Cl/SfB

Date: June 2001

CONFERENCE PAPER
No. 92 (2001)

Whole-Wall R-Values

Ian Cox-Smith

Presented at the CIB World Building Congress,

Wellington, New Zealand, April 2001.

Funding for this research was provided by the Building Research Levy and the
Public Good Science Fund of the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology.

ISSN: 0111-7505
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Paper number: 196

WHOLE-WALL R-VALUES

Ian R. Cox-Smith

Building Research Association of New Zealand, (BRANZ), Private Bag 50908, Porirua, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

New Zealand standards for the thermal insulation of buildings rely on simple one-dimensional rules
for the calculation of the thermal performance of building structures such as walls and ceilings. One
recent change to the New Zealand Building Code (NZBC, 1992) has been the requirement for a higher
level of energy efficiency from buildings in the cooler regions of the country. If this increased energy
efficiency is to be partly achieved by increasing the amount of thermal insulation incorporated into
the building structure, the effectiveness of the insulation strategy needs consideration.

This paper presents an analysis of the thermal resistance of walls when the one-dimensional
calculation methods for the clear-wall area are extended to two-dimensional calculations that include
the effects from the perimeter areas such as the junction between wall and roof or the junction
between walls and foundations.

The effectiveness of applying a higher performing insulation product to the walls of a building
constructed to typical building practices is very dependent on the type of construction. Increasing
performance expectations puts emphasis on improving the detailing for some construction types,
especially at the wall perimeters and around doors and windows. The relative importance of the
various details is discussed along with simple strategies for deriving a whole-wall R-value.

KEYWORDS:

Insulation; R-value; Whole-wall

INTRODUCTION

The New Zealand Building Code requires new residential houses to be insulated for both energy
efficiency and to reduce the likelihood of mould and mildew growth. This paper discusses issues
associated with the insulation of walls to meet the minimum requirements of the NZBC. The energy
efficiency requirement of the Code is expressed as a building performance index, but the most
common means of compliance is the incorporation of sufficient insulation to achieve a total R-value
for building envelope components such as walls, which is greater than the minimum values specified
in an associated Standard, NZS 4218:1996. The specifications depend on the type of construction, but
for standard timber and steel framed construction, walls must have an R-value of at least 1.5 m2K/W
in the warmer areas of the country and 1.9 m2K/W in the colder regions. The R-values for the
construction components, in this case walls, is determined using another Standard NZS 4214:1977
which is currently being reviewed as a joint Australian and New Zealand standard method for
calculating component R-values. The Standard uses a modified isothermal planes method, which was
developed by BRANZ and takes the form of a simple one-dimensional model that assigns standard
interior and exterior surface R-values. For code compliance requirements, the R-value is usually only
calculated for the centre of panel or so called clear-wall area. The peripheral areas such as top and
bottom plates, corners, window edges etc., are ignored.

The requirement for higher R-values in the cooler regions of New Zealand is a relatively new addition
to the Building Code and is part of ongoing reviews of the energy performance of residential
buildings that may in the future find justification for even higher values. As the total R-value of walls
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is increased, the framing becomes a more significant thermal bridge of the insulation, and design
aspects that minimise the bridging effects should be encouraged. Since the basic one-dimensional
calculation method is incapable of accounting for the performance of the perimeter areas of a wall, it
is important to know how the R-value calculated for the area in the middle of a wall relates to the R-
value of the whole opaque area of the wall.

MODELLING PRINCIPLE

Where designers do attempt to account for the extra framing timber associated with the perimeter
areas or zones, it is usually by first determining the ratio of framing to insulation and then doing an
isothermal planes calculation based on that ratio. This is likely to give a more conservative answer
than is the reality, as the isothermal planes method (Trethowen, 1995) essentially assumes that there is
significant lateral heat flow. The parallel flow calculation method is better suited to situations where
the zones are separated, essentially thermally independent, and the heat flow is perpendicular to the
building component under consideration.

