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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MANUAL

IRRIGATION
BY
COL. W. M. ELLIS, O.I.E., R.E.
Late Ohief Engineer for Irrigation, Madrcu

PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT

GOVERNMENT PRESS
MAD R A8
1 9 I) 0

I'nu, 5 rupeu
 PREFACE TO 1950 EDITION.
Few portions have been added by the Publio Works
Depart~ent and by the Staff of the College of Engineering,
Qwndy, Madr~s to the la.st edition.
 SYMBOLS ARRANGED ALPHABETI ALL A
REFERENCE TO THE FORMULA!; AND
PARAGRAPHS IN WHICH
EACH IS USED.
From Greek Alpltahet.
Formlllro. Pnrogrnph.
b. (delta) depth of water on surface of the land 1 21
in inches.
).. (lambda) limit of safe stress on masonry 20, 25, 26 213, 220,
23
f" (mu) co-effioient of fluid friction in pipe 488
p (rho) specific gravity of masonry .. 205 and
throughout
the work.
,e (thita) angle of resultant pressure with the 11 to 13 207
vertical.
From Engli~~ alphabet.
A angle of axis of arched.dam with vertical 2 251
A width of impervious masonry apron of drop. 56 466
A area of sluice shutter 71
8i crest width of ma.sonry dam .. 21 216
27 240
80 crest width of ma.sonry weir 32 259, 262,
U to 37 268
B base of duty of wa.ter . 1 21
B height of shutter 70 57
B top width of canal bank .. 51 427
b bed-width of canal or channol 51 427
b width of arch ring in arched dam 23 to 26 238
b width of horizontal joint of dam or weir 9 197
10 204, 205
11 to 13 207
220
35 to 37 26
bl width of joint at right a.ngleEl to resultant 11, 12 207
C classification const,ant of river bed sand 88 to 40 282, 283
45 to 48 331 , 336
Coo-efficient of disoha.rge of notch 1)3 to 55 461
C co-efficient of Ryves' a.nd of Dickens' 3,3-a 91
formula.
50 411
C consta.nt in formula for width of berms .. 52 428
c co-efficient of entry to contracted aqueduct. 68 526
o co-efficient in K ennedy's formula for critioal 8 160, 162
velooities.
o co-effioient used in formula for run-off from 50 411
oombined catchment area. .
• dfsta.nce of centre of pressure from oontre 9 1"
of joint in ~sonry.
 VI SYMBOLS

FormuI8B . Paragraph.
D balanoing depth of excavation 51 427
D canal or river discharge 68 526
2 79
D depth of tail water 33 262
263
D discharge of pipe outlet 64 488
D maximum flood discharge 3,3-80 91
50 411
d depth of ~nal . 133
56 466
d depth of outting of canal 426
52 428
d depth of flow over weir crest 29 to 30 257
32 259
33 262
49 396
d depth of stream flow .. 7,8 160
162 to 165
d depth of water on orest· of weir when tail 263
water is at depth D above the base.
d depth of water in canal above an aqueduot. 68 526
d depth of water pa88ing over shutter •. 70 578
d depth of water passing over sill of notch 53 to 55 461
d diameter of pipe in inches 64 488
d diameter of screw spear 71 582
d duty of water per ousec 1 21
d effeotive size of gra.ins of sand 4,5 115
do depth of water above sill or crest of drop 57 to 61, 467 to 469
63
d l depth of water in canal below a drop .. . 58 467
E submergence, that is, depth of tail water over 53,55 461
sill of notch. 462
F 'fetoh ' in miles 22 216
F proportion of moan to surface velooity .. 2 79
f overturning moment of falling sltutter in foot 70 578
lbs. per foot run.
R height of weir wall above base 256
29 to 31 257
32,33 259,262
35 to 37 268
R height.of wa.ter surfa.ce a.bove ba.se of dam 10 204,205
14 to 19 209
220
21 215
23 to 27 238, 240
R hoight (vertical) from crest of tank weir 49 396
to apron.
R height (vertical) from crest or sill of body wall 465
of drop to apron.
R maximum h d of wa.ter on '" shutter in feet.
H: difference of lev 1 between crest of shutter
and apron of weir or regulator.
.. 71 D82
283
45,47 331,336
 S¥MBOia it
Formn)JB. Paragraphs.
~ difference of level betw en orest of masonry 3, 40 2 3
body wall of weir and L.W.L. below work.
U. difference of level between orest of shutter 38, 46, 4 2 3
and L.W.L. below work.
331
336
h difference of level of head and tail water at 262
weir or drop.
57, 58 467
59 to 63 46 ,469
h head produoing percolation 4,5 115
6 119
h head required to force water through culvert 64 4 8
or pipe.
66 519
h hea.ding-up above a contracted aqueduot .. 626
h~~~~~a~~~~ M 427
h " wave at dam 22 216
hy depression head on Kennedy gaugo outlet, 491
tha.t is, height of water level above centre
of orifice. •
ha hea.d due to velocity of approach . . .. 25
he hoad of entl'yto pipe or contl'aotedaqueduct. 488
68, 60 526
hr hea.d expended in overcoming frictional rec,is- 488
tanco in pipe.
h t head reo overed at tail of oontractod aqueduot. 67 526
K co-effioient of afflux of woir ., 263
L longth of body wa.ll of drop .. 56 466
L length of oulvert barrel or pi1M' in feet 64 48
66 fH9
L length (unsupported) of scrow spear in feet 71 5 2
L total width of down-stream apron of weir 40 283
Ll total width of down-stream apron of river 46 331
regulator.
L, total width of down stream apron of scouring 48 336
sluice.
1 width of sill of trapezoidal notoh •. 53 to 55 461
I width of trough of contraoted a.queduot 68 526
1 length of path of percolation .. 4,5 115
6 119
123
88 283
11 length of path of pel'colation for computation 123,283
of uplift on aprons.
1d area of catohment in square miles •• 3,3 (a) 91
50 411
hi mOInont of horizontal pressure a.bout a point. 30,31 257
M ratio of bed width to depth of oonal .. •• 433
!I) overturning moment of weir 31 (a), 31 262
(b)
M 263
267
 sfimOtB

Formulle. Paragraphs.
M; moment of resistance of weir 35 to 37 268
(a)
m a.rea in square miles of portion of combined 50 411
catchment.
m power motor in equation for oritica.l velooity. 8 160, 162
N Kutter's oo·efficient of rugosity .• •• 165 (g),
436,439,
525
n 2 tan a where a is the angle with the vertica.l 53 to 55 461
of the side of a trapezoidal notoh.
n up·stream division of joint in dam c reservoir 225
empty'.
n' up.stream division of joint in dam 'reservoir 223
full '.
P percolation per million square foot of area .. 133
P pressure of water on the face ola dam or weir. 203,209
257
Ph horizontal component of a dam or weir 29 257
P v vertical componont of a dam or weir 29 (a) 257
p b k pressure on a weir or regulator 322
:e proportion of silt to water . . ..
Q disoharge of oa.nal or ohannel in ousees
Q disoha.rge of canal per foot width of stream.
-- 162
426
162
q maximum disoharge of weir per foot run of 46 331
orost.
48 336
R hydraulio mean dopth 433
66 519
R radius of intrados of bridge or regulator 42,43 321
R radius of up.stream fa.ce of a.rohed dam 237
23 to 26 238
RI radiuB of down·stream faoe of arohed dam. 238
&0 radius of centre of a.roh ring of arohed dam. 28 251
r slope of a faoe, viz., horizontal equivalent of 29 (a) 257
eaoh vertical foot. • 85 to 87 268
r 1 slope of ohannel outting 52 428
r 2 slope of ohannel bank 52 428
S olear span of regulator or bridge opening 41 321
S ma.ximum or minimum oompressive str ss 9 197
220
25 238
81 m an comprossivo stross .. 9 197
220
23,24 238
Silo str in aroh d dam due to weight of aroh .. 28 251
s hydraulio or peroolation gradient 6 119
s height of weir or st shutter 31 ~b) 262
35 to 37 268
t d pth of water pa.88ing over w ir when tail M 263
water is a.t base level.
t tempera.ture EFahrenhoit) of w ter
u down-stl'$l.\m division of horizontal joint of
, 115
220,223
dam from centre of pressure to nearest
extremity of base. -
 S~.M.Bots he:
Fonnule. Paragraphs.
V velooity or disoharge •• 66 619
V velooity of percolation 4,5 115
VI velooity in canal above and below a oontrao- 67 to 69 526
ted aqueduot.
Va velooity in aoqueduct 67 to 69 626
Vo oritica.l velooity (Kennedy's) 7,8 160, 162
V;; Ve100ity of a pproaoh .. 66 (a) 519
v middle division of horizontal joint of a dam. 223
v velocity of flow 4 8
W weight of ma.sonry of dam, weir, eto. 14 to 19 209
220 a.nd
eIs where.
WI weight of masonry of dam, plus vertical oom· 13 207
ponent of water pressure on the face.
W wi<l;th of ~own.stream impervious apron of 39 2 3
rIver wen.
WI width of down-stream impervious apI'on of 45 331
river regulator.
W J width of down-stream impervious aproll of 4:'1 ~&
river scouring sluice.
to weight of water per oubio foot 206
14 to 19 209
220
23 to 26 238
X depth of water oushion oistern below the bed 57,5 ~7
of the tail ohannel.
X height of pivot of fa.lling shutter 70 I"~
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
GElNElUL R:JDMARKS AND DEll!'INllTOlf8.
PARA. PAOli
I, 2. Definition of irrigat.ion 1
3 Irrigated dry crops' 1
: } • Irri~~ted ,:,.et oro~.s· .' : 1
!
6 ' Flow' and 'lift' irrigation I
7 'Perennial' and' intmdation • irrigation .• .. .. .• 2
8 Signification of term 'pereru\ial irrigation' B8 generally usod in 2
Madras.
9 • Direct' and' tank' irrigation . . .. 2
10 Rioe, the irrigated crop generally reforred to .. .. 3
11 Considerations whi h dotermine th methods of irrigation to be 3
adopted.

