Compact Yarn

Compact yarns are part of the modern spinning technology, which was developed
globally in the mid-1990s.

From: Advances in Knitting Technology, 2011

Related terms:

Strand, Grafts, Cross Sections, Polyesters, Hairiness, Ring Spun Yarn, Denim Fabric,
Spun Yarn

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Learn more about Compact Yarn

Compact spinning technology

M.A.M. El-Sayed, S.H. Sanad, in Advances in Yarn Spinning Technology, 2010

9.5.3 Knitting
In knitting, the increased strength of compact yarns and the associated reduction
in fly result in very low yarn breaks. There are therefore fewer interruptions, higher
machine efficiency, and fewer fabric faults. In some cases the usual waxing of
the yarns in knitting might be omitted. Owing to the improved fibre binding it
is possible to reduce the twist of compact yarns for knitting by up to 20%, while
maintaining yarn strength identical to that in conventional ring spinning (McCreight
et al., 1997). In addition to the resulting increased yarn production rate, the reduction
in twist will diminish spirally (Smekal, 2001) and give a softer handle to knitted
fabrics.

> Read full chapter

Siro and Solo spinning

P.R. Lamb, X. Wang, in Advances in Yarn Spinning Technology, 2010

8.10 Future trends

A different approach to reducing costs was to try to improve spinning performance
by making modifications aimed at reducing end-breaks. It was argued that most
breaks occurred at the spinning triangle where there was less twist and where the
load was not shared equally between the fibres – higher loads being borne by the
more highly tensioned outer fibres. Ways of compacting the drafted strand before
insertion of twist were therefore developed which can be collectively referred to as
‘compact’ spinning. The added compacting zone uses air to reduce the width of the
drafted, but untwisted, fibre stream to almost the same diameter as the yarn.

Compact spinning provides an interesting contrast to Solospun where the strand is

first split into multiple sub-strands. Interestingly they both reduce yarn hairiness,
increase abrasion resistance and lead to stronger yarns. Direct comparisons between
the systems using the same raw material do not yet seem to have been made.
However, it appears that the improvements in abrasion resistance from compact
spinning are not enough to make the singles yarns weavable, but that the compact
yarns are more even and, for this reason at least, stronger. Hence, for cotton weaving
yarns which are to be sized, compact yarns appear to offer a clear quality advantage.
For worsted weaving yarns it appears that compact yarns are not suitable as weavable
singles. However, one solution has been to combine compact and Sirospun spinning
(Brunt, 2004). Sirospun and Solospun have also been combined (Najar et al., 2006)
to give even lower hairiness but otherwise similar properties.

It might have been expected that Solospun installations would far exceed Sirospun.
Responses from industry suggest that the main reasons why this does not seem to
have happened are (1) the improvement in yarn quality over Sirospun is marginal,
and the yarns are certainly not as good as compact spun yarns, (2) the cost of
Solospun rollers, and (3) variability from spindle to spindle. The last reason is related
to difficulties in monitoring performance. Faulty operation or worn parts, giving
poor abrasion resistance, can cause serious problems in weaving but have not been
readily visible in spinning and have been only marginally detectable in winding in
terms of increased hairiness.

The ideal for a future yarn would seem to be to combine the improvements in quality
of compact spinning with a big enough reduction in hairiness and improvement in
abrasion resistance to make a weavable compact singles yarn. However, the mech-
anisms of splitting and compacting seem to be mutually incompatible. Alternative
directions are to try to extend Solospun into short-staple or knitting yarns. A step in
this direction that seems to be underway is to combine a miniature Solospun roller
with false-twisting. The method appears to allow cotton yarns of low twist, which are
therefore softer, to be produced (Yang et al., 2007).

> Read full chapter

Types and suitability of yarns for knit-

ting
E. Mielicka, in Advances in Knitting Technology, 2011

1.5 Types of knitting yarns: yarns made of natural fibers

Fibers are classified into three groups. The first of these groups consists of natural
fibers, which include both organic and non-organic fibers. The organic fibers can be
obtained from animals or from plants.

The second group consists of fibers made from natural polymers, and the third
group comprises synthetic fibers made of synthetic polymers.

The most popular natural fibers are:

• cotton

• wool

• linen

• hemp

• silk.

