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CHAPTER I
FLUID PROPERTIES
*Fluid Mechanics: Is defined as that branch of engineering science which
deals with the behavior of fluid under the conditions of rest and motion.
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ii) Non-Newtonian fluid: In such type of fluid, fluids which do not
obey the linear relationship between shear stress and rate of
deformation, (See Fig. 1).
Fluids are either ideal fluids or real fluids. An ideal fluid is one which has
no viscosity (µ= 0) and surface tension and incompressible (density, ρ =
constant). Fluids which have low viscosity such as water and air can be
treated as ideal fluids.
A real fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension, density and
compressibility.
The fluid mechanics may be divided into three parts: Statics, kinematics
and dynamics.
*Statics: The study of incompressible fluids under static conditions is
called hydrostatics. This study deals with fluid elements at rest.
*Dynamics: Fluid dynamics is one of the rapidly growing basics sciences
whose principles find application even in daily life, for example the motion
of fish in water is based on the principles of fluid dynamics. Natural
phenomena like hurricanes can also be explained by the science of fluid
dynamics. Fluid dynamics deals with the determination of the effects of the
fluid and its surroundings on the motion of the fluid.
*Kinematics: This study deals with the translation, the rotation and the rate
of deformation of a fluid elements and with the analysis of flow patterns.
The matter can be classified on the basis of the spacing between the
molecules of the matter as:
i) Solid state
ii) Fluid state
In solids, the molecules are very closely spaced, whereas in liquids the
spacing between the different molecules is relatively large, i.e. inter-
molecular cohesive forces are large in solids and smaller in liquids.
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PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The properties of water are of much importance because the subject of
hydraulics is mainly concerned with it. Some important properties of water
are:
*DENSITY
a) Mass density, density, or specific density is defined as mass per unit
volume and is denoted by ρ.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Density =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑀
ρ= ………………………………………………………..…… (1)
𝑉
3
*SPECIFIC VOLUME, v
Is defined as the volume occupied per unit mass of fluid and is denoted
by v.
𝑉 1 1
v= = = ………………………………………….…….… (6)
𝑀 𝑀 ⁄𝑉 𝜌
𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝑵
=
𝟓 𝒎𝟑
=7848 N/m3
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑,𝑚
ii) Specific mass, ρ =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑,𝑉
𝑊/𝑔
= (W = mg ….. equ.2)
𝑉
𝑊
=
𝑉𝑔
39240
=
5∗9.81
=800 kg/m3
iii) Specific gravity of the liquid, S
4
𝜌𝑙 800
S= = = 0.8
𝜌𝑤 1000
Example 2: One litre of liquid at 4oC temperature has mass 900 gram.
Calculate the mass density, specific weight, specific volume and specific
gravity of the liquid. (Note: 1 Litre = 1x10-3 m3).
Example 3: A certain Gasoline weighs 46.5 Ib/ft3. What are its mass
density, specific volume and specific gravity?
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*VISCOSITY
Is defined as the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to
shearing stress, or may be defined as the shear stress (τ) required to produce
unit velocity gradient. It is a measure of the internal fluid friction which
causes resistance to flow. It is primarily due to cohesion and molecular
momentum exchange between fluid layers. Fluids with viscosity such as
mercury deforms relatively more slowly than low viscosity fluid such as
water.
Let us consider two layers of fluid at a distance, dy, move one over the
other at different velocities, u and (u+du) as shown in Fig.2. The viscosity
together with relative velocity causes a shear stress, τ, acting between the
fluid layers. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of
velocity with respect to y.
Newton's viscosity law's states that, the shear stress between adjacent fluid layers is
proportional to the velocity gradients between the two layers.
Causes of Viscosity
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a) Parallel flow of a fluid
𝑑𝑢
Mathematically, 𝜏 ∝ and is called Newton's viscosity law.
𝑑𝑦
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Fig.3 A plot of τ versus du/dy for Newtonian fluids.
𝑁.𝑠𝑒𝑐
In SI units, the dynamic viscosity units are Pascal. Second, i.e.
𝑚2
𝑁
1 Pascal, Pa =
𝑚2
1
1 Poise = 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
10
8
Fig.4 Dynamic viscosity of some common fluids as a function of
temperature.
Kinematic Viscosity, ν
Is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid
and is denoted by ν.
