CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

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1.1 General

The current models for electricity generation in the world are predominantly based off
of centralized power plants with vast transmission and distribution networks covering
a wide variety of terrains to provide electricity coverage to people in far flung areas.
Power at these power plants is typically generated through combustion (coal, oil,
natural gas) or nuclear fission. In addition to transmission distance issues, these
systems contribute to greenhouse gases, nuclear waste, inefficiencies and power loss
over the lengthy transmission lines. With increasing electricity demand across
nations, increasing oil prices, costs of transmission line expansions and maintenance,
and rising levels of concern for greenhouse gas emissions, the importance of a re-
evaluation of this conventional centralized energy generation system has grown over
the years.

In response to these challenges, energy developers and researchers have increasingly

shown interest in the possibility of having numerous smaller generation systems
allowing for reliable and more efficient electricity. Commonly termed as distributed
generation, microgrids have emerged as technological implementations of such
distributed generation systems. Microgrids are modern, small-scale versions of the
centralized electricity system. They make use of small scale, site specific technologies
such as solar and wind to generate power so that they can be located close to the end
users.

They generate, distribute, store and regulate the flow of electricity on a local scale,
most of the time making use of renewable energy sources. By making use of such
small-scale site-specific renewable technologies, they help achieve specific local
goals such as reliability and carbon emission reduction. They can be connected to the
main grid, working in coordination with the power utility as grid-tied distributed
generation systems. In this mode of operation, they offer many advantages of
distributed generation including reduced line losses and transmission congestion,
improved reliability and cleaner energy.

They can also operate autonomously as stand-alone off-grid power producers,

commonly referred to as an ‘islanded operation’. In this case, making use of a local

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renewable energy source in conjunction with storage and a conventional power source
like a diesel generator, these microgrids operate as local stand-alone hybrid power
systems independent of the main grid. In recent times, such stand-alone systems have
found applications in the provision of electricity to small communities, particularly in
rural and remote areas of less-developed countries. With their ability to operate
independently, they are frequently pitched as an alternative to grid extension for
providing electricity to communities currently without power. Moreover, their ability
to make use of cleaner alternative sources for power generation makes them a greener
option.

As a result, microgrids are popping up all over the world, from systems that can
connect or disconnect from the larger ‘main’ grid, to tiny informally wired
connections between a few users. With fast paced evolution in technology as well as
their increasing applications, researchers and energy developers are considering them
to be important power systems of the future.

However, like most emerging technologies, stand-alone microgrids in particular face

a number of challenges which have somewhat limited their penetration in energy
markets of the world. With widespread use of conventional grids developed over
many years, these smaller versions of the grid (which may eventually become
alternatives to the former) face a steep resistance from the status quo. Moreover, due
to their reliance on renewable sources of energy, they face challenges such as high
capital costs and intermittent nature of power output from these renewables.

As a result, the costs to produce energy from these off-grid microgrids are frequently
reported to be significantly higher than the electricity costs from the conventional
main grids. Since the adoption of a new alternative in energy markets heavily depends
on costs and economics of the technology, one of the more important economic
concerns with these stand-alone grids is the cost of energy generated from them.

The installations of Distributed Generations is increasing steadily and is growing as

days go by. In this case, the power flow involved between the DGs and the grid has
to be efficient. For best results when DGs are connected, microgrids are chosen as the
connection alternative, in comparison to any other connection in the power network.

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When connection to the standard power grids is concerned, the microgrids which are
given preference are, the ac microgrids, various surveys support this fact. In the
modern world, majority of the appliances are dc loads, and also, many renewable
sources give a dc power output. This calls for inclusion of a dc microgrid in the
microgrid network, simply to avoid the multiple conversion stages between ac and dc
and vice versa. We should also consider that by doing this, we have less energy losses
in the system as a result.

Taking into account the present scenario, ac power grids are superior in number when
compared to dc power grids. Exclusive dc microgrids may not enter the market scene
anytime soon. Even if dc microgrids are designed, they will always be inferior in
development,as the ac microgrids will be preferred over their dc counterparts.
However, if we were to link both, ac and dc microgrids, taking advantage of benefits
provided by both the microgrids, then it would be beneficial to the future generations.
This can be achieved by the use of a bilateral converter which can enable the flow of
power in both directions and also, back and forth. In this type of a microgrid, both
types of energy sources, ac and dc exist, along with a integration of loads on both
sides facilitated by a fluid power flow between the two microgrids. We also require a
control strategy that can unite multiple systems and different states of operation to
reduce the amount of power drawn from the utility or the main grid.

The control strategy we design should be efficient enough to bear the different states
of operation, which include a state in which the microgrid is connected to the main
grid and the state in which the microgrid is disconnected from the main grid, these
states are known as Grid connected mode and islanded mode respectively. The
transition between these states also needs to be taken care of by the control strategy.
An acceptable control strategy to take care of these states is very important for the
proper functioning of a hybrid microgrid, which can coordinate the functioning of
different parts of the hybrid microgrid.

The control during islanded mode is more exacting to deal with, in comparison to the
grid connected mode, since the main grid is disconnected. This implies that the
supreme source which is the main grid is absent and the load demanded needs to be
provided by the various ac and dc sources in the hybrid microgrid. In this condition, it

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is important for the main converter to determine which side to transfer the power to,
i.e, the ac side or the dc side.

While control strategies which employ centralised schemes, have been employed
utilised numerous times, the need for quick communication amongst various
components of the microgrid is important. Along with that, reliability is a major
concern in the operation of a microgrid, this calls for a decentralised control which
can be facilitated by a droop control method. This type of control has gained notoriety
in avoiding interconnections of control.

For a stand alone ac and dc microgrid, the standard droop control methods will
suffice, but with the hybrid microgrid, these standard droop methods will not be of
any help to the microgrid. This is due to the face that power sharing cannot be
accounted for, using the standard droop methods. In the islanded state, the main
converter is expected to govern the power transfer between the ac and dc microgrids
by taking the role of distributor of power to one microgrid while acting as a load to
the other simultaneously.

The power produced by each microgrid is finite, this makes it a challenging aspect for
the control strategy, which means that the control strategy should be able to divide the
power demanded by the subsisting ac and dc sources. Therefore, to manage the flow
of power and to maintain good power sharing, a separate droop strategy needs to be
modelled. The ranking control method is used for the ac power systems for dispatch
of power, this can be converted for operation of a hybrid microgrid. For controlling
the main converter a specific droop control method needs to be designed,to enable a
bilateral flow of power in the hybrid microgrid. Some studies have tried to implement
ranking control method to each individual microgrid to satisfactory results, but the
main converter was not included in these studies.

A defined per-unit range is chosen as the common standard and the droop
characteristics of ac and dc microgrids are marked to common axes to enable the
bidirectional power flow. The strategy involves maintaining similar values of
frequency at ac side and the voltage at the dc side. The load that is demanded can be
shared among all the units in the hybrid microgrid. Although we have to factor in the

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fact that due to the continuous operation of the main converter we will incur some
losses.

According to this strategy, the frequency of the ac microgrid and the voltage of the dc
microgrid are measured, the control strategy the amount of power to be transferred to
the other side. Thus a two stage droop method that is altered for the use in a hybrid
microgrid is chosen for this purpose. By employing this strategy we can treat the two
separate microgrids as a single, merged unit in which the load that is demanded can
be shared between the sources of the ac and dc microgrids. The amount of power to
be withheld for reserve is reduced considerably by this method.

1.2 Literature Review :

The past few years has seen a significant rise in the popularity of the distribution
generation systems owing to their superior efficiency of operation and reduced
radiation levels. Distributed energy sources such as photovoltaic arrays, batteries,
turbines, fuel cells etc are used in the Distributed Generators. When the cost of the
power is high, i.e. during the peak hours of load, the distributed generations furnish
peak production and act as stand by when the main grid or main power system outage
occurs. A combination of a group of loads, parallel generation systems (distributed)
make up for the system of microgrid. Microgrids can provide for large power demand
and can provide greater flexibility of control, this makes a great choice when
reliability and quality of power are to be high in a power system. High rendition
control of power and an algorithm for regulation of voltage is required for the running
of a microgrid.

The rising potential of distributed generation can be realised by using a system

approach, i.e., a microgrid in which the generation and the related loads are
considered as a subsystem is proposed. Local control of the DG can facilitate for this
type of approach, thereby trimming down the need for a central control of the
distributed generation. The local reliability can be superior in the microgrid as
compared to the whole system amid the disturbances caused by the sources and loads
during the islanded mode. The system efficiency is increased two fold by this
practice. Currently microgrids can have sources with loads, they are also permitted
premeditated islanding and to use the heat waste available from the generation
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systems.

The microgrid acts as a lone governable system which provides the required power as
well as heat to its local zone. This conception provides for a model to work on in the
operation of distributed generation. The main grid considers the microgrid as a
controllable unit of the power system. The main grid must be isolated from the
distribution branch as soon as a fault occurs to safeguard the loads. The load on the
microgrid by the customer determines the isolation state. For the preservation of
critical loads, sag compensation can also be used alongside isolation.

The microgrid concept reduces operation costs and increases the reliability of the
distributed generators. The fact that small scale distributed generators can supply the
waste heat back, during required time, is a huge advantage when compared to other
power systems, this needs to be recognised. Since every country’s power distribution
system is old and extensive, microgrid is an viable addition to the power network for
providing better quality of power and uninterrupted power supply. This concept
allows for incorporating distributed generation without having to restructure the entire
power distribution.

Therefore, the concept of a microgrid is a viable answer to the question of

accommodating huge number of micro generation units without having to interrupt
the main grid network’s operation. The microgrid network will be easy to incorporate
into a nation’s power grid network as compared to other types of micro generation
provided that there is a control strategy that enables perceptive coordination of the
distributed energy sources and their respective loads. If there is a interruption in
power provided by the main grid, microgrid could provide power to the consumer by
operating individually which ensures uninterrupted power supply with good power
quality.

Research on the technical aspects of these microgrids is concentrated on relevant

power electronic devices, efficient energy storage devices and systems, effective
control and protection systems and algorithms, and microgrid management systems.
In each of these areas, research is being conducted at both the device and system
levels to improve their reliability, stability and power quality. Over the past decade,
various microgrid projects have been undertaken in different parts of the world to
address some of these technical challenges. The following provides a short list of
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some of these projects/research initiatives with their respective research domains
conducted in different parts of the world :

• Microgrids project – National Technical University of Athens: To develop

strategies for control algorithms and protection schemes

• ISET Microgrid - Germany: Research on various microgrid control

methodologies

• More Microgrids Projects – National Technical University of Athens: To

study alternative methods, strategies along with universalization and plug-
and-play concepts in microgrids.

• NEDO funded renewable energy systems microgrid projects in Japan to study

ways microgrids help solve intermittent nature of solar/wind sources as well
as to study different service levels to customers. The projects also aimed at
determining optimum operation and control systems for microgrid integration.

• Microgrid Pilot Project in Korea to study and test all technical aspects of
microgrids.

• Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions – CERTS USA and

their research to facilitate easy connection of small distributed generators.
• Microgrid Analysis software tools being developed for their efficient
deployment at Georgia Institute of Technology.
• Distributed Energy Resources Customer Adoption Model (DER-CAM) - UC
Berkley, USA.
• Research on the Design of microgrid integrated power systems in Australia.
Apart from the technical aspects of distributed generation, researchers have
spent considerable time on the economic impediments affecting the
development of these microgrids.

There have been studies conducted to understand and quantify the economic and
environmental impacts of such systems have focused on power markets and various
outcomes under different policies and microgrid penetration levels. Research has been
done to model each microgrid component, in order to calculate operational costs.

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studies have focused on cost effectiveness, their cost variations to energy prices and
the development of appropriate economic regulation frameworks. All of these have
helped provide valuable insights on the economics of such distributed systems.

1.3 Objective of the thesis:

The main objective of this thesis is to design a control strategy which can enable a
bidirectional flow of power in the microgrid,which can be facilitated by a
decentralised control strategy. This dispenses with the need for communication
between the DG and the microgrid. In this arrangement, different generation sources,
ac and dc loads are allowed to be located flexibly which results in the reduction of the
number of conversion stages and thereby an overall reduction in operation costs
using:

• AC and DC sub-grid
• Droop control strategy
• Small signal analysis

For the analysis of the microgrid system, the modelling and the control of the system
need to be analysed. The entire system is modelled and simulated using
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The system is modelled with the help of various
state equations and equivalent blocks.

1.4 Organization of thesis:

The thesis has been organized into five chapters. Following the chapter on
introduction, the rest of the thesis is outlined as follows.

Chapter 2 explains the concepts of Distributed generation and microgrids. Different

applications as well as structures and components of microgrids are explored.

Chapter 3 explains the concepts of Wind energy and the important components of a
wind turbine.

Chapter 4 explains the modeling and modeling and control of the overall Hybrid
microgrid system in detail. In this chapter the detail explanation is made using block
diagrams and different algebraic equations.

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In chapter 5 the overall configuration of the hybrid microgrid system was
implemented. Along with the operation of the grid, small signal stability is described.
All the simulation results which are found using MATLAB/ SIMULINK environment
are presented.

Chapter 6 provides conclusions of the work undertaken in this thesis. The references
taken for the purpose of research work follow this chapter.

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 CHAPTER-2

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION AND

MICROGRIDS

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2.1. Definition
Any electric power generation technology combined with distribution systems, which
is close to the point of consumption is known as a Distributed Generation. Distributed
generators are planned peripherally and not centrally planned. Hence, they are
connected with the medium or low voltage grids. Customarily they are smaller than
30 MWe .

The standard centralised power generation operates very differently as compared to

the distributed generations (DGs), while the former banks on production of electricity
in the power generation stations with huge generating capabilities, the later relies on
comparatively smaller capacity power generating sources. The biggest difference
between the two being that the power generated in the central power grid is
transmitted to the consumer through a colossal network of transmission and
distribution. To stock excess power produced, electrical storage systems may be
employed. So, this way, large plants that require huge capital to construct and vast
transmission and distribution network to circulate the power generated.