OHAPl'ER n.
W ATED-SUPPLIES BlllQUlRElD FOR IRRIGATION.
12 • Duty of water • 4-
13 Duty expres<:I6d in • Bores per OU c· 4-
14, Duty in terms of quantity of water impound d
15 American notation for ' duty of water'
16 Duty in terms of' depth over the area'
.. ,
4-
4-
17 Relations between different expressions for duty of water IS
18 • Base' of duty and' orop period' .. .. is
19 Place of measurement to whioh duty has reference li
20 Requirements for preoise statement of duty of water 6
21 Relation between duty in • aore per ouaeo • and' depth over al' a • 6
22 Variations in the duty of water 6
23 Watering' dry crops' 6
24 • Dry crops • in Madras .. 7
25 'Dry orops • in Northern India 8
26 Duty for rice .. 8
27 Transplantation of rice 8
28 Rioe after transplantation 9
29 Duties in the Kistna and Godavari deltas U
30 Effeot of rainfall on speed of transplantation 9
31 Water required for rice after transplantation 10
32 Great variation of duty. of water under different conditions 10
33 Duty of water for • tank irrigation • .. .• 10
34 Fixing duty specially for each tract irrigated . . 10
35 Examples of duties proposed for projects in MadrBs 10
36 Water for IlO(ld·beda •• 12

OHAPrER m.
WATER-SUPPLIES AV.AlLA.BLE FOR IRRIGATION.
RAlNJ'ALL.
37 Rainfall 13
3 Description of a rain gauge l3
39 Setting up a rain gauge .. 14
Obaerving and registering rainfall 1.
in recording stations 14
Variation of rainfall over lin area H
xii OONTENTS
•
PARA. PAOB
43 Estimate of average rainfall over any area •• .. 16
44 Variation in annual, or seasonal, rainfall at the same station 16
45 Percentage of errors in estimating mean annual rainfall .• 15
46 Correction of estimate of mean rainfall in reference to records of an
adjacent station .. .. 16
47 Fluotuations of annual rainfall and their bearing on irrigation projeots. 16
48 Relation of maximum and minimum to mean annual rainfall .. 16
49 Statements of mean, maximum and minimum annual rainfall for the
Madras Presidency 17
60 Average rainfall of a bad year 19
51 Definition of' oatchment basin' 19

RUN.on.
tS2 Definition <If. ' run·off ' 18
53 Irrigation supply wholly derived from' run·off' 19
54 Measurements ofrun·offmuoh to be preferred to estimates based on
rainfall. ........ .... 19
56 Disposal of rain falling on any catohment 20
56 Factors whioh affeot run·off 20
57 Estimating the run·off from seasonal rainfall 20
58 Strange's table of run· off due to monsoon rainfall 20
59 Estimating run·off from total monsoon rainfall 22
o Ohjections to estimating run-off from the total monsoon rainfall 22
61 Strange's table of run·off from daily rainfall . . 22
02 Olassifying condition of oBtcllment aR regards humidity 23
68 Run-off by measuring steam flow _. .. _. _.
64 Importano~ of gaugings of atr am flow ~ven for one or two seasons. _
.. 2'
24
65 Example of above . . .. 24-
66 Percentages. of run· off from rainfall .oorrected from stream flow
me.asurements 25
67 Method of recording stages of stream flow 26
68 Inaoouraoies due to recording flow from intermittent gauge readings .26
69 Seleotion of suitable poaitions for ereotion of gauges . , .. .. 26
70 Oonsiderations affeoting the position of gauges in rivers and streams 26
71 Some d tails of gauge ereotion .. 26
72 Zero ofa gauge to be connected with bench mark 28
73 Gauge wells _. •• •. .. _. 28
74 Automatio oontinuous water level recorders 29
75 M thods of oomputing flow from gauge readings 30
76 Sel ction of site for measuring flow of a stream 30
77 Methods of measuring velooity of flow .. 31
78 Measurement of velooity by surface .Boats 32
79 Method of oomputing discharge from ..urface velocities 33
80 Float observations with velooity rods .. .. .. 33
81 M asuremeDt by onrrent meter . . 34
82 M thods of observing mean velocities by ourrent m ter 34
3 Motloll velooity by one 8oJ'd two point Jlj thods .. 35
84 Surfaoe velooity by ourrent meter .. .. 35
5 M thode of operating the ourrent meter 35
6 W irs used for measllring flow. off .. 36
87 Qaug oalibration ourvell .. SO
8 Run-off oomputed from ohang of water level of an intercepting
reservoir •• 36

FLOOD DrsollARGlIl.
89 Maximum flood disoharge from a large oatchment 36
QO l"loods from rainfall jn mod rate sized oatchments 87
Ql Ryv 'and Diokens' fonnul. .. _. .. 87
92 Tabl of Hood di oharge by Ryvea' formula •• 38
93 Rainfall- FormullB for flood disoharge only applicable to moderate
and &.mall sized catohm nta . . .. .. .. .. .. 38
9' Standard area of maximum precipitation of rain 39
~ l oti n of 00· ffioi nt in Ryv 'fonnula .. 39
'Ul Oonsideration of suitability of co-effioient with reference to data
availablo other tban the maximum r~all in 0110 day. '0
 OONTENTS xiii
P£]lA.
97 Effeot of nature and shape of oatchment on the 00· ffioient "
98 Co·effioients frequently applioo.ble in Madras "
99 Other flood formulae .. .. .. ..
100 Marking and recording flood levels and flood clieoharges

CHAPtER IV.
PERCOLATION AND EVAPORATION.
101 Peroolation ..
102 Percolation and a.bsorption
103 Seepage .. .. ._ .. ..
104 Mean annual peroolation of a oatolunent
05 Effeot of percolation on irrigation supplies
106 Peroolation in soils of different kinds ..
107 Percolation through rock ..
108 Grit and plastio soils
109 Permeability of soils
110 Percolation gradient
111 Water table and ground water gradient
112 • Saturation gradient'
lIS Saturation gradient in a bank shown by pipes
114 Uplift pressure exerted by growld water
115 Velooity of percolation through sand ..
116 Mechanioo.l Analysis of sand
117 Sand analysis \l.8eful for compMing designs with existing works
118 Percolation past irrigt\tion works
119 Stability of works affeoted by peroolation
g~}Limiting elocity of peroolation undor foundations .. {
122 Percolation through embankments .. ..
g!}Upward pressure on works fr01u sub ·soil percolation .. .. {
125 Best pOsition of piles or wells for cheoking peroolation
126 Rate of evaporation
g~} Measurement of rate of evaporation
129 Evaporation and absorption ..
1 SO LOBS from tanks
131 Losses from tanks in South Indio. from evaporation and absorption ..
132 Losses in canals and dis ributary channels
133 Losses from evaporation and absorption in canals and distributarios.
~;:}Prcentage losses by evaporation and peroolation .. .. ..{

CHAPTER V.
bn..T AND SOOUR.
136 Classes of silt 56
137 Faotors influencing the nature and quantity of rivor silt 56
138 Nature of silt in Madras rivers .. 56
139 Measurement of quantity of sUt in 8U8pension 56
140 Taking samples for estimating quantity of silt 67
141 Meohanical analysis of nature of silt in suspension 67
142 Punjab system of sand analysis . . 57
143 Proportions of silt oarried in variollI:l rivers 6
144 Silt quantities in the Kistna and Cauvery rivers .. 68
145 Relation between mee.aurement by weight and by volume .• 5
146 Quantity of silt yearly transported to the sea by large rivera 5
147 Exclusion of bod silt from silt measurements " .. .. 69
148 Alluvium and alluvial formations 69
149 Rivers running through alluvial plains . . 59
150 Silt deposit in lakes .• .. .. 69
151 Formations of deltas 60
xiv OONTBN'l'S

PARA. pA.GE
lCi2 Formation of bars .• 60
163 Distinctive featuree of deltaio tracts .. 60
164. Gradual flattening of surface slope of delta river 68
155 Liability to oonstant ohange of delta river channels 68
156 Characteristios of delta rivers 6S
157 Irrigation facilities in deltas 63
158 DJ;ainsge diffioulties in delta.s ~
159 Silt transRorting power of water 64.
160 Kennedy s theory of critical velocities .. 64
] III Kennedy's theory of silt transportation .. 65
~g~}KennedY'slo.w considered theoretioally 66
]04 Reduced values ofK nnedy's Vo ., .. 67
] 6li Variation of velocity to suit different kinds of silt 67
105-A La.oey's theory of U Horm Bow in alluvial rivers and canals 69
L 9oey'S Formulla and their use 72
Canal Desig:l 73
Silt Vanes 74-
160 D posit of heavy silt near canal heads 78
] 67 Silt deposit in. tanks 8(1
] 68 R guiation of impounding to avoid silt deposition 81
J09 oour 82
170 Irrigntion works and BCOur effects •. . . .. 82
171 Nature of damage done t(' irrigation works by scour 82
172 Providing protection against soour 83
173 Eroding power of olear water 83
173-A Tortuosity of rivers and river training 83

CHAPTER VI.
HEAD WORKS.
174 Irrigation b ad works 9(;
175 Diversion works 96
176 Lev 1 of weir orest 96
177 Diso.dvantages of a solid weir 97
178 Regulator substituted for a weir 97
179 Head sluioe 07
180 Sooruing sluioes • 98
] 81 Divide groyne .. .. .. _. .. 98
182 P lans of typical head works .. .. •. 98
183 System of regulating head and soouring sluioes 98
184 Flood banks 99
186 Site for diversion works 100
186 Favourable oonditions for sites of hend works 101
8 D'lree t,'Ion 0 f a Well'
1] 87} . . h
~lt ~
releronco t
0 ' - aXIs
rival' . ]01

STORA.GJD WORKS.
189 torago works as head works 101
190 Component works of a reservoir .. 101
191 Re rvoir dams 101
192 Reservoir supply sluioes .. 101
193 Reservoir BurplllB workll " 102
~~~}Favourl\bl conditions of site for reservoirs { 102
102
CHAPTER VII.
HEAD WORKs-MASONRY DAMS.
196 fmition of ron nry do.m and w it 103

GRAVITY DAMS.
197}D'
198 lstrl'b'
lltJOn 0 f 'Ill. a rna olU'Y'struc t ure
pressures 103
19~ Diaararn of distribution of pre88ure in a joint •• 10'
 CONTENTS

PARA.
I'AO.
200 Deduotions in l'espeot to distribution of pr6-'l8Ur. 106
201 Stability oondition3 of a gravity dam •• 100
~i}The middle third rule " 106
20' Seol,ll'ity ng'.'inst sllding ., 107
205 • The elem ntary profile' 10
206 We;ght snd apeoifio gravity of masonry 10
~~ } Maximum stress due to resultant PI' sure l09
{ 110
209 Equations giving relations betwee \ pr ll8uroa and t~os 08 •• 110
210 Unit for oomputation of pressures in foroe diagrams no
211 Stresses worked out in tons p er aqu re foot ., .. III
212 Pressures in an elemenhry profile of specifio gravit12l 11 ..
213 Limit of depth of elementary profile .. .• .. 11 ..
2U • High' a-:d 'low' dams .. 112
215 Orest width ofa m 'lSonry dam .. '. 113
216 Free.board of a dam 113
~~~}Profile for a 'low ' dam .. Il3
{ II G

HIGH MASONRY DA.MS.

