Chapter 1


Definition of Psychology Behaviorism

Psychology is the scientific1 study of behavior2 and John B. Watson proposed that the science of
mental processes3 behavior focuses only on observable behavior that
can be directly seen rather than motivation and
Four Goals of Psychology intent.
1. Description - Based on the work of Ivan Pavlov who
2. Explanation demonstrated that reflexes could be conditioned
3. Prediction
4. Control Little Albert
- Watson experimented on a baby using a white
History of Psychology rabbit to prove that phobias were learned
- Wilhelm Wundt - Little Peter was an experiment by Mary Cover
• Father of Psychology Jones that proved fear can be removed if paired
• Objective introspection4 with a reward
- Edward Titchener
• Brought structuralism to America Seven Modern Perspectives
- Margaret Washburn 1. Psychodynamic Perspective
• First women to receive a PhD in psychology • A modern version of psychoanalysis that
- William James focuses on the role of the unconcious
• Introduced functionalism 2. Behavioral Perspective
• A concept of reinforcement of behavior where
Structuralism vs Functionalism behavior that is rewarded is repeated while
behavior that is punished is discontinued
Structuralism Functionalism
• A concept by B.F. Skinner
Focuses on the Stresses how to mind 3. Humanism Perspective
structure or the basic allows us to function in • A concept by Maslow and Rogers
elements of the mind the real world emphasizing that all human beings have free
will and the desire to attain self-actualization
Wundt; Titchener William James 4. Cognitive Perspective
• Focuses on learning, memory, problem
solving
Gesalt Psychology
Introduced by Max Wetheimer; the “good figure”
• Cognitive neuroscience is the study on the
physical working of the brain
psychology emphasizes that an object as a whole
5. Sociocultural Perspective
cannot be broken down into smaller parts/elements
and that the whole is greater than the sum of its
• Focuses on the relationship of social and
culture on our behaviors and thoughts
parts
• Nature vs Nurture5
6. Biopsychological Perspective
Psychoanalysis
Based on the work of Sigmund Freud; he proposed
• Emphasizes the relationship between the
mind and body; how behavior is linked to
the existence of an unconsious mind where desires
biological events happening in the body
and urges are repressed and control our day-to-day
7. Evolutional Perspective
behaviors. He also stressed the importance of early
childhood experiences.
• Focuses on biological bases of the universal
mental characteristics of all human beings
• Explains behavior and throughts in terms of
adaptive or survival qualities


1 Avoids biases and erros by following the scientific method approach

2 Outward actions and processes

3 Internal activity of our minds

4 The process of objectively examining one’s thoughts and mental activity

5 Nature deals with heredity and genes, while nurture deals with environment and culture
Scientific Method Case Studies vs Surveys
A system of gathering data so that biases is Case Study Survey
controlled and errors in measurement are reduced
- Forces one to look out for information that might Definition The study of an A series of
contradict bias and to overcome the tendency to individual’s rare questions about a
look at information that confirms bias case in great topic given to a
detail, an example random sample of
being multiple a population
5 Steps in the Scientific Method personality
1. Perceive the question disorder.
• Imperical questions; can be tested through
Advantages There is a Data is gathered
direct observations and supported through
tremendous from a large
objectively gathered evidence amount of details number of people;
2. Form a hypothesis Covert behaviors
• A tentative explanation of a phenomenon can be studied
based on initial observations
Disadvantages Information cannot Courtesy bias and
• The goal of research is to determine if the be applied to other untruthful
educated guess is right or wrong cases and is respondents
3. Test the hypothesis vulterable to bias
• A hypothesis can be tested through a survey
or experiment Correlation Technique
4. Draw conclusions - A statistical technique that allows researchers to
• To be able to make a predication or educated predict relationships between variables
guesses about the future - Cannot be used for causation
5. Report the results
• Correlation coefficient r represents the
• Results and measurements should be direction and strength of a relationship
reported to the scientific community to add to - Related range: -1.00 < r < 1.00
the body of knowledge of others, predict/ - Unrelated = 0
modify or control, and so that others may - Strength: Absolute value
demostrate reliability of results - Direction:
Descriptive Methods6 Positive Correlation Negative Correlation
1. Naturalistic Observations
Watching behavior in normal/natural environments Increases in one Increases in one
- Advantages variable are matched variable are matched
• Depicts a realistic picture of behavior by increases in the by decreases in the
- Disadvantages other variable other variable
• Observer effect: the tendency of subjects to
behave differently when it is known that they
are being observed
- Participant observation: where the observer
becomes a participant in the group in order
to reduce observe effect
2. Laboratory Obsevations
Watching behavior in a laboratory setting
- Advantages
• There is control over the environment and
allows the use of specialized equipment
- Disadvantages
• The artificial situation set up in the laboratory
could lead to artificial behavior of the
participants