The Building Envelope Research group at Oak Ridge National Laboratory has developed an on-line
whole-wall thermal performance calculator (ORNL, 1998). This calculates the R-value for either
standard house designs or custom designs, based on particular construction types and user-provided
information on the number and lengths of walls, and the number and size of windows and doors.
Individual parts of the wall such as corners or the junction between wall and floor, are modelled using
three-dimensional models and confirmed using laboratory-based guarded hotbox measurements of
full-scale sections of walls.

For the present work a more pragmatic approach has been taken, such as using two rather than three-
dimensional modelling to model individual parts and simpler one dimension calculations to combine
the results from the two dimensional models into a whole-wall R-value. Limited resources mean that
measurements have not been used to confirm the accuracy of the calculations. However comparisons
with results generated by the ORNL on-line calculator have provided a confidence in the ability of
this more simplistic approach to identify the relative importance of the individual parts that contribute
to the whole-wall R-value. From the code compliance standpoint, calculation methods need to be
relatively simple and easy to use but at the same time able to ensure that when minimum insulation
requirements are increased, the R-values of houses are increased in an effective way.

Figure 1 shows a representation of the framing associated with a window, where the individual parts
are shaded differently. The parts are:
• top plate
• bottom plate
• trimming and doubling studs
• sill trimmer
• lintel
• insulation and framing area between sill and bottom plate.

Each of these parts has been modelled separately using two-dimensional heat flow modelling software
and the results have been combined using the one-dimensional parallel flows calculation method. For
smaller windows there may also be an area of insulation and framing between the lintel and top plate,
but since this area is not always easy to insulate, it has been assumed for the sake of simplicity that
smaller windows are located high on the wall, allowing a larger area of insulation between the sill and
the bottom plate. For each part of the window, a zone of influence of the particular piece of framing is
defined by finding the point at which the perpendicular heat flow is 1% lower than the heat flow
through the insulated area well away from the framing. Figure 1 is to scale, including the shaded
zones of influence of the framing. The window frame will have an influence on the actual heat flow,
but for this study, only single glazed windows have been modelled and therefore the assumption is
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that the window frame will not have a significant effect. Single glazed windows are still the norm for
new houses in New Zealand, but the number built with insulated glazing units continue to increase.
Likewise, for doors the assumption is that they are constructed of solid timber of 40 mm thickness.
The window is represented, for combination with other windows in the whole-wall calculation, as a
rectangle that is slightly wider than the window opening and studs. The height is taken as the stud
height of 2.4 m, and the area of insulation and framing between the sill and bottom plate becomes part
of the window.

Figure 1. Zones of influence of framing for a typical window elevation

Because the parallel flows calculations have been done by hand, the calculations have been limited to
a single wall profile rather than the set of four or more that represent an actual house. The length of
the reference wall and the number of internal wall junctions have been chosen to represent the relative
ratios for the complete wall sets of typical houses. Internal corners have not been included in the
whole-wall calculations, but the two-dimensional models indicate that they will have little to no effect
on the overall R-value.

Figure 2 shows the framing for the reference wall. The dimensions of the wall are:
Length 13.9 m
Total area 33.4 m2
Total window & door openings 9.6 m2
Ratio of openings to total wall area 29%
Ratio of framing to total wall area 20%
Ratio of framing to opaque wall 28%

Figure 2. Framing for the reference wall elevation

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Previous BRANZ research has noted that New Zealand houses often have ratios of window areas to
total wall area of 20% or more and houses with ratios of 30% are not uncommon. The whole-wall R-
values have also been calculated for opening ratios less than 30% by removing some of the windows
from the calculations.

Figure 3 shows the zone of influence of the framing for a timber frame wall with a typical level of
insulation. The area not influenced by the framing around openings and the framing around the
perimeter represents only 31% of the total opaque wall area.