219 Design of a • high' dam il lS
220 Formull9 applicable to design of' high ' dams il lS
221 Example of design of a 'high' dam . , .. 110
222 Praotioal profile based on tho theoretioal profil 11 8
223 ES8ential divisions of 1\ joint of a dam 110
224 Formula for stress in t he joint of a dam tl9
225 Method of moments for test ing stability . .. 120
226 Example of test by the m thod of momenta .. .. .. 121
227 Graphica.l cons ~ruction for pl'08aure on up stream slGping Cae 12
228 Sta')ility diagram of a dam 124
229 Analysis of results of the abo v example 127
~~~}ADotbe . graphio m ethod .. 128
{ 129
232 Examples of existing high dams 120
233 The Asauan dam " 131
233·A The Mettur Dam 132
234} , Uplift ' and 'flotation' { 133
235

ARCHED .MASONRY DAMS.

236 Arched masonry dams 130
237 Stross in a rches undor water prossure 137
238 Formulro giving stress ill arched dams 137
239 Theoretio profile, a triangle .. 137
240 Crest width of arohed dams 138
241 Maximum stresses allowed in arched dams 138
242 The Bear Valley dam 13
24,3 Australian arched dam!! . . 140
244 The Path·finder dam 1 1
245 Arch d dam s only applicable (.0 narrow gorges 112

BUT'l'RESS DAMS.
246 ButtrelJlJ dams 113
247 Stability of Buttresses •. ti3
248 Panelling between buttreasea 143
249 Arched buttress dams .. 143
250 pacing of buttre s for a roh d dams .. .. .. 144
251 tresses due to the weight of masonry of an in tined arch ]4'
252 Exampl of llo desi8n of an arched buttrell8 dam 144
251 Quantity of masonry as compared with gravity dam 147
xvi OOllTKNTS

CHAPTER VID.
RIVlIIB WlIIms.
AnA. PAOB
5' Definition of a weir 14,8
55 Functions of weirs 148
256 Elementary profile for a weir wall .. •• .• .. 148
257 FormullB for moment of water pressure on tbe face of a weir 1'9
258 Effect of velocity of approach on a. weir .. •• .• 150
259 Crest width of a weir 151
260 Condition of maximmn stre88 on weir walls • • ] 52
261 Different states of water pressure on a weir wall .. •• .. 152
262 Overturning moments on a weir .. .. •• .. .. 152
263 To find the oondition of maximum overturning moment of a weir
when water is pa88ing over the orest . . .. .. 153
264 Condition of gree-test stres of a weir built on impervioUl! soil 154
265 Varying moment of resistanoe of a weir built on pervious soil 155
266 Condition of greatest stress of weirs on pervious soil .. .. 155
267 Examination of stability of a weir by the method of moments .. 155
268 Formulm for the moment of resistance of a trapezoidal weir witb
flotation to level of the tail water .. .. .. .. .. 157
269 Finding the base width of a weir by oalculation 158
270 tability diagram of a weir .. .. .. .. .. .. 158
271 Importance of recording the depth of head water on weirs on the
point of submersion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 160
272 Dhukwa and unkesula weirs 160
273 Austin weir 161
274 Buttre88 weirs 164

WEms ON SAND.
275 Weirs on sand and other friable foundations 164
276 Causes of fe-i1ure of sand foundations 165
277 Apron down·stream of the weir wall 161)
278 Typos of river weirs or aniouts .. 165
279 Apron up-stream of an aniout 166
280 Han~ing groynes .. .. .. .. 166
281 ConsIderations governing design of aprons 166
282 Cla88ilication of river bed sand .. .. 167
283 Formulm for oomputing widths of aprons - 167
284 Thiokness of aprons .. .. 168
285 Uplift pre88ur6S on the main apron 169
286 Example of weir design .. 169
287 The body wall .. .. . .- 170
288 General proposals for foundations and apron .. ] 70
2 9 T sting the main apron for uplift by a diagram 171
290 Effeotive weight of the masonry of the apron .. 172
291 Diagram of effeotive weight of apron . . .. 172
292 Balancing h ad of a masonry apron .. .. 173
293 Alternative diagram of efti ctive wight of apron 173
Combined effeot oflevel and weight of apron on its • balanoing head'·: ]74
29' 174
295 Design of talus and • inverted fllter ' . . ..
296 Design of upstream apron .. .. .. 174
297 Example of a weir of typo A .. .. .. 174
298 The up·stream apron and th talus .• 17.
299 Comparison of types Al and A, of weirs 176
800 Two m thode of drawing diagrams of uplift foroes 177
301 Computing uplift without drawing a diagram .. .• .. •• 177
02 The floors and bank connexions of all works holding up a head of
water to be designed for seourity against piping . • .. .. 178
303 The Palar Aniout (North Aroot district) 178
Condition of greatest uplift on weir aprons 180
30' Failure and reBtoration of Narora well' .. 1 0
305
306 The Lower Chenab w ir at Khanki examined as an eXAmple of
type B weir .. .. 182
The type C or • rook-flll • weir 183
807 lU
108 Body wall of a typo C weir
 OONT~

1'...:1"'••
309 Dry stone ~proJl8 pf type C weirs .. .. ..
310 Remarks on the settlement of aprons of type C w ira
311 Widt\lB and slopes of aprons of type C weirs ..
312 Adv~tages of weirs of types A and B oontrasted
313 Water oushion aprons
314 Crest shutters and open weirs
814·A Do.

CHAPrER I X.
HEAD WORKS.
RIVER REGULATORS, S OUlHNO AND READ LUIOR9.
RIVER REGULATORS .
315 Regula.tors or sluioes 19
S16 Regulator shutters 19
317 RiveI' regulators, soouring and head sluices 10'
318 Roadwl\y over regulators .. .. 194.
319 Span of regulator openings 194,
320 Design of regulators .. 195
321 Formuloo for design of regulators 105
322 Example of working out of the design of 6 r gulator .. 196
;~!}Different conditions of stress on a regulator " 19
325 Limitation of wol'icing conditions of,' gulut.ol'lI 200
326 Watel' not allowed to spill o\rer shutt,ors 2
327 Pl'assure on founda.tions ., 200
328 Cross thrust Oll piers of regulators 200
329 Toludur regulator across the VellaI' .. 201
330 Design oomputations, Toludur rogulator 201
331 Formuloo for width of aprons of riv~r reguluto~ 208
332 Aprolls of Toludur rivor l' gulator 203
SCOURlNG SLurCEs,
333 Scouring sluices in weirs .. 206
334 Sill level of scouring sluices 206
335 Size of scouring sluice vents .. .. .. 207
336 Formuloo for the widths of aprons of soollring sluicos 207
837 Conditions of working of scouring sluioes 208
338 Scouring vents of Toludur regulator 208
389 Scouring sluices of Rupar weir •. 208
340 Face walls of scouring sluices 209
READ SLUIOES,
841 Requirements of a head sluice .. .. 209
341. A Bellmouth entrances for h ead sluices .. 209
342 Arrangements for drawing surface water through head slui co 210
343 Head sluices in Madras 211
344 Sites of head sluices .. .. .. .. 211
345 Head regulator of the Sirhind canal at Rupar . • •• 211
346 Head sluices of the Godavari Eastern and Kistna W stern mnin
canals 212
347 Foundations and flooring of hend sluices 216
348 Hend sluioes of minor canals 216
349 Spring ohannels 218
CHAPTER X.
HEAD WORKS.
STORAGE WORKB WITH EAll'l'REN DAliS .
350 Ta.nk.e 219
351 Types of earth bunds •. .. 219
352 Cau90B of failure of earth n dama 219
353 Failure by percolation 220
35' Slipping of earthen banks 220
 xviii CONTENTS

PAllA.. PAOli
3Go Qualities of plastic and grit soil •• .. 220
3f)6 Face slopes of earthen bunds .. .. 220
357 Failure by overflow or topping of the bund 221
358 Failure by erosion .. .. .. 221
359 Type of bunds of tanks in South India 221
360 Oommon dimensions of tank bunds for restoration work 221
361 Earthen bunde, type B . . .. .. 222
362 Earthen bunde with core walls, type 0 .. 223
363 Saturation gradient in banks .. .. 224
364 Drains under the outer slope of a tank bund 225
365 Top width and free board of tank bunde 226
366 Breaching sections .. 226
367 Revetment to tank bunds 226

DESIGN OJ' EARTHEN BUNDS.

368 Oros8 section of bund to suit the earth aVIl..i lable 227
369 Foundation of the bund .. 228
370 Profile oCthe bUJ!.d •• 229
371 Important points in regard to actual execution of embankments 229
372 Junctions in embankments .. .. .. .. .. 231
373 Draining or tilling of RCOur holes 231
374 Testing soil for embankments . . 232
375 Testin~ the permeability of 0. tank bed 232

RESERVOIR SUPPLY SLUICES.

376 Tlink Sluices 233

377 The culvert of barrel of the sluice 236
378 Foundations of sluice culverts .236
379 Tho superstructure of a sluice oulvert 236
380 Stop walls across the barrel of a sluice 237
381 Head wall and wings of tank sluices 237
382 Sluice with a tower head 237
33M: thod of regulation of tank sluices 238
384 Details of plugs for tank sluices .. 239
385 Oistern or wings at tail end of sluice barrel 239
386 S leotion of site and sill level of a sluice 241
387 Information whioh should be recorded on the design of a sluice 242

TANK SURPLUS WORKS.

388 urplus works of tanks 242

3 9 Typ s of tank weirs .243
390 Principles applicable to amouts also applicable to tank weirs 243
391 Working oonditions of aniouts and tank weirs contrasted .. .243
392 Positions suitablo for weirs of types B and 0 244
393 Positions suitable for type A weir 244
394 Weirs (type D) with tepped aprons 247
395 Material for aprons of tank weirs 247
396 Width of Boors of tank weirs 247
397 Bank oonnoxions of w irs 248
398 Flush esoapes .. .. .. i48
399 Dam stones on tank surplus escapes 248
400 Sluic e as surplus works of tanks 250
401 urplue vents or notohos in weir walls 250
402 Approa h to surplus works 251
403 urplus ohannel . . .. 251
404 Disp08al of surplus water from tanks . . .. 252
405 Detail plans of sites of surplus escapes .. .. 25.2
406 Example of 81 plan and oonneoted weir d sign 253
407 Choice of sites for surplus works 255
407·A Styphon Spillway , 265
408 Groups of tanks . . •• .• .. .. 257
409 Oomputation 'of oapaoity of surplus works of tanks 258
4.10 Flood absorbing capl\Ci. y of a tank •• .. 258