In the knitting industry, the most popular natural fiber is cotton, which can be used
on every kind of knitting machine. Over the years, the process of cotton spinning
has been modified to alter the properties of cotton as a yarn. Cotton can be used for
all kinds of knitted goods.

Cotton yarn of very high quality can be produced on modern spinning machines
which have compact spinning systems to lower hairiness and reduce twist by even
up to 20%. This process results in improved absorption and, consequently, reduced
consumption of dyestuffs. The yarn produced in a compact spinning system has
lower breakage during the spinning process (which can be as high as 60%), better
strength and elongation at drafting (up to 8–15%) and less irregularity in its linear
density. Compact yarns are part of the modern spinning technology, which was
developed globally in the mid-1990s. Products produced from compact yarn have a
smoother surface and a higher glaze, and is warm and comfortable to handle.
Thanks to the new technology of spinning, we have discovered cotton with a hollow
core. The technology is used to make a combination of two different fibers into a
double-layer yarn. This kind of fiber has a greater diameter than ordinary cotton. By
using this new method:

• products are more bulky;

• products dry more quickly than ordinary cotton;

• products have a greater capillary action and faster water absorbency than
ordinary cotton;
• products are much lighter than those made of ordinary cotton;

• products are softer than ordinary cotton;

• products are more comfortable.

Wool is made from animal hair. There are many different species of sheep, as well as
other animal hair used in the production of yarn, such as that of angora goats, and
camels. Some of them are blended with other natural or synthetic fibers. The most
popular goods produced from wool are garments. The very fine Nm (metric count)
is used for production of underwear. Wool is also used for socks and hosiery.

As with other fibers, wool is also modified to change its usage properties. Two-layer
yarn consists of cotton fibers with the woolen core named Ingeo. The combination
of natural fibers, cotton and wool, creates a well-balanced new composition with
high water absorbency and the pleasant soft touch of cotton, mixed together with
the warmth of wool fibers. It is described as a ‘natural air conditioner.’

This new kind of yarn produces the following properties in knitted goods:

• quick evaporation of perspiration;

• great absorbency of moisture;

• heat insulation that is higher than that of cotton because the core is made of
wool.

Bast fibers are the oldest in the textile raw materials group. Up to now, fibers with
high linear density, such as linen and hemp, were produced for the purpose of
making garments such as warmer clothing and hosiery. Mostly, they are used as a
blended yarn, together with cotton, wool, acrylic and polyamide.

Interest in hemp fibers has increased in recent years. Hemp is an environmentally

friendly fiber. Hemp fibers, in spite of their many qualities, are processed together
with cotton or wool fibers in considerably smaller quantities than flax fibers. The
reason for this trend is that there are greater difficulties connected with the
elimination of rough fibers owing to the robustness of most fiber bunches. However,
hemp has an advantage over flax insofar as its harl is bigger, which means it can
be more easily separated from the fiber. Moreover, it has no pedicels, which is very
important because these can create many difficulties in the elimination process.

World research has shown that hemp fibers possess more ecologically and health
friendly qualities than flax fibers.

Current research shows that it is possible to modify hemp fibers in a mechanical

way in order to obtain fibers with the required parameters. The yarns are produced
according to a semi-spin cotton system on a rotor-spinning machine. After the
spinning process, the yarns are subjected to steaming and rewinding processes, as
well as a simultaneous waxing process. The metric knitted fabrics made of blended
yarn containing hemp fibers are soft and pleasant to the touch, characteristic of the
knitted fabric produced from bast fibers. These yarns possess excellent UV protection
qualities, and are suitable for summer clothes owing to their high air-permeability.

Silk fiber is not very popular in the knitting industry. This is because there are so
many kinds of synthetic fibers. Silk fibers are mainly used for exclusive underwear,
whereas the fibers produced by a spinning process and cut and spun as a staple silk
yarn are preferable for the production of garments.

> Read full chapter

Carbon nanotube yarns for electronic

textiles
M. Miao, in Electronic Textiles, 2015

3.3 CNT yarns

The CNT web drawn from a forest has a rather low mechanical strength. Its strength
can be increased dramatically by twist insertion, which condenses the CNT web into
a yarn of much higher density; see Figure 3.3 (Zhang et al., 2004).