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜇)
Kinematic viscosity, ν =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝜌)
𝜇
ν= …………………………………………………………………. (9)
𝜌
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(Note: each one Newton=1kg.m/s2)
1stoke = 10-4 m2/s
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
Popularly used unit is stoke (cm2/s) = 10–4 m2/s named in honor of Stokes.
Centi stoke is also popular = 10–6 m2/s.
Example 4: A liquid has a viscosity of 0.005 Pa.s and a density of 850
kg/m3. Calculate the kinematic viscosity of the liquid.
Solution:
𝜇 0.005
ν= = = 5.882x10-5 m2/s
𝜌 850
Example 5: Two horizontal plates are placed 11.5 mm apart, the space
between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poise. Calculate the shear
stress in the oil if the upper plate moved with a velocity of 3.5 m/s.
Solution:
Referring to Fig.2b
Distance between plates is dy = 11.5 mm= 0.0115 m
Viscosity of the oil, µ = 14 poise= 14/10=1.4 N.s/m2
Relative velocity between plates, du= velocity of moving plate-velocity of
fixed plate, i.e.
du = 3.5 - 0 = 3.5 m/s
and,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏= µ
𝑑𝑦
3.5
τ = 1.4 x = 426.07 N/m2
0.005
*SHEAR STRESS, τ
Is the tangent force, Ft acting tangentially on fluid surface area, A (See
Fig.5). The shear stress is defined as:
𝐹𝑡
τ= ………………………………………………………………… (10)
𝐴
10
Fig.5 Well-ordered parallel flow.
du = change of velocity
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= u-0
= 0.35-0 = 0.35 m/s
𝑑𝑢
𝜏= µ
𝑑𝑦
0.35
215.61 = µ x
𝑑𝑦
µ =0.8624 N.s/m2
= 0.8624 Pa.s
Example 7: A square metal plate 1.8 m side and 1.8 mm thick weighing
60 N is to be lifted through a vertical gap of 30 mm of infinite extent (See
Fig. below). The oil in the gap has a specific gravity of 0.95 and viscosity
of 3 N.s/m2. If the metal plate is to be lifted at a constant speed of 0.12 m/s,
find the force required.
Solution:
Area of the metal plate, A = 1.8m X1.8m = 3.24 m2
30−1.8
Thickness of the oil film, t = dy = = 0.0141m
2
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐹
Force required, F =W+2 τ A (where, τ= )
𝐴
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Example 8: A plate 0.05 mm distance from a fixed plate moves at 1.2 m/s
and requires a force of 2.2 N/m2 to maintain this speed. Find the viscosity
of the fluid between the plates.
Solution:
𝜏 = 2.2 N/m2
du = u-0 = 1.2 m/s
dy = 0.05 x 10-3
𝑑𝑦
µ=𝜏
𝑑𝑢
µ = (2.2 x 0.05 x10-5)/ 1.2 = 9.16 x 10-5 Pa.s
Example 9: A flat plate of 0.1 m2 area is pulled at 30 cm/s relative to
another plate located at a distance of 0.01 cm from it, the fluid separating
them being water with dynamic viscosity of 0.001 Pa.s. Find the force
required to maintain the velocity. (Try to solve it)
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Example 10: A 40-lb, 0.8-ft-diameter, 1-ft-tall cylindrical tank slides
slowly down a ramp with a constant speed of 0.1 ft/s as shown in Figure
below. The uniform-thickness oil layer on the ramp has a viscosity of 0.2
lb s./ft2. Determine the angle, θ, of the ramp.
Example 11: The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is given by u=
2y - y2 where u is the velocity in m/s at a distance y meters above the plate
surface. Determine the velocity gradient and shear stresses at the boundary
and 1.5m from it. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 0.9 N.s/m2.
Solution:
Given u= 2y - y2
∴ 𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑦 = 2 − 2𝑦
1) Velocity gradient, 𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑦
At boundary:
at y=0 𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑦 = 2 𝑠−1
At y=0.15m 𝑑𝑢/ 𝑑𝑦 = 2 − 2 × 0.15 = 1.7𝑠−1
2) Shear stresses, τ:
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Example 12: A large movable plate is located between two large fixed
plates as shown in Figure below. Two Newtonian fluids having viscosities
as indicated are contained between the plates. Determine the magnitude
and direction of shearing stress that act on fixed walls when the moving
plate has a velocity of 4 m/s.
