subscales that
532 Creasey et al.

assess: (1) Negative conflict escalation ("When we argue, my negative feelings rise
quickly"); (2) Negativity ("We attack each other and do not listen to the other's
gripes"); and (3) Conflict withdrawal ("When discussing issues, I remain silent").
Items are endorsed on a 5-point scale (1 = "strongly disagree" to 5 = "strongly
agree"), with higher scores on all subscales indicating greater use of the con-
flict management strategy. The MADS has good internal consistency, has been
shown to discriminate distressed and nondistressed couples, and several of the
scales assessing negative communication behaviors have been validated against
actual behavior observations (Arellano and Markman, 1995). Internal consis-
tency of subscales in the present study was good, ranging from a low alpha of
.58 for conflict withdrawal to .92 for negativity displayed during conflict ex-
changes.

RESULTS

Conflict Management Strategies With Friends and Romantic Partners

Means and standard deviations of MADS scores are presented in Table I with
paired comparison t-test analyses. The general pattern of results indicated that
respondents used more constructive conflict management techniques with roman-
tic partners, yet at the same time, indicated more negative escalation, negativity,

Table I. Descriptive Statistics on Managing Affect and Differences Scale (MADS) a

Social Agent
Best Friend Romantic Partner
MADS Subscale Mean SD Mean SD t
Loving 4.10 .47 4.51 .41 8.27e
Emotional expressivity 4.50 .46 4.63 .38 4.53e
Validation 4.45 .37 4.51 .38 1.51
Focusing 3.84 .65 3.82 .69 –.50
Communication over time 4.07 .82 4.34 .70 4.10e
Editing 4.21 .47 4.26 .50 1.17
Feedback 4.30 .51 4.40 .51 2.53d
Stop actions 3.15 .96 3.05 1.0 –1.93c
Leveling 4.13 .53 4.34 .48 4.83e
Negative escalation 2.39 .74 2.69 .87 5.02e
Negativity 2.38 .68 2.64 .83 4.69e
Withdrawal 2.23 .64 2.31 .67 1.74b

aHigher scores indicate greater use of conflict management strategy.

bp < .10.
cp < .05.
dp < .01.
ep < .0001.
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 533

and to some degree, more conflict withdrawal with these individuals. Thus, the
prediction that conflict management skills would be better with romantic partners
was confirmed; however, these relationships were more volatile as well. In addi-
tion, although conclusions cannot be drawn from comparing the MADS results
from this sample with Arellano and Markman's (1995) sample of distressed and
nondistressed romantic couples, it is interesting to note that the use of each con-
flict management skill for the romantic couples (at least from the perspective of
one partner) in the present study was much more similar to that study's sample of
satisfied couples than to the distressed dyads.

Associations Between Study Measures

Correlational analyses were conducted to determine associations between

the study measures. First, the results indicated significant negative associations
between the Avoidance (r = –.27, p < .0001) and Ambivalent (r = –.36,
p < .0001) dimensions of the RSQ and the Negative Mood Regulation Scale.
Thus, the hypothesis that insecure attachment orientations would be significantly
related to less confidence in negative mood regulation was confirmed. Table II
reports correlations between the RSQ attachment orientations, NMR scale, and
conflict management strategies used with best friends and romantic partners. First,
the prediction that insecure attachment representations would be related to less use
of conflict management skills received partial support. Interestingly, and consis-
tent with attachment theory, high scores on the RSQ Avoidance dimension were
consistently associated with less use of conflict management skills associated with
emotional support (e.g., Love and affection, Emotional expressivity, Leveling).
This finding was not apparent among adolescents who had elevated scores on the
Ambivalent dimension.
In addition, in terms of conflict management skills that reflect instrumen-
tal support (e.g., Validation, Editing, Feedback), high Ambivalence and Avoid-
ance scores were negatively associated with a number of such skills, suggesting
that these adolescents may have difficulties attending to other people's messages
or understanding another's point, or they may jump quickly to conclusions re-
garding another person's behaviors or discourse during quarrels. Further, in a
number of cases, insecure attachment orientations were more closely associated
with conflict management skill deficits with romantic partners than with best
friends.
In terms of conflict management difficulties, high Ambivalence scores were
significantly associated with more conflict escalation and negativity with both
best friends and romantic partners. However, higher scores were not related to a
greater incidence of conflict withdrawal with these attachment figures. In contrast,
while high scores on the Avoidance dimension were significantly associated with
534 Creasey et al.