Figure 3.3. Formation of a CNT yarn by twist insertion (left) and SEM image of a CNT
yarn (right) (Miao, 2013).
The CNT web can also be ‘shrunk’ into a compact yarn of irregular cross section
by passing through a droplet of volatile solvent (Zhang et al., 2006). CNTs are
hydrophobic but can be wetted by volatile solvents. The surface tension pulls the
CNT bundles together, as the yarn leaves the meniscus. With the evaporation of the
volatile solvent, a dry-densified CNT yarn is formed.

3.3.1 Flyer spinning

Research efforts at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisa-
tion (CSIRO) resulted in several high-speed CNT yarn-spinning methods. The first
automated continuous CNT yarn-spinning machine was built based on the conven-
tional flyer-spinning principle (Figure 3.4). The twisting and winding operations are
realized by two coaxial shafts that rotate at differential speeds, causing the yarn to
be wound onto the yarn collection bobbin carried on the spindle. The spindle also
performs a linear motion to spread the yarn on the bobbin in an orderly fashion.
A computer is used to coordinate these motions. A series of friction pins can be
introduced between the CNT forest and the spindle on the flyer-spinning machine
(Tran et al., 2009). These pins affect the spinning process in two ways: increasing the
yarn tension and causing the twist to be inserted into the yarn in steps along the
zones separated by the pins. The increased tension further increases yarn density,
leading to a more compact yarn structure and higher stress-based strength and
elastic modulus but lower breaking strain.

Figure 3.4. Schematic of CNT yarn flyer-spinner (Miao, 2013).

3.3.2 Up-spinning
Figure 3.5 shows what is dubbed as the CSIRO ‘up-spinner’ (Miao et al., 2010). The
CNT forest is attached to a spindle that can be rotated at high speed. The continuous
CNT web drawn from the forest is pulled up (hence the name up-spinner) to the
yarn bobbin, while twist is being inserted by the spindle. On the up-spinner, the two
essential functions of continuous yarn spinning are carried out independently: twist
is inserted by the fast rotating vertical spindle, and yarn taking-up is carried out by
the slow rotating horizontal yarn bobbin. Additionally, a yarn guide or the bobbin
itself traverses longitudinally to spread the yarn along the bobbin. The up-spinner
is a much simpler machine design than the flyer-spinner. The mass carried on the
high-speed spindle is immensely smaller than that of the spindle assembly in the
flyer-spinning method. The yarn path on the up-spinner is essentially a straight line,
resulting in much lower yarn tension during spinning, so that very delicate CNT
webs can be spun into yarns at high speeds.

Figure 3.5. Overview of a two-position up-spinning machine controlled by a touch-

screen computer (left) and main operating elements of the up-spinner (right) (Miao,
2013).

Because of its engineering simplicity, the up-spinner has been run at spindle speeds
up to 18,000 rpm, comparable to that of modern spinning machines used to produce
fine-count conventional textile yarns. Another advantage of the up-spinner is that
the operations required to start a new yarn or to piece up a broken yarn end are
greatly simplified.

3.3.3 Rub densification

Because of the small yarn diameter, many thousands of twist turns must be inserted
to produce 1 m of yarn. The large number of twists per metre limits the rate of yarn
production and demands highly engineered spinning machinery.

Mechanical rubbing action can be used to produce a highly densified CNT yarn
(Figure 3.6), in which the CNTs are substantially straight and parallel with each other
and are aligned in the direction of the yarn axis (Miao, 2012). The main working
parts of the machine are a pair of padded rollers that participate in both rotation and
longitudinal oscillation. The rotational motion of the two rollers transports the CNT
web drawn from the CNT forest to the yarn take-up bobbin. The axial oscillations of
the two rollers work in opposite directions to apply a rubbing action that densifies
the CNT web into a yarn.
Figure 3.6. CNT yarn production by rub densification (Miao, 2012).

The main mechanism of interaction between CNTs in the rub-densified yarn is

van der Waals force. When the pressure between the rubbing rollers is low, the
resulting rub-densified CNT yarn has a unique structure consisting of a high packing
density sheath and a low-density core. The low-density core can be eliminated by
increasing the pressure between the rubbing rollers and lowering the tension in the
yarn (Miao, 2012). The rub-densified CNT yarn has shown similar tensile strength
but significantly improved elastic modulus in comparison with the twist-densified
CNT yarn.