U 1 Computatio~ of flood discharge .from oombined 0 tchments .• 25~
 CON EN'fs

PA.1U.
412 Computation of the capacity of a tank •• .•
413 Co-efficients of disoharge of tank weirs and flush escapee
414 Oapaoity of supply channels for tanks
4.15 Working tables

CHAPl'ER XI.
DISTRIBUTION WORKs-CANALS AND CHANNELS.
'16 Distribution works .. 262
417 Classification of distribution channels .. .. .. .. 262
418 Different methods of alignments of irrigation channels .. 262
,U9 Points to be aimed at in the lay.out of a djstribution system 263
419·A Standing wave or Hydraulio jump '203
'l9-B Momentum forumlae " .. 2M
420 Main canals 88 contour channels 266
421 Offtakes from contour canals 206
422 Typical distribution system .. .. .. 68
423 Plan showing part of typical distribution system 268
424 Alternative alignments of cOilltour canals .. 68
425 Lay.out of field channels . . .. .. 269
426 Standards of canals 270
427 • Balancing depth' of cutting 271
428 Rule for width of berms .. 271
429 Side slopes of oanals 273
430 CurveE in canals 273
431 Location of 8 contour canal 273
439 Velocities of flow and limit of depth of canals. . .. .. .. 273
433 Proportion of bed. width to depth in the best dis harging chauuol .. 274
434 Cross section of least abaorption .. .. .. .. .. 274:
436 Proportic>nate bed-width to depth for canal of fixed dischargo 275
436 Tabl~ of dimensions of canaltt and djstributario8 .. .. 276
437 Charaoteristics of ohannels of non-silting velocities with varying pro·
portions of bed· width to depth .. .. .. .. .. 278
438 Balanoing depth too shallow for large channels and too deep {or very
small ones 278
439 Kutter's co-efficionts for channels of differont sizos 278
440 The proportion of bed·with to depth to be fixed having in view the
slope of the country traversed .. .. .. .. .. 279
441 Other considerations for fixing the proportion of bed-width to dopth. 270
442 Depth of outting of a channel . . .. 270
443 Depth of a ohannel bed above 0. • drop , 280
444 Capacity of canals 2 2
445 Command .. 282
446 Considerations influenoing the proportions of ctOBllsoctions of channels. 283
447 Change of carrying capaoity of a. oana.l . . .. .. .. .. 283
448 Change of depth of a ohannel •. .. •. .. •. .. 284:
,,~ Canal linings 284
449 Mile and bench·ma.rk stonos 286
450 Contour ohannels in single bank .. .. .. 287
451 Tanks formed at drainage crossings UIIed ae storage works 288
452 MasOnry works of distribution sy~temli 288

CHAPrER XII.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM-MASONRY WOBXS.
CANAL • DBoPs' Oll • FALLII.·
453 C8DAl • drope • •• •• •• •. .. •• •• .. 289
454: Positions of • drops' •• •• •• •• •• •. .. 289
(55 E888Iltial features of a drop •. .. •. •. •. .. 289
456 Control ohhe velooit)' and of the water level in the approach to a drop. 289
'57 Control by 'trapezoidal notches' .. •. 290
'1S8 Theoretical and practical form of trapezoidal notch 2~
469 Water levels for whioh notoh. ahoula be oomputed 290
• ' 60 Detaila of plan of a trapezoidal notch •• •• 2"
~~. .~oa
4:61 Fonnulm for disoharge of a trapezoidal notch .. 291
462 Natbersole's discharge tables of trapezoidal notches 292
jl63 Example of calculation for a trapezoidal notch 292
464 General features of design of drops .. .. 293
465 Proflle and length of drop wall and number of notch.. 293
466 Width of the main apron of a drop . . . .. .• 294
467 Depth and limits on use of water oushions 294
468 Lengths of main aprons of drops •• 295
469 Length of revetment and bed pitching . . ::~
470 Balik oonnexiona ., .. .. ••
471 Example of design of a drop 296
472 Testing a design for percolation and uplift 299
473 Splayed wings .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 299
474 Example of drop wit.h solid apron and core wall be.nk oonnexj,ona 300
475 Modificationa necessary to get a percolation gradient of 1 in 5 302
476 Types of bank conn&xiona oontrasted 303
4:77 Designs ofexisting drops. . 304
4:78 Syphon well.drops •• 306
OANAL RlIIGtJLATOBS AND DIVIDING D.ur:8.

Oanal regulators 309

Regulating notohes
Designs of regulatora
" . a09
aoo
Dividing dams .. all
InmGA1'10N SLUIOE••

483 Irrigation sluices ., 31a

484 Shutters of oanal sluioes .. 316
485 Types of irrigation sluioes 316
486 Pipe outlets ,. ., 818
487 Fixing size of pip6!l in outlets . . .. 320
4.88 Oaloulation of disoharge of pipe outlets / 320
489 Table of discharge of pipe outlets .. 321
490 Defects in distribution by pipe outlets •• 322
4.91 The' K ennedy gauge outlet' . . .. 322
492 Limitations on usefulness of Kennedy gauge outlets 323
402.A Module. .. .. .. .. .. .. 323

OOllD!UNIO,,"TION WORKS.

493 Bridges .. .• ., 324-

494 Road syphona .. .. ," 325
405 Oart and cattle cro88ings .. 326
496 Oattle or088ings in deep oanals 327

RllrrAININO WALLII 1'011. !BBIoATION WOBltS.

:~~ }
Remarka on retaining walls •.
328
{ 329
499 Retaining walle with eloping tops 330
500 Building a winding slope ., ••
, 331

CHAPTER XIU.
CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS AND DRAINAGE OF llmlGATED TUOTS.
501 Methods of disposing of 0r088 drainage .. 332
502 Aqueduots and syphon aqueductll .. 332
5()3 Types of aqueduots and syphon aqueduots a32
Selection of a suitable type of aqueduot
6()4, •. .. .• •. 333
60s Headway required at the point of Ol'08IlWg of drainage by an acqueduot. 3aa
606 Lowering bed of dr~e below a syphon aqueduot ., .. .• 334..
607 Considerations to determine the Bite of aqueduct or syphon aqueduct.
and which type of wor~ is most suitable 33,
P~. PA<a
608 Crossing 8. drainage by an irrigation syphon 3SG
509 Example of type ill syphon aqueduot " 835
tHO Profile of abutments of aqueduot .. 318
511 Example of type ill syphon aqueduot .. 83
512 Bank oonnexions ., .. .. .. 33
613 Example of type ill syphon aqueduot " .• 339
lH4: Uplift pressures on lIyphon llooring .. .. .. 339
tHo Example of type ill syphon aqueduot .. .. .. 389
616 Uplift pressures on overhead oovering of syphon ovlverta 341
517 Example of type ur syphon aqueduot .. .. .. 8 1
618 General remarks on uplift on the coverings of sypl10ns 341
519 Formula for the diaoharge of an inverted syphon 342
520 Head on a syphon .. .. .. .. 343
521 Example of type ill syphon aqueduot .. .. 343
522 General remarks on the design of a syphon aqueduot 3'3
523 A type III aqueduot suitable for e. surplus work 3U
524 Contraotion of waterwa.y through an aqueduot 3"
626 1..088 of head or heading up in a canal at a oontracted aqueduot 345
526 Formula and oaloulatioll8 for head required 345
527 Example of type ill syphon aqueduot .. .. 346
528 Normal limit of heading up due to contraction of,.m aqueduot 346
529 Example of aqueduct of type II .. .. .. .. 34,7
~~ n'l~~%~ I\ll"l~~ ~~ '~;'j,£>\I.~'U. \I.~",,~<i'U~~ ~ \'''fl>'b ~ •• Ys'b
531 Examples of exiatin8 a queduots and syphbn aqUeduata 349
532 Superpa.98ages and syphons .. .. .. .• 362

LEVEr_ CBoSSINGS, INLETS AND Ou~LE'l·S .

633 Level orossings 353

534 Inlets and outlets .. 366
535 Inlets 30
636 Canal outlets or escapes 81S7
637 Surface outlets 837
538 Outlet or surplus sluices BIl7
539 Outlets built in connexion with inlets ., .. 31S9
540 Objeotion to disposal of or098 drainage by inlets all d outletll 31S9
64:1 Outlets not oonnected with inlets .. .. .. .. 869
542 Outlets for canals carried in single bank 860
543'-Canal scouring sluioes .. .. .. 360
544 Soouring sluice in the first reach of main canal ." . .. 860
645 Diversion of natural surfaoe drainage by contour ifrJgatlOn oana)8 360
54,6 Catch dra.ins 301
l'n Tail escapes 862

DRAINAGE WORKS.
648 Draina.ge of the irrigated area 362
549 Grading of drains " . 862
660 Banks of drains •. 863
551 Drainage outfa.ll sluioes .. 368
552 Oape.oity of drains •. .. •• 872
558 Combined irrigation and drainage channels 872

CHAPTER XIV.
NAVIGATION OOMBINED WITH IRRIGATION WORKS.
6M Navigation canals .. 374-
556 Limite of velocity of navigation canal •• 874:
656 Dept"hl and widths of navigation canale 874:
667 Extm water required for navigation 874:
658 Special worn required for navigation pu.rpoeee 174.
669 Canallock8.. .. •. .. .. .. 876
6eG Look 600re and aide wan. 876
PUA.
561 Dimenaiowr of look chamber 875
562 Chopella lock, Godavari Eastern delta 376
568 Look sluices •. .• •• 379
664, Look gates .• 379
666 Tidalloob •. 379
666 Loeb with eloping aides 380
667 Double looks 881
568 Mooring porte in locks 331
669 Site of looks and look weirs 34:1
670 Lock weirs .• 332
671 Fender piles 888
672 The tow.path 882
573 Bridges on navigation canals 38
674. Desimbility of combining navigation with irrigation 3SS

CRAPl'ER XV.
REGULATING SRU'rI'ERS AND GEAR.
57G enoral 385
576 Weir orest abutters 385
377 Fourao~es' falling abuttel'l:I 386
678 Computation of position of pivot of J!'ouracr8s' fnlling shutters 3 6
579 Ashford's patent dl·top ahutkr . . .. .. .. .. 388
679-A 'Krisna. Aniout Falbng shuttors •• .. .. .. 391
IS~O Larg span lift shutt:Jr8 •• .. •• .. .. .. 301
581 Sorew gearod sluice gates moving on plano bearing Slll'fac08 •. 395
5 2 Dimensions of BpOaJ'B and soreW' threads 400
583 NOll·rising pcrow I?POIU'~ '.. •• •• 401
li8' Needle ehutters 401
555 BesuIation by hOl'.iwntal pianka 401
586 Stem or Paddle shutter .. 402
 IRRIGATION
CHAPTER l.
GENERAL REMARKS AND DEll'INlTI N .
Definition of Irrigation. -Irrigation may be defin d l\S tho u ply
of water by artificial mans for th cultivation of crops, I\nd th work
required to give affect to such supply ar 'irrigation works'. The
function of irngation is to suppl lUent the supplies of water falling
in the form of rain on th area. to b cultivated at th sea n and to