In a distributed generation system, the consumers network i.e. the offices,schools,

households etc is directly connected to the generators of the distributed systems. The
generators in a distributed system are small and micro generators. If excess power is
produced which is not required by the consumers who are directly connected, then
that power is fed into a distribution network which supplies the power elsewhere
where it is required. In this type of power system also, electrical storage systems may
be employed for the storage of excess power. Generation in the DGs can also be done
in large scale through the use of offshore wind sources etc, which is a renewable
source also. They are connected to high voltage network which can be used for
providing back up to the national power grid and enhance quality of supply.

Because of its ability to enhance generation capacity while still being cost effective,
the distributed generation has drawn a lot of attention. The distributed generation
systems enable to provide solutions that are customer oriented but are also market
driven. The DGs can operate with a wide range of fuels and output clean energy. The
DGs are also highly reliable and make a great alternatives for on-site power
generation. This interesting and customer friendly portfolio of the DGs helps the
energy companies and power producers in transforming the way energy is viewed.

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Investment of time and capital is required for all the options to boost capacity.
Distributed generation can accompany the power of the central grid in the following
ways :

(1) by catering a low capital intensive solution when additional increase in power
demand is required,

(2) The T&D network need not be upgraded as the DGs act at the point of
consumption and

(3) by providing the resilience to send power back into the grid at the point of
consumption.

The advancements in technology through the decades have resulted in sizeable

enhancements in operation of the small power generation options. These
enhancements have lead to better performance in terms of economic and
environmental aspects as well. It is predicted that a total of 500GW of the world
power will be supplied by DGs by the year 2030.

2.2. Market

To the market and the policy makers, distributed generation will appear to be an
attractive proposition because of a plethora of reasons. The transmission and
distribution networks need not be upgraded so no additional cost of upgradation is
involved, the distributed generation also provides ways to reduce loses occurred in
transmission and distribution. Since the advancement of technologies concerning the
electrical generation, the price of the small and medium capacity systems has
decreased. An example of this is the availability of micro turbines under the capacities
of 100KW. Earlier the small plants costed a lot to setup but now the small plants are
just as cost friendly as the large scale power plants. This turned the tables in the
favour of the distributed generations, as the electrical power industry was largely a
monopoly before the advent of the cheaper small scale technology. The larger plants
can save now save more in operation costs and generation owing to the advancements
in distributed generation systems technology.

The future of distributed generation interests many due to the cost cutting it enables
for local businesses and homes. The added reliability that the distributed generation

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offers to the whole electrical power market is driving policy makers to encourage the
further innovation in the field of distributed generation. All of this adds up to savings
in cost of electricity when the standard power supply is at its peak price and also
provides reliability when the main grid is not operational. During the peak hours of
generation and load, the cost of electricity is high so, distributed generations provide
the flexibility to change the amount of power they purchase from the main grid during
this time to a lower value and compensate their energy needs with the help of the
distributed generation systems. This encourages competition in the electrical power
market which promotes efficient operation of the providers and encourages stability
of the market place. Now since renewable energy can provide clean energy,
distributed energy systems are expected to pave the way for the commercial
expansion of renewable energy technologies, thus providing environmental as well as
safety benefits.

2.3. Technology Status

The past of a nation’s power industry determines the current technological and
commercial viability status of distributed generation systems. In most developed or
developing countries, the power sectors are chiefly controlled by the state.These
countries have to rely upon very large scale thermal, nuclear or hydro power plants to
supply power across their territory. Liberalisation gives the right to consumers to
choose cleaner, more reliable power generation alternatives. Liberalised countries
have experienced the benefits of distributed generation and hence the DGs have
gained a footing in these nations owing to their relatively low capital cost and shorter
construction times. The political environment and energy market scenario decide the
distributed generation technologies that these countries choose to exploit.

The solutions that distributed generation systems provide, are of great value to the
electrical power market place. The reason being the low-cost, gas based plants that
can be set up, which can be replaced by renewable energy components. Progress of
the distributed energy systems has been slow as the power supplies in most developed
nations are of satisfying quality and also due to the fact that the liberalisation process
has began only recently. The main driver for the shift in power generation
technologies in the developed world is mostly due to the environmental concerns,
especially in Europe. The large scale development of renewable energy technologies
is a by product of that concern, although, the distributed energy systems are more
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expensive than their counterparts in non distributed energy systems and hence need
support from the government to accomplish a sizeable market share.

2.4. Distributed Generation Applications and Technologies

2.4.1. DG Applications

Electrical needs of consumers around the world are met by distributed generation
either fully or partially.The possible applications of distributed generation
technologies are numerous. As an example, we can consider the fact that some part of
the customer base use DGs to deduce their electricity charges while others use it as a
primary source of power to cut down emissions that are harmful to the environment.
Electrical utilities can use DGs to improve their existing distribution scheme.
Numerous other applications of DGs have come into existence. The list that follows
encompasses the potential applications of the DGs for the market and its customers.

Continuous Power - This function involves the operation of DGs around the year on a
continual basis for a minimum of 5000 hours to generate and provide for all or some
of the power needs of a given place. Components that are important and characteristic
of continuous power are :

• Superior electric efficiency,

• small maintenance costs

• Low amount of emissions ,

Industrial applications call for the deployment of continuous operation of DGs in

industries such as food packaging and manufacturing, plastics manufacturing, rubber
manufacturing and chemical production. Smaller sectors such as hospitals and
supermarkets are also starting to use the DG technologies, although they only form a
small fraction of the industrial usage.

Cooling, Heating, and Power (CHP) - This application is also known as Combined
Heat and Power or cogeneration. Operated for a minimum of 5000 hours per year this
application calls for the use of DGs to generate partial or whole of the demanded
power. All the thermal demands such as steam production, water heating etc are
provided for by a fraction of the waste heat in the DG. Special cooling equipment can

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also be operated using the same fraction of heat. Components that are important and
characteristic of combined heat and power are

• Superior fraction of reuseable thermal output (resulting in high electric

efficiency),

• Low maintenance costs

• Low amount of emissions

The characteristics of CHP and Continous power are comparable to each other, which
results in them having almost similar customer profiles, although thermal demand
doesn’t exist for continuous power applications. CHP is generally preferred by
industries, albeit a small fraction of customers being commercial sector clients.

Peaking Power - This application calls for the DGs to operated for 200-3000 hours
around the year, the main intention being to decrease electrical costs incurred. Utility
grid charges more for power during peak load time and hence, the DGs can be used
during this time to provide the electrical load demand.

Components that are important and characteristic of Peaking power are

• Low installation costs

• Immediate startup

• Low (fixed) maintenance costs

During high peak loads clients can reduce the cost of electricity when the price is
high, peaking power applications can be of help. The commercial sector employs DG
peaking units since the load profiles of this sector is varying as compared to the
industrial sector where the load profiles are usually flat. Educational institutions,
lodging facilities, retail stores are all clients of this application.

Green Power - To decrease carbon emissions any facility can employ DG units,
which can help the facility generate its own power supply. Components that are
important and characteristic of green power are : low amount of emissions ,high
efficiency, low (variable) maintenance costs. Energy companies could alternatively
sell green power to those customers who prefer to purchase power which is produced
with less emissions.
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Premium Power - A high level of reliability and power quality can be achieved by
the DGs as compared to the main grid, which means better electrical service. With the
market for premium services expands, the power market also has its own share of
premium service which provides a better all-round power service like a value added
service. Premium power entails for uninterrupted supply of power and hence premium
power can be categorised into three categories:

Emergency Power System - This system automatically provides electric power

within a certain period of time and takes the place of the regular source, should the
regular source fail. This system is generally used to power devices whose breakdown
could amount to property loss/damage or health and safety are at threat. The clients of
this application can be residential buildings, office buildings, hotels, public places etc.

Standby Power System - This system provides power should the regular source of
power fail, allowing for a whole facility to run its operations uninterrupted. This kind
of system is of great importance in places like fire stations, police stations, air ports,
prisons, water supply and sewage plants.

True Premium Power System - Uninterrupted power which is free of general power
complications such as variations in frequency, transients in voltage, dips is provided
in this type of application. Clients which require this kind of power are given a power
which is not directly from the grid but acquires conditioning of ancillary power
equipment and standby power. Another way to do this to use DGs as the primary
power source and using the grid as the backup. This application is of great use in
airlines, banks, insurance companies, communications stations, hospitals and nursing
homes.Components that are important and characteristic of this application are:

• Immediate startup,
• Low installation cost
• Low (fixed) maintenance costs
Transmission and Distribution Extension - If the T&D systems need to be replaced,
the acquirement of new transmission & distribution equipment such as distribution
lines and substations etc can be delayed if we place DG units at critical positions. The
life cycle costs of several options needs to be considered and all problems related to
the extension of equipment must be analysed. Components that are important and
characteristic of transmission and distribution extension are :

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• Low installation cost
• Low (fixed) maintenance costs
Ancillary Service Power - In this application, the DG is utilised as an ancillary
service at the transmission or distribution level. In deregulated electrical industries
DGs offer numerous advantages over other existing technologies. Spinning reserves
and other types of reserves are ancillary services. Voltage control, reactive power
supply, are all services which can potentially be provided. If there is a system fault the
back up provided by the ancillary service provider.

2.4.2. DG Technologies

Reciprocating engines – This machine has a broad range of applications although

this was designed almost a centenary ago. The engine can be in the range of anywhere
from less than 0.05MW to more than 5 MW and they use fuels such as natural gas,
bio gas etc. The decrease in emission levels and increase in efficiency is what the
development work is being focussed on. The fundamental use of these machines for
providing applications such as CHP, peaking power and backup power.

Microturbines - Although this technology is only accessible to a handful of

manufacturers, a lot more of manufacturers are considering to arrive into this rising
market with ample opportunity. With the promise of low amount of emissions, these
micro turbines can provide for the use of ranges between 30 to 300 kW but these
units, because of less manufacturers is currently very pricey. Procuring these micro
turbines at a acceptable price and still show reliable performance is a large obstacle
for the producers of this technology. This technology is fairly new and the only reason
for majority of the installations, is to test the performance of this technology. More
established technologies such as combustion turbines have a range from 1 MW to 10
MW. The costs involved for capital for this arrangement is fairly low and the amount
of emissions are low too yet they provide an inferior electrical efficiency in ratings.
For boosting the efficiency standards of this expanded technology, a lot of
technological efforts are being put forward. The main applications that these micro
turbines serve for are, CHP and in peaking power.

Photovoltaics - Used in numerous applications including both domestic and

commercial use and the range of the panels starting from as low as 2KW, this makes
solar a flexible technology. Multiple units can be merged to form a unified unit of any
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desired size. They are zero emission and minimum maintenance technologies. Despite
all the advantages, they can be quite expensive. The only barrier between wide spread
of this efficient technology is of the economic type and so, it is required that this
barrier be eliminated as the cost of the units can be quite daunting for its prospective
buyers. These technologies are finding use in places where the power grid cannot
reach and in places where green power is preferred over the normal power. This
technology has a lot of future scope.

Fuel Cells - These technologies are known as much for their high efficiency as they
are known for their levels of emissions, which are very low. The operating principle
of a fuel cell closely resembles a battery. Hydrogen and oxygen are merged,
electrochemically without the need for combustion. The biggest difference between
the fuel cells and batteries is that batteries are exhaustible source of power while a
fuel cell when continuously fed with its designated fuel and an oxidant is designed to
run for a longer time. The electrochemical reaction produces two things i.e. electricity
and cold combustion i.e., a heat which doesn’t have a flame and also the product that
is finally obtained is water. Usually a series of fuel cells are bundled against one
another to decide a desired power output as one cell amounts for one volt.

The most elemental form of a fuel cell consist of two electrodes detached by an
electrolyte. One of these electrodes is provided with fuel which is usually the anode,
while the other provided with is provided with oxygen, which is a simple process of
pumping the oxygen gas in. These technologies find most use in premium power
applications. There are various fuel cells which are used for a multitude of
applications such as the commercial fuel cells like Proton membraned fuel cells.
These fuel cells are capable of carrying high amount of energy per unit volume and
have already found multiple uses in the automative industry so the cost of this
technology is expected to fall fast.

Wind turbine systems - The DG technologies that are most commonly available are
the wind turbines, which have a generation range of 10 to 1000kW. These
technologies cost a lot less when compared to other renewable energy technologies.
They output wild ac which is dependent on a continually varying wind, which is also
highly unpredictable which makes this technology inappropriate for those businesses
or facilities which require a continuous supply of power. Technological
advancements are trying to create a scenario where power when generated can be
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stored in the energy storage systems like batteries which can be used later when the
turbine is not functioning owing to unpredictable winds. The areas which are not
linked in the grid network are presently being provided power using the wind
turbines, these areas are either advocates of green power or are inaccessible to the
main grid network.

The lowest capacity wind turbines are being employed in battery charging for jet
boats and traffic signals. The turbines that are marginally larger are used for
consumers in residential areas who can generate as much supplement power as
required and sell back the rest to the main grid through the power grid network itself.
As part of the game plan to reduce the dependency of nations on the fossil fuels, most
liberalised nations are now adapting to generating power through wind farms which
are a huge distribution of a series of wind turbines in a large piece of land. These
wind farms are quickly turning into a major provider of renewable energy in the
world. Owing to the advancements in the wind technologies, the wind turbines are
now available in two types i.e., the horizontal axis type and the vertical axis type.

2.5 Microgrids

In the recent past, the demand for continuous, superior quality power has risen
exponentially mainly because of the advancement of technologies in various fields.
To provide a solution to this demand, the distributed energy systems have always
looked like a favourable and probable solution. The energy systems which are small
in scale of production and can be interlinked to already existing low and medium
voltage networks are desired. The distributed energy systems are perfect in providing
this to the consumer. The microgrids are often seen as the answer to this question,
since they are able to provide back up power when the main grid is off and also can
send excess power generated by its micro sources back to the power grid thus saving
costs for the consumer. So, microgrid technology is seen as the imminent future of
reliable and renewable power.

