MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

Mechanics of solids is the branch of applied mechanics which is concerned

with the behavior of materials under load, relationships between externally applied
loads and internally resisting forces, and associated deformations. Knowledge of the
properties of materials and analysis of the forces involved are fundamental to the
investigation and design of structures. The term “strength of materials” most often
refers to various methods of calculating stresses in structural members such as
beams, columns and shafts.

PURPOSE:
A structural system is not only affected by external conditions, but also by the
properties and behavior of the materials which comprise it. These also determine the
nature of the system's reaction(s) to external forces. The study of Strength of
Materials is concerned specifically with the following issues:
 The internal reactions of a member caused by the external forces acting on that
member or system.
 The changes in dimensions of a member caused by these forces.
 The physical properties of the material in the member that defines the response
of the material.
 The behavior adopted by any particular material in countering the applied forces.

The principal object is to determine the proper size and cross-sectional

dimensions of the structural element which have to bear applied loads (design), or,
conversely, to determine the loads which can be safely applied to elements whose
dimensions and loading arrangements are already known (analysis). It also deals
with the relation between the applied loads and the dimensional changes caused.
 THE AUXILIARY INSTRUMENTS

SIGNIFICANCE:
 To get familiar with auxiliary instruments that are vital for the measurements
 To observe the limitations of various instruments
 To study field of application of different instruments e.g., Vernier Calliper and
micro-meter are used for linear measurements but cannot be use for angular
measurements.

INSTRUMENTS:
Instruments to be employed during different tests are:
 Vernier Calliper
 Micro-meter Screw Gauge
 Baty‟s Deflection Gauge
 Extensometer
 Dial Gauge
 Callipers
 Spring Divider

VERNIER CALLIPERS
It is used for linear dimensions, internal and external diameter of different objects.
Linear dimensions include length, width and breadth etc

Parts of Varnier Caliper:

 Outside Jaws: They are used to measure external diameter or width of an object.
 Inside Jaws: They are used to measure internal diameter or width of an object.
 Depth Probe: used to measure depth of objects or hole
 Retainer: It is used to block movable part of caliper so that the measurement can
be made with ease and without any change.
 Main Scale: Main Scale is marked in millimeters and can give values of
measurements up to 0.1mm
 Minor Scale: Minor Scale defines the value of main scale in fractions and can
give value up to 0.05mm.

Scales
It has two scales
1. Main scale or major scale

2. Vernier Scale or minor scale

Least count
Least count is the least value of measurement that can be taken by any instrument
precisely. Least count of Vernier Calliper available in the strength of material lab has
least count of 0.05mm

MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

Purpose
It is used to measure thickness, external diamet and length of small objects. It
is more accurate than vernier caliper as its least count is more refined than vernier
calliper

Scales
It consists of two scales
1. Main Scale or Horizontal Scale
2. Minor Scale or micrometer screw -scale

Least count
It has a least count of 0.01 mm
BATY’S DEFLECTION GAUGE
Purpose
It is used to measure the deflection in beams which is the vertical devotion of
a material from its longitudinal axis. The maximum deflection in beams should not be
greater than 1 inch as it is the maximum value of deflection that can be measure
using gauge. It is provided with a “push” button to on/off the magnetic field.
Magnetic field is used to grip the object with instrument so the deflection can be
measure easily.

Baty‟s Deflection Gauge

Scales
It has two scales
1. Main Scale or Smaller circular scale: Main scale comprises of 10 divisions.
2. Minor Scale or Larger Circular scale: Minor Scale is divided into 100 divisions.

Least count
Least Count of defection gauge is 0.001 in

Parts of Baty’s Deflection Gauge:

 Main Dial
 Compressible Pin
 Pushing Knob
 Vertical Stem to support Dial Gauge
BATY’S EXTENSOMETER
Purpose
It is used to measure elongation or compression due to applied stress or load.

Parts of Extensometer:
 Main Dial Gauge
 Compressible Pin
 Curved Limb
 Straight Limb

DIAL GAUGE
Purpose
Dial Gauges are use to measure deflections. It can also use to measure linear
dimensions like length, width and height etc.

Measuring Capacity
At maximum, It can measure to 1”. At minimum, it can measure to about
0.0025” which is the Least Count of this instrument. It is a highly sensitive instrument
and can measure very small deformations correctly.

