Word Roots and Combining Forms
 Retraction: movement that brings part of the body Muscles of the back

body Muscles of the back and buttocks include:


- muscul/o: muscle
 backward
 1. trapezius

- my/o: muscle
 Lateral excursion: movement of the jaw laterally to 2. latissimus dorsi

- sarc/o: flesh
 either side
 3. erector spinae

- sthen/o: strength
 Medial excursion: movement of the jaw back to the 4. gluteus maximus


 midline
 5. gluteus medius

Major Organs and Structures:
 Dorsiflexion: position of standing on the heels with 

Muscles
 the toes pointing up off the floor
 Muscles of the arm include:

Accessory Structures:
 Plantar flexion: position of standing on tiptoes with 1. deltoid

Tendons
 the heels off the floor
 2. biceps brachii

Functions:
 Inversion: position in which the soles of the feet are 3. triceps brachii

movement, stability, control of body openings, and together, facing each other
 4. brachialis

passages, communication, heat production 
 Eversion: position in which the soles of the feet 5. brachioradialis


 point away from each other
 

Anatomical Terms
 Rotation: the act of spinning on an axis
 Muscles of the forearm include:

- Terms such as origin and insertion are used to Circumduction: the act of making a circle with part 1. extensor carpi radialis

indicate muscle attachments.
 of the body
 2. extensor carpi ulnaris

Intrinsic muscle: Refers to a muscle having its Supination: rotation that turns the palms up
 3. palmaris longus

origin and insertion located in the same body region
 Pronation: rotation that turns the palms down
 4. flexor carpi radialis

Extrinsic muscle: Refers to a muscle having its Opposition: the act of bringing the thumb to the 5. flexor carpi ulnaris

origin in a different body region and the insertion
 palm
 6. extensor digitorum

Fixator: a muscle that holds an origin stable for Reposition: the act of taking the thumb away from 7. flexor digitorum

another muscle.
 the palm
 

Synergists: muscles that have the same action.
 Elevation: the act of closing the jaw or raising the Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Prime mover: the main muscle of the synergists shoulders
 - Prolonged repetitive motions of the fingers and
that performs the action.
 Depression: the act of opening the jaw or lowering hands, such as typing on a computer keyboard or
Antagonist: a muscle that has an opposing action the shoulders
 regularly working with hand tools, can cause
Muscles by Region
 inflammation of the tendons traveling under the
Muscle Actions
 - Muscles of the head and neck include:
 carpal ligament.

- Muscle actions are the motions produced by 1. orbicularis oris
 

muscles.
 2. orbicularis oculi
 Muscles of the thigh include:

Flexion: action that bends a part of the body 3. frontalis
 1. tensor fasciae latae 

anteriorly, such as flexing the elbow.
 4. occipitalis
 2. gracilis

- The exception is the knee. Flexion of the 5. temporalis
 3. adductor longus

knee moves the lower leg posteriorly. 6. buccinator
 4. pectineus

7. masseter
 5. iliacus

Extension: action that bends a part of the body 8. platysma
 6. iliopsoas

posteriorly, such as straightening the arm at the 9. sternocleidomastoid
 7. psoas major

elbow.
 Muscles of the thorax and abdomen:
 8. sartorius

- As with flexion, the exception is the knee. 1. pectoralis major
 9. rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis,
Extending the knee straightens the lower 2. pectoralis minor
 and vastus intermedius: quadriceps femoris

leg.
 3. serratus anterior
 10. biceps femoris, semitendinosus and
Abduction: movement of a part of the body away 4. diaphragm
 semimembrinosus: hamstrings

from the midline
 5. external intercostals 
 

Adduction: movement of a part of the body toward 6. internal intercostals 
 Muscles of the leg include:

the midline
 7. external abdominal obliques
 1. gastrocnemius

Protraction: movement that brings part of the body 8. internal abdominal obliques
 2. soleus

forward
 9. rectus abdominis
 3. peroneus/fibularis

10. transverse abdominal 4. tibialis anterior

ANATOMY OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE
 the biceps brachii contracts to flex the arm, the • A motor unit is a single nerve cell and all of the
- A muscle has a fibrous covering called the triceps brachii needs to stretch to accommodate the muscle cells it stimulates.
epimysium
 motion. Muscles are stretched by the contraction of
- A muscle is composed of a bundle of fascicles.
 other muscles.
 • Small motor units are needed for fine, precise
- Each fascicle is surrounded by 5. Elasticity. If a muscle cell is stretched, it will movements.
perimysium.
 return to its original shape.

