Unit 6
Bipolar iunction
transistors (BJTs)
6.1 Development
The introduction of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
wa! one of the most startling developments in the history
of electronics-and possibly the one with the most far
reaching significance. The hrst practical transistor was
developed in the Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1948;
its invention is credited to three physicists: John Bardeen,
Walter Brattain, and William Shockley. The development
came about from investigations they were making into
the physics of the semiconductor diode. The name
transistor was coined from the two words 'transfer' and
'resistor'.
The term bipolnr comes from the fact that in BJTs
the current is carried by both electrons andholes, which
are negative and positive current carriers. This addition
to the name transistor was necessary because other types
of transistors have since been developed which utilise
only one type of current carrier.
From the first BJT transistor has developed the huge
array of controlled semiconductor devices which may
be grouped under the generic title solid state electronic
devices.
6.2 The three layer device
PN junction diodes are composed of two layers, one of
P-type material and the other of N-type-m_aterial, and
so may be termed two-layer devices. The BJT, however,
is made tp of three layers of semiconductor material-
Fig. 6,2 A rangeo/BJTs lor various applications. The-upper group are for_generalpurposes, from 0.1 to 1 watt. The central
trequency poweia^p,tiiicatidi with outputs troi s t6 1oo watts. The lower
150 WATTS PHILIPS ELECTBICAL COMPONENIS AND MATERIALS
40
tr€a?!!rrijl
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dePletion layers
Fig. 6.1 Representation of a PNP btpolar iunction transrstor
both,outer layers being of a different type to the centre
laver.
' t'tre BJT may be of two types, PNP or NPN,
depending on the material layer arrangement. A further
variationls that they may be made of either germanium
or silicon, but the former type is now virtually obsolete'
The type of construction depends upon: the use to which
ttre B-lT will be put; the type of basic semiconductor
element; and the circuit polarity in which it is to be used'
The PNP type can be constructed as in Figure 6.1: this
construction is similar to the diode of Figure 2-2, with
the exception that now there are two junctions, each
producing a depletion laYer.
^ Manv methods of manufacture will produce the three-
laver construction, but whatever method is used the
operation of the device is similar. The actual dimensions
oi the three layers is very much smaller than the
representation in Figure 6. 1. In practice the centre section
is made as thin as possible, and dimensions in the order
of 0.05 millimetre are usual. The two outer layers are
also kept relatively thin but usually have a larger
dimension of thickness than the centre; one of these outer
regions is made of a lower resistivity than the other'
r*
'!
group are for radio
group are power control devlces wlth disstpafions up to

Unit 6 Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
6.3 Base, emitter and collector
Whereas in the PN diode the two sections were named
anode and cathode, the three sections of the BJT have
different names. The thin centre section is referred to
as the basq the end section with the lower resistivity
is termed the collzcton and the other end is the emitter.
Leads are attached to each of these sections and the
complete unit is encapsulated in one of a number of
standard body types, some of which are illustrated in
Figure 6.2.lt does not matter whether the BJT is an
NPN or PNP type: the three sections are given the same
name regardless.
The graphic symbols for NPN and PNP BJTs,
together with the layer construction alongside, are
illustrated in Figure 6.3. Note that the arrow is always
the emitter no matter in what direction the arrow is placed.
The arrow indicates the direction ofconventional current
flow (positive to negative) in normal operation. The
graphic symbols may be mirror reversed or oriented in
any direction without changing their validity.
tc
I I
lc
JA q- H
-q.
r
B
-+
\5/
PNP
IE
IlE NPN
Fig. 6.3 BJT symbols
6.4 BJT operation-current paths
The BJT could be said to be two diodes joined together
(Fig. 6.4), as there is a PN junction joined to an NP
junction. Considering the PNP BJT, the emitter may be
considered the anode, and the base the cathode, of the
emitter-base junction. Then the base is the cathode, and
the collector the anode, of the base-collector junction.
(For an NPN BJT the roles of the cathode and anode
are reversed.) It must,'however, be emphasised that two
diodes connected in this way will not act as a BJT.
I PNP
Fig. 6.4 The two junctions ol a BJT may be considered to be two diodes
___@{
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-
- . ,#6.,*d&{dilJ
41
If an NPN BJT is connected to a supply as in Figure
6.5, it will be found that with only the Vs6 supply con-
nected no current can flow. since the collector-base
junction is reverse biased. When the Vss supply is
connected as well, by closing switch S, it will forward
bias the base-emitter junction, and current will not only
flow from the base to the emitter but also from the
collector to the emitter. This is known as transistor actbn.
The current distribution in the circuit of Figure 6.5
may be expressed as an equation determined by
Kirchhoffs current law:
IE:IB+Ic (6.1)
where Is is emitter culrent,
/s is base current,
16 is collector current.
By measurement it may be determined that the value
of /s is very small in relation to 16 and /6, So on
approximation may be made:
IE =lc (6.2)
tc
6.5 Theory of operation
In many courses the theory of operation of the BJT is
not discussed as it is really not essential for the
understanding of its use. However, for those who feel
HI this is necessary, this section has been included in the
book.
rE Reconsider the circuit of Figure 6.5. Here the col-
lector-base junction is revene biased, using a 6 volt battery,
and the emitter-base junction forward biased, using a
1.5 volt battery" In the emitter-base circuit, a series resistor
and rheostat are included to limit and control the current.
If switch S is opened, the current in the collector-base
circuit (reverse or leakage current) is found to be very
small, as could be expected (it may be in the order of,
say, 5 microamperes). At this point, note that the current,
due mostly to thermally released electron-hole pairs, is
very dependent on temperature-and should the
temperature rise, current will also increase. (As a rough
guide, it will double itself for each l00C rise in
temperature.)
This current is referred to as /6se, that is: collector-
base current when the emitter-base current is zero. Now
 Electronics for Electrical Trades
42