Table II. Correlations Between RSQ, NMR Scale and MADS Subscales
Attachment Dimensions
MADS Subscale Avoidance Ambivalence NMR Scale

Love and affection

Best friend –.21c -.03 .17b
Romantic partner –.33e -.03 .04
Emotional expressivity
c
Best friend –.23 -.06 .18b
Romantic partner –.29d -.16a .10
Validation
a a
Best friend -.16 -.14 .28d
Romantic partner –.28d –.30d .32e
Focusing
Best friend -.09 -.11 .21c
Romantic partner -.07 –.24c .21c
Communication over time
Best friend -.06 .08 .03
Romantic partner -.19b -.10 .13
Editing
Best friend –.19b -.17b .23c
Romantic partner –.23c –.26c .21c
Feedback
Best friend -.12 -.04 .19b
Romantic partner -.18b –.19b .22c
Stop actions
Best friend .03 .07 .19b
Romantic partner -.02 -.02 .22c
Leveling
Best friend -.10 -.05 .19b
Romantic partner –.27d -.15a .18b
Negative escalation
Best friend .17b .41e –.38e
Romantic partner .14a .42e -.29d
Negativity
Best friend .26c .31d –.38e
Romantic partner .31d .40e –.34e
Withdrawal
Best friend .15a .15a -.19b
Romantic partner .25c .13 -.17b
a
p < .10.
b
p < .05.
c
p < .01.
d
p < .001.
e
p < .0001.

conflict management negativity, as predicted, high scores were also related to more
conflict withdrawal (although only a statistical trend for best friends). In addition,
while there was a significant relationship between Avoidance scores and conflict
escalation with best friends, this relationship only approached significance for
romantic partners, and the correlational strength between attachment orientation
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 535

and conflict escalation was stronger for the Ambivalent than Avoidance dimension
for best friends (t = 2.33, p < .01) and romantic partners (t = 2.73, p < .01).

Predicting Conflict Management Strategies: The Role of Attachment

and Mood Regulation

A series of regression analyses was conducted in which the MADS conflict

management scales were regressed on the attachment orientation and negative
mood regulation study measures. To reduce the number of analyses, a factor anal-
ysis of the MADS subscales was conducted. This analysis revealed that the conflict
management skill scales of this instrument loaded reliably (i.e., .40 or greater) on
one factor (eigenvalue = 5.18; variance accounted for = 43%) while the Negativ-
ity and Conflict Escalation scales loaded on a second factor (eigenvalue = 1.96;
variance accounted for = 16%). On a third factor, only the Conflict Withdrawal
scale loaded on this dimension (eigenvalue = 1.21; variance accounted for =
10%). Based upon these results, the conflict management skill scales were com-
bined to form one dimension, the Negativity and Conflict Escalation scales were
combined to form a second, and the Conflict Withdrawal scale was used by itself
in the analyses.
In terms of predicting conflict management skills, the correlational results
again support the point that insecure attachment orientations seem to be more
closely associated with deficits in conflict management skills with romantic part-
ners than best friends (see r's presented in Table III). Because the attachment scales
were not directly correlated with the aggregate measure of conflict management
skills with best friends, testing a potential mediational model was not prudent.
However, because the attachment orientation measures were directly associated

Table III. Regression Analyses Predicting Conflict Management Skills

Total Conflict Management Skills
Study Variable r b SE t B

Best friend
Avoidance -.15a -.57 .39 -1.46 -.12
Ambivalence -.04 .03 .40 .09 .01
b
NMR .25c .48 .19 2.52 .23
Romantic partner
Avoidance –.25c -1.03 .35 –2.91c -.24
Ambivalence –.21c -.71 .36 –1.96b -.17
NMR .27d .27 .17 1.58 .14
a
p < .10.
b
p < .05.
c
p < .01.
d
p < .001.
536 Creasey et al.