the extent required for tho successful cultivation of th crop.
2. Whon the natural rainfall on the area oulti at d, as r gards both
quantity and soasona l incidonce of fall, is suitablo for th oultivation,
ilTigation is not required, and in countriol> ( uch as England) in which
the normal ra.infall is sufficient for th wat ring of the r ps gr wn,
il'figation is not practisod. In Southorn India. th nOI'ma) qualltity
and incidenco of l'ainf~tll is gonorally suitablo and sufficient for th ultj.
vation of most of the l<inds of crops raisod, such 1\8 millota, c tton, t.,
and these crops are in consoquence in the Madras Prosid n y gl noml1
referrfd to 8,S 'dry orops' 8.nd a.re not irrigated. It must, how v r,
be realized that in other pa.rts of India, in Egypt o,nd in thor uutr; 8
where the rainfa.ll during tho orop SOOSOll is sma.ll J' tho. e sa.me orop
a.re normally irrigated. .
3. Irrigated' dry crops '.-' Dry crops' aro OCCl\ sionu.lly irrigat d
in Madras with a viow oithor of raising tho crop during tho s ason of tho
year when norma.l rainfall i insufficiont or of gotting 1.\ botter outturn
of crop by seouring means of watering the orop a.t will and thus insuring
the crop from injury owing to tomporal'J failuro of rain. Considerable
areas of 'dry orops', ospocia.lly ragi, MO irrigated in Madras und~r
private sourcos, generally wells, but tho aroas normally irrigated by
Government irrigation works are small.
I n yea.rs of deficient ra infall, howover, uonsidera blo a.reas of • dry
crops' which are not normally irrigated arc watered from Govornment
irrigation works.
This is spocially the caso under tho KUl'llool. uddap h en I, tho
area of dry orops irrigated undor which expanc1.s groatly in y 0.1'8 of
deficient rainfall and which in COlli.ioquon 0 is a most valuablo fumin
Qrot{)etive work.
4. Irrigated' wet crops ' .-While crops which are ordinarily grown
without irrigation in Madras a.re termed' dry orops' convers ly tho
whioh cannot normally be grown without irrigation ar 'w t crops '.
Generally sp aking 'wet eultivation' in Madra.s is oonfin d to ri ,
of whioh many varietios are grown with crop periods varying from thr
months to sev n months. Tho t rms ' wot ' and 'dry' orop in connoxjon
with irrigated areas may possibly be derivod from th fact tha.t in th
case of the former the irriga.t.ed ar a. is usually kept cov r d by ra1
inohes of standing water, whereas this i not so in the 86 of irrig ted
, dry crops ' .
 lRRIGA'l'I It

5. In addition to tho abov there are speoially valuable orops subjected

to inton. iva cultivation and requiring water for at 1 . at nine months
and frequently throughout the year. These are termed' gard n' crops
or sometimes' dufassil 'crops. These include sugarcane, planta.ins, etc.
6. 'Flow' and 'lift' irrigation.-Whore the supply of irrigation
wator avail ble is at such a level that it is conveyed on to th la.nd by the
forco of gravity, tha.t is by 'flow ' it is known as 'flow' irrigation as
c ntra ted with 'lift' irrigation, which must be praotised whon th
water-supply is at too Iowa lev] t run by gravitation on to the land.
In uoh oas th water level mllst be ra.ised by pumps or other watet·-
lifting devices. The most common appli ation of ' lift' irrigation is
irriga. tion from wells.
It it! not proposod in this text-bo k to doal oither with' lift ' or ' well
irrigation and only' flow irrigation' will be dea.lt with.
7. 'Perennial' and 'inundation' irrigation.-'l'hero a.re two main
olassos of' flow' irrigation systems-
(a) Perennial systems. '
(b) Inundation systems.
Moat of the sy8tems in ldia a.re of the pt1ronnial typ. Inundation
irrigati 11 is carried on by deop flooding and thorough satura.tion of the
land to bo cultivated which is then dra.ined off prior to the planting
of the crop, the moi8ture stored in the soil by inundation serving when
supplemontod by natural rainfall and in some cases by oC0l\8ionai minor
waterings to bring the orop to maturity. This system has been in opera-
tion in Egypt, Sind and elsewhere for many centurios. It is a.lso termed
, flood' irriga.tion.
The term' perennial' irrigatiOll in contra.st to ' inundation' in'igation
impli s tnat th water required for irrigation is supplied in acconlu.l1ce
with orop requiroment8 throughout the 'crop period' and that floods
are not necesl.iary for pasaing water by flow on to the irrigated a.rea.
The term used in the a.bove oormexion d es not imply that wtl.ter is
supplied throughout the yea.r. It must however be explained that in
Southern India (Mysore and Mad!Jlos) this term is genera.lly used in the
la.tter sense and has reference to Cl'opssuohas sugarcane, plantains, eto.,
of a kind requiring wAotering throughout the year.
Thero is no distinct line of c] avago b tween' flood' and' perennial'
irrigation and many canals whioh at one time were merely flood ohannels
have by improvement acquired suoh facilitios for irriga.ting from low
river flow as to merge into the p ronnial class of work. Similarly it
oocasiona.lly ha.ppons when irrigation works have b en n glocted that
canals, onoo perennial souroos, ha beoome only inundation souroes
of sUPlly.
8. Signltlcatlon of term 'perennial irrigation' as generally used .
In Madras.-As there is little inundation irrigation in Southern India,
it is oustomary th r to use th t rm 'perennial irrigation' as referring
to oultivation roquiring w t r throughout the yoar.
9. 'Direct' and 'tank' irrlgation.-' Flow' irrigation is further
olassified in aooordanoo with the SOUl'CO from whioh the wa.ter is drawn
6S-
(1) 'DiI' ot' irriga.tion (termed' canaZ' irrigation in North India).
(2) 'Reservoir' or ' tank' irriga.tion.
 GENERAL RE :tARKS AND DEFINIT! 1'1 3

I Diroot ' irrigation imp lie that the wator' dra.wn dir tl fr Dl the
Bow of a river or stream without tho intor nUon of t Jl sto g work,
while the water for 'tank' irrigation is drawn from tanks. Many
systems are a combination of both methods.
10. Rice, the Irrigated crop generally referred to.-Flo, irrigation
iu Madras is almost exolusivcly d voted to th cultivation of ri I.nd th
duties and systems of irriga.tion a.nd distribution d sorib d in thi t vf.
book when not oth rwise s~ated have roforon 0 ric ultivo.tio-
1916--17 (fa.sli 1326) out of a total area. of 3, 1 ,012 o.crl' irl'igo.'
Governmont wOl'ks in Madra.s, for which ca.pital a,ld 1'0 onu 1\0
aro kept, no less than 3,574,393 acros (over 93 por cant) wa.s rio .
11 . Considerations which determIne tbe methods 01 Irrigation to
be adopted.-An irrigation roservoir doos not in rea tho w tor- uppl
of a catchment but merely furnidhos a moans of rogulat,ing th flow-off
of that supply in a. way suitable for tho r quir monts of th crop a.nd
thus by impounding water when natural fiow-offi s ill xc IStl of immodio.to
requiremonts holds it a,vailable for issue when Mtw'al flow fl.Us bol w
this limit.
If the riVOl' or strea.m constituting tho SOlU'CO of supply of an irrigation
system has a normal flow-off throughout the irrigation soason nov r
les8 a.t any time tha.n the requiremont of tho irrigg,t d Mea th 'diro t
flow' method of irrigation is clea.rly indicatod. W]1oro tho whoJo y arly
or sea.sonal flow-off although of fully sufficient total qua.ntity is normflolly
insufficient during certain pt>rts of tho ('fOP soason for irfigationa.l requiro.
ments, the condition!:! ca.ll for a.rtificial moa.ns of l'oguh\ting tho flow-off
by storage works and' tank irrigation' must be l'ot:lortod to.
 CHAPTER II.
WATER-SUPPLIES REQUIRED FOR IRRIGATION.
12. ' Duty of water '.-The relation between the area of crop irrigated
and the quantity of irriga.tion wat~r required to supply it is technically
termed the' duty of water'.
13. Duty expressed in ' acres per cusec '.-Duty ma.y be stated in
various wa.ys by employing different notations but in India it. is most I
frequently statod in terms of tho number of acres of cultivation of any
kind, which can bo (or has been) , irriguted by [l flow averaging one cubic
foot per seoond (on OU80C) for tho whole crop season, or for any spooified
period. .
, Duty' is referred to as being 'high' oi· 'low' acoording as the
number of aoros per ousac irriga. tod is large or small.
In Amerioa. one cubic foot por seoond is called a. 'sooond foot' but
in India a ousoo.
14. Duty in terms of quantity of water impounded.-Tho notation
of paragra.ph 13 above is a convenient one for expressing duty when
oonsidering direot flow irrigation, in which the discharges of tho distribu-
tion oa.na.l a.nd oha.nnel a.re expressed in ouseos, but thore a.re occasions
in whioh it is oonvenient to use othor notations to express the • duty
of water '.
This is speoially so with roference to tank irriga.tion a.s in suoh ~
t he areas which can be irrigated a.re depend~nt on the amounts of water
stored in the ta.nks supplying them.
In India reservoir capacity is usually stated in million.'3 of cubio
feet, and it is therofore frequently oonvenient to express the duty of
water in oonnexion with stora.ge systems in tern'lS of tho number of
acros of irrigation whioh oa.n be supplied per million cubio foet of impoun-
ded water. Under suoh notation duty is stated as' . . . . . .
aores per million oubio feet.'
16. American notation for ' duty of water '.-In America. the capaoity
of storage works is usually stated in acre-feet, one acre-foot being the
quantity of water required to oover one aore to a depth of one foot (viz.,
43,560 oubio £ et) . Under suoh a notation the duty ofwator is the number
of a.cre-feet requirod to supply an aore of orop.
It is olear that this notation is a oonvenient one, as, jf the depth