A small scale distribution network which encompasses a multiple number of micro

sources and loads of its own can be seen as the setup of an typical microgrid. The
advantage of the microgrid network is that it can be disengaged from the main grid
should an emergency arise which results in the failure of the grid. Superior efficiency
can be derived through the employment of the DG technologies such the Cooling,

20
Heating and Power (CHP) and power supply which is highly reliable makes microgrid
a viable future option for the distribution of power as the growing power market
indicates that service quality of delivery of power needs to be improved. We cannot
however discount the fact that there are numerous environmental as well as
economical advantages to using this technologies. The CHP technology calls for the
use of reusable waste heat which is of great importance to the consumer who can
benefit from the reusable waste heat. Not only that, the CHP technology can also
increase the efficiency in a given power system. The only drawback of the microgrid
technology is that it sometimes can be afflicted by disturbances in the form of voltage
sags, voltage imbalances and harmonics in supply.

It is important to note that there is a solution to this drawback, by employing

converters of the power electronic type we can reverse any of the disturbances caused
such as the voltage sags, voltage imbalances and harmonics in supply. This converters
can act even when faced by imbalance of loads or voltages. The closeness of the point
of consumption to the point of generation implies that there will be no problems with
reliability as far as sensitive loads are concerned. The supply is not centralised so, this
further improves the reliability of the whole network. Because of decentralisation, if
one unit is inactive it does not deter the other units from functioning and the other
units can compensate for the production of the unit that is not working. The fact that
energy resources in microgrids cannot connected without the requirement for an
engineer makes this technology accessible to a wide variety of consumers.

If distributed energy sources were to be used with renewable energy sources, then
that would result in reliable energy that is clean of carbon emissions. The developed
world is waking up to the harm that power generated by fossil fuels is causing to the
environment. Smaller grids require less time to set up and build, they also require
fewer equipment such as transmission lines and poles. The energy storage devices that
are connected to the grid are known as Distributed Energy Resources (DERs).The
microgrid infrastructure can be designed in such a way that the storage devices store
energy during non peak times and using the stored energy during peak times thus,
making this an economical endeavour. Due to storage of energy from multiple sources
this type of technologies have a lesser environmental impact on the planet and
simultaneously improving the security and quality of the supply.

21
2.6. Structure and Components
The main components of a microgrid are distributed generators (photovoltaic arrays,
small wind turbines, fuel cells, internal combustion engines, microturbines, etc.),
distributed energy storage devices (flywheels, superconductor inductors,
supercapacitors, compressed-air systems, batteries, etc.), and loads. Generators can be
classified into two main groups, based on their interfacing media: (i) generators that
consist of direct-coupled conventional rotating machines (e.g., a synchronous
generator driven by a reciprocating engine or an induction generator driven by a
fixed-speed wind turbine), and (ii) electronically interfaced generators.

Distributed energy storage devices are employed to compensate for the power
shortage within the microgrid, mainly in the islanded mode when the generators may
not be able to satisfy the entire load power demand. They also prevent transient
instability of the microgrid by providing power in transients. The instability would
occur as many DERs, such as rotating-machinebased DERs, fuel-cells, etc., are rather
slow in responding to power demand variations; the transient power shortage in a
microgrid can be compensated for by a fast energy storage device, e.g., a battery that
is coupled with the microgrid through a dc/ac converter.

Each DER is interfaced with its corresponding host bus through a power-electronic
converter and a transformer. The microgrid is interfaced with Bus 1 of the upstream
network, at the Microgrid Point of Coupling (MPC), through the Microgrid Main
Switch (MMS). In turn, Bus 1 is energized from a high-voltage transmission grid,
through a substation transformer. The microgrid has two operating modes: the grid-
connected mode and the islanded mode.

In the grid-connected mode, the MMS is closed and the microgrid can exchange
energy with the host grid. In this mode, the DER systems exchange real and reactive
powers with the distribution network, according to the corresponding setpoints; the
difference between the aggregate power generated by the DER systems and the power
demanded by the local loads is balanced by the upstream network. The voltages on
both sides of the MMS are continuously monitored, and the switch can be opened to
disconnect the microgrid from the grid if a fault strikes the grid. Subsequently, the
microgrid can continue to operate in the so-called islanded mode. Thus, islanded
operation is primarily intended to enhance system reliability and service continuity

22
and, therefore, it is typically unplanned. However, it can also be introduced
intentionally, for maintenance purposes or economical reasons. In some cases,
islanded operation is the only mode of operation, e.g., in off-grid remote
electrification systems.

2.7. Microgrid Control

Microgrid control can be broadly divided into (i) overall control and (ii) local control.
These controls are described.

2.7.1. Overall Control (Supervisory Control)

In the grid-connected mode, the microgrid voltage is imposed by the host utility grid.
Thus, the hosted DER systems cannot play any appreciable role in determining the
microgrid voltage magnitude or frequency (although they can locally affect the
voltage magnitude through their reactive power or, to a lesser extent, real power
contributions). However, they can be controlled to exchange pre-specified amounts of
real and reactive powers with the rest of the microgrid. This, in turn, enables the
control of the real and reactive powers that the microgrid exchanges, as a black box,
with the host grid. In the grid-connected mode, the function of the overall control is
thus to issue the real- and reactive-power commands for the DER systems.

The overall control can calculate the commands based on a variety of criteria, such as
market signals and economy of the microgrid; optimal operation and well being of the
microgrid; host grid conditions and requirements; and microgrid internal conditions
and requirements. For example, during hours when the grid electricity is cheap, the
overall control may decide to reduce the power outputs of the gas microturbines and
charge the energy storage devices mainly through the grid power.

At the same time, in response to a grid command, it may dispatch the DER systems in
such a way that the microgrid draws reactive power from the host grid, in order to
prevent an overvoltage on the grid side of the MPC. By contrast, in the islanded mode
of operation, the DER systems are mainly controlled to regulate the microgrid voltage
magnitude and frequency, a process that must be fast and reliable, and is the function
of the local control. In the absence of a connection to the utility grid, a sustained
islanded mode operation also implies that the sum of DER system power outputs
equals the aggregate load power.

23
Although, this is strictly and rapidly ensured by the local control, the overall control
can specify the steady-state DER system output powers, subject to the constraint
mentioned above, in such a way that the microgrid steady-state operation is
optimized. The overall control can also specify the commands for steady-state voltage
magni- tudes and frequencies of the DER systems, for the well being of the loads or
safe reconnection of the microgrid to the host grid once the operating mode is to be
switched to the grid-connected mode. Further, the overall control can shed loads in
the islanded mode, depending on load criticalities, microgrid energy reserves, or other
considerations. The overall control is exercised centrally, through the Microgrid
Central Controller (MCC). It requires a communications network to exchange
information with the DER systems and loads.

However, the communication links do not have to be fast or very reliable, since the
overall control mainly concerns the steady-state operation of the microgrid; its
malfunction shall not result in a system collapse, but would lead to the non-optimal
operation of the microgrid. In the technical literature, the overall control is also
known as the “supervisory control”, which may also be augmented with higher levels
of control such as Distribution Network Operator (DNO) or Market Operator (MO).

2.7.2. Local Control (DER Control)

The main function of the local control is to ensure the stability and robustness of the
microgrid, in transients as well as steady states. Thus, the local control ensures that
the DER systems operate in synchronism with the grid, in the grid-connected mode of
operation. It also ensures that, in the islanded mode of operation, the aggregate of the
DER system power outputs tracks the aggregate load power, subject to some
dynamics, such that the microgrid voltage magnitude and frequency are regulated
while the DER systems properly share the total load, both in transient and steady-state
regimes.

It also ensures that, in the islanded mode of operation, the aggregate of the DER
system power outputs tracks the aggregate load power, subject to some dynamics,
such that the microgrid voltage magnitude and frequency are regulated while the DER
systems properly share the total load, both in transient and steady-state regimes.
Further, the local control ensures that the DER systems operate within their limits and
are protected against network faults, irrespective of the operating mode. The local

24
control also receives and enforces the commands that are issued by the overall
control. As mentioned earlier, such commands include setpoints for steady-state
output real and reactive powers of the DER systems; setpoints for steady-state
magnitudes and frequencies of the DER system terminal voltages; and start-up, shut-
down, and synchronization commands.

In contrast to the overall control, the local control must be fast and very reliable.
Otherwise, either the microgrid voltage magnitude and frequency undergo
unacceptable excursions with respect to their nominal values, or the microgrid
collapses completely. Therefore, even though its centralized realization is
theoretically feasible, the consensus is that the local control should be implemented
based on decentralized methods. The most notable decentralized method of local
control is the one based on drooped characteristics. One distinct merit of the droop-
based control method is that it grants plug-and-play capability to the DER systems. It
should be pointed out that the local control may also be applied to the loads, for rapid
and continuous power control, or even for load shedding. However, hereafter and
throughout the rest of this thesis, the focus will exclusively be placed on the local
control for the DER systems of a microgrid, and the loads are assumed to be
uncontrollable. Hence, hereafter, the local control is referred more specifically to as
the “DER control”.

2.7.3. DER Control

Two main functions of a DER control are (i) real- and reactive power control in the
grid-connected mode, and (ii) microgrid voltage and frequency regulation in the
islanded mode.

Grid-Connected Mode:

DER Control in the grid-connected mode, the magnitude and frequency of the DER
system terminal voltages are imposed by the utility grid. Thus, the control task boils
down to the regulation of the real and reactive powers that the DER systems exchange
with the host network. The DER systems can utilize either the current-mode control
method or the voltage-mode control strategy, for the regulation of their output real
and reactive powers.

25
Thus, each phase of the voltage to be synthesized by the VSC, v ∗ Iabc, is derived
from shifting the phase-angle and scaling the amplitude of the corresponding phase of
vsabc. The required phase shift, ϕ(t), is determined by a feedback loop that processes
the error between Po and its respective setpoint. Similarly, the amplitude scale factor,
A(t), is calculated by another feedback loop that processes the error between the Qo
and its respective setpoint. The second method for controlling the real and reactive
powers of a grid-connected DER system is the current-mode control method. In this
approach, first the VSC line current is made controllable by a dedicated scheme and
through the control of the VSC terminal voltage.

Then, the real and reactive powers are controlled by the amplitude and phase angle of
the current, relative to those of the host bus voltage. Due to the current regulation
provision, the VSC is protected against overloads and external faults. Other
advantages of the currentmode control include robustness against variations in
parameters of the VSC system and the ac system, superior dynamic performance, and
higher control precision. The DER has been assumed to be dispatchable, that is, its
output real and reactive powers can be controlled by the setpoints Pore f and Qore f
(which, in turn, are determined by the MCC).

By contrast, the output powers of a nondispatchable DER system are commonly the
byproducts of an optimal operating condition. For example, a PV system normally
operates in the Maximum Power- Point Tracking (MPPT) mode , that is, it extracts
the maximum possible power from its solar panels. The kernel of the control system is
the real- and reactive-power control scheme by which Po and Qo can be controlled
independently. In the system, the setpoint for the real power, Pore f , is determined by
a feedback control mechanism that regulates vdc at its corresponding setpoint. The
reactive power Qo can be controlled independently by the setpoint Qore f . In many
applications, Qore f is set at zero, i.e., the VSC system operates at unity power-factor.
Qore f can also be determined by a closed-loop mechanism whose function is to
regulate the voltage magnitude at the host bus.

Islanded-Mode :

DER Control in the islanded mode, there is no connection to the host grid. Thus, the
DER controlis responsible for frequency regulation. In addition, a voltage regulation
strategy is required to maintain the network voltage. Moreover, the control is also

26
responsible for managing the real and reactive power contributions of the DER
system, such that the load power is properly shared amongst the DER systems of the
microgrid. The islanded-mode control can be exercised centrally, centralized
approaches, however, require remarkable data transfer capacities and reliable
communication links. As such, they may be suitable for small-scale microgrids in
which the DER systems are close together. For DER systems that are scattered over a
large geographical span, decentralized control schemes are preferable since they do
not need data communications. This thesis concentrates on the decentralized DER
control, for the islanded mode of operation.

2.8 Conclusions :

Hence the necessity for smart electrical systems having minimum technical loss and
environmental impact is providing impetus to go for Distributed Generations (DGs)
which may offer several other advantages such as reduced transmission and
distribution system resources, increased reliability, better power quality, etc yet DER
operating modes dictate that control of power is the one of the most important
criterions for a succesful operation of microgrids.

27
 CHAPTER-3
WIND TURBINES

28
3.1 Wind Energy :

Understanding the important components and characteristics of wind energy is very

important for the generation of wind energy at the most optimal level. Wind energy is
largely dependent on the velocity of the wind, the direction of the wind and variation
of the strength of the wind. The other factors that determine the efficacy of a wind
energy plant are the location of the wind farm sites, the prospect of sustainability of
the wind turbine in a proposed wind location etc. These are all in turn also conditional
on the characteristics of the wind mentioned above. The randomness of the strength
and direction of the wind are the most noteworthy features of the wind. Geographical
and temporal factors decide the variation of the wind. In the scales of time and space,
this sort of flippancy is present in a vast variety. The energy that is available for
production from the wind, is dependent on the wind velocity, i.e., the energy extracted
from the wind is directly proportional to the cube of the velocity of the wind flowing
through the turbine at any given instant. The variation in the strength and direction of
the wind can be attributed to the rotation of the earth as the many tilts and spinning
can attribute to varying wind distributions across the globe.

The geographical location of the wind is also a big factor in determining the amount
of wind, a wind turbine might be exposed to, i.e., usually higher winds are observed
in hilly areas covered with mountains than on low lying regions. There is a big
variation in a small scale, when the land mass to water ratio differs our if there is a lot
of vegetation present which could affect how the wind is distributed in a given area.
Sometimes, the presence of too many trees or buildings can block the flow of winds.
In addition to these, from year to year the flow of wind and the strength of it varies
and it is observed that moving from one decade to another, wind distribution too
changes. Since predicting the variation of winds on a long term basis is not well
documented, the economic sustainability of the wind farms is not reliable. Wind
can sometimes be predicted for a period of an year but it cannot be predicted for a
matter of few days.