Solution:
𝑑𝑢 𝑢
𝜏= µ =µ , So that
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝑢
𝜏1 = 𝜇1 = = 0.02 x (4/0.006) = 13.3 N/m2
𝑦1
𝑢
𝜏2 = 𝜇2 = 0.01 x (4/0.003) = 13.3 N/m2
𝑦2
Solution:
𝑢
F= τ A = µ 𝐴
𝑦
u = 20 ft/s
y = 0.001 in
D cylinder = 6- (0.001/2)= 5.998 in
L= 5 in
20
20 = µ (0.001) 𝜋𝐷𝐿
12
15
5.998 5
20 = µ ∗ 240000 ∗ 3.14 ∗ ∗
12 12
Solution:
F= 𝜏𝐴
A= 𝜋𝐷𝑙
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑢
𝜏=µ = µ
𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑏
So that,
𝑢 𝑢
F= µ 𝐴 = µ (𝜋𝐷𝑙)
𝑏 𝑏
𝑆
and µ = 𝜈𝜌 = 𝜈
𝜌𝐻2𝑜
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Pressure may also be expressed in terms of an equivalent height, h, of a
fluid column, and can be expressed as a hydrostatic pressure and is given
by:
𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑊ℎ
P = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = = = 𝛾ℎ…………………………………….…… (12)
𝑉 𝑉
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Consider now the situation where a liquid in contact with a solid such as
liquid in a glass tube. If the adhesion of the liquid to the solid exceeds the
cohesion in the liquid, then the liquid will rise in the tube and form a
meniscus curving upward towards the solid. If the adhesion to the glass is
less than the cohesion in the liquid, then we get a meniscus curving
downward as measured by 𝜃 toward the solid (See Fig.7). The capillary
rise or depression, h, of a liquid in a tube of diameter D can be written as:
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
h= ………………………………………..…………………… (14)
𝛾𝐷
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4𝑋0.40 cos 135
h= = -3.39 x 10-3m = -3.39 mm
9.81𝑋13600𝑋2.5𝑋10−3
Example 16: Find the height to which ethyl alcohol will rise in a glass
capillary tube 0.127 mm in diameter. Density is 790 kg/m3, σ= 0.0227
N/m, and θ = 0°.
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Example 18: When a pressure of 20.7 MN/m2 is applied to 100 litre of a
liquid its volume decreases by 1 litre. Find the bulk modulus of elasticity,
K of the fluid.
Solution:
Net pressure applied = 20.7 MN/m2
Decrease in volume, dv = 1 litre
Initial volume = 100 litre
∆P
K= -
∆V⁄V
𝑑P 20.7∗ 106
K=-V = 100 x = 20.7 x 108 N/m2
𝑑𝑉 1
*VELOCITY, U
Flow velocity is the vector field that is used to describe fluid motion in a
mathematical manner. The entire length of the flow velocity is referred to
as the flow speed and is denoted by u.
Flow velocity in fluids is the vector field that provides the velocity of
fluids at a certain time and position.
U = Q / A …………………………………………………………... (16)
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FG = m.g. …………………………………………………………… (18)
where, m = the mass of the body, g = the gravitational acceleration, 9.81
m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2.
In the British Gravitational (BG) system the unit of length is the foot (ft),
the time unit is the second (s), the force unit is the pound (lb). The mass
unit, called the slug, is defined from Newton’s second law as (force = mass
x acceleration):
1 lb = (1 slug) x (1 ft /s2)
This relationship indicates that a 1-lb force acting on a mass of 1 slug will
give the mass an acceleration of 1 ft/s2.
The weight, 𝑤, which is the force due to gravity, g, of a mass, m, is given
by the equation;
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔
and in BG units
𝑤 (𝐼𝑏) = 𝑚(𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔). 𝑔 (𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 )
Since the earth’s standard gravity is taken as g= 32.174 ft/s2 (commonly
approximated as 32.2 ft/s2), it follows that a mass of 1 slug weighs 32.2 lb
under standard gravity.
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1 Ib/in2 = 6894.4 N/m2 1 N = kg.m/s2 1 m3 = 1000 Liter
𝐼𝑏.𝑠 2
1 slug=
𝑓𝑡
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