COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

System Analysis and Design

System

A collection of components that work together to realize some objective forms a system. Basically, there
are three major components in every system, namely input, processing and output.

In a system the different components are connected with each other and they are interdependent. For
example, Human body represents a complete natural system. We are also bound by many national
systems such as political system, economic system, educational system and so forth. The objectives of
the system demand that some output is produced as a result of processing the suitable inputs.

The term “system” originates from the Greek term systēma, which means to “place together.” Multiple
business and engineering domains have definitions of a system. This text defines a system as:

• System An integrated set of interoperable elements, each with explicitly specified and bounded
capabilities, working synergistically to perform value-added processing to enable a User to
satisfy mission-oriented operational needs in a prescribed operating environment with a
specified outcome and probability of success.

Characteristics of a System

1. Organization: It says the Structure or order of built.

2. Interaction: Procedure in which the components interact.
3. Interdependence: How the modules in a system are interdependent
4. Integration: How different modules are integrated to get a full system
5. Central Objective: How the system is made to achieve the central goal and its performance
towards the goal.

Elements of System Analysis

There are 4 basic elements of System analysis, they are

1) Outputs
2) Inputs: The essential elements of Inputs are
a) Accuracy of data
b) Timeliness
c) Proper format
d) Economy.
3) Files
4) Process

Super System and Sub System

A sub-system is a system that exists in another system. Its existence depends up on the existence of its
super-system. The sub-system contributes in the proper working of the entire system. The proper
functioning of the sub-systems ensures proper functioning of the entire system. For example, an
Automobile system, it consists of many sub-systems like acceleration system, fuel injection system,
breaking system etc., every sub-system is responsible for the proper functioning of the entire
automobile system. A super-system is a system which contains many sub-systems. The super-system is
responsible for monitoring the overall working of its sub-systems. The super-system decides the
constraints and resources to be put on its sub-systems. For example, a Central government system, it is
a super-system which has under its control the state government systems which form the sub-systems.

Types of Systems

1) Physical or abstract systems

2) Open or closed systems
3) Deterministic or probabilistic
4) Man made systems
Formal systems – Organization representation
Informal systems – Employee based system
Computer based information systems – Computer handling business applications. These are
collectively known as Computer Based Information systems (CBIS).
a) Transaction Processing System (TPS)
b) Management Information System (MIS)
c) Decision Support System (DSS)
d) Office Automation System (OAS)

Systems analysis is the interdisciplinary part of science, dealing with analysis of sets of interacting
entities, the systems, often prior to their automation as computer systems, and the interactions within
those systems. This field is closely related to operations research. It is also "an explicit formal inquiry
carried out to help someone, referred to as the decision maker, identify a better course of action and
make a better decision than he might have otherwise made.
SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE

System life cycle is an organizational process of developing and maintaining systems. It helps in
establishing a system project plan, because it gives overall list of processes and sub-processes required
developing a system.

System development life cycle means combination of various activities. In other words, we can say that
various activities put together are referred as system development life cycle. In the System Analysis and
Design terminology, the system development life cycle means software development life cycle.

Following are the different phases of software development cycle:

• System study
• Feasibility study
• System analysis
• System design
• Coding and Implementation
• Testing
• User Implementation
• Maintenance

The different phases of software development life cycle are shown in Fig.29.1

PHASES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Let us now describe the different phases and the related activities of system development life cycle in
detail.

(a) System Study

System study is the first stage of system development life cycle. This gives a clear picture of what
actually the physical system is? In practice, the system study is done in two phases. In the first phase,
the preliminary survey of the system is done which helps in identifying the scope of the system. The
second phase of the system study is more detailed and in-depth study in which the identification of
user’s requirement and the limitations and problems of the present system are studied. After
completing the system study, a system proposal is prepared by the System Analyst (who studies the
system) and placed before the user. The proposed system contains the findings of the present system
and recommendations to overcome the limitations and problems of the present system in the light of
the user’s requirements.

To describe the system study phase more analytically, we would say that system study phase passes
through the following steps:

• problem identification and project initiation

• background analysis
• inference or findings

(b) Feasibility Study

On the basis of result of the initial study, feasibility study takes place. The feasibility study is basically the
test of the proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting user’s requirements, effective use of
resources and of course, the cost effectiveness. The main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the
problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of feasibility study, the cost and benefits are estimated
with greater accuracy.

There are 3 types of feasibility

1. Economical
2. Operational
3. Technical

(c) System Analysis

Assuming that a new system is to be developed, the next phase is system analysis. Analysis involved a
detailed study of the current system, leading to specifications of a new system. Analysis is a detailed
study of various operations performed by a system and their relationships within and outside the
system. During analysis, data are collected on the available files, decision points and transactions
handled by the present system. Interviews, on-site observation and questionnaire are the tools used for
system analysis. Using the following steps it becomes easy to draw the exact boundary of the new
system under consideration:

• Keeping in view the problems and new requirements

• Workout the pros and cons including new areas of the system

All procedures, requirements must be analyzed and documented in the form of detailed data flow
diagrams (DFDs), data dictionary, logical data structures and miniature specifications. System Analysis
also includes sub-dividing of complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store
and manual processes.

The main points to be discussed in system analysis are:

• Specification of what the new system is to accomplish based on the user requirements.
 • Functional hierarchy showing the functions to be performed by the new system and their
relationship with each other.
• Function network which are similar to function hierarchy but they highlight those functions
which are common to more than one procedure.
• List of attributes of the entities - these are the data items which need to be held about each
entity (record)

(d) System Design

Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of a new system, the new system must be
designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is a most crucial phase in the development of a
system. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages:

• preliminary or general design

• Structure or detailed design

Preliminary or general design: In the preliminary or general design, the features of the new system are
specified. The costs of implementing these features and the benefits to be derived are estimated. If the
project is still considered to be feasible, we move to the detailed design stage.

Structure or Detailed design: In the detailed design stage, computer-oriented work begins in earnest. At
this stage, the design of the system becomes more structured. Structure design is a blue print of a
computer system solution to a given problem having the same components and inter-relationship
among the same components as the original problem. Input, output and processing specifications are
drawn up in detail. In the design stage, the programming language and the platform in which the new
system will run are also decided.

There are several tools and techniques used for designing. These tools and techniques are:

• Flowchart
• Data flow diagram (DFDs)
• Data dictionary
• Structured English
• Decision table
• Decision tree

Each of the above tools for designing will be discussed in detailed in the next lesson.

(e) Coding and Implementation

After designing the new system, the whole system is required to be converted into computer
understanding language. Coding the new system into computer programming language does this. It is an
important stage where the defined procedure is transformed into control specifications by the help of a
computer language. This is also called the programming phase in which the programmer converts the
program specifications into computer instructions, which we refer as programs. The programs
coordinate the data movements and control the entire process in a system.

It is generally felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development,
maintenance and future change, if required.
(f) Testing

Before actually implementing the new system into operations, a test run of the system is done removing
all the bugs, if any. It is an important phase of a successful system. After codifying the whole programs
of the system, a test plan should be developed and run on a given set of test data. The output of the test
run should match the expected results.

Using the test data following test run are carried out:

• Unit test
• System test

Unit test: When the programs have been coded and compiled and brought to working conditions, they
must be individually tested with the prepared test data. Any undesirable happening must be noted and
debugged (error corrections).

System Test: After carrying out the unit test for each of the programs of the system and when errors are
removed, then system test is done. At this stage the test is done on actual data. The complete system is
executed on the actual data. At each stage of the execution, the results or output of the system is
analyzed. During the result analysis, it may be found that the outputs are not matching the expected out
of the system. In such case, the errors in the particular programs are identified and are fixed and further
tested for the expected output.

When it is ensured that the system is running error-free, the users are called with their own actual data
so that the system could be shown running as per their requirements.

(g) User Implementation

After having the user acceptance of the new system developed, the implementation phase begins.
Implementation is the stage of a project during which theory is turned into practice. During this phase,
all the programs of the system are loaded onto the user's computer. After loading the system, training
of the users starts. Main topics of such type of training are:

• How to execute the package

• How to enter the data
• How to process the data (processing details)
• How to take out the reports

After the users are trained about the computerized system, manual working has to shift from manual to
computerized working. The following two strategies are followed for running the system:

i. Parallel run: In such run for a certain defined period, both the systems i.e. computerized and
manual are executed in parallel. This strategy is helpful because of the following:
o Manual results can be compared with the results of the computerized system.
o Failure of the computerized system at the early stage, does not affect the working of the
organization, because the manual system continues to work, as it used to do.
ii. Pilot run: In this type of run, the new system is installed in parts. Some part of the new system is
installed first and executed successfully for considerable time period. When the results are
 found satisfactory then only other parts are implemented. This strategy builds the confidence
and the errors are traced easily.

(h) Maintenance

Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to tune the
system to any variations in its working environment. It has been seen that there are always some errors
found in the system that must be noted and corrected. It also means the review of the system from time
to time. The review of the system is done for:

• knowing the full capabilities of the system

• knowing the required changes or the additional requirements
• studying the performance

If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be set up to carry out the change.
The new project will then proceed through all the above life cycle phases.

Requirements Gathering

Requirements analysis in systems engineering and software engineering, encompasses those tasks that
go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the
possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.
Requirements analysis is critical to the success of a development project. Requirements must be
actionable, measurable, testable, related to identified business needs or opportunities, and defined to a
level of detail sufficient for system design. Requirements can be functional and nonfunctional.

Conceptually, requirements analysis includes three types of activity:

• Eliciting requirements: the task of communicating with customers and users to determine what
their requirements are. This is sometimes also called requirements gathering.
• Analyzing requirements: determining whether the stated requirements are unclear, incomplete,
ambiguous, or contradictory, and then resolving these issues.
• Recording requirements: Requirements might be documented in various forms, such as natural
language documents, use cases, user stories, or process specifications.

Requirements analysis can be a long and arduous process during which many delicate psychological
skills are involved. New systems change the environment and relationships between people, so it is
important to identify all the stakeholders, take into account all their needs and ensure they understand
the implications of the new systems. Analysts can employ several techniques to elicit the requirements
from the customer. Historically, this has included such things as holding interviews, or holding focus
groups (more aptly named in this context as requirements workshops) and creating requirements lists.
More modern techniques include prototyping, and use cases. Where necessary, the analyst will employ
a combination of these methods to establish the exact requirements of the stakeholders, so that a
system that meets the business needs is produced.
Requirements engineering

Systematic requirements analysis is also known as requirements engineering. It is sometimes referred to

loosely by names such as requirements gathering, requirements capture, or requirements specification.
The term requirements analysis can also be applied specifically to the analysis proper, as opposed to
elicitation or documentation of the requirements, for instance.

Developing an IT application is an investment. Since after developing that application it provides the
organization with profits. Profits can be monetary or in the form of an improved working environment.
However, it carries risks, because in some cases an estimate can be wrong. And the project might not
actually turn out to be beneficial.

Cost benefit analysis helps to give management a picture of the costs, benefits and risks. It usually
involves comparing alternate investments. Cost benefit determines the benefits and savings that are
expected from the system and compares them with the expected costs. The cost of an information
system involves the development cost and maintenance cost. The development costs are one time
investment whereas maintenance costs are recurring. The development cost is basically the costs
incurred during the various stages of the system development.

Each phase of the life cycle has a cost. Some examples are :

• Personnel
• Equipment
• Supplies
• Overheads
• Consultants' fees

Cost and Benefit Categories

In performing Cost benefit analysis (CBA) it is important to identify cost and benefit factors. Cost and
benefits can be categorized into the following categories. There are several cost factors/elements. These
are hardware, personnel, facility, operating, and supply costs. In a broad sense the costs can be divided
into two types

1. Development costs- Development costs that are incurred during the development of the system
are one-time investment.
• Wages
• Equipment
2. Operating costs, e.g., Wages , Supplies, Overheads

Another classification of the costs can be:

 3. Hardware/software costs: It includes the cost of purchasing or leasing of computers and its
peripherals. A software cost involves required software costs.
4. Personnel costs: It is the money, spent on the people involved in the development of the
system. These expenditures include salaries, other benefits such as health insurance,
conveyance allowance, etc.
5. Facility costs: Expenses incurred during the preparation of the physical site where the system
will be operational. These can be wiring, flooring, acoustics, lighting, and air conditioning.
6. Operating costs: Operating costs are the expenses required for the day to day running of the
system. This includes the maintenance of the system. That can be in the form of maintaining the
hardware or application programs or money paid to professionals responsible for running or
maintaining the system.
7. Supply costs: These are variable costs that vary proportionately with the amount of use of
paper, ribbons, disks, and the like. These should be estimated and included in the overall cost of
the system.

Benefits

We can define benefit as

Profit or Benefit = Income - Costs

Benefits can be accrued by :

- Increasing income, or
- Decreasing costs, or
- both

The system will provide some benefits also. Benefits can be tangible or intangible, direct or indirect. In
cost benefit analysis, the first task is to identify each benefit and assign a monetary value to it. The two
main benefits are improved performance and minimized processing costs. Further costs and benefits
can be categorized as : -

Tangible or Intangible Costs and Benefits

Tangible cost and benefits can be measured. Hardware costs, salaries for professionals, software cost
are all tangible costs. They are identified and measured.. The purchase of hardware or software,
personnel training, and employee salaries are example of tangible costs. Costs whose value cannot be
measured are referred as intangible costs. The cost of breakdown of an online system during banking
hours will cause the bank lose deposits.

Benefits are also tangible or intangible. For example, more customer satisfaction, improved company
status, etc. are all intangible benefits. Whereas improved response time, producing error free output
such as producing reports are all tangible benefits. Both tangible and intangible costs and benefits
should be considered in the evaluation process.
Direct or Indirect Costs and Benefits

From the cost accounting point of view, the costs are treated as either direct or indirect. Direct costs are
having rupee value associated with it. Direct benefits are also attributable to a given project. For
example, if the proposed systems that can handle more transactions say 25% more than the present
system then it is direct benefit.

Indirect costs result from the operations that are not directly associated with the system. Insurance,
maintenance, heat, light, air conditioning are all indirect costs.