The systems of weather decide the fate of the winds in most regions. The time of the
day also determines the variation of the wind at a given location. All these variations
are to be taken into account as the energy produced by the wind turbines is to be

29
interlinked to the main grid if they are connected by a microgrid set up, so all the
power units in the system have to be cautioned about the behaviour of the wind
turbines. Disturbances such as turbulence can cause disparity in the quality of the
power supply.

Figure 3.1 : Van der Hoven Wind Spectrum Curve

A wind spectrum which keeps a track of the power density in relation to the frequency
for long and short periods of time was proposed by Van der Hoven. This study was
based in New York and the study pointed out activity in the diurnal and other times of
the day. This synopsis shows the high frequency fluctuations in the turbine are cause
mainly due to diurnal and other turbulences. The aspects that have increased the
technological developments in wind power technology are :

1. The constructing large low-cost blades revolutionised the wind turbine construction
owing to advancements in study of sturdy fiber composites .
2. Advancements in technology which led to the decrease in the prices of power
electronic components used in converters.
3. To acquire maximum energy, electrical generators can now operate at variable
speed.
4. the availability of wind is increased up to 95 percent to improved operations in a
wind plant.
5. Although the turbines and plants are growing in size, the prices of their components
are still economical
6. The capacity factor is slowly increasing because of the exhaustive field studies that
are carried out to study wind energy.
30
3.2 Betz Limit
The limit that can be applied to the efficiency of a wind turbine, in theory is given by
the Betz limit. It proposes that any turbine cannot convert more than 59.4% of the
wind kinetic energy in its possession into mechanical energy in the shaft. The Betz
limit is given by Cp. For a strongly designed turbine the efficiency can be anywhere
between 35-50%.

3.3 Capacity Factor

The term that is used to represent the rate by which the wind turbine is put to use or
the also known as the utilisation rate is called Capacity factor. The Capacity factor is
given by taking a ratio of power actually produced to the power produced at 100%
efficiency.

Capacity Factor = Actual amount of power produced over time / Power that
would have been produced if turbine operated at maximum output all the time.

Plants that run on standard fuel as opposed to renewable fuels have a higher capacity
factor since, the standard fuels such as fossil fuels etc support a continuous process of
power generation. The only way a standard power plant could have lesser capacity
rate is if it was shut down for maintenance.

The availability of wind determined the rate at which wind is produced in a wind
turbine, so the since the velocity and direction of the wind are stochastic, the wind
turbine cannot work at its highest efficiency which is 100%. In addition to this, there
are other factors such as cut in speed and furl speeds which makes it impossible for
the wind turbine to work at maximum output.

Generally the capacity factor of any wind turbine is low at 42%. We should note that
for a wind turbine the capacity factor indicates the design characteristics of the turbine
whereas for the standard power plant run on fossil fuels etc the it denotes the
reliability and efficiency of the plant. Because of this randomness of wind, there are
two categories for capacity factor i.e., low rated generator with high capacity ratio or

31
high generator rating with low capacity ratio. Typically, the latter option is selected
by clients as the return on electricity received per unit of price is higher.

3.4 Wind Turbines
A machine that rotates to convert the wind kinetic energy to mechanical energy in the
shaft is known as the wind turbine. The mechanical energy procured at the shaft if
then, is converted into electricity then that machine can be termed as a wind generator
turbine. Wind turbines are categorised into two types depending on the axis which the
turbine is designed to rotate, i.e. , the Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines and Vertical
Axis Wind Turbines. The Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines is used in large scale
applications while the Vertical Axis Wind Turbines are used in smaller scale
applications.

3.4.1 Wind Turbine Generator units

The subsystems present in a turbine include the following units :

• Rotor which is used to convert the wind energy into mechanical energy of the shaft.
• Nacelle which means an enclosure contains all the conversion accessories like the
generator ,gear shaft etc.
• Tall towers, to enhance the chances of capturing higher wind speeds, when the
height of the turbine is increased.
• Control equipment, Cables etc.

3.4.2 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

The axis of rotation for these turbine blades is horizontal and hence they are named as
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT). At the summit of the tower the rotor shaft
and the electrical generator are positioned to capture the wind,it is made sure that the
blades are pointed in the direction of the wind. Since the wind is variable in any wind
farm, a gear system is placed along with the rotor and the generator. The constancy of
the speed of the rotation in the wind turbine is maintained by the gear system this in
turn ensures that generation of power happens at a steady frequency. The blades of the
turbines are designed to be tough and durable to avoid them being pushed in to the
tower itself when subjected to high strength winds. As they have an important part in
the efficient operation of a wind turbine, the blades of the turbine make up for one of
the most essential parts of a wind turbine.

32
Machines that work even in the conditions of downwind are also designed and built,
since the yaw mechanism has been replaced by a more efficient mechanism due to
advancements in technology. But, in the HAWTs most of them are built for upwind
since regular disturbances in the form of turbulences occur in the downwind systems.

3.4.3 HAWT advantages

• The blade pitch is variable, which means that the turbine blades are provided with
the flawless angle of attack. The change in the angle of attack provides greater control
over the power that is being generated and enables the turbine to have maximum
efficiency.
• As wind energy is enhanced as the height of the tower is increased, the tall tower in
the HAWT provides an great opportunity to capture higher wind speeds. In some
cases increase of height by only 15 meters can lead to increase in wind speed by 30 %
• In HAWTs’ the blades in HAWTs are designed to move horizontally, which makes
it perpendicular to the direction of the wind and hence enables it to have minimum
drag and draw power all through the rotation.

3.4.4 HAWT disadvantages

• Since the towers have to be as large as possible to capture winds at high speeds, this
requires large structures, which means high capital costs and high costs of
transportation.
• The construction is expensive as the construction of large towers required for
HAWTs is costly.
• Electronic noise is a by product of the operation of the wind turbine which causes
disturbances for radar sites.
• Downwind HAWTs are more susceptible to disturbances such as turbulence and can
case the failure of the whole structure.
• To rotate the blades in the direction of the wind, additional yaw control is
paramount.

3.5 Types of HAWTs:

3.5.1 Mono-Blade Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
Features:

33
1. The rotor of this type of HAWT is light in weight in comparison to the other and is
hence cheaper.
2. Blades are composed of metal, stratified wood and reinforced plastics, composite
carbon fibre etc.
3. The range of generation of power is between 10 kW to 50 kW and the plant can
service to wind needs for nearly 25 years.

Advantages:
1. Uncomplicated and unheavy construction.
2. convenient pricing
3. Easy installation and maintenance.

Disadvantages:
1. When higher loads are experienced, tethering control is crucial.
2. When it comes to higher power ratings, this HAWT is not appropriate.

Applications:

1. Territorial irrigation.
2. Desalination Plants where salt water is processed.
3. Power generation for farms and fields.

3.5.2 Twin-Blade HAWT

1. They are available in large sizes and possess a power output of the range of 1 MW,
2 MW and 3MW.
2. The high power units in these HAWTs feed straight to the distribution network.

3.5.3. Three Blade HAWT

1. Around the world, the three blade propeller type wind turbines are being
constructed.
2. The three blades present in the rotor are amassed on a pivot. The pitch control of
the blade tips is of the range 0 – 30 which comes in use for governing the shaft speed.
3. The shaft is mounted on the bearings.
4. The gear chain is responsible for changing the speed from the turbine shaft to the
generator shaft.

34
3.6 Vertical axis Wind Turbines

In this type of turbine, the rotor shaft is positioned vertically, hence making the plane
in which the turbine blades rotate, vertical. The yaw control mechanism which points
the turbine in the direction of the flow of the wind is redundant in this type of turbine.
This fact makes these turbines an indispensable resource when operating in places
where the direction of the wind is stochastic and cannot predicted with any
appreciable accuracy. The other advantage of VAWTs is that they do have a need for
a tower and can be erected on ground itself. Due to the operation of blades in the
vertical direction, a lot of drag is produced and hence results in low efficiency in the
turbine.
VAWT advantages
• Since VAWTs’ are erected close to the ground, there is no need for a huge tower
structure.
• They is no need for yaw mechanisms to point the blades in the direction of the wind.
• since they are situated beside the ground, it makes them simpler to manage or
maintain.
• The speed at which these turbines start can be quite low,in comparison to the
HAWTS, lowest startup speeds can be of the order of 10 Kmph.
• These turbines produce less noise as a by product in comparison to the HAWTs

VAWT disadvantages
• The efficiency of VAWTs is lesser in comparison to their HAWT counterparts as
these turbines produce excess drag, during the rotation of the blades.
• Since the VAWTs are situated very close to the ground, all the supporting
equipment has to be placed at the base of the turbine system, in turn tending it
unreachable for repair works etc.
• As the height increases from the ground, the more is the intensity of winds, yet
VAWTs cannot capture that wind as they are at a lower height.

3.6.1 Types of VAWTs

Persian Windmill:
1. The first windmill recorded to be constructed was the Persian windmill (sometime
between the period of 7th Century A.D. – 13th Century A.D.) in Persia.

35
2. The windmill is VAWT i.e. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine.
3. At the time this windmill was utilised to crush grains and produce flour.

Savonius Rotor VAWT:

1. This turbine was introduced by Savonius in 1929.
2. The use of this turbine is to calculate the strength of wind current.
3. Efficiency is recorded as 33%.
4. It can be operated in all directions and is hence indispensable in places where the
direction of the wind changes continually.

Darrieus Rotor VAWT:

1. This turbine consists of either twin or triple convex blades with a cross-section for
the air foil.
2. It is paramount to erect the blades symmetrical to the shaft, which is vertical.
3. Mechanical brakes are integrated to manoeuvre the speed of rotation to a desired
value. These brakes mainly contain steel discs and calipers for each disc which are
free air .

3.7 Internal Components of a Wind Turbine

• Anemometer: Speed is calculated by the device. Pitch angle and yaw are
controlled with the help of controller to which wind speed is fed into.
• Blades: Aerodynamically designed structures that are lifted when wind flows
over them are called Blades. Greater aerodynamic efficiency is achieved by
turning blades slightly.
• Brake: Turbines in high wind conditions are stopped using either mechanical
or hydraulic brakes.
• Controller: Every aspect starting from power output to pitch angle is
controlled by a device called controller. Wind speed, wind direction and shaft
speed is recorded by the controller The controller senses wind speed, wind
direction, shaft speed and torque at one or more points. Also the temp of
generator and power output produced is sensed.
• Gear box: This steps-up or steps down the speed of turbine and with suitable
coupling transmits rotating mechanical energy at a suitable speed to the

36
 generator. A speed of 50-60 rpm can be stepped up to 1200-1500 rpm using a
typical gear box system.
• Generator: An synchronous or asynchronous AC machine which produces
power of about 50 Hz is called generator
• High-speed shaft: Generator is controlled by High-Speed shaft.
• Low-speed shaft: Low-speed shafts can attain about 30-60 rpm with the help
of rotor.
• Nacelle: High speeds hafts, low speed shafts, gear box, generator, converter
equipment are situated in Nacelle. It is located atop the tower structure mostly
in the shadow of the blades.
• Pitch: The angle made by the blades with the wind is called Pitch. Blades can
be turned in or turned out of the wind stream by changing the Pitch angle..
• Rotor: The Rotor comprises of the hub and blades.
• Tower: Towers are basically made up of tubular steel or steel lattice. Amount
of power generated increases as the height of the tower increases as the wind
speed generally goes on increasing with height
• Wind direction: Generally erratic in nature, hence the rotor is made to face
into the wind by means of control systems.
• Wind vane: the speed of the wind is measured and sent to the Yaw drive by
Wind vane, so as to turn the turbine into the wind flow direction.
• Yaw drive: The orientation of the blades towards the wind is controlled by
Yaw drive. The turbine is rotated in wind direction by Yaw drive if the
turbine is out of the wind.
• Yaw motor: The Yaw drive is provided by Yaw motor.

3.8 Generators used in Wind Turbine :

An electrical machine which provides electricity using the mechanical energy of a

prime mover is called a generator. Wind or Aero-generators are basically wind
turbinegenerator sets, i.e. a propeller or rotor attached to a turbine which in turn is
coupled with an electric generator. The generator is further connected to appropriate
electronic devices that help in its connection and synchronization to the electrical
grid. Generators are basically of two different types: a) Synchronous Generators b)
Asynchronous Generators They are classifies based on the speed of operation of

37
generators. Synchronous generators are run at synchronous speed (1500 rpm for a 4
pole machine at 50Hz frequency) while asynchronous generators run at a speed more
than the synchronous speed.

3.8.1 Synchronous Generator

Machines which generate electricity by the principle of electromagnetic induction are

called Synchronous generators. The rotor is rotated by a prime mover. The Current
achieved flows in the stationary ser of rotor conductors. Magnetic field is produced
which in turn induces current in the stator conductors. This current is used as the final
output. An alternating voltage is induces by rotating magnetic field by the principle of
electromagnetic induction, in the stator windings.

Generally there are three sets of conductors distributed in phasesequence, so that the
current produced is a three phase current.The rotor magnetic field is generally
produced by means of induction, where we use either permanent magnets (in
verysmall machines) or electromagnets in larger machines. Sometimes, energy is
provided to rotor wings with direct current through slip rings and bushes. Sometimes
even a stationary fieldwinding, with moving poles in the rotor may be the source of
the rotor magnetic field.

Alternate voltage generated is controlled by varying the current in field winding by

using the setup mentioned above in automotive alternators. This process is known
asexcitation control. Electromagnet is plagued by the magnetization losses in the core
which is absent in the permanent magnet machines. This acts as an added advantage,
but there is a size restriction owing to the cost of the material of the core.

3.8.2 Asynchronous Generator

Singly excited a.c. machines are called Asynchronous generators or Induction

generators. Its stator winding is directly connected to the ac source whereas its rotor
winding receives its energy from stator by means of induction. Balanced currents are
produced by constant amplitude rotating mmf wave.

Mmf was produced by stator and mf wave was generated by rotor.both rotate in the
air gap in the same direction at synchronous speed. These two mmf s are combined to

38
give the resultant air-gap flux density wave of constant amplitude and rotate at
synchronous speed. Currents in the rotor is induced by the flux and an
electromagnetic torque is produced which rotates the rotor. Asynchronous generators
are mostly used as wind turbines as they can be operated at variable speed unlike
synchronous generator.