Since the emitter-base junction 1 is forward biased

(as in Fis. 6.6) forward current flows. This current rs
12.21,{t in tne foim of holes which are injected into the. base
resion from the P-type emitter' The important polnt to
+Vcc nie is that as the biie is so thin and the depletion layer
oiiun"tion 2 so wide, holes are swept right across junction
2
"bv
the negative polarity of the collector' A current
of tiot"r theri exists^between emitter and collector' Vsg
lr, controls the magnitude of the hole current and V63 takes
{- up the current ai soon as the emitter supplies it'
There is some recombination of holes in the base
resion with electrons flowing up from the base lead' Also'
1.5 V
elSctrons flow from the emiiter around the circuit to the
Fig. 6.5 Current Paths in an NPN BJT collector to maintain the hole current through the
-ih"r"
'-iunction. are three current effects in the transistor: the
emitter-collector current within the device; the emitter-
when the switch S is closed and the emitter current /p base current; and /6s9 between base and collector'
adiusted to, say, 1000 microamperes (1 milliampere), the Now 16se coniists of holes in the collector P-type
material und in the N-type base' These electrons
coilector cutt"nt rises to about 980 microamperes' This "l"cttons
current consists of the original 5 microamperes leakage in the base region combine with some of the holes from
plus about 975 microamperes of the 1000 microamperes- the emitter (i--e. recombination) and so actually reduce
ho*ing out from the emitter. The remaining current of the base-emitter current. Considering these currents as
20 miJroamperes flows into the base (1s). From this it percentages, we have:
is seen that Ii : Ig + /s. This is very important and emitter-collector hole current, approx' 98 per cent;
remains true no matter how the BIT is used' emitter-base hole current' approx' 2 per cent;
If the collector-base voltage (V6s) is varied, there /6so, approx. 0.5 Per cent.
is negligible change in /s' This is -because of the very
"ap-parent Now:
high reslstance of the collector circuit in the :
condition. net base lead cunent (1s) 2-0.5
reverse biased
With reference to Figure 6.6, it is apparent that in : 1.5 per cent
the normal state there is a depletion layer at each PN net collector cun'ent (1c) = 98+0.5
junction. These are marked I and 2' As the collector- : 98.5 per cent
tase junction is reverse biased the dep-letion layer is :
widened in a similar manner to the PN diode in Figure net emitter current (/E) 9$.J+ 1.5
2.5. Now the base (in an actual BJT) is so thin that this = 100 per cent
depletion layer extends well into it, and so the depletion
layer's effect is very close to the emitter end.
Note that the main current through the base region
is bv holes which are minority current carriers as far
as the N-type base is concerned.
Attnoirltt the reference so far has been to PNP BJTs'
the cunent'flow in the NPN BJT is the same' The only-
Jiii"r"n"" is that the current carriers and direction of
flow in the NPN BJT are exactly the opposite of those
in the PNP type. The most important point is that the
oolarities of ilie batteries must be reversed so that the
Lmitter-base junction is still forward biased and the
collector-base junction is reverse biased' The bias
direction must 6e the same for both types of BJTs and
Figure 6.7 illustrates the change in polarity for each type'
It must be noted that the circuits depicted in Figure
6.7 are not practical circuits, i.e. they have no practical
depletion application and are only presented to illustrate current
layer
flow and transistor action in a BJT.
B1
In the NPN BJT (as distinct from the PNP type) the
main current through it, that is from emitter across the
,(o,. base to collector, ii in the form of electrons, and once
again these are minority culrent carriers as far as the
bise is concerned. If the NPN BJT is replaced by a PNP
Flg. 6.6 lnternal and extenal current paths in a BJT with the BJT
type in Figure 6.6, the batteries would have to be reversed
symbol below