Figure 3. Zones of influence of framing for the reference wall elevation with timber framing

WALL CONSTRUCTION TYPES

Three particular wall construction types have been analysed for whole-wall R-value using the simple
approach described above:
• Timber frame with 47 mm x 94 mm studs at 600 mm spacing, R 1.8 m2K/W cavity insulation
and weatherboard cladding.
• Steel frame with 39 mm x 78 mm studs at 600 mm spacing, R 1.8 m2K/W cavity insulation,
fibre cement and stucco cladding, and a 10 mm thermal break material between frame and
cladding.
• Timber frame as above but without cavity insulation and with 40 mm of expanded
polystyrene (EPS) & stucco cladding.

The first case represents the traditional and still dominant construction type but the third case is
increasing in popularity for new construction. Steel framing has yet to make a significant impact on
house construction in New Zealand and as a consequence the thermal performance is sometimes not
optimised simply because the designer does not appreciate the importance of some form of mitigation
for the thermal bridging associated with a steel frame. Insulation is usually placed in the cavity of a
steel framed wall rather than on the exterior as an insulated sheathing but there is also a requirement
in the building to use a 10 mm thermal break between the framing and the exterior cladding when
using a steel frame. The three construction types chosen have not been chosen on the basis of
popularity but rather on the basis that they represent three cases which would provide the best
illumination of the potential for the whole wall R-value modelling technique.

For insulation of walls, the most common insulation products have R-values of either 1.8 or 2.2
m2K/W and there is little choice in the R-value other than to use loose fill materials such as cellulose.
For the first of the three construction types listed above, using the R 1.8 m2K/W products results in a
clear wall R-value of about 1.86 m2K/W. When installed in a 79 mm steel frame, the insulation is
squashed to fit and the R-value of the insulation is consequently reduced to about R 1.7 m2K/W. With
the exterior insulated finish systems (EIFS) the thickness of the insulation (EPS) can be varied to suit
and hence the EIFS walls are often designed to just meet the overall minimum insulation
requirements.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The three construction types listed above have been modelled using the combination of one and two-
dimensional modelling techniques described above. Figure 4 gives some resulting R-values for
various aspects of the analysis.

R-values Timber Steel

EIFS
m2K/W frame frame
Centre of cavity 2.13 2.11 1.50
Clear wall (stud & dwangs) 1.86 1.57 1.55
Clear wall plus top & bottom plates 1.73 1.45 1.38

Figure 4. R-values for a proportional section of wall framing containing a stud, two dwangs,
and top & bottom plates.

For the EIFS system, the clear wall R-value is greater than the centre of cavity R-value because the
framing acts as better insulation than the cavity between the framing. Although the minimum total
clear wall R-value for the warmer parts of New Zealand is only R 1.5 m2K/W, the limited choice in
insulation product R-values means the clear wall R-value for the timber framed wall is greater than
the minimum value required and is only slightly below the R 1.9 m2K/W value required in the cooler
regions of the country. The required thermal break between the steel framing and exterior cladding
compensates to some extent for the loss in performance due to the compression of the insulation when
fitted into the smaller frame depth, but the clear wall R-value is above the minimum required in the
warmer regions but not the minimum for the cooler regions. Insulation of the cavity is less effective
than exterior insulated sheathing and it may be difficult to achieve the R 1.9 m2K/W minimum by
adding a product with a higher nominal R-value to the cavity of a steel framed wall unless the stud
depth is increased.