Fixed or Variable Costs and Benefits

Some costs and benefits are fixed. Fixed costs don't change. Depreciation of hardware, Insurance, etc.
are all fixed costs. Variable costs are incurred on regular basis. Recurring period may be weekly or
monthly depending upon the system. They are proportional to the work volume and continue as long as
system is in operation.

Fixed benefits don't change. Variable benefits are realized on a regular basis.

Performing Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)

Example:

Cost for the proposed system (figures in USD Thousands)

Steps of CBA can briefly be described as:

 Estimate the development costs, operating costs and benefits

 Determine the life of the system
 When will the benefits start to accrue?
 When will the system become obsolete?
 Determine the interest rate (this should reflect a realistic low risk investment rate.)

Select Evaluation Method

When all the financial data have been identified and broken down into cost categories, the analyst
selects a method for evaluation. There are various analysis methods available. Some of them are
following.

1. Present value analysis

2. Payback analysis
3. Net present value
4. Net benefit analysis
5. Cash-flow analysis
6. Break-even analysis
 Data Base Management System

A database is a collection of related information. For example, a phone book is a database of names,
addresses and phone numbers.

A data file is a single disk file that stores related information on a hard disk or floppy diskette. For
example, a phone book database would be stored in a single data file.

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software tool that facilitates creating, maintaining, and
manipulating an information database. A DBMS is repository of interrelated data along with a set of
functions to access and manipulate those data.

Data Manipulation involves

 Retrieval of data from database

 Insert new data into database
 Update existing data into database
 Deletion of data

Relational Database Software

Relational database software allows the user to work with several database files at the same time and
share information across the files. For example, to implement an accounting database system, one
requires relational capabilities to link together information that is stored in the different files. An
example of relational database software would be Microsoft Access, Oracle, Sybase and Paradox.

Flat-file Database Software

A flat-file database program allows the user to create many databases but let’s him/her work with only
one file at a time. Using a flat -file database program, one can create simple applications such as mailing
list databases or personnel files.

Advantages of the database approach over traditional file-processing systems

Following are some of the advantages of using a database over a traditional file-processing system:

 Potential for enforcing standards.

 Flexibility.
 Reduced application development time.
 Availability of up-to-date information to all users.
 Economies of scale.
Benefits of a Relational Database

Following are some of the advantages of a relational database:

 Data can be easily accessed.

 Data can be shared.
 Data modeling can be flexibility.
 Data storage and redundancy can be reduced.
 Data inconsistency can be avoided.
 Data Integrity can be maintained.
 Standards can be enforced.
 Security restrictions can be applied.
 Independence between physical storage and logical data design can be maintained.
 High-level data manipulation language (SQL) can be used to access and manipulate data.

A Relational database stores data is tables. The data stored in a table is organized into rows and
columns. Each row in a table represents an individual record and each column represents a field. A
record is an individual entry in the database. For example, each person’s name, address, and phone
number is a single record of information in a phone book. Where as a "field" is a piece of information in
a record. For example, you can divide a person’s record in the phone book into fields for their last name,
first name, address, city and phone number.

ADVANTAGES OF DBMS

The DBMS (Database Management System) is preferred ever the conventional file processing system
due to the following advantages:

1. Controlling Data Redundancy - In the conventional file processing system, every user group
maintains its own files for handling its data files. This may lead to
 Duplication of same data in different files.
 Wastage of storage space, since duplicated data is stored.
 Errors may be generated due to updation of the same data in different files.
 Time in entering data again and again is wasted.
 Computer Resources are needlessly used.
 It is very difficult to combine information.
2. Elimination of Inconsistency - In the file processing system information is duplicated throughout
the system. So, changes made in one file may be necessary be carried over to another file. This
may lead to inconsistent data. So, we need to remove this duplication of data in multiple file to
eliminate inconsistency.

For example: - Let us consider an example of student's result system. Suppose that in STU¬DENT file it is
indicated that Roll no= 10 has opted for 'Computer’ course but in RESULT file it is indicated that 'Roll No.
=l 0' has opted for 'Accounts' course. Thus, in this case the two entries for z particular student don't
agree with each other. Thus, database is said to be in an inconsistent state. So, to eliminate this
conflicting information we need to centralize the database. On centralizing the database, the duplication
will be controlled and hence inconsistency will be removed.

Data inconsistency are often encountered in everyday life Consider another example, w has all come
across situations when a new address is communicated to an organization that we deal it (E.g. -
Telecom, Gas Company, Bank). We find that some of the communications from that organization are
received at a new address while other continued to be mailed to the old address. So, combining all the
data in database would involve reduction in redundancy as well as inconsistency so it is likely to reduce
the costs for collection storage and updating of Data.

Let us again consider the example of Result system. Suppose that a student having Roll no -201 changes
his course from 'Computer' to 'Arts'. The change is made in the SUBJECT file but not in RESULT'S file. This
may lead to inconsistency of the data. So, we need to centralize the database so that changes once
made are reflected to all the tables where a particulars field is stored. Thus, the update is brought
automatically and is known as propagating updates.

3. Better service to the users - A DBMS is often used to provide better services to the users. In
conventional system, availability of information is often poor, since it normally difficult to obtain
information that the existing systems were not designed for. Once several conventional systems
are combined to form one centralized database, the availability of information and its
updateness is likely to improve since the data can now be shared and DBMS makes it easy to
respond to anticipated information requests.

Centralizing the data in the database also means that user can obtain new and combined information
easily that would have been impossible to obtain otherwise. Also use of DBMS should allow users that
don't know programming to interact with the data more easily, unlike file processing system where the
programmer may need to write new programs to meet every new demand.

4. Flexibility of the System is Improved - Since changes are often necessary to the contents of the
data stored in any system, these changes are made more easily in a centralized database than in
a conventional system. Applications programs need not to be changed on changing the data in
the database.
5. Integrity can be improved - Since data of the organization using database approach is
centralized and would be used by a number of users at a time. It is essential to enforce integrity-
constraints.

In the conventional systems because the data is duplicated in multiple files so updating or changes may
sometimes lead to entry of incorrect data in some files where it exists.

For example: - The example of result system that we have already discussed. Since multiple files are to
maintained, as sometimes you may enter a value for course which may not exist. Suppose course can
have values (Computer, Accounts, Economics, and Arts) but we enter a value 'Hindi' for it, so this may
lead to an inconsistent data, so lack of Integrity.

Even if we centralized the database it may still contain incorrect data. For example: -

 Salary of full-time employ may be entered as Rs. 500 rather than Rs. 5000.
  A student may be shown to have borrowed books but has no enrollment.
 A list of employee numbers for a given department may include a number of non-existent
employees.

These problems can be avoided by defining the validation procedures whenever any update operation is
attempted.

6. Standards can be enforced - Since all access to the database must be through DBMS, so
standards are easier to enforce. Standards may relate to the naming of data, format of data,
structure of the data etc. Standardizing stored data formats is usually desirable for the purpose
of data interchange or migration between systems.
7. Security can be improved - In conventional systems, applications are developed in an
adhoc/temporary manner. Often different system of an organization would access different
components of the operational data, in such an environment enforcing security can be quite
difficult. Setting up of a database makes it easier to enforce security restrictions since data is
now centralized. It is easier to control that has access to what parts of the database. Different
checks can be established for each type of access (retrieve, modify, delete etc.) to each piece of
information in the database.

Consider an Example of banking in which the employee at different levels may be given access to
different types of data in the database. A clerk may be given the authority to know only the names of all
the customers who have a loan in bank but not the details of each loan the customer may have. It can
be accomplished by giving the privileges to each employee.

8. Organization's requirement can be identified - All organizations have sections and departments
and each of these units often consider the work of their unit as the most important and
therefore consider their need as the most important. Once a database has been setup with
centralized control, it will be necessary to identify organization's requirement and to balance the
needs of the competition units. So it may become necessary to ignore some requests for
information if they conflict with higher priority need of the organization.

It is the responsibility of the DBA (Database Administrator) to structure the database system to provide
the overall service that is best for an organization.

For example: - A DBA must choose best file Structure and access method to give fast response for the
high critical applications as compared to less critical applications.

9. Overall cost of developing and maintaining systems is lower - It is much easier to respond to
unanticipated requests when data is centralized in a database than when it is stored in a
conventional file system. Although the initial cost of setting up of a database can be large, one
normal expects the overall cost of setting up of a database, developing and maintaining
application programs to be far lower than for similar service using conventional systems, Since
the productivity of programmers can be higher in using non-procedural languages that have
been developed with DBMS than using procedural languages.
10. Data Model must be developed - Perhaps the most important advantage of setting up of
database system is the requirement that an overall data model for an organization be build. In
conventional systems, it is more likely that files will be designed as per need of particular
 applications demand. The overall view is often not considered. Building an overall view of an
organization's data is usual cost effective in the long terms.
11. Provides backup and Recovery - Centralizing a database provides the schemes such as recovery
and backups from the failures including disk crash, power failures, software errors which may
help the database to recover from the inconsistent state to the state that existed prior to the
occurrence of the failure, though methods are very complex.
12. Concurrent Access of data can be possible while keeping the whole data of the database
consistent.

Disadvantages of DBMS

1. COST
2. COMPLEXITY

A data model is a conceptual representation of the data structures that are required by a database. The
data structures include the data objects, the associations between data objects, and the rules which
govern operations on the objects. As the name implies, the data model focuses on what data is required
and how it should be organized rather than what operations will be performed on the data. To use a
common analogy, the data model is equivalent to an architect's building plans.

A data model is independent of hardware or software constraints. Rather than try to represent the data
as a database would see it, the data model focuses on representing the data as the user sees it in the
"real world". It serves as a bridge between the concepts that make up real-world events and processes
and the physical representation of those concepts in a database.

The Entity-Relationship Model

The Entity-Relationship (ER) model was originally proposed by Peter in 1976 [Chen76] as a way to unify
the network and relational database views. Simply stated the ER model is a conceptual data model that
views the real world as entities and relationships. A basic component of the model is the Entity-
Relationship diagram which is used to visually represent data objects. Since Chen wrote his paper the
model has been extended and today it is commonly used for database design for the database designer,
the utility of the ER model is:

 It maps well to the relational model. The constructs used in the ER model can easily be
transformed into relational tables.
 it is simple and easy to understand with a minimum of training. Therefore, the model can be
used by the database designer to communicate the design to the end user.
 In addition, the model can be used as a design plan by the database developer to implement a
data model in specific database management software.
Basic Constructs of E-R Modeling

The ER model views the real world as a construct of entities and association between entities.

Entities

Entities are the principal data object about which information is to be collected. Entities are usually
recognizable concepts, either concrete or abstract, such as person, places, things, or events which have
relevance to the database. Some specific examples of entities are EMPLOYEES, PROJECTS, and INVOICES.
An entity is analogous to a table in the relational model.

Entities are classified as independent or dependent (in some methodologies, the terms used are strong
and weak, respectively). An independent entity is one that does not rely on another for identification. A
dependent entity is one that relies on another for identification.

An entity occurrence (also called an instance) is an individual occurrence of an entity. An occurrence is

analogous to a row in the relational table.

Special Entity Types

Associative entities (also known as intersection entities) are entities used to associate two or more
entities in order to reconcile a many-to-many relationship.

Subtypes entities are used in generalization hierarchies to represent a subset of instances of their parent
entity, called the super type, but which have attributes or relationships that apply only to the subset.

Associative entities and generalization hierarchies are discussed in more detail below.

Relationships

A Relationship represents an association between two or more entities. An example of a relationship

would be:

employees are assigned to projects

projects have subtasks

departments manage one or more projects

Relationships are classified in terms of degree, connectivity, cardinality, and existence. These concepts
will be discussed below.

Attributes

Attributes describe the entity of which they are associated. A particular instance of an attribute is a
value. For example, "Jane R. Hathaway" is one value of the attribute Name. The domain of an attribute
is the collection of all possible values an attribute can have. The domain of Name is a character string.
Attributes can be classified as identifiers or descriptors. Identifiers, more commonly called keys,
uniquely identify an instance of an entity. A descriptor describes a non-unique characteristic of an entity
instance.

Classifying Relationships

Relationships are classified by their degree, connectivity, cardinality, direction, type, and existence. Not
all modeling methodologies use all these classifications.

Degree of a Relationship

The degree of a relationship is the number of entities associated with the relationship. The n-ary
relationship is the general form for degree n. Special cases are the binary, and ternary, where the
degree is 2, and 3, respectively.

Binary relationships, the association between two entities are the most common type in the real world.
A recursive binary relationship occurs when an entity is related to itself. An example might be "some
employees are married to other employees".

A ternary relationship involves three entities and is used when a binary relationship is inadequate. Many
modeling approaches recognize only binary relationships. Ternary or n-ary relationships are
decomposed into two or more binary relationships.

Connectivity and Cardinality

The connectivity of a relationship describes the mapping of associated entity instances in the
relationship. The values of connectivity are "one" or "many". The cardinality of a relationship is the
actual number of related occurrences for each of the two entities. The basic types of connectivity for
relations are: one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.

A one-to-one (1:1) relationship is when at most one instance of a entity A is associated with one
instance of entity B. For example, "employees in the company are each assigned their own office. For
each employee there exists a unique office and for each office there exists a unique employee.

A one-to-many (1:N) relationships is when for one instance of entity A, there are zero, one, or many
instances of entity B, but for one instance of entity B, there is only one instance of entity A. An example
of a 1:N relationships is a department has many employees each employee is assigned to one
department

A many-to-many (M:N) relationship, sometimes called non-specific, is when for one instance of entity A,
there are zero, one, or many instances of entity B and for one instance of entity B there are zero, one, or
many instances of entity A. An example is: Employees can be assigned to no more than two projects at
the same time; Projects must have assigned at least three employees

A single employee can be assigned to many projects; conversely, a single project can have assigned to it
many employees. Here the cardinality for the relationship between employees and projects is two and
the cardinality between project and employee is three. Many-to-many relationships cannot be directly
translated to relational tables but instead must be transformed into two or more one-to-many
relationships using associative entities.