of irrigation water required for a orop i known, the area irrigable from
a l' ervoir of stated seasonal storage in a.cre-fe t is a.t once appa.rent.
The notation is oocasionally used in India..
It may hero be lloted tha.t one • aore-foot' is almost equa.l to one
ouseo flowing for half a. day (12 hour ).
16. Duty in terms of ' depth over the area '.-The quantity of water
required for irrigation purposes depends greatly on the normal quantity
of rain f~ing on the a.rea. to be irrigated and as this is measured in terms
of the depth falling on this area, it is olear that it may be convenient to
express the • duty' of water in the s me notation; duty is therefore
 WATER-SUPPLIES REQUIRED F'OR mRIG TI _

freq~ently s~ted in terms of. d pth of water over the irrigl\tod

requU'ed to brmg the crops on It to maturity.
The duty. in thi~ f?l'm~ a also in other ea s, i g n rall t&ted
so as o~y to Include IrngatIOn wa.ter suppli d, but some tim it j stat d
so a.s to molude the total depth of water, that is, rain plus irrigation 8uppl .
Where rainfall is inolud d this IUn t I\lways b spe ificaIJy lin ci failing
which the duty ret rs to irrigation wat~r only.
. Fo! exampJ.o, the d~ty of water for a orop r quiring a total depth
molUfllve of ram of 65 mches on the field, whor~ 25 inche usoful rain
can be counted on during the crop sea on, might be t>ta.tod
(a) A duty of 40 inches de live rod on the ficld , or
(b) A duty on the field, inolusive of rain, of 65 in 11 .
17. Relations between diJlerent expressions for duty of water.-
The relations between different notations and tmits for 0 pr ing dllty
are stated below :-
1 cusec flowing one day = '0 64 million cubi foet.
= 2 Mre·feet (l '9 xactly).
= 24 aor(~-inohes nearly (23'7~
exactly).
1 million cubic feet = 1l'574 cusecs flowing for on
day.
= 23 acre-£ at noarly (22' 6 xactly).
1 acre-foot or 12 acre-inches = t ousec flowing 24 hours (nearly).
One acre per million cubic feet is oquiva.lent lapproximo.toly} to
a. duty of 12 acres per cusec for a. crop period (base) of 140 days.
18. • Base ' of duty and ' crop period '.-UnJoss tho oontrary is
specified duty is generally takon to re£'r tl) the whole p riod of cultivation
from the time when irrigation water is first issu d for preparation of the
ground for the planting of any crop, to its last. wf\toring b for hl\rv sting.
This will be referred to as the ' crop period'.
The quantity of irrigation wat~r required for 0. crop vari gr atly
at different times, and the 'duty' for the whole 'orop period' IS an
average duty and does nGt givo information of the actunl rate of supply
on any day, or series of days.
The term' duty' is however frequ~ntly used with roferonoo to p riod
of timo loss than the whole 'crop period' o.nd the period to whioh th
stated duty has referenoe is termed its' bas '. To be precise it is nece8sary
when stating a duty , alBo to state tht base.
When the base is not stated and whon there is nothing in the context
repugnant to this assumption, it is gonera.lly understood that the duty
refers to the whole crop period.
The total supply delivered a.t heads of canals and distributari s during
a. crop sea.son ia expr ased sometimes a.s so ma.ny cus cs di m
Cuseo diem = area In acre.
Duty

19. Place of measurement to which duty has reference.-To oloarly

define the significance of any specified duty, in additi n to speoifying
the base, it is also necessa.ry to state the place of measuremont of the
wa.ter.
Losses of wa. tel' in transmission betwoen tho head of a canal system
a.nd the fields bv eva'Doration. oorcomtion, and other causes, are in many
6 mRIGATION

systems very considerable, a.nd the qua.ntity of water delivered on the

fields is different from that pa.ssing into the system at th hood, and
therefore the duty ' on the field' is different from the 'duty at the
head.' .
For instance, if losses in transmission amount to 20 per cent of the
water entering at the head, then if the duty on the field is 40 inches
(equiva.lent to 96 a.cres per ousec to a hase of 160 days), then the' head
duty' would be 50 inohes (equivalent to 77 aores per CUSeC to a. base of
160 days).
Again in the case of a reservoir if the duty ha.s refcrence to the amount
of water required to be stored in the reservoir, the losses by evaporation
and percola.tion from the reservoir must be allowed for in addition to
losses in trallsmission and added to the quantity required on the fields.
20. Requirements for precise statement of duty of water.-In urdor
to clea.rly define duty it is therefore necessa.ry to state at tho same time:-
(a) the base,
(b) the place of measurement.
The duty stat d may be in t erms of :-
(1) acres per cuseo, or
(2) inches in depth on the irrigated area , or
(3) acres per million oubio feet of wo.ter.
21. Relation between duty in 'acres per cusec' and ' depth over
area/ .- The following is a convenient oqua.tion conneoting the different
notations used for ~xpressing duty :-
If d = duty in acres per cusee ,
l). (delta) = equivalent depth in inches,
and B = base in days,
24 B 24 B . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
l). = ( i , d = 6
Thus a duty of 90 acres per cusee is oquivalent to 0'26 inch pOl' day
or say inches per month.
NOTE.- Th above equ~t i on is not exactly ('orreot but the error is sm all, o.nd
the form so simple that it is in general use.
22. Variations In the duty of water.-Duty of water varies with the
nature of the soil, the nature of the rainfall, and the nature of the crops
il'rig ted. In South India irrigation is almost a.ltogether d voted to the
cultivation of rice, but the duties for other crops will be briefly referred
to.
23. Watering f dry crops '.~Although irrigation of dry crops is but
little practised in South Indio. it is proposed to gjve somc information
on the subjcct of the m thods of applying wa.ter to dry orops and the
amount of the water required.
Under normal conditions the surface soil in the Il.reas growing dry
crops is at the time of watering either quite dry, or only very slightly
moist, and the conditions under which water is a.pplied to such areas
differ greatly from tho e under which water is given to rice fields which
II,re normally kept submerg d under 3 or 4 inches of water.
Under the latter conditions it is not a matter of any gr at importance
how the water, r quired to l' plenish the upply to a field, is giv n, or
if each watering is completed in two hours or is spread over two day.
or is given as a continuous flow.
 WAT ER- UPPLIES REQUIRED FOB mRIGATION 7

The most 'economical conditions of wa. ring a dry fiold it; ~ h n, a

happens under the supply by rainfall, the water is applied simultan ou ly
to all equal depth a ll over the fi ld. Thi condition cannot b r aliz d
by irrigation, but in order as far as po ibl to appro .·imn.t to it. t.lL
size of the embanked o.ren. Rhould be small , and th 1"1\1,0 of flmv into
each area suffioiently lfl.rge t,o prevent great. waRtl in n.pplying Wl\ r to
dry crops.
In irrigation fl'om wells it is uRttally imposRi blo to SUl)ply f\ ol1sidor.
able flow of water I\nd the nniver '8.1 pl'l\ oti is t cUvid up 1,11
area. into sopa.rate embanked plots sometUl1eA as small as 5 sqn r
feet, and genera lly not great r thEm 1,000 SqUtJ.1'6 foot; in Northenl
India, these compartments are known as ' kiaris '.
Under flow irrigation it is not necessary or pl'l1.ot.icable to divide
up the whole area into such smn.ll divisions I\S th flow whioh can
be given to ea.ch compa.rtment is much hnger than t hat from wells.
Generally it shonld be arranged thl\t the direct flow supp! to a h
compartment should be of not leSB thA.n hn.lf n. ns c and th
oompartment should be one q1ltl.rt.or of an afire 0 1' l ORa in area, if pm ti.
cable a s small 80S one·eighth ncro.
It is found in practice that the r p 11.1, the boundary of tho ).Jlot
remoto from the source 01' flupp ly receivos n. sufficiont wat ring if the
supply is shut off 8.S soon a.s surface flow reachoR that boundary, and th
quicker this ca.n be effected tho les8 tho wa.sto by useloss porcolation
into the soil in thH parts of the plot recoiving 01) rlier wl1.tering.
Apart from the size of the plot a.nd the ma.gnitude of tho flow th
quantity of wat~r required to water 1\ plot fully is greator for th first
watering than for the subsequent ones. Genera lly it may bo tak nth t
for a first watering in loa.m floil a qua.ntity of wll.tel' of not] tho.n
4 inohes depth is required, while subs quont waLo i.ngs r quire from
2! to 3 inoh 8 .
24. 'Dry crops' in Madras.-Flow irl'igati.on to dry cropH in Mll.dras
is praetised only over a very refltrictod aroa.. T ho kind of dry orops
chiefly irrigat d are ('holam and ragi.
A supply inolu ive rain of 6 inches a. month, is 8uffioi 01, for Rueh
crops on loam soils a.nd wh en grown on very r et ontive soils, suoh
blaok ootton even less water suffiQes.
Under t he Kurnool.Cuddapa.h canal in yOVoJ's of de6 ient minfn.ll
a large area. of clwlam is watered a.nd the duty a.llowed for is 120 0. r
per ousee.
 8 IRRIGATION

The first watering requires about 6 inches depth and subsequent

waterings which in the absence of ra.ins should be given about every
twenty days interval and each requiros about 4 inches depth of water
over the area.
As it is desirable to water the crop under each distributary as rapidly
as possible, distributary channels for dry crops should be mad to supply
the area at a duty of about 60 acres per cuscc; this would suffice to
give a 6·inch watering to the whole area under each distributary in fifteen
days a.nd a 4·inoh watering in ten days.