Scale:
It has two scales
1 Main Scale or Smaller circular scale: The dial is divided into 25 parts.
2 Minor Scale or Larger circular scale: The larger circular dial is divided into 100
parts.
CALIPERS:
The term “caliper” is used for any measuring device which is used to measure
the distance between two opposite sides of an object.

Outside Calipers
Purpose:
It is used to measure external diameter and length of small objects roughly. It
is used in combination of a meter ruler.

Fig: Inside Caliper

Scale
It has no scale. It is used in conjunction with the meter rod.

Least Count
It has least count of one foo-Ruler, which is 0.5mm

Inside Calipers
Purpose
It is used to measure internal diameters of circular and hollow objects.

Scale
It has no scale

Least Count
It has least count of one foot ruler, which is 0.5mm
 Fig: Outside Caliper

Spring Divider:
Spring Divider is used to measure linear dimensions like length, width and
diameter of smaller objects. It is used to mark gauge length. It is used in combination
of one foot ruler.

Fig: Spring Divider

Scale
It has no scale

Least Count
It has least count of one foot ruler, which is 0.5mm
 TENSION TEST

Test is performed for the determination of behavior of materials under axial

tensile loading. Data from test are used to determine elastic limit, percentage
elongation, modulus of elasticity, proportional limit, reduction in area, tensile
strength, yield point, Yield Strength and other related properties. The standard
adopted to check the adequacy of test is ASTM A615/ 615M.

Purpose:

 To study stress-strain behavior of steel sample

 On basis of stress-strain data, various physical parameters like Modulus of
Elasticity, Modulus of Toughness, Elastic limit, Proportional Limit, Yield Point,
Yield Strength and Ultimate Strength etc, are determined.

Related Theory:

STRESS:
Stress is defined as the total internal resisting force per unit resisting area.
Under the action of applied load „P‟, the stress produced on unit resisting area „A‟ is
symbolically represented by the Greek symbol Sigma “ζ” which is mathematically
calculated as:

𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
Where “ζ” is in Pascal (N/m2) or psf (lbs/ft2)

STRAIN:
Strain is the measure of change in dimension of any element under the action
of load. It gives the value of relative change with respect to the original dimension.
Mathematically, it is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length. If
on an element of length „L‟, due to application of load the new length is „L2‟, the unit
strain produced is symbolically denoted by Greek symbol epsilon „ε‟ and computed
as:

𝛿𝐿
𝜖=
𝐿
Where, δL = L2 - L

As strain is the ratio, it‟s a unit-less quantity but for convenience, it is often
represented in the units of “mm/mm” or “inch/inch”
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM:
It is a diagram that shows the relation between stress and strain exhibited by
particular material. The stress-strain curves are extremely important graphical
measure of mechanical properties of materials like modulus of elasticity, modulus of
toughness, rigidity, yield strength and ultimate strength.

This diagram is plotted from the results of tensile test in which one end of
material is clamped in loading frame and other end is subjected to controlled
displacement i.e., displacement at uniform rate. The machine displays the
corresponding value of load P. With the known dimensions of cross-section of the
member and knowing the Length, stress and strain values can be computed. With
strain (in percentage) on abscissa and stress (in Pa) on ordinate, the graph is plotted
against calculated values obtained from tensile test. The resultant graph is the
stress-strain curve for the testing material. A typical Stress-strain curve for a
structural steel is shown in the figure 01:

Fig 01: Typical Stress-Strain Curve for a Ductile Material

COMPONENTS OF STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:

A stress-strain curve exhibits four zones which are termed as Elastic
Zone, Yielding Zone, Strain Hardening Zone and necking Zone. Yielding Zone,
Strain Hardening Zone and Necking Zone explain the plastic behavior of materials.
In addition to zones, different limiting values can also be obtained from the diagram.
Figure 02 shows the typical distribution of stress-strain curve into various
components:
 Fig 02: typical Stress-Strain Curve Components

ELASTIC ZONE OR LINEAR ZONE:

Region of stress-strain curve extending from origin to the Proportional limit is
termed as “Elastic Zone”. In this zone, stress is proportional to stress i.e., Hooke‟s
law is valid. The material within this zone exhibits elastic behavior.