Direction

The direction of a relationship indicates the originating entity of a binary relationship. The entity from
which a relationship originates is the parent entity; the entity where the relationship terminates is the
child entity. The direction of a relationship is determined by its connectivity. In a one-to-one relationship
the direction is from the independent entity to a dependent entity. If both entities are independent, the
direction is arbitrary. With one-to-many relationships, the entity occurring once is the parent. The
direction of many-to-many relationships is arbitrary.

Type

An identifying relationship is one in which one of the child entities is also a dependent entity. A
nonidentifying relationship is one in which both entities are independent.

Existence

Existence denotes whether the existence of an entity instance is dependent upon the existence of
another, related, entity instance. The existence of an entity in a relationship is defined as either
mandatory or optional. If an instance of an entity must always occur for an entity to be included in a
relationship, then it is mandatory. An example of mandatory existence is the statement "every project
must be managed by a single department". If the instance of the entity is not required, it is optional. An
example of optional existence is the statement, "employees may be assigned to work on projects".

Generalization Hierarchies

A generalization hierarchy is a form of abstraction that specifies that two or more entities that share
common attributes can be generalized into a higher-level entity type called a supertype or generic
entity. The lower-level of entities become the subtype, or categories, to the supertype. Subtypes are
dependent entities.

Generalization occurs when two or more entities represent categories of the same real-world object. For
example, Wages_Employees and Classified_Employees represent categories of the same entity,
Employees. In this example, Employees would be the supertype; Wages_Employees and
Classified_Employees would be the subtypes.

Subtypes can be either mutually exclusive (disjoint) or overlapping (inclusive). A mutually exclusive
category is when an entity instance can be in only one category. The above example is a mutually
exclusive category. An employee can either be wages or classified but not both. An overlapping category
is when an entity instance may be in two or more subtypes. An example would be a person who works
for a university could also be a student at that same university. The completeness constraint requires
that all instances of the subtype be represented in the supertype. Generalization hierarchies can be
nested. That is, a subtype of one hierarchy can be a supertype of another. The level of nesting is limited
only by the constraint of simplicity. Subtype entities may be the parent entity in a relationship but not
the child.

ER Notation

There is no standard for representing data objects in ER diagrams. Each modeling methodology uses its
own notation. The original notation used by Chen is widely used in academics texts and journals but
rarely seen in either CASE tools or publications by non-academics. Today, there are a number of
notations used, among the more common are Bachman, crow's foot, and IDEFIX.

All notational styles represent entities as rectangular boxes and relationships as lines connecting boxes.
Each style uses a special set of symbols to represent the cardinality of a connection. The notation used
in this document is from Martin. The symbols used for the basic ER constructs are:

 Entities are represented by labeled rectangles. The label is the name of the entity. Entity names
should be singular nouns.
 Relationships are represented by a solid line connecting two entities. The name of the
relationship is written above the line. Relationship names should be verbs.
 Attributes, when included, are listed inside the entity rectangle. Attributes which are identifiers
are underlined. Attribute names should be singular nouns.
 Cardinality of many is represented by a line ending in a crow's foot. If the crow's foot is omitted,
the cardinality is one.
 Existence is represented by placing a circle or a perpendicular bar on the line. Mandatory
existence is shown by the bar (looks like a 1) next to the entity for an instance is required.
Optional existence is shown by placing a circle next to the entity that is optional.

Examples of these symbols are shown in Figure 1 below:

Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD)

Data models are tools used in analysis to describe the data requirements and assumptions in the system
from a top-down perspective. They also set the stage for the design of databases later on in the SDLC.
There are three basic elements in ER models: Entities are the "things" about which we seek information.
Attributes are the data we collect about the entities. Relationships provide the structure needed to
draw information from multiple entities.

Generally, ERD's look like

Developing an ERD

Developing an ERD requires an understanding of the system and its components. Before discussing the
procedure, let's look at a narrative created by Professor Harman.

Consider a hospital:

Patients are treated in a single ward by the doctors assigned to them. Usually each patient will
be assigned a single doctor, but in rare cases they will have two. Heathcare assistants also attend to the
patients, a number of these are associated with each ward. Initially the system will be concerned solely
with drug treatment. Each patient is required to take a variety of drugs a certain number of times per
day and for varying lengths of time. The system must record details concerning patient treatment and
staff payment. Some staff are paid part time and doctors and care assistants work varying amounts of
overtime at varying rates (subject to grade). The system will also need to track what treatments are
required for which patients and when and it should be capable of calculating the cost of treatment per
week for each patient (though it is currently unclear to what use this information will be put).
 How do we start an ERD?

1. Define Entities: these are usually nouns used in descriptions of the system, in the discussion of
business rules, or in documentation; identified in the narrative (see highlighted items above).
2. Define Relationships: these are usually verbs used in descriptions of the system or in discussion
of the business rules (entity ______ entity); identified in the narrative (see highlighted items
above).
3. Add attributes to the relations; these are determined by the queries, and may also suggest new
entities, e.g. grade; or they may suggest the need for keys or identifiers. What questions can we
ask?
a) Which doctors work in which wards?
b) How much will be spent in a ward in a given week?
c) How much will a patient cost to treat?
d) How much does a doctor cost per week?
e) Which assistants can a patient expect to see?
f) Which drugs are being used?
4. Add cardinality to the relations - Many-to-Many must be resolved to two one-to-manys with an
additional entity. Usually automatically happens , Sometimes involves introduction of a link
entity (which will be all foreign key) Examples: Patient-Drug
5. This flexibility allows us to consider a variety of questions such as:
a) Which beds are free?
b) Which assistants work for Dr. X?
c) What is the least expensive prescription?
d) How many doctors are there in the hospital?
e) Which patients are family related?
6. Represent that information with symbols. Generally E-R Diagrams require the use of the
following symbols:
Reading an ERD

It takes some practice reading an ERD, but they can be used with clients to discuss business rules. These
allow us to represent the information from above such as the E-R Diagram below:

ERD brings out issues:

Many-to-Manys

Ambiguities

Entities and their relationships

What data needs to be stored

The Degree of a relationship

Now, think about a university in terms of an ERD. What entities, relationships and attributes might you
consider? Look at this simplified view. There is also an example of a simplified view of an airline on that
page.

Database Normalization

In the field of relational database design, normalization is a systematic way of ensuring that a database
structure is suitable for general-purpose querying and free of certain undesirable characteristics—
insertion, update, and deletion anomalies—that could lead to a loss of data integrity and also it is
process of removing the redundancy.

Edgar F. Codd, the inventor of the relational model, introduced the concept of normalization and what
we now know as the First Normal Form (1NF) in 1970. Codd went on to define the Second Normal Form
(2NF) and Third Normal Form (3NF) in 1971.
When an attempt is made to modify (update, insert into, or delete from) a table, undesired side-effects
may follow. Not all tables can suffer from these side-effects; rather, the side-effects can only arise in
tables that have not been sufficiently normalized. An insufficiently normalized table might have one or
more of the following characteristics:

 The same information can be expressed on multiple rows; therefore, updates to the table may
result in logical inconsistencies. For example, each record in an "Employees' Skills" table might
contain an Employee ID, Employee Address, and Skill; thus, a change of address for a particular
employee will potentially need to be applied to multiple records (one for each of his skills). If the
update is not carried through successfully—if, that is, the employee's address is updated on
some records but not others—then the table is left in an inconsistent state. Specifically, the
table provides conflicting answers to the question of what this particular employee's address is.
This phenomenon is known as an update anomaly.
 There are circumstances in which certain facts cannot be recorded at all. For example, each
record in a "Faculty and Their Courses" table might contain a Faculty ID, Faculty Name, Faculty
Hire Date, and Course Code—thus we can record the details of any faculty member who teaches
at least one course, but we cannot record the details of a newly-hired faculty member who has
not yet been assigned to teach any courses. This phenomenon is known as an insertion anomaly.
 There are circumstances in which the deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates
the deletion of data representing completely different facts. The "Faculty and Their Courses"
table described in the previous example suffers from this type of anomaly, for if a faculty
member temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses, we must delete the last of the
records on which that faculty member appears. This phenomenon is known as a deletion
anomaly.

Free the database of modification anomalies

An update anomaly. Employee 519 is shown as having different addresses on different records.
An insertion anomaly. Until the new faculty member, Dr. Newsome, is assigned to teach at least one
course, his details cannot be recorded.

A deletion anomaly. All information about Dr. Giddens is lost when he temporarily ceases to be assigned
to any courses.

Normalization

First Normal Form

 Eliminate repeating groups in individual tables.

 Create a separate table for each set of related data.
 Identify each set of related data with a primary key.

A table is said to be in 1NF if the intersection of every row and column contains only single data. i.e the
multivalued data is not permitted.

Do not use multiple fields in a single table to store similar data. For example, to track an inventory item
that may come from two possible sources, an inventory record may contain fields for Vendor Code 1 and
Vendor Code 2.

But what happens when you add a third vendor? Adding a field is not the answer; it requires program
and table modifications and does not smoothly accommodate a dynamic number of vendors. Instead,
place all vendor information in a separate table called Vendors, then link inventory to vendors with an
item number key, or vendors to inventory with a vendor code key.

For a table to be in first normal form, data must be broken up into the smallest units possible. For
example, the following table is not in first normal form.

Name Address Phone

Sally Singer 123 Broadway New York, NY, 11234 (111) 222-3345
Jason Jumper 456 Jolly Jumper St. Trenton NJ, 11547 (222) 334-5566

To conform to first normal form, this table would require additional fields. The name field should be
divided into first and last name and the address should be divided by street, city state, and zip like this.
 ID First Last Street City State Zip Phone
564 Sally Singer 123 Broadway New York NY 11234 (111) 222-3345
565 Jason Jumper 456 Jolly Jumper St. Trenton NJ 11547 (222) 334-5566

In addition to breaking data up into the smallest meaningful values, tables in first normal form should
not contain repetitions groups of fields such as in the following table.

The problem here is that each representative can have multiple clients not all will have three. Some may
have less as is the case in the second record, tying up storage space in your database that is not being
used, and some may have more, in which case there are not enough fields. The solution to this is to add
a record for each new piece of information.

Notice the splitting of the first and last name fields again.

This table is now in first normal form. Note that by avoiding repeating groups of fields, we have created
a new problem in that there are identical values in the primary key field, violating the rules of the
primary key. In order to remedy this, we need to have some other way of identifying each record. This
can be done with the creation of a new key called client ID.
 This new field can now be used in conjunction with the Rep ID field to create a multiple field primary
key. This will prevent confusion if ever more than one Representative were to serve a single client.

Second Normal Form

• Create separate tables for sets of values that apply to multiple records.
• Relate these tables with a foreign key.

A table is said to be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully functionally dependent on
the primary key. A fully functional dependency is a dependency where the r.h.s (dependent) is fully
dependent on the composite L.h.s (determinant) part. i.e AB --- > C. Then C is fully functionally
dependent on AB. If A --- > C or B --- > C holds then it is not to be said as fully functionally dependency
rather partial dependency.

Records should not depend on anything other than a table's primary key (a compound key, if necessary).
For example, consider a customer's address in an accounting system. The address is needed by the
Customers table, but also by the Orders, Shipping, Invoices, Accounts Receivable, and Collections tables.
Instead of storing the customer's address as a separate entry in each of these tables, store it in one
place, either in the Customers table or in a separate Addresses table.

The second normal form applies only to tables with multiple field primary keys. Take the following table
for example.

This table is already in first normal form. It has a primary key consisting of Rep ID and Client ID since
neither alone can be considered a unique value.

The second normal form states that each field in a multiple field primary key table must be directly
related to the entire primary key. Or in other words, each non-key field should be a fact about all the
fields in the primary key. Only fields that are absolutely necessary should show up in our table, all other
fields should reside in different tables. In order to find out which fields are necessary we should ask a
few questions of our database. In our preceding example, I should ask the question "What information
is this table meant to store?" Currently, the answer is not obvious. It may be meant to store information
about individual clients, or it could be holding data for employees time cards. As a further example, if
my database is going to contain records of employees I may want a table of demographics and a table
for payroll. The demographics will have all the employees personal information and will assign them an
ID number. I should not have to enter the data twice, the payroll table on the other hand should refer
to each employee only by their ID number. I can then link the two tables by a relationship and will then
have access to all the necessary data.

In the table of the preceding example we are devoting three field to the identification of the employee
and two to the identification of the client. I could identify them with only one field each -- the primary
key. I can then take out the extraneous fields and put them in their own table. For example, my
database would then look like the following.

The above table contains time card information.

The above table contains Employee Information.

The above table contains Client Information

These tables are now in normal form. By splitting off the unnecessary information and putting it in its
own tables, we have eliminated redundancy and put our first table in second normal form. These tables
are now ready to be linked through relationship to each other.

Third Normal Form

 Eliminate fields that do not depend on the key. I.e. in 3rd normal form there should not be any
transitive dependency.
  Remove transitive dependencies.
 Transitive Dependency A type of functional dependency where an attribute is functionally
dependent on an attribute other than the primary key. Thus, its value is only indirectly
determined by the primary key.
 Create a separate table containing the attribute and the fields that are functionally dependent
on it. Tables created at this step will usually contain descriptions of either resources or agents.
Keep a copy of the key attribute in the original file.

A table is said to be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and every non key attributes are not transitively dependent on
the Primary key. I.e. there should not be any transitive dependency.

Third Normal Form Example The new tables would be:

CustomerNo, CustomerName, CustomerAdd

ClerkNo, ClerkName

All of these fields except the primary key will be removed from the original table. The primary key will
be left in the original table to allow linking of data as follows:

SalesOrderNo, Date, CustomerNo, ClerkNo

Together with the unchanged tables below, these tables make up the database in third normal form.

ItemNo, Description

SalesOrderNo, ItemNo, Qty, UnitPrice

What if we did not Normalize the Database to Third Normal Form?

 Repetition of Data – Detail for Cust/Clerk would appear on every SO

 Delete Anomalies – Delete a sales order, delete the customer/clerk
 Insert Anomalies – To insert a customer/clerk, must insert sales order.
 Update Anomalies – To change the name/address, etc, must change it on every SO.