3.3.4 Core-spun CNT yarn

A core-spun yarn consisting of a metal filament core and a CNT sheath was
constructed for application in two-ply yarn supercapacitors (Zhang et al., 2014a).
The core/sheath-structured CNT yarn can be manufactured on a flyer-spinner, as
shown schematically in Figure 3.7. The CNTs forming the sheath are drawn from
the MWCNT forest as a continuous web. The core material is pulled out from a
supply bobbin to merge with the CNT web. The twisting action of the spindle at
the right-hand side causes the metal filament and the CNT web to rotate together,
resulting in the wrapping of the CNT web around the metal filament to form a
core/sheath structured yarn (Figure 3.7). Because of the very large width of the CNT
web in relation to the diameter of the metal filament, the core is completely covered
by the CNT sheath in the resultant core-spun yarn.

Figure 3.7. Core-spun yarns. Top: schematic of core-spun yarn process. Bottom:
cross sectional view of core-spun CNT yarn.

Reprinted with permission from Zhang et al. (2014a)

Copyright © 2014 American Chemical Society.

> Read full chapter

Effect of textile processing on fatigue

J. Militky, S. Ibrahim, in Fatigue Failure of Textile Fibres, 2009

7.3.3 Yarn fatigue

Yarn failure occurs due to a combination of fibre slippage and fibre breakage
mechanisms. The typical patterns of yarn breakage due to slippage and fibre break
are shown on the Fig. 7.17.

7.17. Two main mechanisms of yarn failure (slippage – top, fibre break – bottom).
In dependence on the type of yarn, one of these mechanisms predominates: slippage
in the case of ring and rotor yarns and breakage in the case of compact yarns. The
static and dynamic tensile strength of ring and compact yarns is lower in comparison
with rotor yarn.

Static breaking load and elongation, although correlated with some dynamic char-
acteristics of yarn, do not allow for a good prediction of the yarn behaviour under
dynamic loading, especially for prediction of the yarn behaviour under pulsatory
loading. Yarn resistance to dynamic loading depends mainly on twist parameter
which can determined in a way the compactness and ‘closure’ of the yarn structure.
The results obtained show that yarn resistance to dynamic loading differs for differ-
ent types of yarn. Open-end and air jet yarns due to their structure, among others
the presence of wrapper fibres, form more ‘compact and closed’ structure, and are
generally more resistant to the dynamic loading than more ‘open’ ring-spun yarns.

The fatigue behaviour of yarn strongly depends on the features of load applied
during pulsatory loading – the number of pulses till breaks decreases exponentially
with increasing load frequency and decreases, although slower, with increasing
initial load [19]. Different type of the yarn structure effects different relationships
between the static and fatigue strength of yarn. Open-end yarns of the same tensile
strength can be characterized by much higher fatigue strength than ring spun yarns.
When comparing the effect of fatigue and coupled effect of fatigue and abrasion,
one can see that the one phase yarn – ring and compact – can be characterized by
much higher resistance to the abrasion than the multi-phase rotor yarns [19]. The
reason is the quite different surface structure of yarns (see Fig. 7.18).

7.18. Surface structure of 29.5 tex cotton yarn: a) ring, b) experimental, c) rotor.

The yarn surface structure has great influence on the yarn-to-yarn (YY) and
yarn-to-metal (YM) frictions. It was found that the behaviour of frictions for YY is
different than that of YM. In case of YY friction, rotor yarn shows maximum friction
followed by air-jet, and ring-spun yarns; however, a reverse order is noticed for YM
friction [65].

The fatigue behaviour of cotton and cotton-polyester blended yarn produced by

rotor spinning has been investigated by Jeddi [20]. The mechanism of staple yarn
fatigue is based on three stages:
• yarn decrimping

• fibre slippage arising from inter-fibre friction

• fibre elongation.

The yarn decrimp mechanism occurs just at the initial stage of fatigue. The region
of the sharp variations of the yarn viscoelastic properties up to nearly 1000 cycles of
loading is attributed to the ability of the fibre to reorganize inside the yarn structure.
Finally, the region of the steady variations of the viscoelastic properties of yarn seems
to be due to fibre elongation.

The fatigue results reveal that the polyester fibre component has an important role
in improving the fatigue resistance of the yarn to tensile cyclic loading. It has also
been demonstrated that greater variations of yarn viscoelasticity are obtained with
higher strain percent, so that at 1% strain the 100% cotton yarn reveals immediate
failure [20].