Two kinds of asynchronous generators are used namely :

a) Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
b) Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)

3.8.3 Squirrel cage Induction Generator

A squirrel cage rotor is so named due to the shape which represents a cage like
structure; rotating part of generator is a Squirrel cage induction generator. Being
cylindrical in nature, it’s mounted on the shaft. The internal construction relates to the
cage structure and contains longitudinal conductive bars (made of aluminum or
copper) set into channel like constructs and connected together at both ends by
shorting rings forming a proper cage-like shape. The core of the rotor is built of as
tack of iron laminations, so as to decrease the eddy current losses.

The current flowing in the field windings in the stator results in the setting up of a
rotating magnetic field around the rotor. This magnetic field cuts across the shorted
rotor conductors resulting in electromagnetic induction which induces a voltage and
in turn a current in the rotor windings. The magnitude of both the induced entities
depends directly on the relative speed of the rotor with respect to the stator; this
quality is basically called the slip of the motor.

Slip basically signifies the difference between the speeds of the rotor and
synchronous stator field speed. The rotor is carried around with the magnetic field but
at a slightly slower rate of rotation.

3.8.4 Doubly Fed Induction Generator

Wind turbines widely use a generating principle called Double Fed Induction
Generator. It is based on an induction generator with a multiphase wound rotor and a
multiphase slip ring assembly with different brushes for access to the varied rotor

39
windings. For wind power applications, this type of machine has distinct advantage
over the conventional type of machines.
• The rotor circuit is basically controlled by a power electronics converter. Induction
generator can act both as a source and sink for reactive power because of this. Power
system stability ,machine to support the grid during severe voltage disturbances (low
voltage ride through, LVRT) ,reactive power compensation of the system is allowed
by this.
• Induction machine is remained synchronized with the grid while the wind turbine
speed varies is enabled by the the control of the rotor voltages and currents. This
allows for the proper usage of the wind stream, since a variable speed drive can derive
greater power from the wind stream, as compared to a fixed sped drive
• Another factor which reduces the cost of the converter, apart from the initial
investment is that only fraction of the Mechanical power, typically 25-30 %, is fed to
the grid through the converter, the rest is fed to grid directly from the stator. This in
turn enhances the efficiency of the DFIG.

3.9 Conclusions
Hence, in this chapter, the different aspects of the wind energy resources are
explained. Important components of a wind turbine are also explored in detail for the
understanding of the working a wind turbine.

40
 CHAPTER-4
CONTROL STRATEGY AND MODELLING
OF CONTROL BLOCKS FOR A HYBRID
MICROGRID

41
4.1. SYSTEM STRUCTURE AND OPERATION MODES

A simple hybrid ac/dc micro grid, consists of an ac micro grid with conventional DG
sources, a dc micro grid with two dc type sources and an IC links the two micro grids
together. Each of these micro grids also includes their individual loads. Besides,
during normal grid operation the hybrid microgrid is connected to the main utility grid
through the ac microgrid. Basically, the microgrids are thought to operate in grid-
connected or islanding modes. In the grid-connected operation mode of the hybrid
microgrid, the ac microgrid dynamics are governed directly by the main utility grid
and the IC primarily regulates the dc microgrid voltage and controls the power
balance, as well.

In this operating condition the dc sources can generate a constant power or can
operate in maximum power point for the renewable energy sources. In the islanding
mode of operation, and during light loading of the dc part, the demanded power is
shared among the dc sources using the P-Vdc droop characteristics. When over-
loading happens in the dc microgrid, the interlinking converter will also participate in
load sharing using the proposed ac-dc droop control. In the following, the
performance of the hybrid ac/dc microgrid is described in either of these two modes.

4.1.1. Grid-Connected Mode

In the grid connected mode, the converter in between the ac and dc microgrids, also
known as the interlinking converter, is able to take care of less tasks. Of the functions
that are most important for a converter, it is to maintain stable bus voltage and
frequency of the ac microgrid and stable voltage of the dc microgrid, other than
enabling the flow of power in either directions inside the microgrid.

The converter does not have to enable the power sharing between the two microgrids
as the main grid or the utility grid acts as slack bus and enables the stable
maintenance of the bus voltage and frequency in the ac micrgrid. It can take care of
the load power demands of the ac and dc microgrid as well. This is because the main
grid is connected to the ac microgrid and also compensates for the lack of power
capacity in the dc microgrid. The converter’s only work is to make sure the dc bus

42
voltage is maintained stable and that the dc load demand is met according to the
changing demand in load.

However when the power demand of dc loads is less than the dc power output, the
main converter is required to send the excess power to the main grid, where the power
can be effectively utilised. Stability during grid connected mode, affects the quality of
power supplied by the microgrid. If the bus voltages on either side and frequency are
not stable, quality power may not be up to the mark.

Maximum Power point mode can be used by the renewable energy sources in this
mode. Non-renewable sources can be managed and energy storages can charge, DGs
can generate a specified reactive power in the ac microgrid for peak shaving purposes
or loss reduction..

4.1.2. Islanding Mode

In the standalone mode, the main grid is cut off from the microgrid. This inherently
implies that the microgrid needs to sustain itself by maintaining smooth sharing of
power and maintaining stable bus voltages on either side and maintaining stable
frequency of the ac bus.

The control strategy that we employ here have to be swift and fluid, switching back
and forth from the role of supplier at one moment to the state of load at another
moment. In case, the load demand is more than the total generating capacity of the
microgrid, the converter should be able to quickly deploy a load shedding strategy
which can stabilise the microgrid and avoid it from malfunctioning.

Islanding state I:

In this state, the total load demand in the ac microgrid and dc microgrid is less than the
total generating capability of the microgrid. The main converter does not transfer any
active power during this state. This is referred to as the light load condition. The power
equations in this case, can be summarised as given below

∗ ∗
𝑃!" = 𝑃!"#$ =0

43
 !"#$ !"#
dc microgrid : 𝑃!",! < 𝑃!",! (4.1)

!"#$ !"#
ac microgrid : 𝑃!",! < 𝑃!",! (4.2)

Islanding state II:

In this state, there is a deficiency of power in one microgrid while there is an excess
of power in the other. For this case, the load on the ac microgrid is a lot higher than its
generating capacity. On the other hand dc microgrid has excess power because of
light load, so the main converter transfers this excess power to the ac side. So, to
summarise :dc microgrid :

!"#$ !"#
𝑃!",! < 𝑃!",! (4.3)

!"#$ !"#
ac microgrid : 𝑃!",! > 𝑃!",! (4.4)

∗ ∗ !"# !"#$ !"##

𝑃!"#$ = 0 , 𝑃!" = 𝑃!!,! − 𝑃!",! −𝑃!" (4.5)

Islanding state III:

In this state, the vice versa of state II happens, i.e. the ac microgrid which was
overloaded is now lightly loaded and the dc microgrid is not in overload condition.
So, the excess power in ac microgrid is transferred to the dc microgrid by the main
converter. The main converter helps realise the most important abilities of the hybrid
microgrid through its actions in states II and III. The equations in this state are :

!"#$ !"#$
dc microgrid : 𝑃!",! > 𝑃!",! (4.6)

!"#$ !"#
ac microgrid : 𝑃!",! < 𝑃!",! (4.7)

∗ ∗ !"# !"#$ !"##

𝑃!"#$ = 0, 𝑃!" = 𝑃!",! − 𝑃!",! − 𝑃!" (4.8)

Islanding state IV:

In this state, both the ac microgrid and the dc microgrid are overloaded and hence, the
load demand in both is greater than the total generating capability of the hybrid
microgrid. The IC promptly stops the transfer of power between either sides, a load
shedding strategy is quickly put in place. This state can be summarised as:

44
 ∗ ∗
𝑃!"#$ = 𝑃!" = 0,

!"#$ !"#
dc microgrid : 𝑃!",! > 𝑃!",! (4.9)
!"#$ !"#
ac microgrid : 𝑃!",! > 𝑃!",! (4.10)

4.2. DROOP CONTROL

4.2.1 Introduction to Droop Control

Droop control is a control strategy commonly applied to generators for primary

frequency control (and occasionally voltaqe control) to allow parallel generator
operation (e.g. load sharing).

4.2.2 Power Equilibrium

In any electric system, the active power has to be generated at the same time as it is
consumed. Power generated must be maintained in constant equilibrium with power
consumed / demanded, otherwise a power deviation occurs. Disturbances in this
balance, causing a deviation of the system frequency from its set-point values, will be
offset initially by the kinetic energy of the rotating generating sets and motors
connected.

There is only very limited possibility of storing electric energy as such. It has to be
stored as a reservoir (coal, oil, water) for large power systems, and as chemical energy
(battery packs) for small systems. This is insufficient for controlling the power
equilibrium in real-time, so that the production system must have sufficient flexibility
in changing its generation level. It must be able instantly to handle both changes in
demand and outages in generation and transmission, which preferably should not
become noticeable to network users.

4.2.3 System Frequency

The electric frequency in the network (the system frequency f) is a measure for the
rotation speed of the synchronised generators. By increase in the total demand the
system frequency (speed of generators) will decrease, and by decrease in the demand
the system frequency will increase. Regulating units will then perform automatic
primary control action and the balance between demand and generation will be re-

45
established. The frequency deviation is influenced by both the total inertia in the
system, and the speed of primary control. Under undisturbed conditions, the system
frequency must be maintained within strict limits in order to ensure the full and rapid
deployment of control facilities in response to a disturbance. Out of periods for the
correction of synchronous time, the setpoint frequency is 50 Hz.
Even in case of a major frequency deviation / offset, each control area / block will
maintain its interconnections with adjoining control areas, provided that the secure
operation of its own system is not jeopardised.

4.2.4 Droop of a Generator

The droop of a generator 𝑆! is a ratio (without dimension) and is generally expressed
as a percentage:

(4.11)

The variation in system frequency is defined as follows, with 𝑓! being the rated
frequency:
△ 𝑓 = 𝑓 − 𝑓! (4.12)

The relative variation in power output is defined as the quotient of the variation in
power output ∆PG of a generator (in steady-state operation, provided that the primary
control range is not completely used up) and its rated active power output PGn.

The contribution of a generator to the correction of a disturbance on the network

depends mainly upon the droop of the generator and the primary control reserve of the
generator concerned. The following figure shows a diagram of variations in the
generating output of two generators a and b of different droop under equilibrium
conditions, but with identical primary control reserves.

In case of a minor disturbance (frequency offset < ∆𝑓! ), the contribution of generator
a (which has the controller with the smaller droop) to the correction of the disturbance
will be greater than that of generator b, which has the controller with the greater
droop.

46
 Figure 4.1: Graph depicting droop control.

The frequency offset (∆𝑓! ) at which the primary control reserve of generator a will be
exhausted (i.e. where the power generating output reaches its maximum value 𝑃!"# )
will be smaller than that of generator b (∆𝑓! ), even where both generators have
identical primary control reserves.

In case of a major disturbance (frequency offset > ∆𝑓! ), the contributions of both
generators to primary control under quasi-steady-state conditions will be equal.

4.2.5 Network Power Frequency Characteristic

The network power frequency characteristic of a synchronous area / block is the

quotient of the power deviation ∆𝑃! responsible for the disturbance and the quasi-
steadystate frequency deviation ∆f caused by the disturbance (power deficits are
considered as negative values):

The network power frequency characteristic λi is measured for a given control area /
block i. This corresponds to the quotient of ∆𝑃! (the power deviation measured at the
tielines of the control area / block i) and the frequency deviation ∆f in response to the
disturbance (in the control area / block where the disturbance originates, it will be
necessary to add the power surplus, or subtract the power deficit, responsible for the
disturbance concerned).

The contribution of each control area / block to the network power frequency
characteristic is based upon the set point value λio for the network power frequency
characteristic in the control area / block concerned.

47
 Δ𝑃!
𝜆! = (4.13)
Δf
This set-point value is obtained by the multiplication of the set-point network power
frequency characteristic λuo for the entire synchronous area and the contribution
coefficients Ci of the various control areas / blocks:

𝜆!! = 𝐶! 𝜆!" (4.14)

This formula is used to determine the requested contribution 𝐶! of a control area /

block to primary control.

The network power frequency characteristic of a given control area / block should
remain as constant as possible, within the frequency range applied. This being so, the
insensitivity range of controllers should be as small as possible, and in any case
should not exceed ±10mHz. Where dead bands exist in specific controllers, these
must be offset within the control area / block concerned.

The set-point value 𝛌!" for the overall network power frequency characteristic is
defined by the network of transmission on the basis of the conditions described in the
policy, taking account of measurements, experience and theoretical considerations.

4.3.1 Control of DGs in a standalone AC Micro grid

Frequency-droop ω-P characteristic has a huge say in real power generation of a DG.
The frequency of the micro-grid changes by means of demanded power variations
since there is no dominant source to impose the base frequency in the islanded micro
grid. Increasing the active power generation of DGs when the system frequency
decreases is the primary idea of this control. The reactive power demand can be
managed by the voltage droop. Fluctuations in bus voltage and power generation can
be monitored and corresponding values of frequency and voltage can be calculated
from the droop characteristics. The frequency and voltage can affect the real power
generation in the generating stations in this way. This can be mathematically
represented as:

!
𝑃!"# = − ! 𝜔! − 𝜔 + 𝑃! (4.15)
!"

48
 1
𝑄!"# = − 𝜔! − 𝜔 + 𝑄 ! (4.16)
𝐾!
𝜔!"# − 𝜔!"#
𝐾!,!" = − (4.17)
𝑃!"#

𝑉!"# − 𝑉!"#
𝐾!,!" = − (4.18)
𝑄!"#

4.3.2 Control of DGs in a standalone DC Microgrid

The droop control method used for real power sharing for a dc microgrid need not be
too different from that of an ac microgrid, the droop characteristics of a dc microgrid
can be stated as:
!"# ! ! !
𝑃!" = − ! 𝑉!" − 𝑉!" + 𝑃!" (4.19)
!"

!"# !"#
𝑉!" − 𝑉!"
𝐾!,!" = − !"# (4.20)
𝑃!"

