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P. Cobbold
Centre Armoricain d'Etude Structurale des Socles, Université de Rennes, 35042 Rennes, France
ABSTRACT
Figure 1. Schematic map of Cenozoic extrusion tectonics and large faults in eastern Asia. Heavy lines = major faults or plate boundaries; thin
lines = less important faults. Open barbs indicate subduction; solid barbs indicate intracontinental thrusts. White arrows represent qualitatively
major block motions with respect to Siberia (rotations are not represented). Black arrows indicate direction of extrusion-related extension.
Numbers refer to extrusion phases: 1 = 5 0 to 20 m.y. B.P.; 2 = 20 to 0 m.y. B.P.; 3 = most recent and future. Arrows on faults in western Malaysia,
Gulf of Thailand, and southwestern China Sea (earliest extrusion phase) do not correspond to present-day motions.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP A N D vertical Perspex plates on both sides. In the plasticine and to repeat itself in some ways
D E F O R M A B L E MATERIAL asymmetrical experiments, the free side lies (E in Figs. 2 and 3); a second extrusion
A rectangular block of deformable mate- initially 5 cm away from the right tip of the phase develops along a second major fault
rial is placed in a transparent plastic (Pers- indenter. Figure 2 shows three successive (F2) which allows large displacements to
pex) box 11 cm high and 30 cm square. stages of deformation observed in the plas- the right and clockwise rotation of a
Plane horizontal strain is maintained by ticine for increasing amounts of penetra- second block, analogous in size to the first
two Perspex plates, which bound the lower tion of the indenter. In both experiments, one (E in Figs. 2 and 3). Faults active dur-
and upper surfaces of the block and are the indenter displacements at each stage ing the first extrusion phase essentially
lubricated with talc powder. This assembly were about (1.2 cm (A and D), 3.5 cm (B stop, and some (notably the left segment of
rests in a larger one, which keeps the and E), and 6.3 cm (C and F). Deforma- F | ) are deformed during the second phase.
temperature constant (25 ± 1 °C). The tions are concentrated along narrow shear The rotation of the first block continues to
deformable block itself is composed of ver- zones or faults, which appear rapidly, a m a x i m u m of 40° (F in Figs. 2 and 3).
tical layers, 5 mm thick, of homogeneous approximately parallel to planes of maxi- In unilaterally confined experiments,
plasticine welded together with trichloroe- mum shear stress (instantaneous "slip there exists no steady-state dead triangle
thane. By using alternating yellow and lines"). The geometry, kinematics, and evo- (D, E, F in Figs. 2 and 3). Thus, the left
violet layers of plasticine (Cobbold, 1975), lution of these faults have a profound extremities of F | and F2 migrate and bend
one can make accurate measurements of influence on the displacement field (Figs. 2, progressively against the front edge of the
fault displacements and ductile strains and 3). As found in numerical solutions (Daig- indenter. Numerous gaps, akin to pull-
test the vertical invariance of the deforma- nieres and others, 1978), the influence of aparts along strike-slip faults in the earth,
tion. Standard Harbutt plasticine exhibits the free lateral boundary changes the open along the left-lateral faults to the
little strain hardening and closely follows deformation pattern in a drastic manner. right (E, F in Figs. 2 and 3). The largest
the Von Mises yielding criterion. Its In the bilaterally confined experiments, ones form along F] and F2, near the free
steady-state rheology can be described by a the deformation fluctuates in a pattern that edge. Fi terminates into a particularly
power-flow law of the type t = Kan, where keeps an overall symmetry, and right- spectacular wedge-shaped gap (E and F in
n -7.5 at 25 ° C (McClay, 1976). The yield lateral and left-lateral faults play balancing Fig. 3) whose opening results f r o m the
stress is about 105 Pa for strain rates on roles. The triangular region in front of the rotation of the first extruded block. The
the order of 10"7 s"' (Daignieres, 1975). indenter soon "freezes" ("dead triangle") kinematics of the experiment require the
The indenter (5 cm wide) can be and becomes welded to and moves along progressive widening of another wedge-
advanced at a constant rate (2.5 c m / h here) with the indenter. Hence, during most of shaped gap between the right side of the
in a given direction by means of a screw- the experiment, the largest displacements indenter and the extruded plasticine (E, F
jack coupled to a stepping motor. For sim- occur along the sides of this triangle (F and in Figs. 2 and 3).