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Unit 6 Bipolar junction lransistors (BJTs)
Fig. 5.7 Polarity connection for PNP and NPN EJIs
in polarity, and the current direction would change. Also,
'holes' would become 'electrons' and 'electrons' would
become'holes'.
One very important point to remember is that the
arrowheads in the graphical symbols represent the
direction of conventi.oncl current flow, and electron flow
is in the opposite direction. Hole fTow is in the same
direction as conventional current flow"
In many circuits it is necessary to use both PNP and
NPN BJTs. One such application is the output power
BJTs in some amplifiers, where the BJTs are connected
in what is termed complcmentary symmetry. This means
the two BJTs are identical in their electrical characteristics
except one is PNP and the other NPN. Students, at this
stage, should not be concerned with these terms except
to know that such special complementary BJTs are
manufactured.
6.6 Current control in the BJT
It has been established that a current must flow thein
base-emitter circuit before any appreciable current can
flow in the collector-emitter circuit. There is a definite
relationship between the magnitude of base culrent (18)
1.5 0
Fig. 6.8 BJT investigation circuit
--=ry
43
and collector current (1s) in a given BJT, over a given
range of current. It is called the cunent gain of the BJT.
It means that. if a small current flows in the base circuit,
it will permit a larger current to flow in the collector
circuit.
The ability of the base current to control the collector
current, or the current gain of the BJT, is represented
by the symbol ftpg (the symbol B, the Greek letter beta,
is also used in which case, strictly, it should be Fpc).
It can then be said that the relationship between the
unvarying base current and the collector current may be
expressed as:
Ic : hrn Is (6.3)
where 16 is collector current,
Is is base current, and
hpB is current gain of the BJT.
It may also be said that the relationship of collector
current to base current is the current gain of the BJT,
and Equation 6.3 may be transposed to:
hre:+ IB
This is often referred to as the dc current gain of
the BJT (also expressed as Foc).
 44 Electronics for Electrical Trades

Table 6.1 fest resu/ts obtained from Fioure 6.8 circuit

/B
(amperes) 0.1 0.2 U.J 0.4 u.o 0.8 1.0 t.z
vce
(volts) Collector current (lg) in amPeres
0 U n U 0 n U n 0
1
3.49 6.45 8.5 10.25 lJ. I 17.75 19.5
Z 8.6 tu.c IJ,J tc.v 17.9 1q 76
3.52 6.55 a7 1p.6 14.0 lo.I 18.1 20.0
1A to.z 18.25
A
3.55 o.o t'.:' 10.8 ta. 1
I

6 3.6 6.65 9.0 1 1.0 14.3 to.J

o 3.75 6.7 Y. tc 11.25 1Atr.
3.8 6.75 9.3 1l5
B J.Y 6.8 9.45
9 3.95 o.Y
10 4.0

An examination of these curves will show that below

6.7 Characteristic curves
If a BJT is set up in a test circuit as shown in Figure
0.S (p. 43), both the base-emitter voltage and collector
emitter voltage supplies may be varied. With these vari-
ations both the base culrent and collector current may
be monitored, the figures giving us the current gain of
the BJT. But more information than that can be obtained.
The base current can be set to a certain value and
the collector-emitter voltage (Vss) varied from zero to
maximum. At each variation the collector current (/s)
can be noted. If this procedure is repeated for each setting
of the base current we obtain the results in Table 6.1.
From these readings a family of curves may be drawn,
as shown in Figure 6.9. Note that each curve is plotted
from the same information, that is variation of /6 with
change in V66. Each curve, however, is drawn for a par-
ticular /s, ranging here from 18 = 0.1 A, to Is : 1.2 A.
about 0.8 volt there is a very rapid fall of collector culrent,
with a reduction in collector-emitter voltage. This is
known as the saturation region, in which the collector-
base junction is effectively forward biased, and transistor
action virtually ceases. This region of the curve is of
importance when the BJT is used as a switch but is useless
when the effect of current gain is required.
It can also be seen from the figure that the curves
are virtually linear from the 'knee' and that there is very
little change in collector current with a change in
collector-emitter voltage, due to the very high resistance
of the reverse biased collector-emitter junction.
These curves were produced from a test on a power
BJT. BJTs can be small signal types with a maximum
collector current of about 20 milliamperes, or power types
with collector currents of many amperes.

/c (amperes)

V". (volts)
*
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Unit 6 Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) 45

The reading of collector currents at the higher base where 1s1yay; is maximum collector current"
current values are not taken at the higher voltage values, V6s is supply voltage, and
because the power dissipation in the BJT must be limited R6 is collector load resistance.
to a maximum value to keep the junction temperature
below a maximum value. When operated with a heat To find the minimum base current to produce
sink, ajunction temperature of no greater than 900C is saturation, we apply the current gain equation, that is:
allowed for this particular type of BJT. If this temperature lgG\aAX)
is exceeded. the BJT mav be destroved. /s{NaN) (6.s)
hrr
and, substituting equation 6.4 in equation 6.5:
6.8 The BJT as a switch-cut-off I-
IB(MIN)
Vcc
(6.6)
In Section 6.4 it was mentioned that with zero base ftee &
current, as in Figure 6.5(a), no collector current will flow This is termed the minimum value of .Is to produce
in the BJT circuit. This condition is known as cut-off, saturation, since,in values of base current above this,
and referring to Figure 6.10 we will now examine the the relationship f : hry. does not hold because 16 is
voltages and current about the circuit.
unable to increasd. That is, the BJT is saturated and cannot
If V1 is zero and as a consequence.Is is zero, /s will pass any more collector current in the given circuit.
also be zero by transistor action (for all practical To determine the voltage Vr to produce saturation,
purposes)-so there will be no voltage drop across R6, it can be shown that the following equation is sufficiently
that is: accurate:
/c& : 0
Then, by Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, the full supply voltage vr(vrN) = 3+&
ftrE
G.7)
Vg6 will appear across the BJT or, expressed as an where V11y11,1y is minimum input voltage to produce
equation:
saturation,
Vce : Vcc Vs6 is supply voltage,
Rs is input base resistance,
ftpp is current gain,
Rs is called collector load resistance.
The value of lrpB used must be the minimum given
by the BJT manufacturer for the BJT in use.