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT:
Proportional limit is the maximum value of stress that may be developed
during a simple tensile test such that the stress is the linear function of strain.

ELASTIC LIMIT:
Elastic Limits is the stress beyond which the material will remain no more
elastic when unloaded but will retain a permanent deformation known as permanent
set.

YIELDING ZONE:
In this zone, against a prominent increase in strain, there is a little change in
stress. This zone is referred as yielding zone as material elongates or “yield” in this
zone. In this zone, material deforms permanently
YIELD POINT:
The point on the stress-strain curve which is once passed, there is an
appreciable elongation or yielding of a material without any considerable increase in
the stress.

YIELD STRENGTH:
Yield Strength of a material is defined as the stress applied to the material at
which plastic deformation starts to occur while the material is loaded.

STRAIN HARDENING ZONE:

If a ductile material be stressed beyond the yield point without failure, the
material is said to be “Strain Hardened”. It is the zone after yielding when the
particles of material rearranging themselves and start taking load again. So stress,
start increasing.

TENSILE STRENGTH:
Maximum or highest ordinate on the Stress-Strain Diagram is called “Tensile
or Ultimate Strength” of sample. It is commonly considered as the maximum strength
of material.

NECKING ZONE:
Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the sample after the ultimate
strength is called necking. This continues up to rupture. After the rupture when the
sample breaks then cup cone shape is formed at breaking edges.

RUPTURE STRENGTH:
It is the stress at failure. Rupture strength is always less than the ultimate
strength. For brittle materials, the ultimate and rupture strength are almost same.

YOUNG’S MODULUS:
Young‟s modulus, also termed as elastic modulus or modulus of elasticity is
the mathematical description of a material‟s tendency to deform elastically when a
force is applied to it. The elastic modulus of a material is defined as the slope of its
stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation region. Its units are those of stress as
strain is a dimensionless quantity.

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE:
The Resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a
permanent distortion. Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of
material as the force is gradually increased. This may be calculated as the area
under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E.
MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS:
The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to
break. Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the
force is gradually increased from O to R. This may be calculated as the area under
the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R).

DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS:

Materials having a relatively larger tensile strain up to the point of rupture or
failure are called as ductile materials, e.g. Structural Steel, Aluminum, etc. Whereas,
the materials having a relatively small tensile strain up to the point of rupture are
called as brittle materials, e.g Cast Iron, Concrete, etc.

Fig 03: Stress-Strain curve

(Courtesy “Strength of Material by Surya Patyanak)

APPARATUS:
 1000 KN Shimadzu Universal Testing Machine
 Extensometer
 Steel Ruler
 Vernier Caliper
 Meter Rod

PROCEDURE:
 Note down the shape and size of specimen, measure the length of specimen.
Find the cross sectional area of specimen.
 Mark the gauge length on the specimen throughout the length of the specimen for
determination of % elongation after fracture, i.e. Ductility.
 Fix the extensometer to measure the elongation up to its region and grip the
specimen in machine jaws. Note the gauge length of extensometer and its least
count.
 Calculate the expected Yield and Ultimate load and decide suitable load
increment and draw a table for recording readings of loads and extensions.
 Apply the load in desire increment and take readings of extensometer.
 Remove the extensometer at its limit and record the elongation with a spring
divider and steel ruler up to breaking point.
 Join the two broken pieces together and measure the approximate diameter at
failure zones for determination of final cross sectional area.
 Measure the change in lengths for gauge lengths marked throughout the lengths
of specimen for estimation of effect of gauge length on % age elongation
(ductility).

PRECAUTIONS:
 Remove the zero error from the vernier caliper and extensometer, if applicable
 Measure the gauge length of sample accurately
 Increase the load gradually on the sample
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Paste the graph obtained from UTM in the space provided:

Fill the Table considering the graph available:

Length of Bar = mm; Diameter of Bar = mm

Area of bar = mm2

Sr # Load (P) Deformation Stress Strain Remarks

 Flexural Strength:

The flexure test method measures behavior of materials subjected to simple

beam loading. Maximum fiber stress and maximum strain are calculated for
increments of load. Results are plotted in a stress-strain diagram. Flexural strength is
defined as the maximum stress in the outermost fiber.