ple geometric and kinematic comparisons F \ Fig. 3, B, C). As the indenter penetrates
with the collision between India and Asia farther into the plasticine, new faults, TERTIARY TECTONIC EVOLUTION
(== 5 c m / y r of convergence along a colli- alternately left-lateral and right-lateral, OF CENTRAL A N D EASTERN ASIA
sion front of = 2,000 km), the scale factors successively form near the apex of the tri- Interpretations of natural tectonic situa-
(ratios between homologous quantities in angle (Fig. 2); cumulative offsets along tions with the help of model experiments
model and natural prototype) are them seldom exceed about 10 mm (Fig. 3). must be done with great caution. Plane
= 2.5 x 10"* for length, Kx - 5.7 x 10"12 The faults die out a few centimetres away horizontal strain experiments focus atten-
for time, and K s - K s • K,'* = 4.4 x | 0 3 for from the indenter. tion on strike-slip faulting to the exclusion
velocities. If gravitational and inertial for- In the unilaterally confined experiments, of equally important tectonic processes
ces were negligible with respect to surface deformation quickly becomes asymmetri- such as thrust faulting (Tapponnier and
forces, we would be justified in choosing cal; predictably, faults that allow displace- Molnar, 1976). The influence of aniso-
two of these scale factors independently of ments toward the free side take the leading tropic layering on the deformation of
one another. part. In particular, the left-lateral fault that plasticine is not easy to assess. More
originates at the left tip of the indenter (F) important, it is still difficult to scale mate-
EFFECTS OF THE FREE LATERAL in Fig. 3) grows and curves out to join one rial properties, partly because of our ignor-
B O U N D A R Y CONDITION IN of the inherent discontinuities of the model ance of the long-term average mechanical
PLANE STRAIN (an interface between two layers of plasti- behavior of the continental crust and
The asymmetry of collisional deforma- cine), along which it propagates to the free lithosphere. If one merely looks at geomet-
tions in Asia (Fig. 1) suggests that conti- surface. Thereafter, it becomes predomi- ric and kinematic aspects, however, the
nental lithosphere in western Eurasia offers nant and guides the extrusion and rotation resemblance between Figure 1 and Figure
more resistance to lateral motions than do of a block of plasticine whose size depends 3F (Peltzer and others, 1982) warrants
subduction zones along the Pacific and on the indenter width and on the distance attention.
Indonesian margins (Molnar and Tappon- to the free side. Maximum offsets along First, whereas left-lateral offsets along
nier, 1975; Tapponnier and Molnar, 1977, this fault can reach 25 to 35 mm (over the large strike-slip faults of central China
1979). The first goal of our study was thus twice the maximum offsets observed along may reach several hundred kilometres
to test this hypothesis in the situation of a faults in the symmetrical experiment, F (Tapponnier and Molnar, 1977), right-
free lateral boundary. The results of this and F' excepted). The extruded block lateral offsets along the smaller strike-slip
experiment (D, E, F in Figs. 2 and 3) are rotates about 25° clockwise almost rigidly. faults of the Tien Shan and Altai d o not
compared with those of a symmetrical As in the symmetrical experiment, increas- exceed tens of kilometres (Tapponnier and
experiment (A, B, C in Figs. 2 and 3) ing penetration of the indenter causes the Molnar, 1979) (Fig. 1). Orders of magni-
where the plasticine block is confined by deformation to migrate farther into the tude of offsets on corresponding faults in
strike-slip faults of s o u t h e r n Y u n n a n and Not only can the boundary forces Burma: American Association of Petroleum
eastern B u r m a then become compatible involved in continental collision activate Geologists Bulletin, v. 29, p. 189-198.