6 These lead to the formation of testable hypotheses

Experiments - Success in school is due to athletic ability rather
Tightly controlled manipulations of variables that than intelligence. The result is poor performance
allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect of athletes.
relationships
Independent variable
Independent vs Dependent Variables - The timing of the “high threat” question
Dependent variable
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
- Test scores
Deliberately Measured behavior or Experimental group
manipulated by the responses of the - Answered the “high threat” question before the
experimenter participants test
Control group
- Answered the “high threat” question after the test
Experiment vs Control Groups Results-supported hypothesis
Experimental Group Control Group - The experimental group scored significantly
lower on the test
Participants who are Participants who
subjected to the receive either a Ethics in Psychological Research
independent variable placebo treatment or
nothing Ethics Committee
A group of psychologists that determine the safety
*Participants are randomly assigned to either group
of each proposed research study
*Placebo example: a “drug” made from sugar/salt
Ethical Guidelines
Placebo Effect vs Experimenter Effect
1. Protection of rights and well-being of
Placebo Effect Experimenter Effect participants
2. Informed concent
Expectations of the Experimenter’s 3. Justification when deception is used
participants in a expectations for a 4. The right of participants to withdraw at any time
study can influence study to 5. Protection of participants from physical or
their behavior unintentionally psychological harm
influence the results 6. Confidentiality
of the study 7. Debriefing of participants at the end of the
study
Single-blind studies Double-blind 8. Correcting any undersirable consequences
studies
Animals in Psychology
Subjects do not know if Neither the - More useful models because they are easier to
they are in the experiments nor the control than humans
experimental or control subjects know this
groups (reduces information (reduces Critical Thinking
placebo effect) placebo and The ability to make reasoned judgements based on
eperimenter effects) claims

Four Basic Criteria of Critical Thinking

Quasiexperimental Designs
1. Most truths need not be tested
Not considered true experiments due to the inability
2. Evidence can vary in quality
to randomly assign participants to control
3. Authorities are not always right
orexperimental groups
4. Critical thinking requires an open mind
Conducting an Experiment
*Negative impact of stereotypes

Situation: An experiment studying the effect of

negative stereotypes on test performance of
athletes resulted on poor performance due to
exposure.

Hypothesis
 Chapter 2
Nervous System
An extensive network of specialized cells that send
information to and from all parts of the body
- Neuroscience: deals with the structure and
functions of neurons, nerves and nervous tissue
Divisions of the Nervous System (Overview)
Central Nervous System
Made up of the brain and the spinal cord7
Peripheral Nervous System
All nerves and neurons outseide the brain and
spinal cord
- Autonomic nervous system
• Regulation/control of involuntary muscles;
sensory pathway from the sensory organs to
the CNS consisting of sensory neurons
- Parasympathetic division: Restores the
body to normal functioning after arousal;
responsible for day-to-day functioning of
organs and grands (rest-and-digest system)
- Sympathetic division: Reacts to certain
threats (fight-or-flight system)
- Somatic nervous system
7 Long bundle of neurons that transmit messages between the brain and the body; responsible for reflexes
• Carries sensory information to the CNS then
from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the
body
- Sensory pathway: nerves coming from the
sensory organs to the CNS, consisting of
sensory neurons
- Motor pathway: nerves coming from the
CNS to the voluntary muscles, consisting of
motor neurons
Definition of a Neuron
The basic cell that makes up the nervous system
and receives and sends messages within that
system
Parts of a Neuron
1. Dentrites: the branch-like structure that receives
messages from other neurons
2. Soma: the cell body of a neuron responsible for
maintaining the life of the cell; located inside the
spinal cord
3. Axon: the wiring that carries/sends the neural
message to other cells; run along the outside of
the spinal cord
Process of Carrying Information
Step 1: Information enters a neuron at the
dendrites
Step 2: Information flows throught the soma (cell
body)
Step 3: Information goes down the axon to pass the
information to the next cell
Glial Cells
Glia is the natural glue that cleans up dead neurons
and provides support for neurons to grow on and
around
- Make up 90% of the cells in our brain.
- It delivers nutrients to neurons and produces
myelin to coat axons
- Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes generate - In the release of a neural impulse, the “gates” or
myelin channels open, allowing positive sodium ions to
enter and causing a reversal of the electric
charge within the axon.
Step 3: Repolarization
Myelin Cells - As the action potential moves down the axon
Fatty substances produced by glial cells that wraps terminals, the positive sodium ions of the cell
around axons to form a insulated and protective areas behind the action potential are rapidly
sheath to speed up the neural impulse pumped outside, allowing this area to return to its
resting state of a negative charge, ready for a
Nerves fresh neural firing
Bundles of axons in the body that travel together Notes
through the body
- The neuron either fires completely, or not at all
- Neurilemma: Shwann’s membrane - The threshold for a neuron to release a neural
- A tunnel through which damaged nerve fibers impulse is 50mV
can repair themselves
Neuron Communication
Flow of Neural Impulses [watch a video]
Sending of messages to other cells
[watch a video]
Part Function/Description