with conflict management skills with romantic partners, a mediational model was
tested in which the attachment measures were considered the independent vari-
ables, confidence in negative mood regulation was treated as a potential mediator
variable, and the aggregate measure of conflict management skills was treated as
the dependent variable. In order for a variable to be considered a mediating vari-
able, the following conditions must be met: (1) The independent variable must be
significantly associated with the mediator; (2) the mediator must be significantly
associated with the dependent variable; and (3) the relationship between the in-
dependent variable and the dependent variable must be reduced when the indirect
effects are controlled (cf. Baron and Kenny, 1986).
Because significant associations were reported between the attachment orien-
tation and confidence in mood regulation measures earlier in this section, condition
one of the Baron and Kenny model (1986) was addressed for all analyses. In addi-
tion, Table III reveals that confidence in negative mood regulation was significantly
associated with conflict management skills with romantic partners. On the other
hand, the regression analyses reported in Table III indicate that the association
between the attachment orientation measures and conflict management strategies
with romantic partners was not appreciably reduced with the addition of the nega-
tive mood regulation scale. This finding can be readily witnessed by comparing the
correlations between the attachment dimensions and conflict management skills
reported in Table III with the standardized beta weights of the attachment dimen-
sions garnered from the regression analysis that included confidence in negative
mood regulation in the model statement.
In terms of predicting conflict negativity/escalation, both attachment orien-
tation scales and the NMR scale were consistently associated with this dimension
(see r's in Table IV). In addition, regression analyses were conducted in which the

Table IV. Regression Analyses Predicting Conflict Negativity/Escalation

Negativity/Escalation
Study Variable r b SE t B
Best friend
Avoidance .25c .28 .15 1.88 .15
Ambivalence .36e .47 .15 3.12c .25
NMR –.40e -.23 .07 –3.24d -.27
Romantic partner
c
Avoidance .27 .44 .17 –2.48c .19
Ambivalence .42e .78 .18 –4.33e .34
NMR –.34e -.17 .09 1.98b -.16
a
p < .10.
b
p < .05.
c
p < .01.
d
p < .001.
e
p < .0001.
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 537

Table V. Regression Analyses Predicting Conflict Withdrawal

Conflict Withdrawal
Study Variable r b SE t B
Best friend
Avoidance .15a .06 .05 1.27 .11
Ambivalence .15a .04 .05 .99 .09
NMR -.19b -.03 .02 –1.40 -.13
Romantic partner
Avoidance .25c .12 .05 -2.54b .22
Ambivalence .13c .05 .05 .96 .08
NMR -.17b -.02 .02 -.93 -.08
a
p < .10.
b
p < .05.
c
p < .01.

attachment and confidence in negative mood regulation measures were regressed

on the aggregate conflict negativity/escalation measure. While the inclusion of
the NMR scale with the attachment measures suggests that confidence in mood
regulation accounts for additional variance in explaining these conflict manage-
ment difficulties with best friends and romantic partners, it is also interesting to
note that the associations between the attachment orientation measures and conflict
management problems are somewhat reduced as well. Although confidence in neg-
ative mood regulation does not completely eliminate the association between the
attachment measures and conflict negativity/escalation with friends and romantic
partners, it plays a partial mediating role.
In terms of predicting conflict withdrawal with friends and romantic partners
(Table V), a mediational model was tested only for predicting these difficulties
with romantic partners because the attachment orientation measures were not di-
rectly associated with conflict withdrawal with best friends. In terms of conflict
withdrawal with romantic partners, the correlational analyses indicate that attach-
ment avoidance and confidence in negative mood regulation were associated with
this conflict management difficulty. However, when the attachment and confidence
in negative mood regulation measures were regressed on conflict withdrawal with
romantic partners, the relationship between attachment avoidance and conflict
withdrawal was not appreciably reduced.

DISCUSSION

Attachment theory (e.g., Collins and Read, 1994; Main, 1996) and research
(Collins, 1996; Simpson et al., 1996) would predict that more avoidant and am-
bivalent adolescents would show disruptions in affect regulation and attachment
relationships. The current study supported these central predictions since more
538 Creasey et al.