.Daignières, P.; .1,975, Mise en forme des métaux
with extrusion a l o n g the R e d River fault, great overthrusts and large strike-slip'faultS
et des alliages; les méthodes expérimentales:
while those of faults in northeastern and that develop rifts near their distal extremi- Ecole d'Eté de Métallurgie Physique de Vil-
peninsular Thailand suggest an earlier, ties, but they can give birth, t h r o u g h the lars sur Ollon, Centre National de la
limited, extrusion phase (Fig. 1). At the ultimate evolution of these rifts, to fully Recherche Scientifique, v. 13, p. 225-231.
onset of collision, in a failed attempt to grown marginal ocean basins, sometimes Daignières, M., Frémond, M., and Friaa, A.,
1978, Modèle du type Norton-Hoff généra-
separate t h e s o u t h e r n part of the S u n d a active for a short time. O n e w o n d e r s h o w
lisé pour l'étude des déformations lithosphé-
shelf f r o m m a i n l a n d Indochina, this phase slab pull and ridge push can be t h e m a i n riques (exemple: la collision Himalayenne):
m a y have shaped the M a l a y Peninsula, and sources of such long-lasting forces. Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus,
created, as pull-aparts and rifts, the Ter- v. 286, p. 371-374.
U n i f o r m i t a r i a n theory states that "the
Hamilton, W., 1979, Tectonics of the Indonesian
tiary basins of the Gulf of Thailand and :he present is the key to the past." Yet, e x t r a p - region: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
southwestern C h i n a Sea ( H a m i l t o n , 1979). olation of present-day m o t i o n to the past Paper 1078, 345 p.
A l t h o u g h reversal of the sense of m o t i o n must be d o n e with caution since large Holloway, N., 1981, The North Palawan block,
on early left-lateral faults a p p e a r s to have strike-slip faults, such as the Red River Philippines: Its relation to the Asian main-
land and its role in the evolution of the
occurred in southeast Asia, it has not been fault, can change sense d u r i n g continental
South China Sea: Geological Society of
detected so far in o u r experiments. The collision. O n the other h a n d , because we Malaysia Bulletin, v. 14, p. 19-58.
most o u t s t a n d i n g illustration is t h e Red m a y be looking, in Asia, at successive McClay, K., 1976, The rheology of plasticine:
River fault, now clearly right-lateral (Tap- stages of an extrusion process that repeats Tectonophysics, v. 33, p. T7-T15.
p o n n i e r - a n d M o l n a r , 1977). P e r h a p s this is itself in time, the past may be used as a key Mitchell, A., and McKerrow, W., 1975, Analo-
because of the m o r e c o m p l e x b o u n d a r y to the present and future: the o p e n i n g of gous evolution of the Burma orogen and the
Scottish Caledonides: Geological Society of
c o n d i t i o n s in Asia; incipient collision with the A n d a m a n and S o u t h C h i n a Seas
America Bulletin, v. 86, p. 305-315.
Australia m a y now resist s o u t h e a s t w a r d strongly s u p p o r t s the idea that t h e Shansi, Molnar, P., and Tapponnier, P., 1975, Cenozoic
m o t i o n of Indonesia, or India and Indo- Baikal, and Y u n n a n rifts are pure colli- tectonics of Asia: Effects of a continental
china m a y n o w be welded by m o r e exten- sional effects, and may themselves evolve collision: Science, v. 189, p. 419-426.
sive collision a l o n g the ( n d o - B u r m a n into ocean basins if India does not c o m e to 1981, A possible dependence of tectonic
strength on the age of the crust in Asia:
ranges. In any event, right-lateral faulting a halt. O u r experiments suggest that this
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 52,
on the Red River fault and rifting in Yun- can occur even without any driving action p. 107-114.
n a n can be viewed as consequences of the by the asthenosphere immediately Peltzer, G., Tapponnier, P., and Cobbold, P.,
present extrusion phase. M o r e o v e r , the underneath. 1982, Les grands décrochements de l'Est
Asiatique, évolution dans le temps et com-
Y u n n a n rifts m a y c o r r e s p o n d to an incip- Faulting may be the dominant mode of paraison avec un modèle expérimental:
ient a n a l o g of the A n d a m a n - M e r g u i basin deformation of the continental lithosphere. Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus,
(Fig. 1). In m a n y respects, fault propagation recon- v. 294, p. 1341-1348.