Completed Tables in Third Normal Form Customers:

CustomerNo, CustomerName, CustomerAdd

Clerks: ClerkNo, ClerkName

Inventory Items: ItemNo, Description

Sales Orders: SalesOrderNo, Date, CustomerNo, ClerkNo

SalesOrderDetail: SalesOrderNo, ItemNo, Qty, UnitPrice

Values in a record that are not part of that record's key do not belong in the table. In general, any time
the contents of a group of fields may apply to more than a single record in the table, consider placing
those fields in a separate table.

For example, in an Employee Recruitment table, a candidate's university name and address may be
included. But you need a complete list of universities for group mailings. If university information is
stored in the Candidates table, there is no way to list universities with no current candidates. Create a
separate Universities table and link it to the Candidates table with a university code key.

EXCEPTION: Adhering to the third normal form, while theoretically desirable, is not always practical. If
you have a Customers table and you want to eliminate all possible interfield dependencies, you must
create separate tables for cities, ZIP codes, sales representatives, customer classes, and any other factor
that may be duplicated in multiple records. In theory, normalization is worth pursuing; however, many
small tables may degrade performance or exceed open file and memory capacities.

It may be more feasible to apply third normal form only to data that changes frequently. If some
dependent fields remain, design your application to require the user to verify all related fields when any
one is changed.

SQL

SQL often referred to as Structured Query Language is a database computer language designed for
managing data in relational database management systems (RDBMS), and originally based upon
relational algebra. Its scope includes data query and update, schema creation and modification, and
data access control. SQL was one of the first languages for Edgar F. Codd's relational model in his
influential 1970 paper, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks"[4] and became the
most widely used language for relational databases.

SQL was developed at IBM by Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce in the early 1970s. This
version, initially called SEQUEL, was designed to manipulate and retrieve data stored in IBM's original
relational database product, System R.

The SQL language is sub-divided into several language elements, including:

 Clauses, which are in some cases optional, constituent components of statements and
queries.[9]
 Expressions which can produce either scalar values or tables consisting of columns and rows of
data.
 Predicates which specify conditions that can be evaluated to SQL three-valued logic (3VL)
Boolean truth values and which are used to limit the effects of statements and queries, or to
change program flow.
 Queries which retrieve data based on specific criteria.
 Statements which may have a persistent effect on schemas and data, or which may control
transactions, program flow, connections, sessions, or diagnostics.
o SQL statements also include the semicolon (";") statement terminator. Though
not required on every platform, it is defined as a standard part of the SQL grammar.
Queries

The most common operation in SQL is the query, which is performed with the declarative SELECT
statement. SELECT retrieves data from one or more tables, or expressions. Standard SELECT statements
have no persistent effects on the database. Some non-standard implementations of SELECT can have
persistent effects, such as the SELECT INTO syntax that exists in some databases.[10]

Queries allow the user to describe desired data, leaving the database management system (DBMS)
responsible for planning, optimizing, and performing the physical operations necessary to produce that
result as it chooses.

A query includes a list of columns to be included in the final result immediately following the SELECT
keyword. An asterisk ("*") can also be used to specify that the query should return all columns of the
queried tables. SELECT is the most complex statement in SQL, with optional keywords and clauses that
include:

 The FROM clause which indicates the table(s) from which data is to be retrieved. The FROM
clause can include optional JOIN subclauses to specify the rules for joining tables.
 The WHERE clause includes a comparison predicate, which restricts the rows returned by the
query. The WHERE clause eliminates all rows from the result set for which the comparison
predicate does not evaluate to True.
 The GROUP BY clause is used to project rows having common values into a smaller set of rows.
GROUP BY is often used in conjunction with SQL aggregation functions or to eliminate duplicate
rows from a result set. The WHERE clause is applied before the GROUP BY clause.
 The HAVING clause includes a predicate used to filter rows resulting from the GROUP BY clause.
Because it acts on the results of the GROUP BY clause, aggregation functions can be used in the
HAVING clause predicate.
 The ORDER BY clause identifies which columns are used to sort the resulting data, and in which
direction they should be sorted (options are ascending or descending). Without an ORDER BY
clause, the order of rows returned by an SQL query is undefined.

The following is an example of a SELECT query that returns a list of expensive books. The query retrieves
all rows from the Book table in which the price column contains a value greater than 100.00. The result
is sorted in ascending order by title. The asterisk (*) in the select list indicates that all columns of the
Book table should be included in the result set.

SELECT *

FROM Book

WHERE price > 100.00

ORDER BY title;
Data manipulation

The Data Manipulation Language (DML) is the subset of SQL used to add, update and delete data:

 INSERT adds rows (formally tuples) to an existing table, e.g.,:

INSERT INTO My_table

(field1, field2, field3)

VALUES

('test', 'N', NULL);

 UPDATE modifies a set of existing table rows, e.g.,:

UPDATE My_table

SET field1 = 'updated value'

WHERE field2 = 'N';

 DELETE removes existing rows from a table, e.g.,:

DELETE FROM My_table

WHERE field2 = 'N';

 TRUNCATE deletes all data from a table in a very fast way. It usually implies a
subsequent COMMIT operation.
 MERGE is used to combine the data of multiple tables. It combines the INSERT and
UPDATE elements. It is defined in the SQL:2003 standard; prior to that, some databases
provided similar functionality via different syntax, sometimes called "upsert".

Transaction controls (TCL)

Transactions, if available, wrap DML operations:

 START TRANSACTION (or BEGIN WORK, or BEGIN TRANSACTION, depending on SQL dialect)
mark the start of a database transaction, which either completes entirely or not at all.
 SAVE TRANSACTION (or SAVEPOINT ) save the state of the database at the current point in
transaction

CREATE TABLE tbl_1(id int);

INSERT INTO tbl_1(id) value(1);

INSERT INTO tbl_1(id) value(2);

COMMIT;

UPDATE tbl_1 SET id=200 WHERE id=1;

SAVEPOINT id-1upd;

UPDATE tbl_1 SET id=1000 WHERE id=2;

ROLLBACK TO id-1upd;

SELECT id FROM tbl_1;

 COMMIT causes all data changes in a transaction to be made permanent.

 ROLLBACK causes all data changes since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK to be discarded,
leaving the state of the data as it was prior to those changes.

Once the COMMIT statement completes, the transaction's changes cannot be rolled back.

COMMIT and ROLLBACK terminate the current transaction and release data locks. In the absence of a
START TRANSACTION or similar statement, the semantics of SQL are implementation-dependent.
Example: A classic bank transfer of funds transaction.

START TRANSACTION;

UPDATE Account SET amount=amount-200 WHERE account_number=1234;

UPDATE Account SET amount=amount+200 WHERE account_number=2345;

IF ERRORS=0 COMMIT;

IF ERRORS<>0 ROLLBACK;

Data definition

The Data Definition Language (DDL) manages table and index structure. The most basic items of DDL are
the CREATE, ALTER, RENAME, DROP and TRUNCATE statements:

 CREATE creates an object (a table, for example) in the database.

 DROP deletes an object in the database, usually irretrievably.
 ALTER modifies the structure of an existing object in various ways—for example, adding
a column to an existing table.

Example:

CREATE TABLE My_table

my_field1 INT,

my_field2 VARCHAR(50),

my_field3 DATE NOT NULL,

PRIMARY KEY (my_field1, my_field2) );

Embedded SQL

Embedded SQL is a method of combining the computing power of a programming language and the
database manipulation capabilities of SQL. Embedded SQL statements are SQL statements written in line
with the program source code of the host language. The embedded SQL statements are parsed by an
embedded SQL preprocessor and replaced by host-language calls to a code library. The output from the
preprocessor is then compiled by the host compiler. This allows programmers to embed SQL statements
in programs written in any number of languages such as: C/C++, COBOL and FORTRAN. The ANSI SQL
standards committee defined the embedded SQL standard in two steps: a formalism called Module
Language was defined, then the embedded SQL standard was derived from Module Language.[1] The
SQL standard defines embedding of SQL as embedded SQL and the language in which SQL queries are
embedded is referred to as the host language. A popular host language is C. The mixed C and embedded
SQL is called Pro*C in Oracle and Sybase database management systems. In the PostgreSQL database
management system this precompiled version is called ECPG. Other embedded SQL precompilers are
Pro*Ada, Pro*COBOL, Pro*FORTRAN, Pro*Pascal, and Pro*PL/I.

Systems that support Embedded SQL

IBM DB2
IBM DB2 version 9 for Linux, UNIX and Windows supports embedded SQL for C, C++, Java, COBOL,
FORTRAN and REXX although support for FORTRAN and REXX has been deprecated.[2]

Oracle Corporation
Ada

Pro*Ada was officially desupported by Oracle in version 7.3. Starting with Oracle8, Pro*Ada has been
replaced by SQL*Module but appears to have not been updated since.[3] SQL*Module is a module
language that offers a different programming method from embedded SQL. SQL*Module supports the
Ada83 language standard for Ada.

C/C++

Pro*C became Pro*C/C++ with Oracle8. Pro*C/C++ is currently supported as of Oracle Database 11g.

COBOL

Pro*COBOL is currently supported as of Oracle Database 11g.

Fortran

Pro*FORTRAN is no longer updated as of Oracle8 but Oracle will continue to issue patch releases as bugs
are reported and corrected.[4]

Pascal

Pro*Pascal was not released with Oracle8.[4]

PL/I

Pro*PL/I was not released with Oracle8. The Pro*PL/I Supplement to the Oracle Precompilers Guide,
however, continues to make appearances in the Oracle Documentation Library (current as of release
11g).[4]

PostgreSQL
C/C++

ECPG is part of PostgreSQL since version 6.3.

COBOL

Cobol-IT is now distributing a COBOL precompiler for PostgreSQL

Altibase
C/C++

SESC is an embedded SQL precompiler provided by Altibase Corp. for its DBMS server.

Data Access Corporation

With DataFlex 3.2 and Visual DataFlex you can pass SQL statements via one of the Data Access CLI
connectivity kits to Microsoft SQL Server, IBM DB2 or any ODBC supporting database. The results can be
retrieved and processed.

Microsoft SQL Server

COBOL

Cobol-IT is distributing a Embedded SQL precompiler for COBOL.

MySQL
COBOL

Cobol-IT is distributing a Embedded SQL precompiler for COBOL.

File Organization

Introduction

File organization is the methodology which is applied to structured computer files. Files contain
computer records which can be documents or information which is stored in a certain way for later
retrieval. File organization refers primarily to the logical arrangement of data (which can itself be
organized in a system of records with correlation between the fields/columns) in a file system. It should
not be confused with the physical storage of the file in some types of storage media. There are certain
basic types of computer file, which can include files stored as blocks of data and streams of data, where
the information streams out of the file while it is being read until the end of the file is encountered.
We will look at two components of file organization here:

1) The way the internal file structure is arranged and

2) The external file as it is presented to the O/S or program that calls it. Here we will also examine the
concept of file extensions.

We will examine various ways that files can be stored and organized. Files are presented to the
application as a stream of bytes and then an EOF (end of file) condition.

A program that uses a file needs to know the structure of the file and needs to interpret its contents.

Internal File Structure

Methods and Design Paradigm

It is a high-level design decision to specify a system of file organization for a computer software program
or a computer system designed for a particular purpose. Performance is high on the list of priorities for
this design process, depending on how the file is being used. The design of the file organization usually
depends mainly on the system environment. For instance, factors such as whether the file is going to be
used for transaction-oriented processes like OLTP or Data Warehousing, or whether the file is shared
among various processes like those found in a typical distributed system or standalone. It must also be
asked whether the file is on a network and used by a number of users and whether it may be accessed
internally or remotely and how often it is accessed.

However, all things considered the most important considerations might be:

1) Rapid access to a record or a number of records which are related to each other.
2) The Adding, modification, or deletion of records.
3) Efficiency of storage and retrieval of records.
4) Redundancy, being the method of ensuring data integrity.

A file should be organized in such a way that the records are always available for processing with no
delay. This should be done in line with the activity and volatility of the information.

Types of File Organization

Organizing a file depends on what kind of file it happens to be: a file in the simplest form can be a text
file, (in other words a file which is composed of ascii (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) text.) Files can also be created as binary or executable types (containing elements other
than plain text.) Also, files are keyed with attributes which help determine their use by the host
operating system.

Techniques of File Organization

The three techniques of file organization are:

1) Heap (unordered)
2) Sorted
a) Sequential (SAM)
b) Line Sequential (LSAM)
c) Indexed Sequential (ISAM)
3) Hashed or Direct

Sequential Organization

A sequential file contains records organized in the order they were entered. The order of the records is
fixed. The records are stored and sorted in physical, contiguous blocks within each block the records are
in sequence.

Records in these files can only be read or written sequentially.

Once stored in the file, the record cannot be made shorter, or longer, or deleted. However, the record
can be updated if the length does not change. (This is done by replacing the records by creating a new
file.) New records will always appear at the end of the file. If the order of the records in a file is not
important, sequential organization will suffice, no matter how many records you may have. Sequential
output is also useful for report printing or sequential reads which some programs prefer to do.

Line-Sequential Organization

Line-sequential files are like sequential files, except that the records can contain only characters as data.
Line-sequential files are maintained by the native byte stream files of the operating system.

In the COBOL environment, line-sequential files that are created with WRITE statements with the
ADVANCING phrase can be directed to a printer as well as to a disk.

Indexed-Sequential Organization

Key searches are improved by this system too. The single-level indexing structure is the simplest one
where a file, whose records are pairs, contains a key pointer. This pointer is the position in the data file
of the record with the given key. A subset of the records, which are evenly spaced along the data file, is
indexed, in order to mark intervals of data records.

This is how a key search is performed: the search key is compared with the index keys to find the highest
index key coming in front of the search key, while a linear search is performed from the record that the
index key points to, until the search key is matched or until the record pointed to by the next index entry
is reached. Regardless of double file access (index + data) required by this sort of search, the access time
reduction is significant compared with sequential file searches.