Example 6.1
lf in the circuit of Figure 6.10 the supply voltage (V6g)
is l8 volts, the minimum hee of the BJT is quoted as
80, the collector load resistor (ft) has a resistance of
1000 ohms and the input base resistor (Ra) has a resistance
Fig. 6.10 Current and voltage relationships in a BJT switch circuit
of 22 kilohms. determine:
(a) maximum value of 16;
(b) minimum value of 1s for saturation;
6.9 The BJT as a switch-saturation (c) minimum value of Vr for saturation.
The BiT is said to be saturated when the voltage drop vcc: 1gv
across the BJT between collector and er{ritter is zero (or
ftnervrNr : 8o
close to zero, in a practical circuit), thht is: Vcr * 0.
In this case the full supply voltage will appear across Rc : lko
R6 (in Fig. 6.10) and by Kirchhoffs Voltage Law may R8 : 22kO
be expressed as:
Ick : vcc - vcr,, (a) 1c<v.qxr
and so /s R6 : Vcc
F ,

l;
There is naturally a certain maximum value of ^16'

that will produce saturation, and this is obtained from 103

the Ohms's Law equation: : lg x 10-3
Vcc : 0.018 A j

/cruexr
& (6.4) Answer (a): The maximum value of lg is l8 milliamperes.
 46 Electronics for Electrical Trades

Ic ' small signal low frequency;

hru
l
(b) IB -
3: f,il?ff"Tffi*"'
18 x 10-3 4. switching.
an As this book does not cover high frequency
applications (radio, TV and the like) and switching BJTs
: 2.25 x l0_4 are mainly limited to computer and similar applications,
: 0.000225 A rhe two types which interest us are small signal and power
types.
There is really no hard and fast rule of what
Ans,ver (b): The minimum value of base current for constitutes a small signal and power BJT, but a general
saturation is 0.225 milliamperes. rule is that BJTs with ratings of over about I watt may
(c) l vcc Rs be classified as power types.
vl The power rating of a BJT is the maximum power
ftee & that may be absorbed within the semiconductor material
18x22x103 and at the junctions without the junction temperature
80 x 103 rising above a certain maximum value. The power
: dissipated within the BJT can be calculated from the
4.95 V collector current and collector-emitter voltage:
Answer (c): The minimum input voltage for saturation P,o, : Vce /c (6.8)
is 4.95 volts.
where P,o, is the power dissipation in the BJT in watts,
Vsp is the collector-emitter voltage in volts,
/q is the collector current in amperes.
6.10 BJT switch circuits
Considering the circuit of Figure 6.11 we have a pilot Example 6.2
lamp being switched by a BJT (actually this is a composite Determine the power dissipated in a BJT when the
of two BJTs, called a Darhngbn,but this need not concern collector current is 820 milliamperes and the collector-
us here). The input voltage is 2.5 volts but the input emitter voltage is 6.8 volts.
current is only about 0.35 milliampere, which represents vca : 6.9 v
an input power of only about 0.9 milliwatt. As the power Ic = 820 mA
controlled is in the order of 3 watts we could say that P,o, : ?
the power gain of the circuit is about 3000 or, in other
words, the input is able to control a power of 3000 times
P,o, : Vcr. Ic
its own value. : 6.8 x 820 x 10-3
The Darlington BJT in Figure 6.11 has a current = 5.58 W
gain of about 750 (hpj. From the information in Section
Answer The power dissipation in the BJT is 5"58 watts.
6.8 confirm the approximate conditions for the circuit.