Tapponnier, P., and Molnar, P., 1976, Slip-line
Eventually, continental e x t r u s i o n could ciles intracontinental deformation and
field theory and large scale continental tec-
migrate f a r t h e r n o r t h . If identified with the plate tectonics. After a diffuse stage of tonics: Nature, v. 264, p. 319-324.
n o r t h e r n Pamirs, the n o r t h w e s t e r n tip of semicontinuous d e f o r m a t i o n , where t h e 1977, Active faulting and cenozoic tectonics
the Indian indenter already lies a few lithosphere of the collided c o n t i n e n t looks of China: Journal of Geophysical Research,
h u n d r e d kilometres n o r t h of the western for an easy escape, one m a j o r strike-slip v. 82, p. 2905-2930.
and rift system, using all convenient litho- 1979, Active faulting and Cenozoic tecton-
extremity of the Altyn T a g h fault (Fig. I).
ics of the Tien Shan, Mongolia, and Baikal
C o m p a r i s o n s with advanced stages of the spheric weaknesses it e n c o u n t e r s , p r o p a - regions: Journal of Geophysical Research,
unilaterally confined experiment suggest gates to a steady-state " f r e e " plate v. 84, p. 3425-3459.
that if India continues its n o r t h w a r d j o u r - b o u n d a r y (for example, a s u b d u c t i o n Tapponnier, P., Mattauer, M., Proust, F., and
ney into the Asian continent, a third m a j o r zone). W h e n it reaches this b o u n d a r y , plate Cassaigneau, C., 1981, Mesozoic ophiolites,
sutures, and large-scale tectonic movements
left-lateral strike-slip fault system should tectonics wins again: a large lithospheric
in Afghanistan: Earth and Planetary
p r o p a g a t e to the Sea of O k h o t s k , connect- block is e x t r u d e d and allowed to m a i n t a i n Science Letters, v. 52, p. 355-371.
ing faults in the Tien S h a n , M o n g o l i a , a n d rigidity, except in and near t h e region Taylor, B., and Hayes, D., 1980, The tectonic
Baikal (Fig. 1). where collision forces drive its m o t i o n . evolution of the South China Sea, in Hayes,
Thus, not only paleomagnetism, microtec- D. E., ed., The tectonic and geologic evolu-
tion of southeast Asian seas and islands:
GEODYNAMIC IMPLICATIONS tonics, and stratigraphy but also plate American Geophysical Union Geophysical
It is i m p o r t a n t that the experiment used kinematics should help us test q u a n t i t a - Monograph 23, 326 p.
here as a guide be simple. Physical and tively the story presented here.
geometric f a c t o r s that m a k e it successful ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
are plane-strain i n d e n t a t i o n " n e a r " a free REFERENCES CITED Supported by the Institut National d'Astron-
lateral b o u n d a r y , the development of faults Academia Sinica, 1971, Geologic map of China: omie et de Géophysique. We thank Jason Mor-
Beijing, scale 1:4,000,000. gan, Vincent Courtillot, and Jean Francheteau
in d e f o r m i n g plasticine, and the anisotropic for reading and improving the original manu-
Cobbold, P., 1975, A biaxial press for model
layering that has c o u n t e r p a r t s in Asia in script, and Ted Madden for additional helpful
deformation and rheological tests: Tectono-
the f o r m of initially a p p r o x i m a t e l y physics, v. 26, p. T I - T 5 . suggestions. Institut de Physique du Globe Con-
s o u t h e a s t - t r e n d i n g Paleozoic and Mesozoic Courtillot, v., 1980, Opening of the Gulf of tribution No. 585.
sutures. If grossly correct, the interpreta- Aden and Afar by progressive tearing:
tion we present inflates the effects of Physics of the Earth and Planetary Inte- Manuscript received May 18, 1982
riors, v. 21, p. 343-350. Revised manuscript received July 27, 1982
India's collision with Asia by a f a c t o r of
Curray, J., Moore, D., Lawyer, L., Emmel, F., Manuscript accepted August 2, 1982
p e r h a p s two, and its g e o d y n a m i c implica- Raitt, R., Henry, M., and Kieckhefer, R.,
tions should not be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . 1978, Tectonics of the A n d a m a n Sea and
Geology
Geology 1982;10;611-616
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<611:PETIAN>2.0.CO;2
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Notes