PURPOSE:
 To study flexural behavior of wooden beam
 To draw elastic curve
 To find Modulus of Resilience

RELATED THEORY:
SHEAR FORCE:
Algebraic sum of all forces taken on one side of the member is termed as
shear force. Shear force tend to slides two part of the section against each other.
The resultant of shear force is the shearing action.

BENDING MOMENT:
Algebraic sum of all moments about centroidal axis of any selected section of
all loads acting either to left or right side of the section. As a result of bending, both
tension and compression come into play on opposite sides of the same section.

SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM:

Graphical diagram which shows the variation of shear force over the length of
the member.

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM:

Graphical diagram which shows the variation of bending moment over the
length of the member.

ELASTIC CURVE:
A line representing the deformed form of the neutral axis of the deformed
beam is known as Elastic Curve.
FLEXURAL STRESS:
Stresses produced by the bending moment are known as Flexural Stresses.
The Flexural stress formula gives relationship in bending moment and flexural
stresses.

𝑴𝒚
𝝈=
𝑰
Where:
M= Bending Moment at section along the length where stresses are required
I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section
y = vertical distance between neutral surface to the fiber where stresses are required
ζ = Flexural stress at y distance from Neutral Surface

MODULUS OF RUPTURE:
Also known as bending strength, Rupture Strength or Flexural Strength, it is
the ability of material to absorb energy before failure. It is calculated by determining
the energy absorbed per unit volume when the specimen is loaded from zero to
failure. It is the maximum tensile stress which can be developed in the beam before
failure.

LOADING ARRANGEMENT FOR EXPERIMENT:

SINGLE POINT LOADING:
In single point loading, over a simply supported beam, load is applied at the
center of the beam. In this case, the bending moment value will be maximum at the
center of beam. For a beam of length “L”, width “b” and height “h” and applied load
P, the maximum flexural stress will be

σmax = 1.5 (PL/bh2)

One Point Loading

TWO POINTS ARRANGEMENT:
In this arrangement, two equal loads act at the equal distance from the
support. In such a system the shear force acting between the loads is zero and
bending moment between the loads is constant and this zone in which shear force is
zero but bending moment do not is termed as pure bending zone. for the beam of
same cross-sectional dimensions as before, with applied load “P/2” at distance “L/3”
from nearest support, the maximum flexural stress in this case is

σmax = PL/bh2

Two Point Loading

APPARATUS:
 1000 kN UTM.
 Wooden Beam Sample
 Deflection Gauges
 Vernier Calliper

PROCEDURE:
 Measure the length, width and thickness of the beam.
 Mark the point showing location of supports, point loads, and deflection gauge.
 Set the wooden beam according to one point loading.
 Apply load gradually at the applied load.
 Remove the deflection gauge in order to prevent from their breakage.
 Keep on applying load until failure.
 Note the failure load.

PRECAUTIONS
 Make sure that the beam and load is placed at the proper position.
 Cross section of the beam should be large
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Paste the graph obtained from UTM in the space provided below:
Fill the Table considering the graph available:

Length of Beam = mm; Thickness of Beam = mm

Width of Beam = mm;

X-sec Area of bar:

Show the mathematical calculation of the cross-sectional area of beam used:

Second Moment of Area:

nd
Show the mathematical calculation of the 2 Moment of Area of section used:

Flexural Stresses:

Calculate the maximum flexural stresses produced in the section and show which fibers of section are in
tension and in compression.
 COMPRESSION STRENGTH TEST

Compression strength test is a method to determine behavior of materials

under crushing loads. Specimen is compressed and deformation at various loads is
recorded. Compressive stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain
diagram.

PURPOSE:
 To study stress-strain behavior of wooden sample under compressive load.
 To study the effect of orientation of wooden beam on its compressive strength.
 To study the effect of compressive force on wooden section when section is
placed such that its fibers are perpendicular or parallel to the direction of
application of load.

RELATED THEORY:
COMPRESSION STRENGTH:
Maximum compressive load resisting per unit area of a body is called
“Compressive Strength” of the body. It is the capacity of a material to withstand
compressive forces. When the limits of compressive strength are crossed, materials
are crushed.