Example 6.3
Determine the power dissipation in a BJT when the
collector current is 1.5 milliamperes and the collector-
emitter voltage is 6.6 volts.
vcp. = 6.6 V
Ic : 1.5 mA
P,o, : ?
P,o, : Vce Ic
: 6.6 x 1.5 x 10-3

Fig. 6.11 A pnctical BJT switch circuit

: 0.0099 w
Anstver: The power dissipation in the BJT is 0.01 watt
or 10 milliwatts.
From these two examples it can be seen that the
6.11 Power ratings of BJTs first BJT is a power type and the second a small signal
As has been mentioned in previous units, BJTs are used type.
r for many different purposes and many hundreds of Power BJTs are made in ratings up to hundreds of
v.t different types are manufactured. Broadly speaking they watts but generally a rating of about 100 watts is the
can be divided into four main types: maximum in common use.
^t
t
i1a

K
t

ffi;&;-**==

Unit 6 Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
6.12 List of terms connected with
BJTs
1s base current Current entering or leaving the base
terminal.
/g collector current Current entering or leaving the
collector terminal.
1B emitter current Current entering or leaving the emitter
terminal.
Is6 collector-base leakage current Minority carrier
current that flows across the reverse biased collector base
junction.
lgBs minimum collector-emitter current The current that
flows between collector and emitter when the base current
is zero.
Unit 6 SUMMARY (Sections 6.'1 to 6.10 only)
ln a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) current carriers are
both holes and electrons.
A &JT is made from three layers of doped
semiconductor. either PNP or NPN.
The three terminals of a BJT are termed collector, base
and emitter.
In a BJT the emitter current is always equal to the base
current plus the collector current, but as the base
current can be very small we can say that,
approximately, emrtter current equals collector current.
The flow of collector current as a result of the flow of
base current is called transistor action.
The following sections in this unit are only for those students who
wish to study the normal level of this book.
----.reT
47
lk" or B The ac current gain.
hya or pp6 The dc current gain.
P1o1 maximum power rating The maximum power that
can be absorbed by the BJT without the junction
temperature rising above a maximum safe value.
Vct collector-emitter voltage Voltage between the
collector and emitter terminals.
Vs66 maximum collector emitter voltage The maximum
voltage between the collector and emitter terminals with
the base open-circuited. If this voltage is exceeded the
BJT may be destroyed.
Vnno maximum reverse emitter-base voltage The
maximum reverse voltage that can be applied between
emitter and base terminals without damaging the BJT.
. The ratio of collector current to base current is called
the current gain of a &JT. The symbol for current gain is
heE or p (beta).
. When no base current flows a RJT is said to be cut off.
In this condition no collector current flows.
. When a BJT is saturated it can pass no more collector
current and the voltage drop across it (Vs5) is very low.
. The power lost as heat in a &JT is a product of collector
current and collector-emitter voltage. At cut off no
power is lost and at saturation very little power is lost.
 48
Electronics for Electrical Trades

I_ lmA
Gurrent gain in the ,--
,.1-E
60 mA
,|
b
BJT L _ --:_
I
IB

6.13 DC current gain :1

60
in Section 6.6, the current control of the BJT, which is
the ability of the current in the base circuit to control :60
the maenitude of current in the collector circuit, was
examinEd.It was found that the relationship between base Answer: The dc gain is 60.
current and collector current was termed cunent gain. At point B:
This current gain was expressed as the ratio of collector
current to bise current and expressed mathematically
,ls : 0.8mA
i1c = 45mA
aS:
h*.:?
Ic Ic
hpe - IB
hre
18

where is termed the dc current gain of the BJT.

ftp6, 45
Thoterm dc gain is used because we are considering 03
a certain fixed, or unvarying, base current which will 56
permit a fixed unvarying collector culrent to flow' This
is the fundamental operation of the BJT. Ans,ver The dc gain is 56.
At point C:
IB = 0.6 mA
/s - 1.0 mA Ic = 30mA
hre:?
IC
hre
/e = 0.8 mA IB
o
{,
30
8+o
c
.q
/r - 0.6 mA 05
EJU 50
; /u = O.4 mA
Answer: The dc gain is 50.
At point D:
/s = 0.2 mA
IB : 0.2 mA
IC : 9mA
10 hre :?
o 2 4 6 8 12
L _
b
__:_
Vss (volts)
IB

2 charactelstics of a BJf
Fig. 6.1 Coltector output
The dc current gain (hnJ is not a constant value
over the operating range of a BJT. At low collector
currents it may be smaller than at high collector currents'
For this reason most manufacturers state the dc current
gain at a specific collector current. In addition, the
iollector culrent does increase slightly with an increase
in collector-emitter voltage (i.e. the collector
characteristic curves have a small positive slope) and
this is greater at higher collector currents and, by
inference, higher base currents.
In Figure 6.12 four points are marked on the family
of curvesl A,B,C,D. The dc current gain of the BJT will
be determined for each point.
f At point A, with a base current of I milliampere,
T
:029
:45
Answen The dc gain is 45.
A manufacturer would probably quote the gain at
a V6E of about 6 volts and a collector current of 30
milliimperes. This would be about point C-on the curves
of Figure 6.12 and so the quoted gain would be 50'
Ii must also be pointed out that in mass production
it is virtually impossible for a manufacturer to construct
every BJT with- the same gain. In practice, there is a
rp."id of gains and it is quite possible to have the gain
oi a singlJtype number BJT varying from 100 to 800
for individual- BJTs. Also quite often BJTs of the same

and at a collector-emitter voltage of l0 volts, the collector tvpe number are separated into sub-groups. As an
current is 60 milliamperes. Using equation 6.3: eiample, one manufacturer could group type BC 108 into
...
.'3