Axon Terminals branches as the end of

the axon

Synaptic Knob travels to rounded

areas on the end of the
axon terminals

Synaptic Vescicles sack-like structures

found inside the
synaptic knob ontainng
chemicals

Neurotransmitters chemical found in the

synaptic vesicles which
has an effect on the
next cell when released

Synapse/Synaptic Gap miscroscopic flouid-

(pre-synaptic filled space between
membrane) the rounded areas on
the end of the axon
terminals of one cell
and the dendrites or
surface of the next cell

Receptor Sites (post- holes in the surface of

synaptic membrane) the dendrites or certain
cells of the muscles
and glands, which are
shaped to fit only
certain transmitters

Flow of Neuron Communication

Step 1: Resting Potential
- The state of the neuron when not firing a neural
impulse. Through diffusion of ions, the neuron is
negatively charged inside and positively charged
outside; the ions will not be able to enter or exit
since the “gates” or channels are closed.
Step 2: Action Potential
Step 1: Nerve Impulse
- The nerve impulse reaches the axon terminals
and enters through the synaptic knob
Step 2: Message Transmission
- Neurotransmitters are triggered to release from
the synaptic vesicles via an electrical signal
Step 3: Receptor Sites
- The molecules of the neurotransmitter cross the Neurotransmitters Functions
synaptic gap to fit into the receptor sites that fit
the shape of the molecule Endorphins Inhibatory neural regulators; involved in
Step 4: Next Cell Activation pain relief
- The ion channel opens, allowing sodium ions to
rush in, activating the next cell for a new Flow of Synapse Clean Up
electrical signal
Step 1: Diffusion
- Some neurotransmitters are able to drift
Effects of Neurotransmitters
away through diffusion
Excitatory Neurotransmitter Inhibatory Neurotransmitter Step 2: Reuptake
Neutrotransmitters that cause Neurotransmitters that cause
- The process by which neurotransmitters are
the receiving cell to fire the receiving cell to stop firing cleared out of the synaptic gap and taken
(excitatory effect) (inhibatory effect) back into the synaptic vesicles
Increases the likelihood of the Decreases the likelihood of Step 3: Enzyme Degregation
action potential an action potential
- An enzyme is complex protein manufactured
by cells specifically designed to break apart
Chemical Substances ACh quickly clears the synaptic gap
Agonists Antagonists
The Reflex Arc: Three Types of Neurons
Mimic or enhance effects of a Block or reduce a cell’s 1. Sensory Neuron
neurotransmitter on the response to the action of
receptor sites of the next cell, other chemicals or • Carries information from the senses to the
increasing or decreasing the neurotransmitters CNS
activity of that cell • Called an afferent (affect) neuron
Alcohol, Setacolin Anestesia 2. Motor Neuron (sends the signal)
• Carries message from the CNS to the
*SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) muscles of the body
block the reuptake of serotonin at the synapse • Called an efferent (effect) neuron
3. Interneuron (performs the action)
Types of Neurotransmitters
• A neuron found in the center of the brain
Neurotransmitters Functions that receives information from the sensory
neurons and sends commands to the
Acetylcholine (first Excitatory or inhibatory; involved in
to be discovered) arousal, attention, memory, and muscles through the motor neurons
controls muscle contractions
Neuroplasticity
Serotonin Excitary or inhibatory; involved in
mood, sleep, appetite The ability to constantly change both the
Anger, OCD, suicidal thoughts are structure and function of cell involved in
results of depreted serotonin trauma
GABA (gamma- Major inhibatory neurotransmitter;
- A response to trauma/experiences which
aminobutyric acid) involved in sleep and inhibits change our brain
movement
Decreases the activity level of neurons
in the brain