Let's examine, for sake of example, a simple linear search on a 1,000 record sequentially organized file.
An average of 500 key comparisons is needed (and this assumes the search keys are uniformly
distributed among the data keys). However, using an index evenly spaced with 100 entries, the total
number of comparisons is reduced to 50 in the index file plus 50 in the data file: a five to one reduction
in the operations count!

Hierarchical extension of this scheme is possible since an index is a sequential file in itself, capable of
indexing in turn by another second-level index, and so forth and so on. And the exploit of the
hierarchical decomposition of the searches more and more, to decrease the access time will pay
increasing dividends in the reduction of processing time. There is however a point when this advantage
starts to be reduced by the increased cost of storage and this in turn will increase the index access time.

Hardware for Index-Sequential Organization is usually Disk-based, rather than tape. Records are
physically ordered by primary key. And the index gives the physical location of each record. Records can
be accessed sequentially or directly, via the index. The index is stored in a file and read into memory at
the point when the file is opened. Also, indexes must be maintained.

Life sequential organization the data is stored in physical contiguous box. However, the difference is in
the use of indexes. There are three areas in the disc storage:

• Primary Area: -Contains file records stored by key or ID numbers.

• Overflow Area: -Contains records area that cannot be placed in primary area.
• Index Area: -It contains keys of records and their locations on the disc.

Inverted List

In file organization, this is a file that is indexed on many of the attributes of the data itself. The inverted
list method has a single index for each key type. The records are not necessarily stored in a sequence.
They are placed in the data storage area, but indexes are updated for the record keys and location.

Here's an example, in a company file, an index could be maintained for all products, and another one
might be maintained for product types. Thus, it is faster to search the indexes than every record. These
types of file are also known as "inverted indexes." Nevertheless, inverted list files use more media space
and the storage devices get full quickly with this type of organization. The benefits are apparent
immediately because searching is fast. However, updating is much slower.

Content-based queries in text retrieval systems use inverted indexes as their preferred mechanism. Data
items in these systems are usually stored compressed which would normally slow the retrieval process,
but the compression algorithm will be chosen to support this technique.

When querying a file there are certain circumstances when the query is designed to be modal which
means that rules are set which require that different information be held in the index. Here's an
example of this modality: when phrase querying is undertaken, the particular algorithm requires that
offsets to word classifications are held in addition to document numbers.
Direct or Hashed Access

With direct or hashed access, a portion of disk space is reserved and a “hashing” algorithm computes
the record address. So, there is additional space required for this kind of file in the store. Records are
placed randomly throughout the file. Records are accessed by addresses that specify their disc location.
Also, this type of file organization requires a disk storage rather than tape. It has an excellent search
retrieval performance, but care must be taken to maintain the indexes. If the indexes become corrupt,
what is left may as well go to the bit-bucket, so it is as well to have regular backups of this kind of file
just as it is for all stored valuable data.

Distributed Database Management System

A distributed database management system ('DDBMS') is a software system that permits the
management of a distributed database and makes the distribution transparent to the users. A
distributed database is a collection of multiple, logically interrelated databases distributed over a
computer network. Sometimes "distributed database system" is used to refer jointly to the distributed
database and the distributed DBMS.

A distributed database is a database that is under the control of a central database management system
(DBMS) in which storage devices are not all attached to a common CPU. It may be stored in multiple
computers located in the same physical location, or may be dispersed over a network of interconnected
computers.

Collections of data (e.g. in a database) can be distributed across multiple physical locations. A
distributed database can reside on network servers on the Internet, on corporate intranets or extranets,
or on other company networks. Replication and distribution of databases improve database
performance at end-user worksites. Template: Needs clarification

To ensure that the distributive databases are up to date and current, there are two processes:
replication and duplication. Replication involves using specialized software that looks for changes in the
distributive database. Once the changes have been identified, the replication process makes all the
databases look the same. The replication process can be very complex and time consuming depending
on the size and number of the distributive databases. This process can also require a lot of time and
computer resources. Duplication on the other hand is not as complicated. It basically identifies one
database as a master and then duplicates that database. The duplication process is normally done at a
set time after hours. This is to ensure that each distributed location has the same data. In the
duplication process, changes to the master database only are allowed. This is to ensure that local data
will not be overwritten. Both of the processes can keep the data current in all distributive locations.

Besides distributed database replication and fragmentation, there are many other distributed database
design technologies. For example, local autonomy, synchronous and asynchronous distributed database
technologies. These technologies' implementation can and does depend on the needs of the business
and the sensitivity/confidentiality of the data to be stored in the database, and hence the price the
business is willing to spend on ensuring data security, consistency and integrity.
Important considerations

Care with a distributed database must be taken to ensure the following:

 The distribution is transparent — users must be able to interact with the system as if it were one
logical system. This applies to the system's performance, and methods of access among other
things.
 Transactions are transparent — each transaction must maintain database integrity across
multiple databases. Transactions must also be divided into subtransactions, each subtransaction
affecting one database system.

Advantages of distributed databases

 Management of distributed data with different levels of transparency.

 Increase reliability and availability.
 Easier expansion.
 Reflects organizational structure — database fragments are located in the departments they
relate to.
 Local autonomy — a department can control the data about them (as they are the ones familiar
with it.)
 Protection of valuable data — if there were ever a catastrophic event such as a fire, all of the
data would not be in one place, but distributed in multiple locations.
 Improved performance — data is located near the site of greatest demand, and the database
systems themselves are parallelized, allowing load on the databases to be balanced among
servers. (A high load on one module of the database won't affect other modules of the database
in a distributed database.)
 Economics — it costs less to create a network of smaller computers with the power of a single
large computer.
 Modularity — systems can be modified, added and removed from the distributed database
without affecting other modules (systems).
 Reliable transactions - Due to replication of database.
 Hardware, Operating System, Network, Fragmentation, DBMS, Replication and Location
Independence.
 Continuous operation.
 Distributed Query processing.
 Distributed Transaction management.

Single site failure does not affect performance of system. All transactions follow A.C.I.D. property: a-
atomicity, the transaction takes place as whole or not at all; c-consistency, maps one consistent DB state
to another; i-isolation, each transaction sees a consistent DB; d-durability, the results of a transaction
must survive system failures. The Merge Replication Method used to consolidate the data between
databases.
Disadvantages of distributed databases

 Complexity — extra work must be done by the DBAs to ensure that the distributed nature of the
system is transparent. Extra work must also be done to maintain multiple disparate systems,
instead of one big one. Extra database design work must also be done to account for the
disconnected nature of the database — for example, joins become prohibitively expensive when
performed across multiple systems.
 Economics — increased complexity and a more extensive infrastructure means extra labour
costs.
 Security — remote database fragments must be secured, and they are not centralized so the
remote sites must be secured as well. The infrastructure must also be secured (e.g., by
encrypting the network links between remote sites).
 Difficult to maintain integrity — in a distributed database, enforcing integrity over a network
may require too much of the network's resources to be feasible.
 Inexperience — distributed databases are difficult to work with, and as a young field there is not
much readily available experience on proper practice.
 Lack of standards – there are no tools or methodologies yet to help users convert a centralized
DBMS into a distributed DBMS.
 Database design more complex – besides of the normal difficulties, the design of a distributed
database has to consider fragmentation of data, allocation of fragments to specific sites and
data replication.
 Additional software is required.
 Operating System should support distributed environment.
 Concurrency control: it is a major issue. It is solved by locking and time stamping.

A distributed database management system is software for managing databases stored on multiple
computers in a network. A distributed database is a set of databases stored on multiple computers that
typically appears to applications on a single database. Consequently, an application can simultaneously
access and modify the data in several databases in a network. DDBMS is specially developed for
heterogeneous database platforms, focusing mainly on heterogeneous database management systems
(HDBMS).
 Object Oriented Programming

What is Object-Oriented Programming?

As computers increase in processing power, the software they execute becomes more complex. This
increased complexity comes at a cost of large programs with huge codebases that can quickly become
difficult to understand, maintain and keep bug-free.

Object-oriented programming (OOP) tries to alleviate this problem by creating networks of objects, each
like small software 'machine'. These objects are naturally smaller entities, simplifying the development
task of each unit. However, when the objects co-operate in a system, they become the building blocks of
much more complex solution.

Consider the motor car. If a car were designed as a single machine, it would be seen as hugely complex
with lots of opportunities for failure. However, when broken down into its constituent parts, such as
wheels, pedals, doors, etc. the individual design items become simpler. Each part (or object) is created
independently, tested carefully and then assembled into the final product. The creation of the parts can
be simplified further when they are broken down into even simpler items. For example, when each door
is considered as being composed of an outer panel, handle, inner panel and window.

The car example is analogous to the object-oriented software. Rather than writing a huge program to
create, for example, a project management system, the solution is broken into real-world parts such as
project, task, estimate, actual, deliverable, etc. Each of these can then be developed and tested
independently before being combined. An object-oriented program may be considered a collection of
interacting objects. Each object is capable of sending and receiving messages, and processing data.
Consider the objects of a driver, a car, and a traffic light. When the traffic light changes, it sends a
virtual message to the driver. The driver receives the message, and then chooses to accelerate or
decelerate. This sends a virtual message to the car. When the car's speed changes, it sends a virtual
message back to the driver, via the speedometer.

Key Concepts

Classes and Objects

The basic building blocks of object-oriented programming are the class and the object. A class defines
the available characteristics and behavior of a set of similar objects and is defined by a programmer in
code. A class is an abstract definition that is made concrete at run-time when objects based upon the
class are instantiated and take on the class' behavior. As an analogy, let's consider the concept of a
'vehicle' class. The class developed by a programmer would include methods such as Steer(),
Accelerate() and Brake(). The class would also include properties such as Colour, NumberOfDoors,
TopSpeed and NumberOfWheels. The class is an abstract design that becomes real when objects such as
Car, RacingCar, Tank and Tricycle are created, each with its own version of the class' methods and
properties.

Class
A class defines the characteristics of an object i.e its an template for creating objects. Characteristics
include: Attributes (fields or properties), and behaviors (methods or operations). For example, a "Car"
class could have properties such as: year, make, model, color, number of doors, and engine. Behaviors
of the "Car" class include: On, off, change gears, accelerate, decelerate, turn, and brake.

Object

An object is an instance of a class. Creating an object is also known as instantiation. For example, the
object "my Porsche" is an instance of the car class.

Method

A method is a behavior of an object. Within a program, a method usually affects only one particular
object. In our example, all cars can accelerate, but the program only needs to make "my Porsche"
accelerate.

Message Passing

 Message passing (or method calling) is the process where an object sends data to another
object to invoke a method. For example, when the object called "joe" (an instance of the driver
class), presses the gas pedal, he literally passes an accelerate message to object "my Porsche",
which in turn, invokes the "my Porsche" accelerate method.
 Message passing, also known as interfacing, describes the communication between objects
using their public interfaces. There are three main ways to pass messages. These are using
methods, properties and events. A property can be defined in a class to allow objects of that
type to advertise and allow changing of state information, such as the 'TopSpeed' property.
Methods can be provided so that other objects can request a process to be undertaken by an
object, such as the Steer() method. Events can be defined that an object can raise in response to
an internal action. Other objects can subscribe to these so that they can react to an event
occurring. An example for vehicles could be an 'ImpactDetected' event subscribed to by one or
more 'AirBag' objects.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation conceals the functional details of a class from objects that send messages to it. For
example, the "Porsche Carrera GT" class has a method called "accelerate". The code for the
"accelerate" method defines exactly how acceleration occurs. In this example, fuel is pumped from gas
tank and mixed with air in the cylinders. Pistons move causing compression, resulting in combustion,
etc. Object "Joe" is an instance of the "Driver" class. It does not need to know how "my Porsche"
accelerates when sending it an accelerate message.

Encapsulation protects the integrity of an object by preventing users from changing internal data into
something invalid. Encapsulation reduces system complexity and thus increases robustness, by limiting
inter-dependencies between components.
Encapsulation, also known as data hiding, is an important object-oriented programming concept. It is
the act of concealing the functionality of a class so that the internal operations are hidden, and
irrelevant, to the programmer. With correct encapsulation, the developer does not need to understand
how the class actually operates in order to communicate with it via its publicly available methods and
properties; known as its public interface.

Encapsulation is essential to creating maintainable object-oriented programs. When the interaction with
an object uses only the publicly available interface of methods and properties, the class of the object
becomes a correctly isolated unit. This unit can then be replaced independently to fix bugs, to change
internal behavior or to improve functionality or performance. In the car analogy this is similar to
replacing a headlight bulb. As long as we choose the correct bulb size and connection (the public
interface), it will work in the car. It does not matter if the manufacturer has changed or the internal
workings of the bulb differ from the original. It may even offer an improvement in brightness!

Abstraction

Abstraction is the practice of reducing details so that someone can focus on a few concepts at a time.
For example, "my Porsche" may be treated as a "Car" most of the time. It may sometimes be treated as
a "Porsche Carrera GT" to access specific properties and methods relevant to "Porsche Carrera GT". It
could also be treated as a vehicle, the parent class of "Car" when considering all traffic in your
neighborhood.

Inheritance

 Inheritance (also known as subclasses) occurs when a specialized version of a class is defined.
The subclass inherits attributes and behaviors from the parent class. For example, the "Car"
class could have subclasses called "Porsche car", "Chevy car", and "Ford car". Subclasses inherit
properties and methods from the parent class. The software engineer only only has to write the
code for them once. A subclass can alter its inherited attributes or methods. In our example,
the "Porsche car" subclass would specify that the default make is Porsche. A subclass can also
include its own attributes and behaviors.
 We could create a subclass of "Porsche car" called "Porsche Carrera GT". The "Porsche Carrerra
GT" class could further specify a default model of "Carrera GT" and "number of doors" as two. It
could also include a new method called "deploy rear wing spoiler”.
 The object of "my Porsche" may be instantiated from class "Porsche Carrera GT" instead of class
"Car". This allows sending a message to invoke the new method "deploy rear wing spoiler".
 Inheritance is an interesting object-oriented programming concept. It allows one class (the
subclass) to be based upon another (the super-class) and inherit all of its functionality
automatically. Additional code may then be added to create a more specialized version of the
class. In the example of vehicles, sub-classes for cars or motorcycles could be created. Each
would still have all of the behavior of a vehicle but can add specialized methods and properties,
such as 'Lean()' and 'LeanAngle' for motorcycles.
  Some programming languages allow for multiple inheritances where a sub-class is derived from
two or more super-classes. C# does not permit this but does allow a class to implement multiple
interfaces. An interface defines a contract for the methods and properties of classes that
implement it. However, it does not include any actual functionality.