Barrela and Manich [22] investigated the resistance to abrasion and resistance to
repeated extension (both expressed as number of cycles to break) for PES/cotton
yarn prepared by ring, rotor and Dref III technology for two linear densities and
three twist level. The yarn against yarn abrasion was performed using a Abrafil device
(mechanical load 150cN and speed of abrasion 100 cycles/minute). Resistance to
repeated extension was measured using a Comptis device (pretension 1.5 cN/tex,
cycle amplitude 3.3% frequency 200 cycles/minute). The friction spun yarns (Dref III)
show a smaller resistance to abrasion and to repeated extension than the ring and
rotor yarns. The ring-spun yarns show the best repeated extension resistance, fol-
lowed by rotor-spun yarn. Dref III yarns are the weakest. The best abrasion resistance
is for rotor yarns, followed by ring yarns. The Dref III yarns are again the weakest.
The blend composition has serious influence on resistances. When the proportion
of polyester is decreased form 70% to 50% the extension resistance decreased and
abrasion resistance increased for rotor- and friction-spun yarns. This trend is less
defined for ring-spun yarns. Both repeated tension and abrasion resistances increase
with increase of twist level. The abrasion resistance is higher for coarser yarns for all
yarn types. The dependence of abrasion resistance AT on repeated tension resistance
RT is shown in Fig. 7.19.
7.19. Dependence of abrasion resistance AT on repeated tension resistance RT.

The straight lines were computed by linear least squares regression. The estimated
regression lines have the form

Ring: AT = 721.79 + 2.73 RT

Rotor: AT = − 311.47 + 23.51 RT

Dreft III: AT = − 192.7 + 15.70 RT

The methodology for creation S-N fatigue curves for worsted wool yarns with linear
density of 16 tex and 25 tex produced with the use of a FIOMAX 2000 ring spinning
machine was describer in the work [66]. These curves were approximated by the
semi-logarithmic model in the form

yarn 16 tex: S/ST = 106.1 – 4.58 ln(N)

yarn 16 tex: S/ST = 108.2 – 4.64 ln(N)

The yarn linear density does not have significant influence on the course of the
S-N curve. The influence of the fibre parameters (fineness Tf [tex], staple length Ls
[mm], density f [mg/mm3]) and yarn parameters (fineness Ty [tex], twist Ky [turns/m],
density y [mg/mm3]) on the fatigue life N under specific conditions is investigated
in [67]. Four dimensionless complexes were obtained as a result of scaling theory and
dimensionality analysis. After rearrangements the final prediction relation results

where c is proportionality constant, nf is number of fibres in the yarn cross-section

and μf is yarn packing density.

Yarn fatigue is dependent on the modification of textile materials during processing

and environmental conditions. Subramaniam et al. [53] have reported that slack
mercerization treatment improves the fatigue life of ring- and rotor-spun yarn.
Selvakumar [54] has reported that fatigue life of silk and treated silk yarn in water is
lower than that in air.
> Read full chapter

Vascular prostheses for open surgery

R. Guidoin, ... Y. Douville, in Biotextiles as Medical Implants, 2013

15.5.2 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (Dacron®)

This is the undisputed material of choice for the replacement of medium- and
large-diameter arteries. The prostheses are available in straight and bifurcated de-
signs (Fig. 15.7). In fact the technology associated with the design and fabrication of
arterial prostheses has spread across the world over the past 40 years. So it is fair to
say that these woven (Fig. 15.8) and knitted (Fig. 15.9) tubular structures are now a
mature medical product.

Figure 15.7. Polyester vascular prostheses in straight (a) and bifurcated (b) designs.

Figure 15.8. Woven polyester vascular prostheses having different diameters for

replacement of femoro-popliteal arteries (a), abdominal aorta (b) and thoracic aorta
(c).
Figure 15.9. Knitted polyester vascular prostheses showing different types of guide-
lines to assist the surgeon in aligning the device when tunnelling during implanta-
tion. Warp knitted devices with single black yarn (a), several black yarns (b) and weft
knitted device with a printed line (c).