Distributary channels intended for irrigating dry crops should be
run full whenever open and between waterings should be kept entirely
closed. This results in diminution of percolation losses in channels
and water courses whioh, in the case of irrigated dry crops, are likely
to be proportionately muoh greater than in the case of wet orops. This
8ystem also keeps every outlet pipe disoharging full whonevor a channel
is open a.nd greatly facilita.tes equitable distribution.
25. ' Dry crops' in Northern India. -In the summer (kha.rif) season
in Northern India. irrigated orops are similar to those grown in South
India, and the oa.nal head dut,ies rea.lized vary from 60 to 120 acr{lS per
cusee aooording to the varying condition of soil and rainfall.
The winter (rabi) orops are generally of a nature which would not
grow in the warm climate of South India. The chief rabi crops are wheat
and barley and these in the Punjab require 4 to 5 waterings. The duties
realized for the rahi orops are muoh higher than for the' kharif,' and
vary from llO to 220 aores per cusee a.nd are greatly dependent on the
nctual incidenoo of rainfall during the crop season.
The base of the above duties is five to six months.
26. Duty for rice. -In Benga.l the duty for rice on the field inclusive
of rainfall is stated by Buckley as varying from 56 to 75 inches and this
agrees fairly with what is found to be the duty in Madras for a single
erop of rice.
The above are duties for a ' orop period' of about 140 to 160 days.
During this period the amount ofwatol' required for the rico crop varies
considerably t\nd may be separated_into two distinct parts : -
(a) Water required for the preparation of the land to receive the
crop.
(b) Water-supply required for the crop after it is planted.

27. Transplantation of rice.-The preparation of land for rice cultiva.-

tion usually consists of flooding the land till water stands several inches
in depth over it and ploughing it when in this state, so as thoroughly to
puddle the surface soil, reducing it to a. soft slush. The water is generally
kept standing in the fields for some days aftt'r submerging the land so a.s
to kill the weeds.
The rice seed is generally germinated in separate seed-beds, and the
young plants from the sood·beds 801'0 transplanted being thrust by hand
into the soft slush from whioh surface water is previously drained off';
after transplantation a light flooding is given. The operation of preparing
a plot and transplanting it takes from first to last about 8 to 10 days,
and a very larg quantity of water, varying in different soils and localities
from about 12 to 24 inohes on the1ield. is required, for the whole operation.
 WATER-SUPPLIES REQUlBED FOR IRRIGATION 9

In some places the seed is sown broadca t on th fi I a.nd th r i

no t~ansplanta.tion of ~e dUngs, but the ploughing and puddlin a
de Ilnbe~ p~ocede sowmg. In som parts dry plougbing is r Olt d
to and nee IS own brcadca t after a fall of rain and i Ilot irriga ' d
till after t.hfl CfOp has nome 1 p.
T~e above, however, .do. not onst~tut,e th ordinary agrioulturnl
practIce and the great ma.Jonty of th n e or p in uth Indi,\ i tra _
pla.nted by hand in fields prepared as above described.
2~. Rice after t~ansPlantation .--:-Aft r transplantation he rop
reqUIres wa.ter suffiClent to keep the land l1bmorgoo. This roa be
given either continuously, or at varying inten-als, up to about ton days.
Usually the supply to individual fields is given at intervals aryingfr ro
four to eight days. .
29. Duties in the Klstna and Godavari deltas. -Tho 'tmJlsplant _
tion wa.ter' required varies as all'eady stated but in l.h so dolt,as the
depth required is believed to a. verage flo bout ] 6 in hos, t h p m I,ion
taking about 10 days .
After transplantat,ion a.bout t inch POI' day if! roquired to supply th
transplanted orop.
The supply of 16 inches in ten days works out to a dllty of 2<1 ~j 10 = 15
aores per CUS6C if however the period of tl'anspla.ntation for tho
whole area is sprea.d over seven weeks the duty for this nrea works out
to 73 aores per ousec.
In this oomputation no allowance has been made either for rninfa.ll
during the period of transplantation, or for the water required to sustain
the pa.rt of the orop transplanted in the early part of the p riod to th
end of the seven weeks.
In the Kistna and Godavari d · lms during thif! period 6 inohes of
useful rainfaU may be counted on even in SOI\ROnfl of rain oonsidera bly
below the average.
The water for the sustenance of the alroa.dy transplanted OI'OP would
roquire about an avorage 1- inch per day over half the ar a, oquival nt
to 1 inoh pel' day over the whole aroa, say 6 inohos for the transplantation
period. Thus the total irrigation water required over the whol<> aroa for
t ransplantation in seven weeks is (16 + 6 - 6) = 16 inohes.
At a, duty of 73 acres per ousec disoharged on to tho fields tho above
., gIve
quantitIes . the equa t'Jon B = 6.24d = 73~ =
x 16 49 days.
In these systems the maximum capaoity duty provid d at th Canal
head is 66 to 70 acros per cusee, giving about 73 aoros on the field ; the
supply is thus adequate for transplantation in seven \V oks, ex pt in
times of abnormal failure of rain in the transplantation period,
80. Effect of rainfall on speed of transplantatlon. -It will be seen
that so far as water-supply is concerned with canals delivering irriga.tion
water at the above duty transplantation will be expedited or retard d
in a.ccordanoe as there is more or less usoful rainfall in the tra.nsplantation
period.
The water-supply is however only one of the factors whioh limit the
rate of transplantation, and labour or plough cattl or se dlings availabl
limit the ra.te where water-supply is abundant.
10 IBBIGATIO .

S1. Water requ.ired for rice after transplantatlon.-Subsequent to

transpla.ntation wa.ter is required for the crops from 6 to 4 inches per hAlf
month (inclusive of rain) the quantity of water being less during the
last two months of the crop period; one wa.tering only is generally •
required three weeks to a month before roopi11g, after whioh the field
ill a.llowed to dry.

32. Great variation of duty of water under ditlerent conditions.-

It will be obvious tha.t the duty of water for rice cultivat,ion will va.ry
greatly with the sea.sonal rainfall and also with the rate of percolation
from the irrigated soil.
Over an (lorea on whioh water is kept standing for months together
loss by percolation even in fa.irly retentive soils will be considerable,
while from free draining permea.ble la.nd.. the percolation must be very
great, and the supplies required to maintain water standing on such
fields must be greatly augmented. I n pra.ctice this is found to be
the ca.se.
For insta.nce the normal supply dutics in the deltas aI'e more than
twice as high than those realized in such chrmnels as those taking off
from the Cauvery above the Upper Ameut. The ground irrigated by
these channels a.re narrow strips of perviou soil running a.long the margins
of the river resulting in freo percolation through the subsoil and into the
river.
The mean duty of these oha.nn~ls fa.lls as low as 40 to 50 acres per cuseo
wherea.s the mean duties in the deltas a.re I1S high as 80 to no acres per
ousec.
88. Duty of water for 'tank irrIgation' . -In loamy soils of fa.irly
retentive charn.oter the' duty' of water for tn.nks in Madras is about
5o.croFl ofrioe per million cp.bio feot which is equivalent (approximately)
to a duty of 60 acres pel' ouseo to a base of 140 days.
This duty includes ordinary losses duo to evaporat,ion and absorption
in the tank for the period of seasonal supply, but would be insufficient
to inolude these losses in the exceptional cases where the supplies
impounded one rainy season are §tored for us through the follo'wing
dry season.
34. Fixing duty specially for each tract irrigated.-It will be clenr
from tho a.bove that the duty of water necessa.ry for dce cultivation
must be made the subjeot of oonsidera.tion in roga.rd to 30h separa.te
traot to be oultiva.ted and that the requirements vary with the quantity
and inoidence of rainfall and the nature of the soil and subsoil in respect
to permea.bility and subsoil drainage.

85. Examples of duties proposed for projects in Madras.-The

~oUowing statement gives the duties allow d in the Kistnn. Reservoir
PI' j at for irl'igflotion twdor tho upland m!1in canal for a. crop period of
five months (exolusive of wa.ter for se d beds).
For oomparison a. statement is given for three conseoutive years of
~he a.otual water-suppli pa.ssed through the hea.d sluie Kistna Western
delta plU8 aotually reoorded ra.infa.IL
 WATER-SUPPLIES REQUml!lD FOR ImnGATION 11

The base in ea.oh ca e is five months, nnd th oonditi ns imilar in

regard to the soils of the irrigated area.
Kistna Reservoir ProJeot Upland btu
Canal pro ed utles. Watern
Proposod
---.
Duty
l)QJtA
observed Jlrmarn.
P eriod.
t of main Total, propo. ed a tual
men n cannl column. Oanal canal head
rainfall. 81tpply. (2) nnd (3). I\lpply IU pply ":IU
MIta. rll111t'n ll .
(I) (2) (3) (4) (1\) (0) (7)
INOHES. IN01lES. INOBES. PER INOBES.
OUSEO .
1st month 1st half. 1'71 5'17 6'8 69 5'70
2nd 1'91 5'17 7'08 69 7' 6
2nd 1st 1'91 5'17 7'0 60 8'02
3rd .. 2nd
1st
2nd
2'10
2'19
2'37
5'1 7
4'75
3'75
7'36
6'94
6'1 2
60
7fi
IHl
6'04
7'40
0' I
4th 1st 2'37 3'71:; 0'1 2 95 4'11
2nd 1'3 4'20 5'58 85 (i ') 2
5th 1st 1'3 4'20 [,'58 5 3'44
" 2nd 0'13 4'20 4'33 8li S'SO
For whole senson .. 17'04 40'53 63'07 80 1i8'!.!1l

In comparing the pr posals with nctuaJs it i apparent t.)lI\t during