I ''
6
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 --*reMf

Unit 6 Current gain in the BJT 49

sub-groups A, B and C. The complete type number with on the 16 axis and the change in 1s is the difference between
their range of dc current gains could be: BC 108A, 1 10- the two 1s curves.
220; BC1088, 200-450; BCl08C, 420-800. In Figure 6.13 the change in 16 is about 26,
milliamperes and the change in 1s is simply the difference
between the 1s : 0.8 mA and the I" J 0.4 mA curves,
O.4 milliamperes. Placing these two figures in equation
6.14 AC current gain 6.9 we get:
When the change in base current produces a A/c : 26 mA
correspondingly larger change in collector current, the AIs : 0.4 mA
relationship between these two changes is termed the ac
current galn. Mathematically it is the ratio of change in
hr,:?
collector current to change in base current, collector- A1c
hrc Vsg constant
emitter voltage being constant. This may be expressed A1a
AS:
26
LI.
h.
'+re V6p being constant (6.9) 0.4
A1s 60
where ft6. is the ac current gain, Answer The ac gain is 60.
4/6 is the change in collector current,
A1s is the change in base current, and The current gain curve may be constructed from the
V6s is collector-emitter voltage. collector characteristic curves. A value of Vgs is chosen,
in Figure 6.13 this is 9 volts, and the collector currents
The ac gain of a BJT may be determined from the where this V6s line cuts the base current curves are plotted
collector characteristic curves or from a current gain on a graph ofcollector current versus base current drawn
curve. The collector characteristic curves (similar to the in the second quadrant, as in Figure 6.13. The curve
curves in Section 6.7) show the variation in collector obtained from these plots is the gain curve (for the
current to collector-emitter voltage at differing values particular V6B chosen).
of base current. To determine the ac current gain from When the gain curve is drawn, a triangle is
these curves, it is first necessary to determine a fixed constructed on the curve about the operating point B,
value of Vgs. In Figure 6.13 this has been fixed at 9 which is the same value as point A, so that two sides
volts. A line is drawn vertically from the 9 volt Vss point form a right angle with the curve as the hypotenuse.
to cut three curyes about point A, which is arbitrarily The vertical side represents the change in 1g and the
chosen about the centre of the curves. A line is now horizontal side the change in 1s. These two values are
drawn from where the 9 volt V6s.line cuts the two curves, then scaled off their respective axes. From the curve in
/B : 0 4 mA and /B : 0.8 mA, to the Is axis. Now the Figure 6.13 A1c is 28.2 milliamperes and A/s is 0.47
change in 16 is the scaled distance between these lines milliampere. Again using equation 6.9 we get:

/e = O.2 mA

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 2 4 6 I .lO

12 (volts)
, /e (milliamperes) Vcs+

Fig. 6.13 Cunent gain curve (left) and collector characleristlcs cuNes (right) of a BJT
 50
Eleetronics for Electrical Trades

AIc : 28.2 mA Although there may be a difference betw.een hp6 and

fta., in praciice this difference can really be ig^nored and
A1s : 0.47 mA
the centre dc current gain employed. In fact, most
:
manufacturers use only the dc current gain in their
h.
' .te
?

A,I" oublished data.

hu'- V66 constant ' A, mentioned in Section 6.12 the alternative term
A1s
for h1, is B; also the symbol hps is sometimes replaced
:-l
28.2 with Fpc. However for most practical purposes we can
0.47 write the current gain equatiod simply as:
=60 b
Ansvver The ac gain is 60.
B:; IB

Another term for ac curreht gain (fu") is B (the Greek and this is sufficiently accurate for most work'
letter beta) and the student/ should be aware of the
alternative symbol.
6.16 Effects of temPerature on
Example 6.4 current gain
In a certain BJT a change in base current of from 2
to 2.6 milliamperes produces a change in collector current It was seen that in the case of diodes the reverse leakage
of from 260 to 326 milliamperes, when V6e is held current increased with an increase in temperature' In the
constant. What is the ac cunent gain of the BJT? case of BJTs, the internal collector-base current (/6s6)
will also increase with an increase in temperature. This
Ic = 260 - 326 = 66mA of course is an increase in minority current carriers and
IB : 2.6 - 2 : 0.6mA so allows the collector to capture more current carriers
ht": ? for a given base current. It can be seen then that an
increase in temperature will produce an increase in
ht.:+ I
Vce constant current gain.
Figure 6.14 illustrates the difference in collector
66 characteristics of the same BJT at different temperatures.
The effect of the increase in temperature is virtually to
0.6
lift the curves up the vertical 16 axis.
: 110 To illustrate the change in hps with change in
Answer The ac gain is 110. temperature, consider a base current of 0.4 milliampere
at a Vgs of 6 volts in both sets of curves.
In Figure 6.14(a), the corresponding collector current
6.15 Comparison between dc and is 20 milliamperes, so:

ac gain Ic : 20mA
The ac and dc gains of a single type BJT (Sections 6.ll h = 0.4 milliamPeres
hre:? b
and 6.12) do come out to a different value. This is despite h-- : -:-
..rE
the fact that the same set of curves were employed. In /B
practice this difference could be up to, possibly, 15 per 20
cent.
0.4
In the collector output characteristic family of curves,
if the curves for equal increments of base current are :50
equally spaced, the values of hps and /ra" will be very
Answer: The dc gain at 25oC is 50.
similar in value. At the extremities of the curves, i.e.
at high and low values of collector culrent, the In Figure 6.14(b) the corresponding collector current
characteristics of the BJT are much less symmetrical and is 50 milliamperes, so:
the difference between /rpp and /4" is much more Ic = 50mA
pronounced. IB : 0"4 milliamPere
The designer of a circuit may use any part of the hre = ?
curves, as long as the power ratings are not exceeded, h
so that it is possible to have differing values of current
hr, : --:
6
gain in a given BJT.
- As was mentioned in Section 6.11, there is a wide 50
spread in the current gains of BJTs of even the same 0.4
type number and this is quite normal. This difference = r25
iin be compensated for and the actual current gain Answer The dc gain at 1000C is 125.
becomes much less important.

;. ffir

ffEru_
 . *;d;i

Unit 6 Current gain in the BJT 51

/a = 0.6 mA

/e = 1.0 mA
/a = 0.4 mA
/e = 0'B mA th
o o
40 b40
F /a = 0.6 mA c
.= tn /e = O.2 mA
JT .E
'=
=E E
= 0.4 mA -o 20

/e = O.2 mA 10

(a) at 25"C

Fig. 6.14 BJT collector characterlslics at different temperatwes

From the two foregoing examples it can be seen that
the value of hee (or p; has increased and so a certain
fixed value of base curent will now produce a greater
value of collector culrent. In other words it may be said
that an increase in temperature will produce a rather
significant increase in collector current, with a constant
base current. This effect can be quite serious under certain
conditions.
As with the output characteristics, the input char-
acteristic will change with variation in temperature. As
this variation is in the order of about 2.5 millivolt/OC
it can be quite significant. In Figure 6"16 this change
in base-emitter voltage for a given base current can be
seen.

6.17 Input characteristic

The base-emitter junction of a BJT can be considered
to be a forward biased PN junction, similar to a PN
diode. An increase in base-emitter voltage past the 'knee'
of the curve will produce a linear relationship between
base current and base-emitter voltage. As has been stated
previously, the linear relationship (the overcoming of the
inbuilt depletion layer potential) is about 0.6 volt. This
curve is known as the input characteristic and is illustrated
in Fisure 6.15. o 0.6
YBE (volts)

Fig. 6.16 Change of input characteristic with increase in

teflpenture for a silicon BJT
I

6.18 Analysis of a simple circuit

The operation of a BJT in a simple circuit will now be
examined. Reference to Figure 6.17 will show a simple
biased circuit, similar to that in Figure 6.10.In this circuit
the bias current is provided by resistor Rs and the collector
current flows through resistor Rg. In this circuit the
collector current will be assumed to be 1.5 rnilliamperes,
o 0.3 0.6
the supply yoltage l5 volts and the BJT to be a silicon
Vs5 (volts) type with ah lrps of 220.It is required that V66 be about
Fig. 6.15 lnput characteristic for a silicon BJT 6.8 volts.
 52 Electronics for Electrical Trades

Now in the collector circuit we have:

supply voltage (Vs6) = 15.0 volts,
collector resistor voltage drop 16R6 : 8.4 volts,
I

l/8 Fc collector-emitter voltage V66 : 6.6 volts.

I
t It must be remembered that, although these calculations
show exact values, the resistor R6, though nominally 5.6
kilohms, will probably have a tolerance of 5 per cent
and naturally the values of 16R6 and V6s will also vary
by at least this amount.
As the BJT has a dc current gain of 220, the base
current which will allow this collector current to flow
can be determined. Now from Equation 6.3
Ic : 1.5 mA
hre = 220
IB = ?
Fig.6.17 A simple biased BJT circuit
Ic : hrp,ls

so IB:k
1.5 x 10-3
Let us first consider the two voltage loops which, 2n
by Kirchhoffs Law, are: = 6.8 x 10-64
Vcc 1c& + Vce. (6.10)
Arswen The base current must be 6.8 microamperes.
vcc lsRs + Vge (6.11)
Now, knowing the base current we can calculate the
First let us calculate the value of &. Now from
equation 10.3
value of the base resistor (Rg) which will permit this
current to flow.
1c& Vcc - Vce
From equation 6.11
and Rc
Vcc - Vce
Vcc /sRs a Vae
Ig
now, and lsRs Vcc - Vnr