4.4. IC CONTROL FOR ISLANDING OPERATION

The power control strategies defined for standalone dc and ac microgrid are of use
when the main grid is connected to the hybrid microgrid, when the main grid is
disconnected and these control strategies are of no use. A new control strategy needs
to be designed for the operation during the islanded mode of operation as the
controller needs to enable the working in such a way that, the main converter acts a
supplier to one microgrid while simultaneously acting as the load to another. This
implies the need for a bidirectional power flow inside the hybrid microgrid which is
the most important feature of a hybrid microgrid. The IC is expected to manage a
flow of power in two directions between the ac and dc microgrids, n contrast to the
standalone ac or dc microgrids. To quash fast communication link, and since we are
using droop control method for power transfer for standalone microgrids, which work
efficiently. It makes sense, to propose a droop control strategy which is modified and
specialised for use in the Hybrid microgrids.

The operating states which might occur during the island state of the hybrid
microgrid, are an anchor to design the new control strategy for a hybrid microgrid.
The regionalised control strategy is used for this control strategy which is the most

49
efficient strategy in every way. The converter transfers the required power from one
microgrid to another while, the power control strategy decides the amount of power it
needs to transfer from one microgrid to another. The power reference, which is the
command for the amount of power to be transferred is determined by taking two
parameters as input, those are, the dc bus voltage and the frequency of the ac
microgrid. For these calculations can be carried out as,

! !
𝑊!" = ! 𝐶!" 𝑉!" (4.21)

The switching losses , can be neglected, in the converter and also, the difference in
active power transfer between ac and dc micro grids is equivalent to the dynamics in
the dc capacitor energy. Therefore

! ! !
!
𝑊 = ! 𝐶!" !" 𝑉!"
!" !"
= 𝑃!" − 𝑃!" =△ 𝑃 (4.22)

On the other side, considering the (𝜔-𝑃) characteristic in the ac microgrid,

△ 𝜔 = 𝜔! − 𝜔 = 𝑘! △ 𝑃 (4.23)

making use of the Euler approximation with an assumed sampling period (Ts) and
assuming the constancy of the microgrid frequency in the given interval, a new droop
characteristic for the IC called “ac-dc droop” is defined as,

(4.24)

As discussed earlier, the operating state wherein the dc and ac microgrids both are
light loaded, in that case, the main converter needs to shut off and should not transfer
any power between the microgrids. The distributed generations in each of the ac and
dc microgrids can suffice the load demand and hence can regulate the demanded
power effectively. This can be done using the droop characteristics that can be applied
for standalone dc and ac microgrid.

This state and the overloaded state in which both the microgrids are overloaded, are
the shut off zone in the new ac dc droop wherein the converter is shut off. The main
converter is used not just for the control of ac side frequency or the dc voltage control,
it is also important for the converter to enable power sharing between the two
microgrids. The output of the modified droop is fed to the droop of the individual

50
microgrids. The sign convention used here is, positive sign for power flow from dc to
ac and negative sign for vice-versa. The reference voltage and the real power to be
transferred is to be determined by the droops mentioned above.. The impact of the
proposed droop control for the IC on the power sharing of sources in each microgrid
is illustrated within two load increase scenarios in each microgrid,

1) An overloaded dc microgrid is assumed in the first case, wherein , the due

to the increase of load in the dc microgrid, the dc bus voltage drops or
decreases correspondingly. The main converter comes into the picture
once the drop in voltage is beyond the shut off region in the ac dc droop
characteristics. This voltage drop is inserted in the ac dc droop equation,
which gives us the new reference frequency using which we can find the
required power that needs to be transferred from the ac side to the dc side.
That is, the main converter acts as a source for the dc microgrid while at
the same time acting as a load for the ac microgrid. Thus the power
generation of the ac microgrid is compensated for, by the proposed control
strategy.
2) An overloaded ac microgrid is assumed in the first case, wherein , the due
to the increase of load in the ac microgrid, the ac bus voltage drops or
decreases correspondingly. The main converter comes into the picture
once the drop in voltage is beyond the shut off region in the ac dc droop
characteristics. This voltage drop is inserted in the ac dc droop equation,
which gives us the new reference frequency using which we can find the
required power that needs to be transferred from the dc side to the ac side.
That is, the main converter acts as a source for the ac microgrid while at
the same time acting as a load for the dc microgrid. Thus the power
generation of the ac microgrid is compensated for, by the proposed control
strategy.

! ! !
∆𝑃 = 𝑘! ∆𝜔, 𝑘! = !!
+ ! + ⋯+ ! +𝐷 (4.25)
! !

where R1, R2 ….. Rn are droop coefficients of multiple ac sources and D is the load-
damping constant of the ac microgrid.

By making use of this equation we can easily relate the various droops of ac and dc

51
microgrids enabling them to distribute power in the entire microgrid. According to
this scheme, the various operating states of the microgrid can be seen this way :

First islanded state:

During this state, Δω < δω and ΔVdc < δV meaning the output of modified “ac-dc
droop” is V_dc^ref=V_dc for the individual dc and ac microgrids. As a result of this,
Pref = 0 and zero power is transferred from the main converter.

Second Islanded state:

During this state we see that, ΔVdc<δV but since, Pref = -Prefdc , this implies that
the power is transferred to the ac microgrid from the main converter .

Third Islanded state:

During this state Δω < δω but ΔVdc > δV hence, Pref = Prefac and the power transfer
takes place to dc microgrid through the main converter.

Fig.4.2: Overload blocking logic for real power controller of the IC.

Fourth islanded state:

This state is seen when ω < ωshed and Vdc < Vshed. Overload stopping logic is used
to cut off the transfer of power from the main converter, this logic is joined at the
output of the modified droop control by using an “EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR)” gate
logic, so this logic ensures that when both micrgrids are overloaded, no power is
transferred to either side from the IC.

The reactive power control of the main converter is simpler to deal with since no
reactive power is present in dc microgrid.The main converter is used to provide the
reactive power requirement in the system for this droop method. The required reactive
power is determined by the droops for the standalone AC microgrid. We have to take

52
into account that active power transfer is the most crucial task for which the main
converter scheme is designed, so a limit is set for the reactive power that the main
converter can provide for, given by :

!"# !
𝑄!" = 𝑆!" − 𝑃!"! (4.26)

4.5. MODELING OF CONTROL BLOCKS

The system equations for a hybrid microgrid can be numerous which makes
calculations very difficult to execute. So for, the sake of improve analysis an
equivalent model of the microgrid is taken into account while modelling. Hence, all
the dc sources are accumulated into a unified dc source. The same is repeated when
the modelling of ac sources is carried out. In a similar way this is used for all the
loads that are concerned with the microgrid. So, from the context of the main
converter, the hybrid microgrid can be shown as:

Figure 4.3: Simplified equivalent model of the hybrid microgrid.

4.5.1. DC Microgrid Modeling

The dc microgrid comprised of sources, loads and the dc network. Components

modeling are discussed in the following sub- sections.

1) DC Source Modeling:

By calculating the output current of the dc micro source in conjunction with the
droop method we can find the reference voltage value that is concerned with the
voltage controller, which is a part of the dc to dc converter.

The fast dynamics are not taken into consideration because the voltage controller
acts much faster than the droop control method, this helps in decreasing additional
system equations. This results in the fact that the voltage controller follows the
53
 reference voltage which results in the equality of the output voltage and the
reference voltage. The dc source’s droop equation can be given as :

! !
𝑣!",!" = ! 𝑖!",!" + 𝑣!",!" (4.27)
!"

Linearizing (26) by using small-signal approximation leads to

!
𝜗!",!" = ! 𝑖!",!" (4.28)
!"

Figure 4.4: Block diagram of dc source.

2) DC Load Model: Power electronic converters are used for the connection to the
grid by most of the loads. The loads perform as Constant Power Load (CPL) as the
converters are usually rigidly monitored. Hence we can take this constant power load
into consideration for the analysis of the stability of the dc microgrid. The constant
power load can be represented as a negative resistance which is shown as:

𝑖!,!" = 𝑔! . 𝜗!,!" (4.29)

!
𝑔! = ! !! (4.30)
!,!"

3) DC Network Model: Based on the modelling expressed above, the network for the
dc side can be modelled as a culmination of series resistances and reactances. The
equation for the dc network can be given as,

!"!",!"
𝜗!" = 𝐿!" !"
+ 𝑅!" 𝑖!",!" (4.31)

4.5.2 AC Microgrid Modeling

When designing the ac microgrid, we have to keep in mind that the ac microgrid is
identical to the dc microgrid, since it too consists of sources, load and the
transmission network. A microgrid integrates renewable energy and other forms of
distributed energy resources (DER) to serve its loads, so the cumulative ac source can

54
be summed up as a two-pole, three-phase synchronous machine complete with an
excitation and governor systems. It also encompasses a three phase load which can be
modified as per requirements. We should also take into account, the transmission
network of the ac microgrid while designing the AC microgrid for a Hybrid AC/DC
Microgrid. The microgrids, the transmission network, along with the three phase load
combine to form the whole AC side of the Hybrid Microgrid.

Figure 4.5: Excitation model of synchronous generator

Small signal model of the synchronous machine needs to be taken into account for the
modelling of the microgrid. We should note that the synchronous machine model is
considered in full account. All the systems are described by mathematical equations
which are listed in this section.

For the sake of controlling the terminal voltage, an excitation system of the first order
is considered. The design of the excitation system is considered in full account. The
equation for this system can be given as :

!
𝐸!" = !!" 𝑈!"# − 𝐸! − 𝐸!" (4.32)
!"

Figure 4.6: Control blocks of Wind Turbine

55
 Figure 4.7: Control Blocks of the Gas fired AC Distributed Generator

For the sake of frequency control, two governors of first order and a turbine can be
used. The equations for the small signal model of the state space model of the RL load
can be given as :

!
!"!,!" ! ! ! ! !
!"
= − ! ! 𝑖!,!" + 𝜔𝑖!,!" + ! 𝜗!" (4.33)
! !

!
!"!,!" ! ! ! ! !
!"
= − ! ! 𝑖!,!" − 𝜔𝑖!,!" + ! 𝜗!" (4.34)
! !

!
!"!",!" ! ! ! ! ! !
!"
= − ! !" 𝑖!" + 𝜔𝑖!",!" +! 𝜗!" − 𝜗!",!" (4.35)
!" !"

!
!"!",!" ! ! ! ! !
!
!"
= − ! !" 𝑖!",!" + 𝜔𝑖!",!" + ! (𝜗!" − 𝜗!".!" ) (4.36)
!" !"

4.5.3 IC Modeling

Droop control scheme is employed to explain the concept of interlinking converter

where the controllable loads with different capacities are taken into account. A control
method of interlinking converter composed of ac and dc sub-microgrid taken as a
sources and renewable energy sources used instead of sources. The balanced and
linear load is taken into account and the control strategies were developed for the
interlinking converter. The available methods can be used effectively for enhancing

56
the performance of a hybrid microgrid. But they mainly focus on the AC side and DC
side performance and the corresponding control schemes.

The challenge is to design an autonomous control for interlinking converter

connecting both ac and dc sub-microgrids and share the power proportionally among
the sub-microgrids. The complexity while using interlinking converter is thus the
different droop control variable used by two sources are frequency of AC and voltage
of DC. This integration is initially not possible because of the different axes labelled
as frequency of ac submicrogrid and voltage of dc sub-microgrid.Figure 3.12 shows
the control block diagram of the IC in d-q reference frame.

Figure 4.8: Control block diagram of the IC

Figure 4.9: Proposed real power controller for the IC.

The current control loop measures the output currents and controls the converter to
follow the reference value using PI controller. The droop characteristics for active
power can be expressed by,

57
 !"#
𝑃!" = 𝑘!" (𝜔!"# − 𝜔) (4.37)

!"# !"#
𝑃!" = 𝑘!" 𝑉!",!" − 𝑣!",!" (4.38)

(4.39)

Combining equations in (18) and (19), the reference power for the ac microgrid is,
!"# ! ! !
𝑃!" = 𝑘!" !!
𝑣!",!" − 𝑉!",!" + 𝜔! − 𝜔 (4.40)

The linearized model of the proposed droop for the ac micro- grid can be obtained as,

!"#
𝑃!" = 𝛼!" 𝑣!",!" − 𝑘!" 𝜔 (4.41)
!
𝛼!" = 2 !!" 𝑉!",!" (4.42)
!

A conventional PLL is used for estimating the system angular frequency. The
liberalized model of the PLL is represented by,
. ! !
𝜔 = −𝐾!!! 𝐾!" 𝜔 − 𝐾!!! 𝐾!" 𝑚! 𝑣 !" − 𝐾!!! 𝐾!" 𝑚! 𝑣 !" (4.43)

The parameters are defined in [28].The liberalized model of real power controller
derived from

.
∅!" = 𝑃!"# − 𝑃!"# (4.44)

!"# ! !
𝚤! = 𝐾!" ∅!" + 𝐾!" (𝑃!"# − 𝑃!"# ) (4.45)

𝑃!"# is represented by the liberalized equation of the instantaneous real power in the
d-q frame as,

! !
! !
𝑃!"# = 𝑉!" 𝚤! + 𝑉!" 𝑖! + 𝐼!! 𝑣!"
!
+ 𝐼!! 𝑣!"
!
(4.46)

Finally, the reference voltage for the PWM switching is followed by the current
controller according to the reference current. The corresponding small-signal state
space equation of the current controller is,

!"#
∅!" = 𝚤! − 𝚤!! (4.47)

!"# ! !"# !
𝑉! = 𝑉!" 𝚤! − 𝚤!! + 𝐾!" ∅ − 𝜔𝐿! 𝚤!! (4.48)

58
Since the dc bus voltage in the IC is not fixed, the switching process should also be
considered for stability analysis. There-fore, the converter and its output filter small
signal model can be represented by ,

!!! ! !
!"
!
= − ! ! 𝚤!! + 𝜔𝚤!! + ! 𝑣!"
!
− 𝑉!" 𝑑! − 𝑣!" 𝐷! (4.49)
!

!
!!! ! !
!"
= − ! ! 𝚤!! + 𝜔𝚤!! + ! 𝑣!"
!
− 𝑉!" 𝑑! − 𝑣!" 𝐷! (4.50)
!