The technology to manufacture them by texturizing, weaving, knitting, heat setting,

crimping, cleaning, inspection, and lastly packaging and sterilization has previously
been described and is summarized in Fig. 15.10.69 The type of woven structure
is usually a 1/1 plain weave (Fig. 15.11) to provide the best hemostasis.70 It is
particularly important to use this weave design to fabricate a low-porosity woven
device with a water permeability of less than 300 mL/min/cm2 at normal blood
pressures in an emergency situation when there is no time to evaluate the normality
of the patient’s blood clotting mechanism. This type of woven prosthesis will not
provide a well-healed device with strong tissue infiltration and endothelialization on
the luminal surface. However, the use of a more flexible and compliant weft-knitted
(Fig. 15.12) or warp-knitted structure (Fig. 15.13) will improve tissue attachment and
encapsulation over the long term. Results from our retrieval and fatigue studies
have shown that over the long term the weft-knitted structure is more prone to
mechanical creep and dilation, and the type of weave needs to be optimized in order
to achieve maximum biostability.36,71 So a warp-knitted structure is usually preferred
because there is less dilation and no fraying at the cut ends.72
Figure 15.10. Sequence of steps for manufacturing woven and knitted polyester
(PET) vascular prostheses.

Figure 15.11. Woven textile structure showing a 1/1 plain weave.

Figure 15.12. Weft-knitted textile structure showing a single jersey stitch.

Figure 15.13. Warp-knitted textile structure showing a closed loop locknit stitch.

Over the years a series of different concepts have influenced the innovation and
design requirements for polyester arterial prostheses.