- A fascicle is composed of muscle cells 
 • Getting more motor units involved is recruitment.
(muscle fibers) surrounded by Neuromuscular Junction

endomysium.
 - Stimulation of a muscle cell by a nerve happens at a • More and more motor units can be recruited to
The connective tissues of the muscle come together neuromuscular junction.
 achieve a larger motion.
at the end of the muscle cell, or fiber, to form a - Generically referred to as a synapse

tendon.
 - An electrical stimulation along the nerve cell results Isotonic and Isometric Contractions
ANATOMY OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE CELL
 in the release of acetylcholine.

- Sarcolemma is the plasma membrane.
 - Acetylcholine fits into receptors on the muscle cell to • In an isotonic contraction, tension in the
- The sarcoplasmic reticulum is the name given to the stimulate it to contract. 

muscle remains constant as the muscle shortens.
smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a muscle cell.
 - A minimal amount of stimulus called a threshold is
* Stores calcium (Ca2+) ions
 needed for the muscle to respond.

• In an isometric contraction, tension in the
- A muscle cell is composed of myofibrils.
 - As long as the threshold is reached, the muscle cell
muscle increases, but there is no shortening of the
- Each myofibril is composed of thick and thin will contract in an all-or-nothing manner.

muscle.
myofilaments arranged in sarcomeres.
 

- Thick and thin myofilaments are composed of Muscle Contraction at the Molecular Level

protein molecules.
 - The sliding filament theory of muscle contraction Levers
- Each myofibril consists of repeating contractile units involves thick myofilaments grabbing thin
called sarcomeres.
 myofilaments and pulling them toward the center of • Muscles move bones in lever systems.
- Sarcomere extends from Z line to Z line.
 the sarcomere.

- Actin filaments are attached to Z lines and - As all of the sarcomeres are shortened, so too is the • There are three parts to a lever system:
extend towards center of sarcomere but do muscle cell.

not meet.
 - Energy contained in ATP is needed for the Resistance is a weight to be lifted.

- Myosin filaments reside in the A band and contraction to happen and to actively transport Effort is the force applied to lift the weight. In
do not contact the Z lines.
 calcium ions back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum so a muscle system, the effort is the insertion of
Thick myofilament
 that the muscle can relax. the muscle.

- Myosin subunits look like a doubleheader Fulcrum is a pivot point on the lever that
golf club.
 Types of Muscle Contractions does not move. In muscle lever systems, the
- Head is referred to as a cross-bridge.
 fulcrum is a joint.
Thin myofilament
 • A twitch is a contraction of a muscle cell in
- Actin subunits make up a double chain of response to a single nerve stimulus. • Lever systems are classified as first, second, or
beads twisted together.
 third class on the basis of the location of the
- Tropomyosin is a thread that holds the • A twitch has a latent phase, contraction phase, fulcrum, effort, and resistance.
actin chained together.
 relaxation phase, and refractory phase.
- Troponin is a calcium regulatory molecule.
 • Most levers in the human body are third-class
Physiology of the Muscular System 
 • Tetany is a sustained contraction due to repetitive levers.

Physiological Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
 nerve signals.
1. Excitability. A muscle cell can be stimulated by a
nerve to contract.
 • It is the frequency of the nerve impulses that Muscle Metabolism
2. Conductivity. The stimulation from the nerve
determines whether the contraction will be a twitch
moves quickly along the length of the muscle cell.
 • Muscle cells can do either aerobic or anaerobic
or tetany.

3. Contractility. A muscle cell can shorten with respiration to process energy.
Motor Units and Recruitment
force. Muscles can only pull; they cannot push

4. Extensibility. A muscle cell can be stretched. If
 • Aerobic respiration is a many-step process that production, and are associated with bones, skin, and 5. Heat production 

produces enough energy to generate 36 ATP body openings.
 - Muscles provide body heat
molecules for every glucose molecule, but requires 2. Cardiac muscle tissue is composed of branched,
the addition of oxygen. It occurs in the striated cells with a single nucleus and junctions Effects of Aging on the Muscular System 

mitochondria of cells. between cells called intercalated disks. 
 1. Lean muscle mass decreases with age.