!!!" !
𝐶 !"
= ! 𝑑! 𝐼!! + 𝑑! 𝐼!! + 𝐷! 𝐼!! + 𝐷! 𝐼!! − 𝚤!" (4.51)

!
!!!" ! !
!
!"
= 𝜔𝑣!" + ! 𝚤!! − ! 𝚤!! (4.52)
! !

!
!!!" ! !
!"
!
= 𝜔𝑣!" + ! 𝚤!! − ! 𝚤!! (4.53)
! !

Hence, the control blocks of Interlinking Converter and Real Power controllers of
Interlinking Converter are designed in Simulink as follows:

The role of the main converter is to exchange power between AC and DC bus. The
key purpose of main converter is to maintain a stable DC-link voltage in grid tied
mode. When the converter operates in grid tied mode, it has to supply a given active
and reactive power. Here PQ control scheme is used for the control of main converter.
The PQ control is achieved using a current controlled voltage source. Two PI
controllers are used for real and reactive power control. When resource conditions or
load capacities change, the DC bus voltage is settled to constant through PI
regulation. In case of sudden DC load drop, there is power surplus at DC side and the
main converter is controlled to transfer power from DC to AC side.Also a sudden
increase of DC load causes the power shortage and voltage drop at the DC grid. The
main converter is controlled to supply power from the AC to DC side.

The amount of active power to be transferred from one microgrid to another is

decided by the real power controller, which consists of the ac bus frequency and dc
bus voltage input. This is passed through the ac dc droop gain block, which gives the
output as the new reference voltage or frequency depending on the overload situation
considered. This reference value is then passed through the respective 𝜔 − 𝑃 or

59
(𝑉!" − 𝑃) droop gains. This reference power in addition to a standard load are taken
into consideration while checking for overload condition by the real power controller,
with the use of EXCLUSIVE OR circuit in the Simulink blocks.

A switch is placed, which is true for power transfer from one microgrid and it is off
for overloading logic, hence shutting off the interlinking converter when an overload
situation on both microgrid occurs in the Hybrid Microgrid. The reactive power
reference is also calculated using the blocks shown, this consists of the three phase
voltage input which is passed through the (𝑉 − 𝑃) droop gain block. Therefore, the
Real power controller determines the amount of power to be transferred, this is
represented using respective Simulink blocks, as explained above.

The Interlinking Converter block is operated with the d-q reference frame. After the
real power reference has been calculated by using the proposed droop which is
enabled by the the real power controller block. The calculated reference active and
reactive power are input to the Interlinking converter along with current real and
reactive power output. The active power control loop generates the reference current
using PI controller.

The current control loop measures the output currents and controls the converter to
follow the reference value using PI controller. The output signals are then passed
through a dq-abc converter, which is in turn passed through a pulse width modulator
which generates the signal pulses which fire the Interlinking converter represented by
a universal bridge in the main circuit. That is, the pulse width modulator sends the
firing pulse to the Interlinking converter. The real power controller and the
Interlinking converter act in tandem to provide smooth power flow in both directions
and in maintaining stable grid voltages and frequency.

Hence, the control block configuration designed, helps in maintaining stable bus
voltages in the ac and dc microgrids. It also helps in maintaining a stable frequency in
the microgrid. Not only that, it helps in the bi-directional flow of power in the ac/dc
hybrid microgrid. The control blocks used for the Simulink model are designed as
given :

60

61
Fig 4.10: Simulink blocks of IC

62

Figure 4.11: Simulink model of real power cocontrollers of IC

4.6. Conclusion :

For linking the state space model of each of the individual ac and dc subsystems, a
small signal model is designed for the hybrid microgrid. Each of these subsystems are
inturn are transferred back to a global reference frame. The Simulink model of the
Hybrid AC/DC microgrid has been modeled after their corresponding state space
models. The Simulink models reflect the control blocks and their working has been
discussed. The logic behind the configuration of each block has been conclusively
proved and demonstrated.

63
 CHAPTER-5

SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS AND POWER

MANAGEMENT FOR A HYBRID
MICROGRID

64
5.1. Small Signal Analysis
The stability of a power system is decided by two types of analysis, namely,
Transient stability analysis and Small signal stability analysis. Transient stability
analysis deals with response of a given power system to large disturbances which can
occur during the operation of a power system, while Small signal stability deals with
the response of a power system to small disturbances. If a power system can subdue
the oscillations caused by minor disturbances then we can say that the given power
system is stable. Conversely, if the oscillations in the power system continue to
sustain or continue to raise then we can say that the given power system is unstable.

Small signal stability is dependent on many aspects such as initial operation

conditions, strength of electrical connections among components in the power system,
characteristics of various control devices, etc. For a system to have small system
stability is paramount to its effective functioning as any system that cannot sustain
small disturbances can never function effectively in reality. Any power system should
thus be tested for small signal stability to get an estimate of its stability. Therefore one
of the most crucial tasks when dealing with a power system is to test for its small
signal analysis to judge the stability of any given power system.

5.2. Dynamic Behavior of Microgrids

Microgrid is an impressive concept for parcelling out renewable energies connecting
to utility grid. However, tremendous challenges are being faced in the microgrids
survey considering the intermittence, irregularity characteristics of inexhaustible
energies. Ergo, the power generations of distributed generators swing spasmodically.
Additionally, it is bothersome to obtain the specifications of microgrids scrupulously.
Thus, the research on small signal stability of microgrids is conspicuously paramount.
The small-signal state-space model is assembled including the dynamic attributes of
the controllers, the power assessment, the system circuit and load dynamics model.
The micogrid system's eigenvalues of the operating point at a steady-state are
obtained by the model.

In-depth short-term and small-signal dependability appraisal is considered as a

compelling technical hurdle affliated with future microgrids. A captious review of
literature pertaining to the dynamics of microgrids is presented in this section.

65
Few factors which lead to the dynamic behaviour of a microgrid due to impromtu
islanding are; pre planned operating conditions, location and type of the fault,
islanding detection time, nature of REG within the microgrid and post fault switching
actions of the system. It is crucial to have brisk and correct islanding detection
techniques in microgrids for stability maintenance.

The seriousness of having a accurately controlled inverter interfaced REG is adorned

by the system studies based on one synchronous generator (SG) and an inverter
interfaced distributed generator carried out during and subsequent to islanding of a
microgrid. The inimical impacts due to planned and unplanned islanding of a
microgrid can be downplayed with such control. It has been analyzed through various
simulation cases that without fast control actions of inverter interfaced REGs,
network disruptions can lead to frequency and power oscillations in the microgrid.
Surveys have been performed in power management strategies (PMS) for an islanded
microgrid based on reactive power control and active power control methods.

Three reactive power control strategies have been proposed based on;

(1) voltage droop characteristics

(2) voltage regulation, and

(3) load reactive power compensation.

A positive power control program has been developed on the basis of droop
characteristics and a complimentary frequency restoration method. To analyze small-
signal dynamics of a microgrid model, a microgrid with two inverter interfaced
REGs and a single synchronous generator in a 13.8 kV distribution network has been
formulated . Eigenvalue analysis has been carried out on two scenarios based on
PMSs.

When real power is primarily supplied by inverter interfaced REGs, the stability
margin increases. Nevertheless, study of system oscillatory modes has affirmed that
mechanical oscillatory modes of the conventional generator have a robust aftermath
on the dynamic behavior of the microgrid. Additionaly, these oscillatory modes do
not bank on the PMS enforced in the microgrid. It is advised that load shedding
schemes should be integrated in islanded mode when the generation cannot
accomplish the load requirments.
66
The study suggest that the voltage regulation or reactive power remittance is more
favorable as the reactive power management strategy for REGs located nearby to one
another. Small signal stability studies have been carried out by applying time domain
simulations on an islanded microgrid consisting of wind turbine generators, a PV
system, a diesel generator, fuel cells, a battery storage system and a flywheel system.
Simplified transfer functions have been used to illustrate the REGs while power
casualties and controllers have been neglected in the studies. The study also suggests
that the grid connected microgrid dynamics have been resolved primarily by the
utility grid due to the comparably minimal capacity of the REG.

Nevertheless, in islanded mode, local REG primarily ascertain the dynamic behavior
of the microgrid. During abrupt load transients, REG closest to the load changes react
swifly depending on the effective impedance seen from the load point. Due to the
notable resistance present in the distribution network, ample reactive power exchange
between the inverters for an active power variation has been detected. This has been
reimbursed to some level by rising the droop in the voltage controllers. A strategy to
diminish oscillations during synchronization is illustrated with studies on interactions
between non-inverter interfaced (based on diesel generators) and inverter interfaced
REGs in an islanded microgrid.

The results suggest that the frequency and active power oscillations are fewer for the
inverter interfaced REGs correlated to non-inverter interfaced REGs. Voltage angle
based droop control strategy was determined for inverter interfaced REGs to lower
the frequency oscillations in the microgrid. Stability review of an islanded microgrid
based on a diesel generator and inverter interfaced REGs, and their control
interactions were investigated. A new control methodology relevant to a DFIG which
can cater voltage and frequency regulation capabilities. Dynamic effectiveness of a
microgrid during islanded and grid connected modes have been enhanced by using
DFIGs with such competences. Dynamic reasearchs have been carried out using a
DFIG and an SG while running them at perpetual power factor mode (closer to unity).
The study indicates that post transient power and frequency oscillations in a microgrid
could be dulled by enforcing a primary frequency control strategy in the DFIG.

Evaluations on the stability inquiry of an islanded microgrid based on a diesel

generator and inverter interfaced REGs, and their control interactions were done.
Inverter interfaced REGs have been depicted as constant DC voltage sources
67
interfaced via three-phase inverters in this survey. An eigenvalue analysis and time
domain simulations were ventured on the islanded microgrid model.

Results suggest, power-frequency droop of the inverter interfaced REGs do not have a
momentous impact on the system stability corelated to the diesel generators. Based on
a carping review of the germane literature reasoned in this section, some crucial
aspects in dynamic stability studies which postulate special care have been identified.
In many cases, a generalised model of inverter interfaced REGs have been utilized in
dynamic stability studies or centered only on an individual type of inverter interfaced
REG .

All the same, due to specific dynamic characteristics of REGs it is essential to typify
REGs using an elaborate hypothesis in dynamic simulations. With the accelerative
penetration of various generation technologies in networks as stated in Section I, it is
crucial to consider various combinations of REGs in dynamic studies. Controllers
have been neglected while the value of implementing proper control strategies in
microgrids is advertised. Much curiosity has been granted to islanded microgrids.

Nevertheless, it is also essential to analyse microgrid dynamic behaviour in grid

connected mode with various REG and to study the effects of external grid on
microgrid stability. Also, microgrids with mini-hydro generators based on SGs have
received little care in dynamic stability studies. The case studies focusing on some of
these aspects covering are as follows (a) different inherent characteristics of REGs,
(b) power dispatch levels, (c) relative REG capacities, and (d) external grid
characteristics on microgrid voltage and frequency behaviour.

5.3 Small Signal analysis

To study the small signal analysis of a hybrid microgrid, we need to consider a linear
model of the microgrid which is usually tested in the during operation in islanded
mode. There are two primary modes that need to be tested i.e. :

First Mode : Electromechanical mode of ac source which is selected as a gas-fired

turbine-generator

Second Mode: Related to the droop gain of the IC which is the function of .

In both the cases the modes of operation which are the most predominant are

68
identified. The transfer of active power is from the ac side to the dc side in the first
case. The allocation of power has to be proportional with the needs of both sides of
the microgrid. the second case involves the power transfer from dc side to ac side.
The extent by which the ac side participates in the load sharing can be controlled by
modifying the droop gain i.e. the extent increases with decreases in the value of the
ac-dc droop gain. This mechanism can be borrowed for the dc-ac side transfer too,
wherein the extent of participation of the dc side is decreased with the increase int the
value of ac-dc droop gain.

For the validation of the control scheme a hybrid microgrid model which is derived
from the equivalent model is designed and run on the MATLAB/SIMULINK
platform. The ac side of the hybrid microgrid consists of twin gas fired units which
are DG units, consisting of synchronous generators, excitation systems and its own
governor control systems. The dc side of the microgrid entails two dc sources which
can be dispatched at any time. Four major operating states are identified and the
stability of the model in all the four states is tested. The performance of the main
converter in sharing the power and maintaining steady ac and dc side voltages is
tested.

A. Case 1

The microgrid is in connection with the main grid in this case. Initially, the dc sources
produce stable power, a part of the load demand is met by the dc sources itself while
the deficient power which the sources cannot compensate for, is provided by the main
converter. After a little while, the dc load decreases and eventually decreases to zero
by switching off. At this point, the dc sources produce a power which is in excess to
the load demanded on the dc side so the main converter or the Interlinking converter
(IC) transfers the additional power to the ac grid which is utilised by the ac loads.

Likewise, when the dc load increases, the dc sources matches that load, in the event
that the dc sources cannot match up to the load demand, the main converter provides
the deficit. The bus voltages on the dc side are calculated and graphs are drawn to
analyse the stability on the dc side during this case. The graphs show that the main
converter can balance the generation on the dc side with the load demand efficiently.

The load sharing between both the microgrids, in case 1 can be seen by :

69
 Table 5.1

Steady state operating conditions of source in case 1.

t = 1 – 3 sec t = 3 – 5 sec

Total Load 1000 1150

ac source #1 390 450

ac source #2 250 280

dc source #1 210 255

dc source #2 170 185

B. Case 2

During this case, a transition takes place from grid-connected to autonomous mode. It
is important to note here that, during the grid connected mode, the droop strategy used
in the hybrid microgrid is one that is applicable to individual ac and dc microgrids,
once the transition happens the droop strategy is changed from standalone droop
strategy to the modified droop strategy that is proposed in this thesis. In this case,
before the autonomous state sets in, the dc microgrid is operated at light load, i.e., the
generation is equal to or greater than the load demand.