MODULUS OF STIFFNESS:
Stiffness is the resistance of an elastic body to deform by an applied force. It is
the measure of resistance offered by an elastic body to compression. It is the load
required to produce unit displacement. We can also say that load corresponding to
unit displacement is called “Modulus of Stiffness”.

Where,

P = Force applied on the body

δ = The displacement produced by the force

If there is unit displacement, then k = (P/1), thus we can say that the load is
the measure of stiffness of the materiaVl for unit displacement. Units of „k‟ is (N/mm)

Relationship between Elasticity and Stiffness:

In general, elastic modulus is not the same as stiffness. Elastic modulus is a
property of the constituent material; stiffness is a property of a solid body. That is, the
elasticity is an internal property of the material; stiffness, on the other hand, is an
external property of the solid body dependent on the material and the shape and
boundary conditions.

MODULUS OF STIFFNESS:
Load required to produce unit displacement or deformation is called modulus
of stiffness.

FORMULA
Let,
A= Area of x-section
E= Modulus of elasticity of section
P= Applied load
L= Original length
d= Deformation in length
As we know that more the load is applied, more will be the deformation.
P∝d
Converting sign of proportionality into sign of equality, a constant “k” is introduced,
P=kd
d=P/k
K = P when d = 1 (unit deformation)

As we know that from hooke‟s law,

δ = PL / AE

P = k = A E δ / L (for unit deformation)

FAILURE MECHANISM IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS:

FAILURE OF WOODEN CUBE WHEN LOAD IS PARALLEL TO FIBERS:

When the load is applied parallel to fibers, the wooden sample will take more
load to fail. The ability of wood to take more loads parallel to fibers is because each
fiber act as column to the applied load and even after the failure of the single fiber
the rest of the fibers will keep on taking the load.

FAILURE OF WOODEN CUBE WHEN LOAD IS PERPENDICULAR TO

FIBERS:
When the load is applied perpendicular to the fibers, the wooden sample
takes comparatively less load. This is because the failure of the single fiber will lead
to the failure of the whole sample. The strength of the wooden sample when the load
is applied parallel to the grains is about ten times more as compare to when the load
is applied perpendicular to grains.
APPARATUS:
1. 1000 kN Shimadzu UTM.
2. Wooden Cubes
3. Deflection Gauge
4. Vernier Calipers

PROCEDURE:
 Take all the dimension of cubes with the help of Vernier Calipers
 Place the wooden cube in between the jigs of UTM.
 Apply the load gradually on the wooden cubes up to the failure of rupture and
note down the readings.
 Calculate failure strength of wood for both cases.

PRECAUTIONS:
 Check the zero error of Vernier Caliper
 The load should be apply gradually and uniformly
 Place the specimen at center of compression pads,
 Stop the UTM as soon as the specimen fails
 Cross sectional area of specimen for compression test should be kept large as
compared to the specimen for tension test: to obtain the proper degree of
stability.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:
Paste the graph obtained from UTM in the space provided below:
Fill the Table considering the graph available:

Length of Beam = mm; Thickness of Beam = mm

Width of Beam = mm; X-sec Area of bar = mm2

Sr # Load (P) Deformation Stress Strain Modulus of Stiffness

Elasticity „k‟
 IMPACT TEST (ASTM A-370)

Impact tests are designed to measure the resistance to failure of a material to

a suddenly applied force. It is a standardized high strain-rate test which determines
the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is
a measure of a given material's toughness and acts as a tool to study temperature-
dependent brittle-ductile transition. It is widely applied in industry, since it is easy to
prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and cheaply. But a major
disadvantage is that all results are only comparative. The most common methods of
measuring impact energy are the:

 Charpy Test
 Izod Test

Both involve striking a standard specimen with a controlled weight pendulum

travelling at a set speed. The amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the test piece
is measured and this gives an indication of the notch toughness of the test material.
These tests show that metals can be classified as being either 'brittle' or
'ductile'. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy when impact tested, a
tough ductile metal a large amount of energy. It should be emphasized that these
tests are qualitative, the results can only be compared with each other or with a
requirement in a specification.