insecure college students were more likely to feel they could do little to alter a
negative mood state than did more secure individuals; this ability also predicted
conflict management skills and difficulties. One might imagine that confidence
in negative mood regulation is critical during conflict negotiation since elevated
anger or sadness may increase the likelihood of misinterpreting a partner's dis-
course or body language, may make it more difficult to collect thoughts during
an altercation, or may cause one to say or do something during the disagreement
that one may later regret (e.g., Gottman, 1993). In addition, confidence in negative
mood regulation may have important implications for predicting mood recovery
after an altercation has ended. Indeed, it has been documented that this ability
also predicts psychological functioning following the termination of adolescent
romantic relationships (Mearns, 1991).
The present results also support the premise that adolescent attachment ori-
entations are related to relationship functioning. In general, more ambivalent and
avoidant adolescents are involved with conflicts with attachment figures (both best
friends and romantic partners) that are marked by high levels of general negativ-
ity. Thus, quarrels between these individuals probably involve such problematic
conflict management behaviors as nagging, whining, defensiveness, and cross-
complaining. Such actions hold little promise in terms of conflict resolution. In
addition, while the study results suggest that more avoidant and ambivalent ado-
lescents perceive increased negativity with attachment figures, the results also
indicate that differences in attachment orientation may predict specific types of
conflict management difficulties. For example, compared to individuals who en-
dorsed more secure and avoidant attachment orientations, highly ambivalent re-
spondents were more likely to report getting into disagreements with attachment
figures that involved angry, out-of-control arguments. This finding makes sense
when one considers that theoretically, highly ambivalent individuals are hypervig-
ilant about interactions pertaining to attachment figures, perceive their emotional
well-being as highly contingent on optimal relationships, and react to potential
relationship loss/stress with anger and hostility as a vehicle to invoke guilt or
sympathy from the attachment figure (e.g., Bowlby, 1973; Main et al., 1985).
Conversely, because avoidant individuals tend to accept unavailability from others
and are more likely to emotionally deactivate during times of relationship stress
(e.g., Dozier and Kobak, 1992; Main et al., 1985) it is not surprising that these
individuals reported more conflict withdrawal (i.e., at least with romantic partners)
than ambivalent respondents. In addition, while conflict escalation was greater for
more ambivalent adolescents, more avoidant individuals also indicated conflict
escalation during conflict management routines. Whether this escalation occurs
before or after conflict withdrawal is an interesting question on a number of fronts.
The general finding that more ambivalent adolescents may attack during dis-
agreements with attachment figures while more avoidant individuals withdraw
deserves more empirical and theoretical attention. For example, relationship ex-
perts have strongly suggested that the most potent predictor of adult romantic
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 539

relationship demise is how well couples manage conflict and disagreements (e.g.,
Gottman, 1993). Adult couples at high risk for relationship distress or termination
are often in relationships in which (1) partners during conflict negotiation attack
one another via contempt, domineering, or belligerence or (2) a member of the cou-
ple suddenly withdraws from the disagreement (Christensen, 1988; Gottman and
Levenson, 1992). Marshaling together the data from the present study with current
attachment theory and research (e.g., Bowlby, 1980; Simpson et al., 1996), suggests
that attachment orientations may hold some promise in predicting these corrosive
styles of conflict management in both adolescent and adult populations. While
one cannot assume that the problematic conflict management styles demonstrated
in adolescent attachment relationships automatically translate into difficulties in
future relationship domains (e.g., marriage), until proven otherwise, one cannot
rule out the possibility.
The current study was one of the first to associate adolescent attachment orien-
tations with conflict management skills. While the study results partially supports
the prediction that insecure orientations are related to less skilled interactions
with best friends and romantic partners, there is the suggestion that more avoidant
and ambivalent adolescents use different types of conflict management skills that
are dependent on attachment context. Consistent with attachment theory (Bowlby,
1980; Hazan and Shaver, 1987), which suggests that individuals with avoidant rep-
resentations are more likely to devalue intimacy and behave in emotionally distant
ways, the more avoidant respondents in the current study reported less use of con-
flict management strategies involving emotional support, such as emotion sharing,
affection, and disclosure than ambivalent and secure respondents. Likewise, other
researchers have found that when asked, adolescents who have close relationships
with these avoidant individuals often report them as emotionally distant and aloof
(Kobak and Sceery, 1988).
While more ambivalent adolescents may use conflict management skills that
reflect emotional support, these individuals apparently do not use these skills to
their advantage given the finding that the same individuals report high negativity
and conflict escalation in their attachment relationships. Consistent with attach-
ment theory (e.g., Bowlby, 1973), ambivalent adolescents may occasionally use
these skills during low-level disagreements or at the beginning of conflict nego-
tiation, yet may switch to more problematic modes of behavior (e.g., contempt,
domineering) once the attachment system is fully activated as a conflict escalates
or if a major problem arises. Indeed, the Simpson et al. (1996) finding that col-
lege students with ambivalent orientations were more likely to display anger and
hostility toward romantic partners when discussing a major versus minor problem
supports this particular premise.
In terms of relations between attachment orientation and conflict management
skills, several interesting findings emerge. First, instrumental conflict management
deficits and insecure attachment orientation are somewhat stronger with a roman-
tic partner as opposed to a friend. The basis for this finding is somewhat unclear;
540 Creasey et al.