• First Concept: The importance of including a certain level of porosity or void

space within the wall was demonstrated by Wesolowski to prevent calcific-
ation.73,74 However, these thin-wall, lightweight, knitted polyester devices fre-
quently dilated 6n situ15 and as a result, this design was abandoned.
• Second Concept: When implanting a vascular prosthesis and suturing it to
a native artery either using an end-to-end or an end-to-side anastomosis,
it is not easy for the surgeon to determine the correct length and the ap-
propriate longitudinal tension. This is because a natural artery will contract
when dissected and may take several hours to recover through relaxation.
Incorporating concertina-style crimps along the length of the prosthesis pro-
vides some level of tolerance in the event that the length measurement and
tension are less than optimal.22 The crimps also make the tubular structure
more flexible, so that it can be bent into sharp angles without kinking or
occluding (Fig. 15.14).Figure 15.14. (a) Uncrimped knitted vascular prostheses
as removed in flat configuration from the warp knitting machine. (b) Crimped
and knitted vascular prostheses after heat setting and thermal crimping on a
mandrel to form an open tubular configuration.
• Third Concept: Woven graft structures with a 1/1 plain weave have a smooth
luminal surface that does not lend itself to tissue infiltration and complete
healing (Fig. 15.15). So alterative satin weaves were introduced to give higher
porosity, increased water permeability, and more extensive tissue ingrowth
after 3 months in a canine thoraco-abdominal model.76 By generating a
thicker thrombus it was believed that subsequent tissue attachment, healing,
endothelialization and graft stability would be improved. This was achieved
by using a texturized multifilament yarn with a soft, bulky and voluminous
structure (Fig. 15.16) instead of a flat compact yarn (Fig. 15.17). An additional
approach to increasing the surface area of the thrombogenic polyester yarns
was to introduce filaments with a trilobal rather than a round cross-section
(Fig. 15.18). More porous, thicker and pile velour fabrics were designed, to give
internal (DeBakey),77 external (Sauvage and Dialine®) (Fig. 15.19)78,79 and dou-•
ble velour structures (Fig. 15.20).80 Better encapsulation did not guarantee en-
dothelialization in human patients, nor did it provide sufficient resistance to
dilation.81Figure 15.15. Low-porosity polyester vascular prosthesis (Vascutek)
showing the tightly woven 1/1 plain weave (top) on the external and (bottom)
on the luminal (internal) surface.Figure 15.16. External velour polyester vascu-
lar prosthesis (Bionit II) warpknitted from texturized multifilament yarns with
soft, open structure to encourage tissue ingrowth.Figure 15.17. External (top)
and luminal (bottom) images of polyester vascular prosthesis (Knitted Coo-
ley) warp-knitted from flat compact multifilament yarns.Figure 15.18. Double
velour polyester vascular prosthesis (Microvel) knitted from a mixture of fila-
ments with round (bottom) and trilobal (top) cross-sections.Figure 15.19. Wo-
ven external velour polyester vascular prosthesis (Vascutek) woven using satin
floats on the external side (right) to encourage tissue ingrowth.Figure 15.20.
Polyester vascular prosthesis with double velour warp-knitted structure show-
ing (top) the luminal (internal) surface and (bottom) the outside surface.
Fourth Concept: With increasing long-term success of synthetic vascular graft-•
ing, the need for a more dilation-resistant conduit was emphasized. Manufac-
turers proposed the use of woven grafts with improved handling characteris-
tics, and a warp-knitted structure to provide superior biostability (Fig. 15.21).80
Because of its tendency to creep under continuous load, the weft-knitted
single jersey structure was abandoned among USA manufacturers (Fig. 15.22-
).36,81 Also due to problems of mechanical fatigue causing splitting along the
individual lobes, the use of trilobal filaments was discontinued.82Figure 15.21.
Polyester vascular prosthesis (VascutekTriaxial) warp-knitted with a locknit
stitch with floating laps on the external surface (right) and V-shaped wales on
the luminal surface (left).Figure 15.22. Polyester vascular prosthesis (Barone,
Argentina) weft-knitted with a single jersey stitch with horizontal laps on the
luminal surface (left) and V-shaped wales on the external surface (right).
Fifth Concept: When a vascular graft is implanted in the axillo-femoral position•
through the chest or as a femoral-popliteal bypass through the knee, if the
patient lies prone (face down) or the knee is flexed and the device is under
external pressure, the prosthesis will flatten or kink. For this reason, most
vascular surgeons prefer to use the externally supported ePTFE or polyester
graft (Fig. 15.23) for these applications. The additional support is provided
by a polypropylene monofilament that is wound in a helix externally and
then thermally bonded into place (Fig. 15.24).83–85Figure 15.23. Externally sup-
ported warp-knitted polyester vascular prosthesis (Vascutek, Triaxial ERT) with
polypropylene monofilament thermally bonded in a spiral to the external
surface (top).Figure 15.24. Warp-knitted polyester vascular prosthesis (Bionit
II) with central portion externally supported for arterial replacement through
the knee at the femoro-popliteal site.
Sixth Concept: Bicomponent prostheses. For arterial prostheses to provide •
hemostasis at implantation, yet encourage tissue infiltration and promote
luminal surface endothelialization, they need to contain two dissimilar com-
ponents, a permanent component and a resorbable component. A coated or
impregnated graft provides an impervious wall at implantation, thanks to the
biodegradable matrix of albumin,86 collagen,87–90 and/or gelatin: 91–94 filling
up the interstices (Fig. 15.25). Subsequently with the resorption of this matrix,
the encapsulation of the wall will progress. For example, in both dog and rat
in vivo studies a cross-linked gelatin matrix has been observed to lyze within
2 weeks of implantation,92 and the level of immune response in terms of CD4
T-helper cells was significantly reduced.93 However, with a collagen matrix,
healing was delayed as the chronic inflammatory response led to thicker
capsule formation.90 Unfortunately, while a biodegradable matrix presents the
possibility of incorporating growth promoting factors or antimicrobial agents,
complete endothelialization is rarely achieved in humans, regardless of the
structure of the polyester prosthesis, the type of protein matrix or the extent
of cross-linking applied. Endothelial cell (EC) seeding by harvesting veins
either mechanically95 or enzymatically96,97 or from mesothelial stem cells of
the peritoneum98 provide attractive possibilities for the future. Nevertheless,
while the results look impressive in animals, they have not been observed
clinically in humans.Figure 15.25. Warp-knitted polyester vascular prosthesis
(Uni-Graft DV) coated with collagen on both the external (top) and internal
(bottom) surfaces.
Seventh Concept: The use of a surface treatment to improve blood compatibility•
of the flow surface and reduce the likelihood of emboli being released is
an attractive possibility. However, heparinization of polyester to develop a
small-diameter vascular graft suitable for coronary artery bypass precludes
hemostasis and thus cannot be used clinically. The application of a plasma
TFE surface modification to reduce the thrombotic threshold velocity has been
found attractive in animals but the results are disappointing among human
patients.99 The addition of antibiotics (rifampicin)100 or metallic or ionic silver
salt impregnations101–103 have been developed and accepted primarily in Eu-
rope. For example, a double velour polyester vascular prosthesis with a gelatin
coating containing about 0.07-0.16 mg/cmi of metallic silver is now available
in Europe. Initial clinical trials for inguinal and infrainguinal implantation have
achieved an 88% patency rate at 18 months and have shown no toxic side
effects due to the presence of silver.102
Eighth Concept: Site-specific combination prostheses. Ever since the early
fabrication of bifurcated woven and knitted prostheses there have been 1
site-specific’ devices. Today, this concept has been extended to include carotid
and subclavian arterial extensions to the Hemashield™ thoracic aortic pros-
thesis (Fig. 15.26), 104 and the production of an unstented and stented Val-
salva™ aortic root graft that is fabricated from three or more separate compo-
nents and is implanted by the Bentall procedure (Fig. 15.27). The design closely
matches the aortic root anatomy and mimics the natural response of the
sinuses, hence reducing the tension on the coronary anastomoses.105,106 This
device has now been combined with either a mechanical valve or bio-prosthetic
valve and an ascending aortic prosthesis for the replacement of a diseased,
damaged or malfunctioning native or prosthetic aortic heart valve that involves
an ascending aortic aneurysm (Fig. 15.28).107 Other examples of combination
products include a hybrid blood conduit in which a vascular graft has been
attached to an Anaconda™ endovascular stent graft (Fig. 15.29).Figure 15.26.
Aortic arch polyester vascular prosthesis (Hemashield Platinum) with carotid
and subclavian artery extensions fabricated to meet this site-specific require-
ment.Figure 15.27. Aortic root polyester prosthesis (Valsalva™) with three
component design to match aortic root anatomy in both unstented (left) and
stented (right) configurations.Figure 15.28. Ascending aortic prosthesis com-
bination product with On-X aortic valve.Figure 15.29. Combination product
with polyester vascular prosthesis attached to an endovascular stent graft
(Anaconda).