Polymorphism

 Polymorphism is the ability of one type to appear as (and be used like) another type. Classes
"Porsche Carrera GT" and "Ford Mustang" both inherited a method called "brake" from a similar
parent class.
 The results of executing method "brake" for the two types produces different results. "my
Porsche" may brake at a rate of 33 feet per second, whereas "my Mustang" may brake at a rate
of 29 feet per second.
 Polymorphism is the ability for an object to change its behaviour according to how it is being
used. Where an object's class inherits from a super-class or implements one or more interfaces,
it can be referred to by those class or interface names. So if we have a method that expects an
object of type 'vehicle' to be passed as a parameter, we can pass any vehicle, car or motorcycle
object to that method even though the data type may be technically different.

Function Overloading

We are overloading a function name f by declaring more than one function with the name f in the same
scope. The declarations of f must differ from each other by the types and/or the number of arguments
in the argument list. When you call an overloaded function named f, the correct function is selected by
comparing the argument list of the function call with the parameter list of each of the overloaded
candidate functions with the name f. A candidate function is a function that can be called based on the
context of the call of the overloaded function name.

Consider a function print, which displays an int. As shown in the following example, you can overload
the function print to display other types, for example, double and char*. You can have three functions
with the same name, each performing a similar operation on a different data type:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void print(int i) {

cout << " Here is int " << i << endl;

void print(double f) { cout << " Here is float " << f << endl; } void print(char* c) { cout << "
Here is char* " << c << endl;
}

int main() { print(10); print(10.10); print("ten");

The following is the output of the above example:

Here is int 10

Here is float 10.1

Here is char* ten

Virtual Function

C++ virtual function is a member function of a class, whose functionality can be over-ridden in its
derived classes. The whole function body can be replaced with a new set of implementation in the
derived class. The concept of c++ virtual functions is different from C++ Function overloading.

C++ Virtual Function - Properties:

C++ virtual function is,

 A member function of a class

 Declared with virtual keyword
 Usually has a different functionality in the derived class
 A function call is resolved at run-time

The difference between a non-virtual c++ member function and a virtual member function is, the
nonvirtual member functions are resolved at compile time. This mechanism is called static binding.
Whereas the c++ virtual member functions are resolved during run-time. This mechanism is known as
dynamic binding.

C++ Virtual Function - Reasons:

The most prominent reason why a C++ virtual function will be used is to have a different functionality in
the derived class.

For example, a Create function in a class Window may have to create a window with white background.
But a class called Command Button derived or inherited from Window may have to use a gray
background and write a caption on the center. The Create function for Command Button now should
have functionality different from the one at the class called Window.
C++ Virtual function - Example:

This article assumes a base class named Window with a virtual member function named Create. The
derived class name will be Command Button, with our over ridden function Create. class Window //
Base class for C++ virtual function example

public:

virtual void Create() // virtual function for C++ virtual function example

cout <<"Base class Window"<

}; class CommandButton : public Window

public:

void Create()

cout<<"Derived class Command Button - Overridden C++ virtual function"<

};

void main()

Window *x, *y;

x = new Window();

x->Create();

y = new CommandButton();

y->Create();

The output of the above program will be,

Base class Window

 Derived class Command Button

If the function had not been declared virtual, then the base class function would have been called all the
times. Because, the function address would have been statically bound during compile time. But now, as
the function is declared virtual it is a candidate for run-time linking and the derived class function is
being invoked.

C++ Virtual function - Call Mechanism:

Whenever a program has a C++ virtual function declared, a v-table is constructed for the class. The
vtable consists of addresses to the virtual functions for classes and pointers to the functions from each
of the objects of the derived class. Whenever there is a function call made to the c++ virtual function,
the v-table is used to resolve to the function address. This is how the Dynamic binding happens during a
virtual function call.

Friend Functions

In this C++ tutorial, you will learn about friend functions, need for friend function, how to define and use
friend function and few important points regarding friend function, explained with example.

Need for Friend Function:

As we know from access specifies, when a data is declared as private inside a class, and then it is not
accessible from outside the class. A function that is not a member or an external class will not be able to
access the private data. A programmer may have a situation where he or she would need to access
private data from non-member functions and external classes. For handling such cases, the concept of
Friend functions is a useful tool.

What is a Friend Function?

A friend function is used for accessing the non-public members of a class. A class can allow non-member
functions and other classes to access its own private data, by making them friends. Thus, a friend
function is an ordinary function or a member of another class.

How to define and use Friend Function in C++:

The friend function is written as any other normal function, except the function declaration of these
functions is preceded with the keyword friend. The friend function must have the class to which it is
declared as friend passed to it in argument.

Some important points to note while using friend functions in C++:

 The keyword friend is placed only in the function declaration of the friend function and not in
the function definition.
 It is possible to declare a function as friend in any number of classes.
 When a class is declared as a friend, the friend class has access to the private data of the class
that made this a friend.
  A friend function, even though it is not a member function, would have the rights to access the
private members of the class.
 It is possible to declare the friend function as either private or public.
 The function can be invoked without the use of an object. The friend function has its argument
as objects, seen in example below.

Example to understand the friend function:

#include

class exforsys

private:

int a,b;

public:

void test()

a=100;

b=200;

friend int compute(exforsys e1)

//Friend Function Declaration with keyword friend and with the object of class exforsys to which it is
friend passed to it

};

int compute(exforsys e1)

//Friend Function Definition which has access to private data

return int(e1.a+e2.b)-5;

main()
{

exforsys e;

e.test();

cout<<"The result is:"<

//Calling of Friend Function with object as argument. }

The output of the above program is

The result is: 295

The function compute () is a non-member function of the class exforsys. In order to make this function
have access to the private data a and b of class exforsys , it is created as a friend function for the class
exforsys. As a first step, the function compute () is declared as friend in the class exforsys as:

friend int compute (exforsys e1)

Composition

Objects can work together in many ways within a system. In some situations, classes and objects can be
tightly coupled together to provide more complex functionality. This is known as composition. In the car
example, the wheels, panels, engine, gearbox, etc. can be thought of as individual classes. To create the
car class, you link all of these objects together, possibly adding further functionality. The internal
workings of each class are not important due to encapsulation as the communication between the
objects is still via passing messages to their public interfaces.

Modularity

In addition to the concepts described above, object-oriented programming also permits increased
modularity. Individual classes or groups of linked classes can be thought of as a module of code that can
be re-used in many software projects. This reduces the need to redevelop similar functionality and
therefore can lower development time and costs.
 Introduction to ERP

ERP, which is an abbreviation for Enterprise Resource Planning, is principally an integration of business
management practices and modern technology. Information Technology (IT) integrates with the core
business processes of a corporate house to streamline and accomplish specific business objectives.
Consequently, ERP is an amalgamation of three most important components; Business Management
Practices, Information Technology and Specific Business Objectives.

In simpler words, an ERP is a massive software architecture that supports the streaming and distribution
of geographically scattered enterprise wide information across all the functional units of a business
house. It provides the business management executives with a comprehensive overview of the complete
business execution which in turn influences their decisions in a productive way.

At the core of ERP is a well-managed centralized data repository which acquires information from and
supply information into the fragmented applications operating on a universal computing platform.

Information in large business organizations is accumulated on various servers across many functional
units and sometimes separated by geographical boundaries. Such information islands can possibly
service individual organizational units but fail to enhance enterprise wide performance, speed and
competence.

The term ERP originally referred to the way a large organization planned to use its organizational wide
resources. Formerly, ERP systems were used in larger and more industrial types of companies. However,
the use of ERP has changed radically over a period of few years. Today the term can be applied to any
type of company, operating in any kind of field and of any magnitude.

Today’s ERP software architecture can possibly envelop a broad range of enterprise wide functions and
integrate them into a single unified database repository. For instance, functions such as Human
Resources, Supply Chain Management, Customer Relationship Management, Finance, Manufacturing
Warehouse Management and Logistics were all previously stand alone software applications, generally
housed with their own applications, database and network, but today, they can all work under a single
umbrella – the ERP architecture.

In order for a software system to be considered ERP, it must provide a business with wide collection of
functionalities supported by features like flexibility, modularity & openness, widespread, finest business
processes and global focus.
Integration is Key to ERP Systems

Integration is an exceptionally significant ingredient to ERP systems. The integration between business
processes helps develop communication and information distribution, leading to remarkable increase in
productivity, speed and performance.

The key objective of an ERP system is to integrate information and processes from all functional
divisions of an organization and merge it for effortless access and structured workflow. The integration
is typically accomplished by constructing a single database repository that communicates with multiple
software applications providing different divisions of an organization with various business statistics and
information.

Although the perfect configuration would be a single ERP system for an entire organization, but many
larger organizations usually deploy a single functional system and slowly interface it with other
functional divisions. This type of deployment can really be time-consuming and expensive.

The Ideal ERP System

An ERP system would qualify as the best model for enterprise wide solution architecture, if it chains all
the below organizational processes together with a central database repository and a fused computing
platform.

Manufacturing

Engineering, resource & capacity planning, material planning, workflow management, shop floor
management, quality control, bills of material, manufacturing process, etc.

Financials

Accounts payable, accounts receivable, fixed assets, general ledger, cash management, and billing
(contract/service)

Human Resource

Recruitment, benefits, compensations, training, payroll, time and attendance, labour rules, people
management

Supply Chain Management

Inventory management, supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, claim processing, sales order
administration, procurement planning, transportation and distribution

Projects

Costing, billing, activity management, time and expense

Customer Relationship Management

Sales and marketing, service, commissions, customer contact and after sales support

Data Warehouse
Generally, this is an information storehouse that can be accessed by organizations, customers, suppliers
and employees for their learning and orientation

ERP Systems Improve Productivity, Speed and Performance

Prior to evolution of the ERP model, each department in an enterprise had their own isolated software
application which did not interface with any other system. Such isolated framework could not
synchronize the inter-department processes and hence hampered the productivity, speed and
performance of the overall organization. These led to issues such as incompatible exchange standards,
lack of synchronization, incomplete understanding of the enterprise functioning, unproductive decisions
and many more.

For example: The financials could not coordinate with the procurement team to plan out purchases as
per the availability of money.

Hence, deploying a comprehensive ERP system across an organization leads to performance increase,
workflow synchronization, standardized information exchange formats, complete overview of the
enterprise functioning, global decision optimization, speed enhancement and much more.

Implementation of an ERP System

Implementing an ERP system in an organization is an extremely complex process. It takes lot of

systematic planning, expert consultation and well structured approach. Due to its extensive scope it may
even take years to implement in a large organization. Implementing an ERP system will eventually
necessitate significant changes on staff and work processes. While it may seem practical for an in-house
IT administration to head the project, it is commonly advised that special ERP implementation experts
be consulted, since they are specially trained in deploying these kinds of systems.

Organizations generally use ERP vendors or consulting companies to implement their customized ERP
system. There are three types of professional services that are provided when implementing an ERP
system, they are Consulting, Customization and Support.

 Consulting Services – are responsible for the initial stages of ERP implementation where they
help an organization go live with their new system, with product training, workflow, improve
ERP’s use in the specific organization, etc.
 Customization Services – work by extending the use of the new ERP system or changing its use
by creating customized interfaces and/or underlying application code. While ERP systems are
made for many core routines, there are still some needs that need to be built or customized for
a particular organization.
 Support Services – include both support and maintenance of ERP systems. For instance, trouble
shooting and assistance with ERP issues.

The ERP implementation process goes through five major stages which are Structured Planning, Process
Assessment, Data Compilation & Cleanup, Education & Testing and Usage & Evaluation.
 1. Structured Planning: is the foremost and the most crucial stage where an capable project team
is selected, present business processes are studied, information flow within and outside the
organization is scrutinized, vital objectives are set and a comprehensive implementation plan is
formulated.
2. Process Assessment: is the next important stage where the prospective software capabilities are
examined, manual business processes are recognized and standard working procedures are
constructed.
3. Data Compilation & Cleanup: helps in identifying data which is to be converted and the new
information that would be needed. The compiled data is then analyzed for accuracy and
completeness, throwing away the worthless/unwanted information.
4. Education & Testing: aids in proofing the system and educating the users with ERP mechanisms.
The complete database is tested and verified by the project team using multiple testing
methods and processes. A broad in-house training is held where all the concerned users are
oriented with the functioning of the new ERP system.
5. Usage & Evaluation: is the final and an ongoing stage for the ERP. The lately implemented ERP is
deployed live within the organization and is regularly checked by the project team for any flaw
or error detection.