perhaps adolescents have a strong investment in maintaining a steady romantic

relationship, and potential fears and anxieties regarding this particular attachment
figure (e.g., fear of abandonment, concerns regarding unavailability of romantic
partner) more strongly activate the attachment system during times of relationship
distress.
Secondly, the results suggest that more ambivalent and avoidant adolescents
may suffer from fundamental social information processing difficulties during
conflict with attachment figures (particularly romantic partners) given the sig-
nificant associations between attachment insecurity and such difficulties as fail-
ure to listen carefully to the messages communicated by an attachment figure
or not supporting a partner's positive messages through validation. The infre-
quent use of feedback strategies also suggests that insecure adolescents may fre-
quently misinterpret verbal and behavioral messages submitted by attachment
figures during disagreements. Finally, if confidence in negative mood regulation
is construed as another step in the emotional/cognitive/behavioral process when
involved in a potential disagreement with an attachment figure, then we offer addi-
tional evidence that insecure adolescents may suffer important breakdowns in so-
cial information processing abilities during conflict negotiation or problem solving
efforts.
The future examination of potential social information processing deficits
among adolescents and adults with insecure attachment representations is impor-
tant on a number of fronts. For example, broad theoretical approaches and methods
designed to explain and assess how individuals emotionally react, cognitively ap-
praise, and cope with relationship distress (e.g., Karney and Bradbury, 1995) could
be integrated with attachment theory in guiding future research efforts. For exam-
ple, one could hypothesize that because avoidant people expect attachment figures
to be unavailable during times of relationship stress then these individuals may dis-
play predictable affective responses, as well as primary (e.g., views a concern of a
partner as unimportnat or irrelevant) and secondary (e.g., less confidence that they
could enact an active coping strategy, such as humor or affection, to help alleviate
a disagreement) appraisals, which in turn encourage predictable coping responses
(e.g., inattentiveness, withdrawal) during arguments or debates with attachment
figures.
In addition, the finding that attachment orientations were related to confi-
dence in negative mood regulation and the suggestion that such confidence par-
tially mediates relations between attachment styles and conflict management neg-
ativity/escalation have possible intervention implications. While the alteration
of insecure attachment representations represents an exciting therapeutic direc-
tion (e.g., Bowlby, 1988; Krause and Haverkamp, 1996; Pistole, 1989), actually
changing these mental models may take some time given the resistant nature of
such representations for major change (Bowlby, 1980). Conversely, if adolescents
with insecure attachment orientations do in fact have little confidence in nega-
tive mood regulation, firmly believe they can do little to prevent arguments from
Conflict and Adolescent Attachment 541

escalating, and quickly jump to unwarranted conclusions as a partner begins to

provide a certain point of view during a disagreement, there exists the possibility
that cognitive-behavioral interventions (e.g., Baucom and Epstein, 1990) designed
to alter such expectancies and cognitive appraisals in the present relationship may
have important value.
While the results of this study are interesting, a number of its limitations could
be addressed through future research efforts. First, the study sample was entirely
female; thus, the inclusion of males for gender comparisons would be in order.
Second, all of the instruments used were of self-report variety; thus, the possibility
exists for shared method variance and presentational biases. However, while a call
for more multi-informant, observational research is necessary, several findings
in the present study were similar to results presented by other researchers using
observational methods. For example, the finding that more ambivalent adolescents
reported more conflict escalation is similar to the Simpson et al. (1996) finding
that such people actually escalate disagreements when observed solving a problem
with a romantic partner.
Another potential methodological concern is that the correlational nature of
this study prohibits strong conclusions regarding causal associations among the
study variables. For example, while one can theoretically make the assumption that
attachment orientations should predict the development of affect regulation skills,
early, fundamental problems in affect regulation might cause major problems in
relationships, which in turn influence broad thinking about attachment. However,
in the spirit of contemporary theories of relationship development (e.g., Karney and
Bradbury, 1995), the associations between the constructs of interest are probably
part of a transactional process. Thus, longitudinal research might be a necessary
step in more clearly delineating this process.

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