vcc : Vcc - Vee

15V SO RB
vce : 6.9 v
Ic : 1.5 mA
now,
vcc : 15V
15 - 6.8 IB : 6.8 pA
so&=l.5xl0-3 veE : 0.6 v
: 5467 0 (because the BJT
Answer Use a 5.6 kilohm resistor (nearest preferred 812 is a silicon type)
value). RB=?
As the value of the resistor chosen is somewhat higher soRr: 15 - 0.6
than the calculated value (through necessity) and if we 6.8 x 10-6
desire the same collector current, the value of V66 may 2 120 000 r)
be slightly altered. We will now examine this calculation.
Answer Use a 2.2 megohm resistor (nearest preferred
By transposing:
El2 value).
vcc : 15v
Now in the base circuit we have,
Ic : 1.5 mA
supply voltage (V66) : 15.0 volts,
& = s.6ko base resistor voltage drop (IsRr) - 14.4 volts,
Vcz:? silicon BJT base-emitter voltage drop : 0.6 volt.
vce t;.-fr
: I!'-,i"r 'x 5.s x rQ:;
Overall, we have a base current of 6.8 microamperes
which permits a current of 1.5 milliamperes to flow in
: 6.6V the collector circuit. This current produces a voltage drop
of 8.4 volts across the collector resistor (Rs) which
Answen The collector-emitter voltage is 6.6 volts. produces a voltage of 6.6 volts across the BJT.

i, -'*'*
*lt* -
h- -
 "--T@ry

Unit 6 Current gain in the BJT 53

6.19 Power ratings of BJTs When V6B : 20 volts, point C,

80
When the BJT is operating at near saturation, and Vgg Ic:n
is relatively low, a much higher current can pass through
it. However, when VsE, rises, the culrent must be a much =4
lower value to keep the power dissipation below the
maximum values. In the curves of Figure 6.18, which Answer Maximum collector current at a Vss of 20 volts
are the collector characteristic curves for a high power is 4 amperes.
BJT (type 2N3055), a power curve has been drawn over When V6s : 10 volts, point D,
the family of curves. This is a power dissipation curve 80
of 80 watts. The manufacturers state that the 2N3055 Ic:10
BJT has a maximum power rating of 115 watts at a
case temperature of 250C. As these are absolute :8
maximum values, the BJT has been derated for safety Answer Maximum collector current at a V66 of 20 volts
reasons, is 8 amperes.
It is obvious that, for the power dissipation to be
kept below maximum desired values, the BJT must be
opirated within the ratings to the left and below the
maximum power dissipation curve in Figure 6.18.

E 6.20 Heatsinks for BJTs

{) It is essential that the temperature of BJTs be kept below
a certain maximum value otherwise they may be
destroyed. This is achieved in power BJTs by mounting
the BJT on a heatsink" (This is also true for power diodes
and thyristors.) A heatsink is usually made of extruded
aluminium with fins and painted black for maximum
10 20 30 40 50 radiation. The heatsink dissipates to the surrounding air
YcE (volts)
the heat generated within the device mounted on it. (See
Fie.6.19.)
Fig. 6.18 BJT maximum power dlsslpatton cuNe Manufacturers rate heatsinks in thermal resistance
which is expressed as degrees per watt (oC/SD. Thermal
resistance is the rate at which a heatsink can dissipate
heat to the surrounding air for a given power input for
The points (A"B,C,D) on the curve in Figure 6.18 a given temperature rise. To determine the correct thermal
were determined from the power dissipation equation resistance heatsink to use, a simplified equation may be
and the curve drawn in to fit the plotted points. The employed.
calculations are as follows:
RrH:T r'rex -
(4 4Ms l"{ex)
When V6s = 60 volts, point A, (6.rz',)

,-P,
ta where R1g is thermal resistance from heatsink to
Vcp. ambient in 0C W-r (note: ambient is the
80i surrounding air),
60 4 it the maximum allowed junction
"o"temperature of the BJT in oC,
= 1.3 ZeNrs L.{rx is the maximum temperature reached
Answer Maximum collector current at a VgE of 60 volts by the ambient in oC,
is 1.3 amperes. Pp is the power dissipation in the BJT in watts'
When V66 : 40 volts, point B,
80 Example 6.5
Ic: Determine the thermal resistance of a heatsink on which
n must be mounted a BJT which will dissipate 80 watts
=2 maximum. The maximum allowed junction temperature
Answer: Maximum collector current at a V6s' of 40 volts of the BJT is 900C and the maximum ambient temperature
is 2 amperes. willbe 400C.
54 Electronics for Electrical Trades

'f j{:s:4,i
':1,,
;fi.
:iY
fii

Fig. 6.19 Light dimming module using 8JIs. Note the heals,nks on the power BJTs

4 r,,tnx 900c Heatsinks are manufactured with thermal resistances

400c from as high as 20ClW to lower than 0.050C/W. To
4,Nas r,rex
increase the power ratings of small signal BJTs, a 'push-
PD 80w on' heatsink, which is simply a spring clip of copper
RrH ? with small radiating fins, can be used. This could increase
RrH
(4 vnx - Lr'as L{l,x) the normal power dissipation of say 10 milliwatts to 50
PD milliwatts.
90-40
80
0.625
Answer Use a heatsink with a thermal resistance not
exceeding 0.6250C/W"