Advantages of ERP Systems

There are many advantages of implementing an EPR system. A few of them are listed below:

 A perfectly integrated system chaining all the functional areas together

 The capability to streamline different organizational processes and workflows
 The ability to effortlessly communicate information across various departments
 Improved efficiency, performance and productivity levels
 Enhanced tracking and forecasting
 Improved customer service and satisfaction

ERP systems centralize business data. Benefits of this include:

 Eliminates synchronizing changes between multiple systems—consolidation of finance,

marketing and sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications
 Enables standard product naming/coding.
 Provides comprehensive enterprise view (no "islands of information"). Makes real–time
information available to management anywhere, anytime to make proper decisions.
 Protects sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure.
Scope of ERP in the modern business era

ERP covers a wide range of business and typically it fulfills all the business demand. For customizing ERP
completely, the users have to make some changes in the implemented service package. Here is a list of
most of the services where ERP is vastly in use:

Production Department

Engineering, Bills of Material, Scheduling, Capacity, Workflow Management, Quality Control, Cost
Management, Manufacturing Process, Manufacturing Projects, Manufacturing Flow

Supply Chain Management

Inventory, Order Entry, Purchasing, Product Configurator, Supply Chain Planning, Supplier Scheduling,
Inspection of goods, Claim Processing, Commission Calculation

Financials

General Ledger, Cash Management, Accounts Payable, Accounts Receivable, Fixed Assets

Projects

Costing, Billing, Time and Expense, Activity Management

Human Resources

Human Resources, Payroll, Training, Time & Attendance, Benefits

Customer Relationship Management

Sales and Marketing, Commissions, Service, Customer Contact and Call Center support

Data Warehouse

Several Self-Service interfaces for Customers, Suppliers, and Employee

Pitfalls of ERP Systems

While advantages usually outweigh disadvantages for most organizations implementing an ERP system,
here are some of the most common obstacles experienced:

 The scope of customization is limited in several circumstances

 The present business processes have to be rethought to make them synchronize with the ERP •
ERP systems can be extremely expensive to implement
 There could be lack of continuous technical support
 ERP systems may be too rigid for specific organizations that are either new or want to move in a
new direction in the near future
 E- Commerce

What is eCommerce & eBusiness?

eCommerce Defined: eCommerce, which is short for electronic commerce, is the process used to
distribute, buy, sell or market goods and services, and the transfer of funds online, through electronic
communications or networks. Electronic commerce is commonly referred to as Online commerce, Web
commerce, eBusiness, eRetail, eTailing, e-tailing, ecommerce, eCommerce, ecommerce, ecom or EC.

Beginning & Future of eCommerce:

eCommerce basically began (although debated) in 1994 when Jeff Bezos started Amazon.com out of his
own garage. Well known eCommerce stores include sites like eBay, Dell, Walmart and many more. Since
1994, businesses of all shapes and sizes have began launching or expanding their Online presence. At
any given time, there are approximately 8 million consumers worldwide that actively shop and buy
through Web based stores or retailers (nearly one tenth of our world population). Online studies have
claimed that online retail revenues will surpass the quartertrillion-dollar mark by 2011.

eCommerce Site Features:

Typical business web sites do not usually have the same features as eCommerce enabled web stores do.
In order to effectively distribute, market and sell goods or services Online you will need certain features
only found on eCommerce sites. Features may include a shopping cart, ability to process credit cards,
online product catalog, automated inventory system, databases, bulk email program, statistics tracking
and other non-computer technologies such as product warehousing and shipping transportation.

What are the Benefits of eCommerce & eBusiness?

The processes involved with conducting business on the Internet and opening an eCommerce shop to
sell from have several benefits to both merchants and the customers who buy from them. The biggest
benefits of conducting business Online include a cheaper upfront cost to the merchant, it's easier to set
up and open the store and it's faster to get an Online business up, running and making sales.

Helps Create New Relationship Opportunities:

Expanding or opening an eBusiness can create a world of opportunity and helps to establish new
relationships with potential customers, potential business associates and new product manufacturers.
Just by being in an easy to find location that is accessible to users all over the world, you will be available
for others to find and approach you about new opportunities. Customers who don't know you exist will
know about you, product suppliers will request you add

their items and other businesses will approach you about partnership opportunities. Many of these
opportunities would not present themselves without an Online presence or site for them to discover
you on their own.

Open for Business 24x7:

An eCommerce site basically gives you the ability to have unlimited store hours, giving your customers
24 hours a day, 7 days a week access to shop and buy items from you. Some merchants choose to limit
their hours to 5 days a week, but orders can still be made over the weekend and customers can still
make contact 24/7 via email, phone or fax. In addition, the costs associated with having your store open
24/7 are much less than maintaining a physical storefront or phone operator with 247 operation
capability. You can literally take orders and let customers shop while you sleep, take vacations or from
remote locations.

Increases Brand or Product Awareness:

Having an Online business means that you can literally reach out to millions of consumers looking for
what you sell anywhere in the world. By reaching out to new markets and displaying your site
prominently in front of them, you will be able to help increase your company/domain brand name and
also increase awareness about your product line. By giving users 24/7 access in an easy to find location,
you will help to create more word of mouth buzz for your eBusiness, in turn helping to promote your
brand name and products. Users who haven't heard of you will discover you exist and help spread the
word about you.

Helps Establish Customer Loyalty:

An eCommerce storefront will help create an easier means for your customers to purchase the items
you sell and offers a unique way to display and describe your products in a informative, visual and
interactive way. The customers you have will become more loyal shoppers each time they visit, making
eCommerce great for improved customer satisfaction and visitor loyalty. Now that you offer your
products for sale Online, consumers will be able to shop from your catalog more easily, get updates on
new items or product discounts and can shop or buy anytime they wish.

Potential to Increase Overall Business Sales:

An eCommerce store that is an extension of a physical storefront is a great way to boost overall business
sales and potentially increase company profits across the board. Companies who already do business
from a physical location are typically unaware of how much more they could be making if only they were
to expand into their Online marketplaces. Selling Online opens up many opportunities for businesses
both new and old. It's a great way to increase sales, especially if you already have a physical store.

Potential to Increase Company Profits:

As mentioned above, opening an Online extension of your store or moving your business solely Online
are great ways to boost sales and potentially profits. Remember, just because SALES increase it does not
necessarily mean that company PROFITS will increase also. Online businesses do have a greater chance
of increasing sales and profits by opening up an eCommerce store to sell the items they offer. Sales and
profits are the lifeblood of any company, so it makes sense to increase them where ever possible and
whenever possible throughout the existence of your company. More sales, more profits, bigger budgets,
etc.

Potential to Decrease Some Costs:

In addition to potentially increasing sales and profits, eBusiness owners can also typically reduce the
costs of running their business by moving it or expanding it into the Online world. eCommerce stores
can run with less employees including sales staff, customer service reps, order fulfillment staff and
others. eBusinesses also do not need a physical location in order to stay operational, which can reduce
costs related to building leases, phone bills, utility costs and other costs associated with running a brick-
and-mortar storefront.

Expands Geographical or Customer Reach:

As mentioned, owning an eCommerce business typically means no limits as to who and where you can
sell your products. Some countries outside the United States have additional regulations, licensing
requirements or currency differences, but generally you will not be limited on the customers you can
reach out to. Physical storefronts are limited to the city in which they are located, Online businesses
aren't limited unless you put geographical limits in place. At the very least, you should consider targeting
U.S. buyers, but also consider, Canada, UK, Australia and others. Sell to anyone, anywhere, anytime!

Allows for Smaller Market or Niche Targeting:

Although your customer reach may expand beyond your local area, you may only wish to target smaller
consumer markets and buyer niches for your eCommerce products. Owning an Online store gives the
merchant much control over who they target and reach out to notify about the items for sale in their
store. Currently, you can target women, men, a generation of users, a particular race and many more
smaller niche markets. This is typically done by placing keywords that those niche markets use on a
regular basis when shopping for the items you offer.

Allows for Easier Delivery of Information:

An Online store and Web brochure are great ways to deliver and display information about your
company and the products you sell. With an Online presence your customers will have direct access to
product information, company information, specials, promotions, real time data and much more
information that they can easily find just by visiting your site day or night. Not only does it benefit your
customers, but it's also generally easier for merchants to update their site rather than break down an in
store display and put up another for the next event. It saves both

your customers and you precious time and can help you to plan more updates or better sales as it will
be much easier for you to update and take down.

What is eCommerceMarketing?

eCommerce Marketing Defined: eCommerce marketing can be defined in many different ways and can
include both Online or Offline campaign strategies. Most often, it's considered to be the marketing of
goods and services over the Internet or any other electronic network (like a mobile phone or pda).
eCommerce marketing is commonly referred to as ecommerce optimization, online marketing, search
engine marketing, sem, search engine optimization, seo, catalog optimization, catalog seo, product seo,
merchant marketing and many more variations of those terms.

Beginning & Future of eCommerce Marketing:

eCommerce marketing began when the first shopping cart enabled sites started popping up all over the
Net. As competition in major markets such as consumer electronics, gifts, clothing or apparel and
outdoor goods started to grow so did the need for eCommerce marketing. Online retailers who first
began to market through the Internet saw huge potential for success Online and many of them saw
enormous profits all the way up until the dot com boom. Since the dot com boom, eCommerce
marketing has evolved into a whole new mix of strategies and techniques designed to increase exposure
from a multitude of channels to the eCommerce seller. Marketing professionals have spent countless
hours testing, experimenting and reporting on which strategies work and which seem to have no
positive effects. Now there are many different ways to market an eCommerce enabled site.

Marketing Strategies & Techniques:

eCommerce marketing today is typically made up of several creative or unique mixes of traditional and
new-age marketing strategies that can include techniques related to direct mail, email marketing, search
engine optimization, CPC or sponsored listings, building related links, establishing brand recognition and
social media marketing. There are many other ways to market an eCommerce store and new ways of
reaching out to potential customers are always being discovered and tested.

What are the Benefits of eCommerce Marketing?

The processes involved with marketing products on the Internet and increasing company or brand
recognition among consumer markets have several benefits to both Online shoppers and merchant
store owners. The biggest benefits of eCommerce marketing include less costs than print advertising,
helps build customer relationships, brand credibility and it costs less to get an eCommerce marketing
campaign running and operational.

Tax Breaks for Conducting Business Online:

It is common knowledge that conducting business Online has certain tax advantages compared to brick-
and-mortar selling. Many eCommerce merchants who qualify for such tax deductions may find that they
can save more in taxes than if they sold using traditional retail or a physical storefront. Home-based
eBusiness can deduct many of the same things traditional businesses can. Traditional businesses can
write-off utility, rent or mortgage bills as costs of doing business and Online merchants can also write-
off certain portions of utilities. Vehicles are another common deduction along with office equipment
and other time spent on setting up or running the business. Consider the tax benefits you could reap by
conducting business through eCommerce.

Cheaper than Print Advertising:

Many traditional businesses are used to more traditional marketing campaigns such as print and yellow
page advertising. Many traditional business owners are not aware that a majority of eCommerce
marketing strategies are far cheaper than any of the best Offline, print advertising methods that have
been used for years. Traditional advertising is still a quality form of marketing; however, it is not always
cost effective, especially for small businesses. Print advertising can get expensive as there may be a need
to update regularly, which requires new work be planned and generated. It is much quicker and more
cost effective to update and maintain eCommerce marketing campaigns, especially as technology
continues to improve. By conducting business Online and using the proven form of eCommerce
marketing, merchants have the potential to generate far more in ROI with less spend than they could
ever hope to expect from costly print advertising campaigns.
Interactive Ads or Marketing Campaigns:

Using advertising that engages potential customers is key in today’s fast paced, little time consumer
shopping space. One benefit to eCommerce marketing is the merchant’s ability to develop and improve
a number of interactive advertising or marketing campaigns designed to reach out and engage shoppers.
Videos, flash, presentations, graphics, moving animations. They can all be used as interactive devices to
help entice shoppers to drop in and shop around for the products or services offered. Interactive ads
and applications on the Web are predicted to reach new heights as technology improves.

Flexible Ad or Marketing Campaigns:

Many traditional marketing strategies are limited in what they can offer and what kind of flexibility each
initiative has. For instance, with print advertising there's only so much you can do, but with eCommerce
marketing there's literally no cap and no end to the flexibility of nearly any campaign. Merchants can
develop more creative marketing ideas and launch them using the power and assistance of the Web (for
both delivery and functionality). eCommerce marketing initiatives can be automated and are much more
flexible than many of the traditional marketing or advertising methods.

Builds Lasting Customer Relationships:

The relationships you form with shoppers and existing customers can very well determine the overall
success of any business, Online or off, however eBusinesses have a lot more tools, methods and means
of building long standing customer relationships than traditional businesses do. Technology and the
reach of the Web has made it easier for eCommerce merchants to form long lasting relationships. That,
combined with tools that make customer management and servicing more efficient, using up less time,
has also sparked more creative ways to market to customers Online. eCommerce marketing and
conducting business Online can have a direct influence on how customers view the overall brand or
product. If done correctly, it will help build lasting customer relationships, which in itself has benefits.

Helps Build Brand Credibility:

In many of the same ways eCommerce marketing helps to engage and get to know customers, it also has
benefits which may increase brand awareness and credibility among shoppers looking for what you sell.
With the ever-expanding list of Online marketing channels, it's getting easier for eCommerce merchants
to spread the word and saturate certain areas of the Web with their products and brand. As shoppers
scour the Web for information about a product that interests them they notice the companies and
brands that they see, many take note and store them away for next time. By utilizing the proper
marketing channels in your niche, you may very well find yourself building long standing credibility and
brand awareness among shoppers and existing customers. Better brand awareness and credibility also
helps to increase word of mouth buzz.

Gather Feedback from Customers:

Having a website that displays and offers products for sale is a great way to attract customers, make
money and grow a business, however many eCommerce merchants fail to see all the additional benefits
of running an eCommerce business like their ability to gather feedback about the site, brand or products
directly from customers or shoppers. eCommerce marketing initiatives aren't always about a promotion
or selling the product, some are meant to gather information or feedback from customers about how
the business can improve. Conducting business Online and offering polls, questionnaires and feedback
forms is a great way to get direct input from existing customers and even shoppers who haven't yet
purchased.

Conduct Cheap Market Research:

Many eCommerce merchants use their site, customers and competitors as a way to conduct market
research surrounding a particular product or one in which they hope to introduce in the future. It's
much easier to catch a glimpse into a particular selling market using the resources and data from Online
businesses, including your own. Trying to conduct market research for a brick and mortar store can be
difficult and may take much time to plan and execute. With the availability of data on the Web and
through the use of new technologies offered on the Web, eCommerce merchants are able to conduct
market or product research quickly, efficiently and without hassle.

Lower Startup Costs Increase Efficiency:

Many times it is much cheaper and takes less startup capital to open up an eCommerce business
compared to a retail store location or chain. Online business does not require as many of the ingredients
needed in business as a traditional business does. There's typically no permits, fewer licenses, no lease
to pay on, smaller utility bill, less or no employees to hire and no inventory to stock or manage on
shelves. By starting out the business with less investment capital or startup funds, it can help to increase
efficiency and leaves more funds available for actually marketing the brand or products.