The excess power generated is fed back to the main converter. At t=1s main grid is
cut off from the microgrid, forcing the microgrid to sustain itself on its own. The
autonomous operation is detected at the main converter at t=1.06s. Standard islanded
mode detection methods require 60ms to detect the set off of the autonomous mode.
At this point, there is a change in control scheme as mentioned earlier. There is a drop
in frequency on the ac side, due to the increase in ac load which is detected by the
main converter. To compensate for the parity in the ac side, the main converter sends
the excess power on the dc side to the ac sources. At t=2s the load demand on the ac
side is further raised and as a consequence the main converter transfers more power
from the dc microgrid to the ac side.

The simulation results indicated in the table given below, are sufficient proof that the
70
main converter shares the power between the ac and dc sources efficiently. A minor
sharing error may be experienced because different voltage levels are noticed by the
dc sources. The results conclusively prove that the proposed control scheme can
preserve the power balance by dividing the total load demand between the current ac
and dc sources. It is further proved that there is no frequency drift.

The load sharing between both the microgrids, in case 2 can be seen by:

Table 5.2

Steady state operating conditions of source in case 2.

t = 1 – 3 sec t = 3 – 5 sec

Total Load 1000 1150

ac source #1 390 450

ac source #2 250 280

dc source #1 210 255

dc source #2 170 185

C. Case 3

This case is identical to case 2 in the sense that this case also deals with transition of
the microgrid from grid connected to autonomous mode. Instead of the dc microgrid,
the ac microgrid is operated at light load, i.e., the generation is equal to or greater than
the load demand. The dc microgrid in this case, has a load demand that is greater than
the generation capacity on the dc side. The utility grid is cut off from the microgrid at
t=1s and it is observed that the load on dc side is higher than the generation capacity
on the dc side which results in the drop of voltage on the dc side.

To balance this parity, the main converter transfers the excess power on the ac side to
the dc sources in the dc microgrid. At t=2s the load demand on the dc side is further
raised and as a consequence the main converter transfers more power from the ac
microgrid to the dc side. When the load demand to the dc microgrid is increased, it

71
results in a drop of the bus voltage on the dc side. The main converter detects this
drop and uses the modified droop method to calculate the required active power that
needs to be transferred to the other side. It is observed that the load sharing happens
proportionally.

A minor sharing error may be experienced because different voltage levels are noticed
by the dc sources.The results conclusively prove that the proposed control scheme can
avoid a situation of power imbalance by dividing the total load demand between the
current ac and dc sources proportionally. It is further proved that there is no instability
between either of the microgrids.

The load sharing between both the microgrids, in case 3 can be seen by:

Table 5.3

Steady state operating conditions of source in case 3.

t = 1 – 3 sec t = 3 – 5 sec

Total Load 750 920

ac source #1 230 320

ac source #2 140 200

dc source #1 215 220

dc source #2 170 200

D. Case 4

he proposed control scheme is tested for stability in this autonomous mode in this
case by using diverse load profiles. Initially, both the microgrids are operated at light
load, i.e., the generation is equal to or greater than the load demand on both sides.
Which implies that the combined rating of the power sources is greater than the load
demand on both sides.

The control scheme makes sure that there is no transfer of power during the light load
condition as this is the dead zone in the modified ac-dc droop. At t=1s the load
72
demand on the ac side increases to level that is greater than the generation in the ac
microgrid, at which point the drop in the frequency at the ac bus is detected by the
main converter. The main converter checks this disparity by transferring excess power
from the dc microgrid to the ac microgrid. Again at t=2s, the ac microgrid is brought
back to light load condition. At t=3s the load on the dc microgrid is observed to be
more than that of the generation of the dc microgrid, because of the drop in the dc bus
voltage detected by the main converter. Once again, the main converter transfers
power to the dc side from the ac side.

It can be concluded that the main converter can fairly govern the power flow in the
hybrid microgrid and avoid instability during operation in the autonomous mode. The
load sharing between both the microgrids, in case 4 can be seen by :

Table 5.4

Steady state operating conditions of source in case 4.

t = 0 – 1 t = 1 – 2 t = 2 – 3 sec t = 3 – 4 sec
sec sec

Total load 865 1060 865 1070

ac source #1 330 390 340 400

ac source #2 215 265 215 280

dc source #1 190 245 185 230

dc source #2 150 190 145 175

E. Case 5

This case deals with how the main converter executes the modified droop when it is
faced with an overload condition on the pair of the microgrids. Initially both are
microgrids are operating at light load condition, i.e.,the generation is equal to or
greater than the load demand at both the microgrids. At t=1s the load on the dc
microgrid is enhanced and the main converter compensates for the excess demand by
transferring power from the ac microgrid. At t=2s the load on the ac side is increased
73
which means that both the sides of the microgrid are overloaded. At this stage, the
main converter doesn’t transmit any power to either sides. The microgrids are bound
to manage their own demands. As both sides have a power deficit then the voltage on
the dc bus and the frequency at the ac bus fall at a steep rate which activates the load
shedding logic.

If the over load logic is not activated, the interconnection between the microgrids is
lost. Hence it is important to implement a overload logic in the control scheme for a
hybrid microgrid.

5.4. Simulation Results:

Case 1:

Figure 5.1: Simulation results for case 1

In this case, the hybrid ac/dc microgrid is supposed to be connected to the main utility
grid. At first, dc sources generate a fixed power, a portion of the demanded load is
supplied by the local sources in dc microgrid and the insufficient power is provided
through the IC. The ac load is compensated for by the Interlinking converter, which
acts as the slack bus thus regulating the ac bus voltage and the ac bus frequency. The
Interlinking converter only has to take care of stabilizing the dc bus voltage and
providing for excess load demand in the dc microgrid, if any.

74
At, a large portion of the dc load switches off and the dc power generation is more
than the load demand. The IC moves to the inverting mode and feeds the surplus
power to the ac grid. Similarly, at dc load increases and approximately matches the
generated dc power. The IC power, dc load and the generated power of the dc sources
along with dc-bus voltage are shown.

Case 2:

Figure 5.2: Simulation results for case 2

This case simulates the hybrid ac/dc microgrid operation in transition from grid-
connected mode to islanding mode. Before islanding occurs, the dc microgrid is in
light load condition, ie, it generates excess power, more than load power required for
the dc side and feeds the surplus power to the ac grid.

At t = 1s the microgrid is disconnected from the main grid, and the islanding event is
detected by the IC at t = 1.06s. A 60 ms delay is assumed for typical islanding
detection methods. The IC control strategy is changed from the grid-connected to the
proposed control strategy for islanding control of the hybrid ac/dc micro- grid. The
demanded ac load is greater than the generated power in the ac microgrid and causes
the frequency drop. In order to balance the power, the IC controller shares the surplus
power in the dc microgrid with the ac sources in the ac microgrid.

75
 Figure 5.3: Simulation results for case 2

During the islanding operation at t = 2s the ac load is increased further and this causes
the IC to transfer more power from the dc to ac microgrid.

Case 3:

Figure 5.4: Simulation results for case 3

Similar to case 2, this case also deals with the situation of transition from the grid-
connected into the islanding mode but, despite case 2, in this case the ac microgrid is
76
 operated in light load condition and the dc microgrid is over loaded.

At t = 1s the microgrid is disconnected from the main grid, and since the dc load
power is greater than the rated power of the dc sources, causes dc voltage-drop. In
order to balance the power, the IC controller shares the surplus power in the ac
microgrid with the dc sources in the dc microgrid. During the islanding operation at

Figure 5.5: Simulation results for case 3

t =2s the dc load is increased further and this causes the IC to transfer more power
from the ac to the dc microgrid.

Case 4:

77
 Figure 5.6: Simulation results for case 4

In this case, the performance of the proposed control strategy in different load profiles
during the islanding operation, the islanded hybrid ac/dc microgrid is simulated. The
two microgrids are initially operating in light load condition; this means that the load
power in both ac microgrid and dc microgrid are less than the total rating of
individual sources. According to the control strategy, when the microgrids are
operated in light load condition the IC transfers no power.

At t = 1s a load increase happens in the ac microgrid in which the power demand is

greater than available ac generation, the IC detects the frequency drop and calculates
!"#
the required power to be transferred from dc to ac microgrid 𝑃!" and shares this
power demand between sources. Then at t = 2s again the load decreases and the ac
microgrid enters the light load condition. After that at t = 3s dc load is increased and
the IC detects the voltage drop and calculates the required power to be fed to dc
microgrid and shares this power demand between sources.

Case 5:

In this case, the performance of the IC facing over load condition on both ac and dc
microgrids. Both microgrids are primarily operating in light load condition. At t = 1s
the load power is increased in the dc microgrid and causes overloading of the
microgrid in which the IC feeds the required power.

78
 Figure 5.7: Simulation results for case 5

At t =2s the ac load is also increased and makes the ac micro- grid over loaded. While
both microgrids are over loaded, the IC transfers no power and each microgrid is
responsible for the power management.

Figure 5.8: Simulation results for case 5

79
 Due to power deficiency in both microgrid dc voltage drops below allowable voltage
range (0.9 p.u) and activates the dc load shedding system. On the other hand, the ac
frequency also drops and a portion of ac load is shed to stabilize the ac microgrid.

5.5 Conclusion:

Above results show that that this control strategy can make sure that there is a smooth
balance of power in the IC during grid connected mode and the load is proportionally
shared between ac and dc sources. It can also be realized that the proposed control
strategy can accurately manage the power imbalance by sharing the demanded power
between the sources in both ac and dc microgrids and avoids any instability in ac and
dc microgrids. The performance of hybrid microgrid as well as over load blocking
logic are also efficient.

80
 CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSIONS
AND
FUTURE SCOPE

81
5.1 CONCLUSION

Energy Innovation is predicted to disrupt the status quo in energy. Distributed energy
is changing the electric grid, microgrids and distributed energy have the potential to
fundamentally reshape the energy system. But the technology used for setting up the
microgrids needs to enhanced to a better state. While hybrid microgrids might seem
like a perfect solution to the environmental problems and other operational problems
of the existing sources of energy, the technology used for these microgrids is not
entirely reliable. Hence it is important to develop reliable control strategies to sustain
a microgrid in both grid- connected and islanded mode. In designing a control
strategy, a regionalised or decentralised control strategy is prefered because of its cost
effectiveness and reliability.

In this thesis, a decentralized control strategy is proposed based on the two-stage

modified droop method for the control of the IC interfacing dc and ac microgrids.
This hybrid microgrid architecture prepares an infrastructure for flexible connection
of different ac or dc loads and sources to the grid. By measuring the ac microgrid
frequency and the dc microgrid voltage and using proposed droop characteristic, the
power management strategy provides the power reference for the IC control to share
the power demand between the existing power sources in both ac and dc microgrids.
Using the proposed droop method, the ICs able to perform power sharing between the
two microgrids in the transition from grid-connected to islanding mode as well as
during the islanding operation.

This makes it possible to decrease the required power conversions stages and hence
the system cost and efficiency. The performance of the proposed control strategy
considering different operating states is demonstrated through time-domain
simulation of a hybrid ac/dc microgrid in the MATLAB/SIMULINK software. A
more sophisticated control strategy for power sharing control of several
interconnected ac and dc microgrids can be extended from the result of this work,
which is under investigation by the authors for the future study.

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

The renewable energy system involves the use of renewable energy sources such as
wind, solar, biomass etc for power generation. The drawbacks of these standalone
82
non-conventional energy systems, which include low efficiency, high infrastructure
cost, reliability of supply has necessitated the development of hybrid renewable
energy system. The deployment of hybrid system for power generation has resulted in
supply security, reduced emission of greenhouse gases, improved power quality and
development in remote areas. The control strategy is utilized on a Hybrid microgrid
with one renewable source, i.e, wind energy source. The same control strategy can be
extended to providing for energy in a Hybrid microgrid system of microsources which
are all renewable, hence making way for clean energy. The ac sources can consist of
wind energy sources while the dc microgrid can make use of PV arrays. This control
strategy displays stable operation of the grid in autonomous mode so this strategy can
be of great use in the future when autonomous mode is allowed to operate in times
when the main grid is not functional, which makes the hybrid microgrid a self
sustaining microgrid.

83
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APPENDIX

AC SOURCE PARAMETERS

ac source 1 ac source 1

Rating (nominal) 300 (kVA) 500 (kVA)

𝑅!"##$ 0.05((rad/s)/kW) 0.083((rad/s)/kW)

𝑇! 0.02s 0.02s

𝑇!"# 0.01s 0.007s

𝑘!" 0.07 0.07

𝑇!" 0.08s 0.08s

𝐻 0.7s 0.6s

(generator and
turbine)

𝑟! 0.007 (pu) 0.008 (pu)

𝑥!" 0.19 (pu) 0.18 (pu)

𝑋! 1.7 (pu) 1.7 (pu)

𝑋! 1.65 (pu) 1.65 (pu)

𝑟!"# 0.001 (pu) 0.001 (pu)

𝑟!" 0.0011 (pu) 0.011 (pu)

𝑋!"#! 0.81 (pu) 0.81 (pu)

𝑋!"# 0.12 (pu) 0.12 (pu)

𝑟!"! 0.009 (pu) 0.009(pu)

𝑟!" 0.014 (pu) 0.014 (pu)

87
 𝑋!"#! 0.089 (pu) 0.089 (pu)

𝑋!"# 0.081 (pu) 0.081 (pu)

DC SOURCE PARAMETERS

dc source 1 dc source 2

Rating (nominal) 300 (kW) 250 (kW)

𝑅!" 0.0013 (A/V) 0.0011 (A/V)

IC PARAMETERS
dc source 1

Rating (nominal) 300 (kVA)

DC voltage 1500 (𝜇V)

DC capacitance 5000 (𝜇F)

Filter capacitance 2500 (𝜇F)

Filter inductance 100 (𝜇H)

𝑘!" 2 (kW/V)

𝑘!" 11.9 (kW/(rad/s))

𝑘! 11.45 (kW/(rad/s))

88
Author’s Paper Publication

International Conference
[1] K. Dinesh and K. Vaisakh, “ Power Control of Hybrid Microgrid using Wind
Energy Source”, International Conference on Electrical, Electronic and
computer Science(ICEECS-2015) held at Visakhapatnam, AP, India.

89