Glutamate Major excitatory neurotransmitter;

involved in learning, memory formation,
nervious system development, and
synaptic plasticity

Norepinephrine Mainly excitatory; involved in arousal

and mood
Keeps you energized and alert
Implicated mood disorders
Reward mechanism

Dopamine Excitatory or inhibatory; involved in

control of movement and sensations of
pleasure
Inhibition of prolactin production
Hallucinations
Low levels cause Parkinson’s and high
leves are linked to schizophrenia
Three Divisions of the Brain (control Part Function/Description
emotion, learning, memory, and motivation)
Amygdala Involved in fear
1. Hindbrain (Old Brain) responses and memory
Responsible for life-sustaining functions of fear
An almond shaped
Part Function/Description structure located near
the hippocampus
Medulla Controls life-sustaining
functions such as heart Cingulate Cortex Plays an imporrtant role
beat and breathing in both emotion and
cognition
Pons Plays a part in sleep,
telling space, and left-
right body coordination 3. Cortex
- The outermost covering of the brain
Thalamus Takes information from
senses consisting of densely packed neurons
- Responsible for higher though processes
Reticular Formation Selective attention/ and interpretation of sensory input
arousal; ignores
constant unchanging Parts of the Cortex (control senses and
information movement)
Located inbetween the
medulla and pons Part Function/Description

Cerebellum Controls involuntary Cerebral hemispheres The two sections of the

rapid reflexes, habits, cortex on the left and
and skills right sides of the brain
Located at the lower
Corpus callosum Thick band of neurons
brain, behind the pons
that connect the left
and right cerebral
2. Limbic System hemispheres of the
Involved in learning, emotion, memory, and brain
motivation
Frontal lobe Responsible for higher
Part Function/Description mental processes,
decision making, and
Thalamus Relays and processes producition of fluent
sensory information speech
from the lower part of Located in the front and
the brain to proper top of the brain
areas of the cortex
Located at the center of Association areas Areas within each lobe
the brain of the cortex
responsible for the
Hypothalamus Regulates temperature coordination,
and is responsible for interpretation of
motivational behavior information and higher
(sleep, hunger, etc) mental processing
Located below the
thalamus, above the
pituary gland Broca’s aphasia
A condition where a person with a damaged
Hippocampus Responsible for the association area would have trouble producing
formation of long-term and speaking desired words
memories and storage
of memory for location
Four Sections of a Cerebral Hemisphere
of objects (spatial map)
Located within each
temporal lobe
 Section Description

Occipital lobe Process visual

informatin
Located at the back of
the brain

Parietal lobe Deals with information

regarding touch,
temperature, body
position
Located at the top and
back half of the brain

Temporal lobe Process auditory

information
Located behind the
temples

Frontal lobe Responsible for higher

mental processes,
decision making, and
producition of fluent
speech
Located in the front and
top of the brain

Effect of Stress on our Brain

“Amygdala hijacked brain”
Step 1: Impairment of the Hippocampus
- Cortisol stimulates the amygdala while it
impairs the hippocampus
Step 2: Restricted Processing
- Attention to emotions restrict the processing
of new information since neural connections
that engage the pre-frontal cortex don’t get
to happen
Step 3: Shrunken Dendrites
- Dendrites shink and neurogenesis is
impeded in the hippocampus

Poverty and Stress

Stress under poverty results in a smaller
hippocampus and a hyperactive amygdala

Taking Care of Neurons

1. Activate the parasympathetic system
through diaphragmatic breathin
2. Engage pre-frontal cortex
3. Shift perception of stress