Lower Startup Costs Increase Profitability:

As mentioned, it cost far less to startup an eCommerce business than a traditional retail business. For
many of the same reason that lower startup costs help to increase efficiency, they also help eCommerce
merchants to potentially increase profitability. Obviously, if it takes less of the bottom line to get things
up and running it will take less in return to generate a profit off of the eCommerce marketing tactics you
choose to use. As mentioned, eCommerce marketing is cheaper than traditional advertising, so if it costs
less to conduct business Online and costs less to market Online, than it will take less in return to actually
turn a profit, helping anyones chances for increased profitability.

Increases Growth or Opportunity Potential:

Marketing Online has the potential to increase store growth at a much quicker rate than traditional
marketing or retail business. eCommerce marketing can also generate more opportunities for any
business no matter the products you sell and potentially at a much quicker rate. Major media networks
may pick up on you via Online channels and report your business to consumers, while you may not have
ended up on their radar had you only sold offline. That's just one example; there are many more
opportunities and a much higher chance of early growth through conducting and marketing an
eCommerce business. The Online market offers a much fairer playing field and opens up doors that
otherwise might be closed off to a retailer. It allows nearly any business, no matter their size to grow
and have the same potential opportunities as larger sellers do.

Global Market Reach:

The World Wide Web spans across and reaches exactly that, the world. With the reach and technology
offered through eCommerce, merchants have the ability to target consumers anywhere in the world,
even smaller sections or local regions. eCommerce marketing initiatives can be deployed in a variety of
ways, but the reach may span globally, rather than only within a certain city or region. having this type
of reach opens up the possibility that customers can find the business from anywhere they reside and
buy from them without having to travel to another location. having global market reach means
potentially having customers world wide, without the limitations of traditional media or geographic
boundaries.

Potential to Market Any Product:

The internet constantly has millions of users searching for a vast number of different products or
services. If it exists, chances are there's at least a few people searching for it Online. eCommerce

marketing and selling Online allows merchants to target and reach these audiences, even on a limited
budget. This creates the potential for anyone to sell anything Online (assuming it's legal to sell).
Merchants can now offer niche items and market those items to the right individuals using creative and
innovative eCommerce marketing ideas.

Flexible Schedule or More Personal Time:

Running an Online business can be as time demanding and require just as much attention as a
traditional business, however it does give merchants the ability to maintain a flexible schedule and can
possibly even allow them more time away from the business to spend doing other things they love.
Having a schedule we control and personal time is something everyone desires. Conducting business
Online and marketing through the different channels the Internet provides finally gives more of us the
freedom we desire. As mentioned, it typically takes far less time to startup and launch an Online
business, however that doesn't necessarily mean it will take less time to manage. The time you save can
be used however you please.

Ability for Multiple Revenue Streams:

Once you have successfully launched and marketed one Online business you may wish to do it again
with another eCommerce business, or maybe you already have a full-time job and you run a successful
eBusiness on the side. Either way, by conducting business Online you open up all kinda of potential for
multiple revenue streams. May merchants have been able to successfully maintain their Online stores
while still working their 9 to 5 job. Others have opened a chain or multiple Online stores in order to
generate multiple streams of revenue. eCommerce marketing makes it easier to own and operate more
than one business or entity Online.

Streamlines Sales Process & Ad Copy:

eCommerce marketing and offering products for sale over the Internet can help businesses streamline
sales processes and advertising copy used within marketing campaigns. With more customers and a
greater reach it is easier for merchants to gain insights and feedback as to how marketing initiatives are
performing and whether or not each one is generating the desired ROI. Testing, experimenting and
rotating campaigns or ad copy can help businesses to improve and streamline many processes within
the store, from processes related to customers, sales or marketing.
Helps Promote Brick-and-Mortar Businesses:

So, what if you own a brick-and-mortar business already and you are thinking of expanding into
eCommerce? Don't think long, it's a great idea and the timing couldn't be more perfect. Many traditional
business owners are finding that by expanding their business model and marketing plans into the Online
space that they in turn get more exposure to their physical stores. eCommerce marketing initiatives
work great for promoting an offline business, however you still need an Online location for customers to
reference on the Web. In a perfect world all brick-and-mortars would also have a presence Online, but
it's simply not the case as of yet. Jumping into eCommerce

and using the power of Online marketing is a great way to promote and help grow a retail brickand-
mortar location.

Internet marketing, also referred to as online marketing is the fastest growing medium that is being
adopted by businesses worldwide as an effective website promotion tool. In the current economic
scenario marketing plans need to delivery higher returns more than ever before. Considering this,
optimized performance marketing has emerged as the way to go.

A rigorous exercise is needed in terms of:

 Business Analysis
 Goal assessment
 Geographical Research
 Targeted Advertisement
 Keyword Bunching
 Associating keywords with Ads
 Budget Capping
 Intensive Analysis of campaign through client center as well as Analytics for getting the best
Return on Investment (ROI)

E-commerce is the use of Internet and the web to transact business but when we focus on digitally
enabled commercial transactions between and among organizations and individuals involving
information systems under the control of the firm it takes the form of e-business. Nowadays, 'e' is
gaining momentum and most of the things if not everything is getting digitally enabled. Thus, it becomes
very important to clearly draw the line between different types of commerce or business integrated
with the 'e' factor.

There are mainly five types of e-commerce models:

1. Business to Consumer (B2C) - As the name suggests, it is the model involving businesses and
consumers. This is the most common e-commerce segment. In this model, online businesses sell to
individual consumers. When B2C started, it had a small share in the market but after 1995 its growth
was exponential. The basic concept behind this type is that the online retailers and marketers can sell
their products to the online consumer by using crystal clear data which is made available via various
online marketing tools. E.g. An online pharmacy giving free medical consultation and selling medicines
to patients is following B2C model.

2. Business to Business (B2B) - It is the largest form of e-commerce involving business of trillions of
dollars. In this form, the buyers and sellers are both business entities and do not involve an individual
consumer. It is like the manufacturer supplying goods to the retailer or wholesaler. E.g. Dell sells
computers and other related accessories online but it

is does not manufacture all those products. So, in order to sell those products, it first purchases them
from different businesses i.e. the manufacturers of those products.

3. Consumer to Consumer (C2C) - It facilitates the online transaction of goods or services between two
people. Though there is no visible intermediary involved but the parties cannot carry out the
transactions without the platform which is provided by the online market maker such as eBay.

4. Peer to Peer (P2P) - Though it is an e-commerce model but it is more than that. It is a technology in
itself which helps people to directly share computer files and computer resources without having to go
through a central web server. To use this, both sides need to install the required software so that they
can communicate on the common platform. This type of e-commerce has quite low revenue generation
as from the beginning it has been inclined to the free usage due to which it sometimes got entangled in
cyber laws.

5. m-Commerce - It refers to the use of mobile devices for conducting the transactions. The mobile
device holders can contact each other and can conduct the business. Even the web design and
development companies optimize the websites to be viewed correctly on mobile devices.

6. C2B - Consumer to Business : A consumer posts his project with a set budget online and within hours
companies review the consumer's requirements and bid on the project. The consumer reviews the bids
and selects the company that will complete the project. Elance empowers consumers around the world
by providing the meeting ground and platform for such transactions

C2B is a rather peculiar Internet phenomenon. An example of C2B e-commerce could be the following. A
student wants to fly from London to New York, but has only £200 ($320) in the bank to pay for this
round trip. They put up an ad in an Internet C2B site, seeking airlines that are willing to offer the
transatlantic round trip for £200 or less. The beauty of the Internet is that it brings together a large
number of customers to create a marketplace that a number of airlines (that will have to otherwise fly
with empty seats) will be interested in.

Many analysts state that C2B and C2C e-commerce will thrive in the near future. It is a challenging task,
however, to construct these e-commerce systems because of their diverse nature. The existing EC
construction tools, which usually focus on B2B and B2C ecommerce schemes, were designed for
constructing specific e-commerce systems, making them unsuitable for developing consumer-initiated e-
commerce systems. In this paper, we propose a trading model that supports C2B and C2C e-commerce
through the use of digital media called “vouchers” and the trading system “VTS”. We show how the
introduction of vouchers simplifies the procedures of C2B and C2C e-commerce, and show that
vouchers, together with VTS, can be utilized to form a trading framework that uniformly realizes the
delivery/payment phase. We demonstrate that a wide range of
matching phase implementations, in which the characteristics of specific e-commerce systems such as
market coordination are implemented, can be integrated into this framework.

There are other types of e-commerce business models too like Business to Employee (B2E), Government
to Business (G2B) and Government to Citizen (G2C) but in essence they are similar to the above
mentioned types. Moreover, it is not necessary that these models are dedicatedly followed in all the
online business types. It may be the case that a business is using all the models or only one of them or
some of them as per its needs.

SERQUAL or RATER is a service quality framework. SERVQUAL was developed in the mid-eighties by
Zeithaml, Parasuraman& Berry.

Concept

SERVQUAL was originally measured on 10 aspects of service quality: reliability, responsiveness,

competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security, understanding the customer and
tangibles. It measures the gap between customer expectations and experience. By the early nineties the
authors had refined the model to the useful acronym RATER:

• Reliability • Assurance • Tangibles • Empathy, and • Responsiveness

SERVQUAL has its detractors and is considered overly complex, subjective and statistically unreliable.
The simplified RATER model however is a simple and useful model for qualitatively exploring and
assessing customers' service experiences and has been used widely by service delivery organizations. It
is an efficient model in helping an organization shape up their efforts in bridging the gap between
perceived and expected service.

Nyeck, Morales, Ladhari, and Pons (2002) stated the SERVQUAL measuring tool “remains the most
complete attempt to conceptualize and measure service quality” (p. 101). The main benefit to the
SERVQUAL measuring tool is the ability of researchers to examine numerous service industries such as
healthcare, banking, financial services, and education (Nyeck, Morales, Ladhari, & Pons, 2002). The fact
that SERVQUAL has critics does not render the measuring tool moot. Rather, the criticism received
concerning SERVQUAL measuring tool may have more to do with how researchers use the tool. Nyeck,
Morales, Ladhari, and Pons (2002) reviewed 40 articles that made use of the SERVQUAL measuring tool
and discovered “that few researchers concern themselves with the validation of the measuring tool”
 IT Policy and Ethics

Internet censorship

Internet censorship is control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the

Internet. The legal issues are similar to offline censorship.

One difference is that national borders are more permeable online: residents of a country that bans
certain information can find it on websites hosted outside the country. A government can try to prevent
its citizens from viewing these even if it has no control over the websites themselves. Filtering can be
based on a blacklist or be dynamic. In the case of a blacklist, that list is usually not published. The list
may be produced manually or automatically.

Barring total control over Internet-connected computers, such as in North Korea, total censorship of
information on the Internet is very difficult (or impossible) to achieve due to the underlying distributed
technology of the Internet. Pseudonymity and data havens (such as Freenet) allow unconditional free
speech, as the technology guarantees that material cannot be removed and the author of any
information is impossible to link to a physical identity or organization.

In some cases, Internet censorship may involve deceit. In such cases the censoring authority may block
content while leading the public to believe that censorship has not been applied. This may be done by
having the ISP provide a fake "Not Found" error message upon the request of an Internet page that is
actually found but blocked (see 404 errors for details).

Copyright

Copyright is a set of exclusive rights granted to the author or creator of an original work, including the
right to copy, distribute and adapt the work. Copyright does not protect ideas, only their expression. In
most jurisdictions copyright arises upon fixation and does not need to be registered. Copyright owners
have the exclusive statutory right to exercise control over copying and other exploitation of the works
for a specific period of time, after which the work is said to enter the public domain. Uses covered under
limitations and exceptions to copyright, such as fair use, do not require permission from the copyright
owner. All other uses require permission. Copyright owners can license or permanently transfer or
assign their exclusive rights to others.

Initially copyright law only applied to the copying of books. Over time other uses such as translations
and derivative works were made subject to copyright. Copyright now covers a wide

range of works, including maps, sheet music, dramatic works, paintings, photographs, sound recordings,
motion pictures and computer programs.

Privacy law is the area of law concerned with the protection and preservation of the privacy rights of
individuals. Increasingly, governments and other public as well as private organizations collect vast
amounts of personal information about individuals for a variety of purposes. The law of privacy
regulates the type of information which may be collected and how this information may be used and
stored.
The scope of applicability of privacy laws is called expectation of privacy.

Privacy laws can be broadly classified into two categories: General and Specific

General privacy laws have an overall bearing on the personal information of individuals and affect the
policies that govern many different areas of information.

And Specific privacy laws

These laws are designed to regulate specific types of information. Some examples include:

 Health privacy laws

 Financial privacy laws
 Online privacy laws
 Communication privacy laws
 Information privacy laws
 Privacy in one's home

Hacking Commercialization

Hacking is the process of achieving access to a computer or computer network without legal
authorization. It is the most common activity amongst teenagers and young adults. Many hackers are
keen to learn about computers and consider hacking as an art. They want to build programs to display
their problem-solving skills and not to harm others.

A hacker first tries their skills on easy targets and then after successful professional attacks on more
secured sites. Their goal is to have complete access on any computer so that they can delete, edit or
comply any files or directory and also can install any program.

Computer hackers are employed by many companies to get complete access on the computer so that
they can delete, edit, copy any file or install as their technical staff. These hackers use their skills to find
faults in company’s security system so that it can be repaired quickly. Sometimes hacking also prevents
serious identity related crimes.

It is an offence if hackers steal private information or changes some financial or personal data. All the
types of unauthorized access can lead the hacker towards the prison for 20 years.

One way of hacking is to get a copy of password file which stores all usernames and password in
encrypted form or they can also use brute-force attack trying all the possible combinations of letters.
Hacking is also done by emailing a program to anyone that runs automatically when clicked on some link
or attachment. In this way you can install a program on a computer that can give you access of that
computer. Another method of hacking is IP spoofing. IP spoofing is the creation of internet protocol
packets with the fake IP address in order to conceal the identity of the sender.

To protect your computer from hacking, you should install firewalls or other antivirus programs on the
computer and also check for the updating of the machine at regular intervals.