CHARPY IMPACT TEST:

The Charpy specimen may be used with one of three different types of notch,
a 'keyhole', a 'U' and a 'V'. The keyhole and U-notch are used for the testing of brittle
materials such as cast iron and for the testing of plastics. The V-notch specimen is
the specimen of choice for weld testing and is the one discussed here.

SIGNIFICANCE:
“These test methods of impact testing relate specifically to the behavior of
metal when subjected to a single application of a force. For some materials and
temperatures, the results of impact tests on notched specimens, when correlated
with service experience, have been found to predict the likelihood of brittle fracture
accurately.”
Courtesy: ASTM E-22 Standard
TEST SPECIMENS:
 The type of specimen chosen depends largely upon the characteristics of the
material to be tested. A given specimen may not be equally satisfactory for soft
nonferrous metals and hardened steels; therefore, many types of specimens are
recognized. In general, sharper and deeper notches are required to distinguish
differences in very ductile materials or when using low testing velocities.
 The specimen shown in Fig. 1 is most widely used and most generally
satisfactory. They are particularly suitable for ferrous metals, excepting cast iron.
 The specimen commonly found suitable for die-cast alloys is shown in Fig. 2.
 The specimen commonly found suitable for powdered metals (P/M) is shown in
Figs. 3. The specimen surface may be in the as-produced condition or smoothly
machined, but polishing has proven generally unnecessary. Un-notched
specimens are used with P/M materials. In P/M materials, the impact test results
are affected by specimen orientation. Therefore, unless otherwise specified, the
position of the specimen in the machine shall be such that the pendulum will
strike a surface that is parallel to the compacting direction.

Fig.01:
 Fig.2

Fig.3

STANDARD CHARPY SPECIMEN:

According to ASTM A370, the standard specimen size for Charpy impact
testing is 10mm×10mm×55mm. Sub-size specimen sizes are can also be used as
per ANNEXES A2 ASTM E23-02a.

Before looking up the procedure lets first define what is meant by „toughness‟
since the impact test is only one method by which this material property is measured .

TOUGHNESS:

Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause

an item, a test piece or a bridge or a pressure vessel – to fracture and fail. The more
energy that is required then the tougher the material. The area beneath a
stress/strain curve produced from a tensile test is a measure of the toughness of the
test piece under slow loading conditions. Important factors that involve the toughness
of a material include: low temperatures, high strain rates (by impact or
pressurization), and stress concentrators such as notches cracks and voids.
 Charpy’s Impact Test

LOAD:
Load is the quantity that can be carried at one time by a specified means or a
mass or weight supported by something.

TYPES OF LOAD:
 Any load, as on a structure, which does not change in magnitude or position with
time is called Static load.
 Any load which is no static, such as a wind load or a moving live load is called
Dynamic load. We can also say that A load associated with the elastic
deformations of a structure subjected to time-dependent external forcesis
Dynamic load.
 The dynamic effect on a structure, either moving or at rest, of a forcible
momentary contact of another moving body. This type of load is called Impact
load.

Derivation of Impact Energy Formula:

E1=mgh1,
E2=mgh2
∆𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ2

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) ………..eq.1
ℎ1 − ℎ2
sin(𝜃 − 90) =
𝑅
ℎ1 = ℎ0 + 𝑅 sin(𝜃1 − 90)
Similarly ℎ2 = ℎ0 + 𝑅 sin(𝜃2 − 90)

Putting values of eq.1

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔 ℎ0 + 𝑅 sin(𝜃1 − 90 ) − (ℎ0 + 𝑅 sin(𝜃2 − 90))

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑅 sin(𝜃1 − 90) − (𝑅 sin(𝜃2 − 90)

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑅 − cos 𝜃2 − (−cos 𝜃1 )

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑅 cos⁡
(𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 )

This is the energy that will be stored in the material before the failure and is called as
toughness.

Modulus of toughness (MOT) = E / V

E = Energy stored

V = Volume

PROCEDURE:
 Check the center of the pendulum. If it‟s not centered then adjust the moveable
base.
 Drop the hammer from its initial position and calculate the free fall angle 𝜃1.
 Place the sample in the machine and again drop the hammer from maximum
position and note down the angle 𝜃2.
 Calculate change in energy ΔE using formula.
 Calculate Modulus of Toughness by the following formula

MOT= (ΔE/V)