- The cells are autorhythmic, rely on aerobic 2. The amount of loss is genetically determined.

Creatine phosphate
 respiration for energy production, and are located in 3. Fast-twitch fibers are more affected than slow-
- Storage form of readily available energy
 the heart.
 twitch fibers.

* Stores energy from excess ATP 
 3. Smooth muscle tissue is composed of spindle- 

- Formed by aerobic respiration when muscle is shaped cells with a single nucleus. 
 The effects of decreased muscle mass include the
resting
 - The cells are not under voluntary control, following: 

- Energy transferred back to ADP when ATP levels rely on aerobic respiration for energy production, and 1. strength is decreased

decrease
 are located in the walls of blood vessels and hollow 2. fatigue occurs more quickly

- Depleted quickly in rapidly contracting muscle organs.
 3. stability is reduced

Nutritional Requirements of Muscle Tissue
 4. movement slows and becomes more limited

• Anaerobic respiration is a shorter process that - Muscle tissue must maintain the proteins needed for 5. gait shortens
produces enough energy to generate 2 ATP contraction. Therefore, amino acids, the building
blocks of proteins, must be included in the diet.
 Exercise is the best way to limit the effects of aging.

molecules per glucose molecule and does not
- The body can make nonessential amino acids.
 

require oxygen.
- Essential amino acids must be supplied through the Diagnostic Test for Muscular System Disorders

diet.
 - Electromyography (EMG) can be used in various
• Anaerobic respiration results in lactic acid, which
Complete proteins have all of the amino ways to determine pathological conditions associated
must be removed by adding oxygen. with muscular dysfunction.

acids.

Incomplete proteins are missing one or - An EMG assesses the health of muscles by testing
• Aerobic respiration can be done for long periods of how a muscle responds to electric stimuli.

time, while anaerobic respiration can be done only more essential amino acids.

The mineral potassium is also needed for proper 

for short periods of time. Muscular System Disorders 

muscle function.

Functions of the Muscular System 1. Hernia is the protrusion of viscera through the
Fatigue
 muscle of the abdominal wall.

- Fatigue is the inability of a muscle to fully respond 2. Cramp is a painful muscle spasm that may have
to a nerve stimulus.
 1. Movement

many causes.

Physiological contracture is complete fatigue - A gradual recruitment of additional motor units
3. Muscular Dystrophy is a term for a group of
in which the muscle appears to be stuck. It makes a smooth contraction.
hereditary disorders that result in the progressive
can no longer contract or relax.
 degeneration of muscle tissue.

- Fatigue can result from the buildup of lactic acid, the 2. Stability 

4. Sprains are ligament tears.

lack of acetylcholine, or the lack of glucose.
 - Some of the motor units in the trapezius muscle
5. Muscle strain is a tear in a muscle from overuse
The amount of oxygen needed to remove are taking turns in isometric contractions to
or overstretching.

the lactic acid is called oxygen debt.
 maintain the stability of the head. 

6. Myalgia refers to muscle pain.

Slow-twitch fibers are specialized for aerobic - This is called muscle tone. A person’s posture is
7. Fibromyalgia involves myalgia, fatigue, and pain
respiration, so they do not fatigue quickly.
 the result of muscle tone.
in soft tissues, tendons, and ligaments.

Fast-twitch fibers are specialized for anaerobic 3. Control of body openings and passages 
 8. Tendinitis is tendon inflammation resulting from
respiration and therefore fatigue quickly. - Urinary and anal sphincters are under a person’s injury, overuse, or aging.

voluntary control. 9. Atrophy is a decrease in muscle size due to a
Comparison of Muscle Tissues
 decrease in muscle tissue.

1. Skeletal muscle tissue is composed of long, 4. Communication 
 10. Shin splints refer to pain along the anterior,
striated cells with multiple nuclei pushed off to the - Facial muscles can be used to communicate. 
 lower leg commonly occurring after physical activity.
side. 
 - Muscles in the throat, jaw, tongue, and
- The cells are under voluntary control, rely diaphragm are used to communicate through
on aerobic or anaerobic respiration for energy speech.