For small-diameter arterial substitutes, the autologous saphenous vein remains the
undisputed gold standard.108 Should it not be available, the ePTFE is preferred in
femoro-popliteal and axillo-femoral bypass applications,109 while warp-knitted or
woven polyester devices impregnated with collagen, gelatin or albumin are pre-
ferred for medium- and large-caliber positions. 86–89,91–94 It has long been known
that compliance mismatch at the prosthesis/artery junction contributes to the de-
velopment of intimal hyperplasia due to changes in wall shear rate distribution
near the distal anastomosis. This complication leads to graft failure, particularly in
small-diameter applications.110,111 Attempts are being made to improve the radial
compliance of polyester arterial prostheses by applying novel three-dimensional
textile technologies to weave a two-layer structure with each layer having a different
radial compliance.112 While this structure will mimic the compliance of the natural
vessel, it is not known whether the mechanical advantage will be maintained after
healing in vivo. In summary, the selection of alternative materials to serve as conduits
has reached a hiatus as the available devices have proven to provide highly gratifying
results for medium- and large-caliber vessels. Table 15.3 compares the performance
of synthetic vascular prostheses that are in current clinical use.

Table 15.3. Comparison of synthetic vascular prostheses in clinical use 40

Polyester (PET) ePTFE (e.g., GoreTex®) Polyurethane

 Woven Weft-knitted Warp-knitted Low porosity High porosi-
(< 30 μm ty (> 45 μm
IND) IND)
Advantages Superior Greater Biostable, Biostable, Biostable, Excellent
biostability, porosity, greater no dilation some cell compliance,
low tissue porosity, over time ingrowth good
permeabili- ingrowth, tissue hemocom-
ty, no radial ingrowth, patibility,
bleeding compliance radial low
compli- thrombo-
ance, no genicity
raveling
Disadvan- Low Dilation Infection Bleeding at Bleeding at Biodegrada-
tages compli- over time, risk stitches, no stitches, tion, limited
ance, yarns ravel, tissue limited tissue
limited infection ingrowth, tissue ingrowth,
tissue risk perigraft ingrowth, infection
incorpora- seroma, late risk,
tion, low lipid neointimal carcino-
porosity, absorption, desquama- genic?
fraying infection tion in 90 
along cut risk μm IND,
edges, infection
infection risk
risk

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