The relative influence on the R-value of the top and bottom plates is very similar for both the timber
and steel framed systems, but worse for the EIFS system as there is no cavity insulation and so there
is more lateral heat flow in those areas. Insulated sheathing removes the thermal bridging effect of the
framing in the clear wall region of the EIFS system, but since the level of insulation can be chosen to
suit, the clear wall R-value is just above the minimum R 1.5 m2K/W specification. Using an extra
thickness of EPS, which is greater by R 0.35 m2K/W, would bring the clear wall R-value up to the R
1.9 m2K/W and would make the total when the top and bottom plate are included, similar to that for
the timber frame and cavity insulation.
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wood steel EIFS & wood frame

1.8
Whole-Wall R-value m K/W

1.6
2

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Openings as percent of wall area

Figure 5. Whole-Wall R-values

By varying the number of windows in the calculation of whole wall R-values the influence of the
window and door area has been investigated and the results are shown in Figures 5 and 6. When the
wall and door areas are set to zero the calculation then includes the clear wall area, the top and bottom
plates and the junctions with internal walls.

wood frame steel frame EIFS & wood frame

Whole wall R-value as a percent of

100%
the clear wall R-value

90%

80%

70%

60%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Openings as percent of wall area

Figure 6. Influence of window and door area as a percentage of the clear wall R-value

The effect of increasing the window and door area is almost identical for the two cases using timber
framing, except that the EIFS has a 7% better R-value relative to clear wall value to start with. This is
not surprising since the total R-value is lower, and the lower the R-value, the less detrimental is the
framing. Increasing the relative area of openings has more effect for the steel frame than for the
timber frame.

Using the ORNL on-line whole wall R-value calculator, the effect of increasing the area of openings
in the wall can be compared with the current results as shown in Figure 7. The house design used for
the calculations was the ‘Ranch House #1’ design with framing, insulation and cladding specification
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as close as possible to those of the previously outlined examples. As an additional check of the
validity of using a single representative wall for the calculations rather than the complete set of four
walls, the simplified calculations were carried out for all four walls of the design for the case of
timber framing and total window and door area of 12%. The result was a whole-wall R-value of R 1.5
m2K/W or 84% of clear wall value. This is the same ratio that was calculated for the representative
single-wall model. The steel frame example indicates that the whole-wall R-value is more strongly
influenced by framing. This is not completely surprising since the ORNL calculations used a higher
insulation specification. For both the timber frame and steel frame cases, the ORNL results show less
dependence on the area of openings.

wood frame steel frame ORNL wood ORNL steel

100%
Whole wall R-value as a percent of

90%
clear wall R-value

80%

70%

60%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Openings as percent of wall area

Figure 7. Comparison of the influence of window and door area

CONCLUSION

The increase in minimum R-values required for the cooler regions of New Zealand from R1.5 m2K/W
to R 1.9 m2K/W may not lead to the same relative increase in the whole-wall R-value of the houses
built to the Building Code. In the case of timber frame walls with cavity insulation, the current level
of insulation is often significantly above the minimum requirement and may be sufficient to meet the
new requirement. For steel framed walls with cavity insulation, increasing the specification of the
insulation will not be nearly as effective as if the insulation were added as part of the cladding and
houses with large window and door areas will have whole-wall R-values which significantly depart
from the clear wall value.

Since there has always been the ability to provide exactly the minimum required insulation with EIFS
construction, the increased R-value specification may only deliver whole-wall R-values that are
equivalent to those achieved for cavity insulated timber framed walls. Without improvements in the
design of the perimeter framing areas, the whole-wall R-value will be reduced by the same relative
amount by increases in the area of window and door openings.

This simplified calculation provides a practical way to analyse general features of the whole-wall R-
values of typical New Zealand houses.
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REFERENCES

NZS 4218:1996. “Energy Efficiency – Housing and Small Building Envelope”. Standards New
Zealand. Wellington.

NZS 4214:1977. “Methods of Determining the Total Thermal Resistances of Parts of Buildings”.
Standards New Zealand. Wellington.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1998. “http//www.ornl.gov/roofs+walls/whole_wall/wallsys.html”.

Trethowen H.A. 1995. “Validation of the Isothermal Planes Method for R-value Prediction”.
ASHRAE Transactions, Part2, Vol 101: 755-765

New Zealand Building Code 1992.