the first two months, t hat is during transplantation senson, th d if to
economise in cost of cutting the cana.ls if.! th reason for t,he 811mllor supply
of these months under the proposals as compared with tho actunls. Th
project is ba"ed on a two months' transplantation p l'i d and fr m what
has already ooen stated the nllowllor,ce made will b fund to suffi ~ for
this. A further' criticism on the proposals iR that. lion unnocesHAl'ily low
duty has been allowed in the projoct fo), t h fifth month which might b
increased to 95 acres per cusec.
As an example of the enormOll S effeot of local rain in th Iltimat,ion
of duties, a. similar table i given of the dut,ifls proposed fo[, th Madras
Cauvery Reservoir project for the area under t ho Gru nd Ani ut anal.
~l.'otAl, ])utYOf
Porl od. I of mean ProJ>o~rd columuH(2) propOllOd
rainfall. CRIlIlI KUllJlly. a nd (3). ('lInal a ere. '
(1) (2) (~) (4 ) (6)
l'En
JNOHES. I NOITES. INOllES. OUREO ,
1st month 1st hnlf 0'0 5'1 5-7 70
2nd ]'2 5'] 6'3 70
2nd 1st " 1'4 5' 1 0'5 70
" 2nd 1'6 0' 1 6'7 70
3rd lat " 1'6 4.. 0 5' 6 89
4'0 (j' 8 89
4th .. 2nd
1st
2nd
1' 8
3'6
4'0
2'5
2'0
0'1
6' 0
143
178
5th lst 3' 4 2'0 IN 17
2nd 2'8 1' 2 4'0 297
"
'fotnl 22'0 30'1 58'] 102

In this case also the transplantation supply is limited by a canal

capaoity to a Dlfloximrun head duty of 70 and tho transplantati n period
is taken as t wo months, There is however reason to beli v that the
puddling of the soil in this area require~ 1es8 water than in the north rn
12 IRRIGATION

deltas. The irrigated tract receives its principal supply of rain during
the north-east monsoon, and as a consequence the duty for the two last
months of the crop season are immensely higher than that for the Kistna.
The rainfall being so great a factor in total s1!l.pply the mean rainfall
has been taken in this case instead of i as in the Kistna project.
36. Water tor seed-beds.-The above cases exclude supply of water
for any sood-beds ra' ed b6fore the preparation of la.nd for the tra.nsplanta-
tion oommences. The area occupied by seed-beds ill from 3 to 5 per cent
of the area transplanted, but as seedlings ta.ke only from three to four
weeks to rise, only a small area of seed-bed has to be planted before
water for the transplantation operation is available,
The source of supply of water for raising ea.rly seedlings must be
considered in each case and the matter is important but does not come
under the consideration of duty of water for purposes of design of a. canal
system. In both the projects mentioned the passing of early w.ter for
ra.ising seedlings is separately provided for.
 CHAPTER .ln.
WATER.SUPPLIES AVAILABLE F OR IRRIGATION.
RAINFALL.

37. Ralnfall.-" Rainfall is the souroe of all wnter usod fOJ" irrigation
purposes and therefore 1\ knowledge of its amount, oharacter ns
or periods and the effeots produced by it is of primary imp rtanco to l~lI
whose duty it is to design, carry out, improve, or maintain irrigation
wprks" (Mullins' Irrigation Manual ). Rainfall is measur d , a.t a. num r
of stations distributed throughout the oountry, by means of min gau 8
and the daily fall a.t each such station is reoord d in inohes and dooirnalll
of an inch.
38. Description of a rain-gauge.- A rain.ga uge oonsists e s ntio lly
of a funnel with a circula.r mouth of known area, which dis harge into t~
receiving vessel, the watel' impounded in whjch is measnr d in a suitably
graduated measuring gla H. The instrument should be set up in an opon
place with the circular mouth of the funnel exactly level. • Sym nl>'
Rain.gauge' (figure 1) is the instrument pl'escribed for use at all Govern·
ment rain.gauge station. throughout India. This is a cylindrical Y S8 1
FIG.I (0.)

FIG.t

r
'" - ,-.
I f
1,.J~.!\
I
I

,
,,
..
.,...
I

',....._
~ !!!Ito..

- - .•._..: ...
~- 1iI1~ 11111
_w 10-

5 inches diameter with a base enlarg d to inchel; diameter. The t p

section is a funnel provided with a ciroular brt\8s rim exa.ctly () inch s
internal diameter. Details of the instrument are shown in figure 1.
The funnel shank is inserted in the neck of a. bottle. A cylindrical
graduated measuring glass is furnished with each instrument which
reads to tenths and one hundredths of an inch of rainfall and when
filled up to the top gradua.tion holds water equ~valont to. ha~ an inoh ,f
rain. It i8 desirable that spare glasses be kept 1D each dlBtnot to enabl
brea.kages to be replaced without delay, 01' better still to have a sparo
gla.ss at eaoh station.
39, Setting up a rain-guage.-The rain.ga.uge should be set up in Do
masonry foundation with the rim forming the top exaotly level and so
that when in position the rim is 12 inches a.bove the surface of the ground.
 14 mRIGATION

Figure 1 (a) shows details of a specially built masonry foundation which

should not 00 of less size than 2 feet cube. The site where a rain-gauge is
set up should be a.n open place as far as can conveniently be ammged
from troos, houses, walls or other obstructions; in no case should it be
nearer to the obstruotion than 30 yards, or twice the height of the obstruc-
tion. The reasons for the above are, that the rainfall registered close to
troes, or buildings, frequently va.ries considerably from that recorded in
the open owing to drip from trees 01' roofs being carried into the gauge or
the site sholtered from wind or exposed to eddies or gusts caused by such
obstruotions. As rain-gauges are occasionally blown over unless fixed,
the base of tho instrument should be set 4 inches deep in masonry.
Where there is no masonry foundation, the instrument may be tem-
porarily sto d on a flat stono bedded 2 inches in the ground, and gravol
or earth paoked in round the base to hold it firmly. In every case it
must be fixed so that tho rim of the funnel is dead level.
40. Observing and registering rainfall.-To seoure uniformity the
rainfall at aU Government stations is measured evory day at 8 a.m. and
tho rosult reoord d as the 1'ainJall of that da!J. Thus the rainfall of eaoh
day has actually fallen in a period compri",ing 8 hours of the same day,
and 16 hours of tho previous day. The receiving bottle as a rule does not
hold more than 3 to 4 inches of rainfall, and as during a heavy fall this
quantity is froquently exceeded, tho rain I:jhould be measured 3 or 4 times
in a day on days of heavy rainfall lest the receiver fill and overflow;
in all Cli> es last measurement should be taken at 8 a..m . and the sum of
all the measurements during the previous 24 hours added together should
then be entered in the register.
As the intensity of rainfall in a. few hours in a heavy fall if:! information
which rna y be of much value, it is del'dra ble to enter in the remarks column
of tho register the hour a.nd rain water gauged at each separate measurfl-
ment. If owing to neglect of the above, the receiving bottle should over-
flow, the oylindrioal oasing must be removed from tho base and the water
in it measur d and added to that measured from the bottle.
Rain-gauges should be examined daily in dry weather and kept
olean and free from dirt. F'.Ioilure to do this sometimes results in failure
of reoording owing to the funnel becoming ohoked.
Inspecting officers should direct their attention to the above points
and speoially verify the dimensions and the aocuraoy of the shape of the .
rim of the funnel, and jts being set up exaotly level.
41. Rain recording Stations.-In Southern India rain-gauges in
charge of the Revonuo Department are kept up at the headquarters of
every ta.luk and a number of recording stations are mainta.ined at other
places by the Meteorological, Revenue, Public Works, Forest and other
departments. In addition private rainfall records are maintained on
most tea, ooffee and rubber estates. The reoords of the daily ratnfulls
reoord d at Revenue Department stations are published monthly in
the Fort St. George Gazette and in the gazettes of the districts ooncerned.
These give tho daily, half-monthly and monthly rainfalls in inches and
hundredths of an inoh, and the number of 'rainy days' in eaoh month
signifying da ya on which flo fall of o·} inch 01' upwards has been registeroo.
The previous average of daily and monthly rainfall, and of the number of '
rainy days are also stated for purpo es of comparison.
42. Variation ot rainfall over an area.-It is very notioeable that the
.rainfall at places olose to eaoh other frequently differs greatly and this is
 W.ATER-!:;UPPLIES VAlLA:BLE 1<'0& mRIG.ATl N 15

specially so where there are intervening botw en th to.tions mo.rk d

physical fea.tures, especia.lly hill , or whoro tho lev ls of th t~ pIa
are very different.
Rainfall genera.lly is greater on high r lovels, also the harn r
of rainfa.ll between two stations in t,he pl!\ins pam d by fango oC hi1l8
may. be quite different.
For instance the disto.nc between Palghat tIond Coimlmtoro, wo
places separatod by 1\ rango f hills, is less than 30 milos, but th ir m n
annual minfalhl 801'0 78·38 inches a nd 22·01 inohes rObpocti 01, .
43. Estimate of average rainfall over any area.-In stirMting th
a.verage annual,. or sOl\sonal, minfall in a.n~ area, from tho a rag annual,
or sell-sonal, ramfalls reoord d at various sttlotions within or noor th
boundaries of the area, it is ne' s 0.1' ' to consider car fully th r lat,iv
positi ns of tho s~l\tions with reHpeot to th wbolo ~rol\ , so ~h~t l\ proper
value may be a. sl~ned to the reoords of each sta.tlOn. l'hlS IS spooilllly
important if tho dlfferoncOl-i between the minfnlls of tho various stat.i liS
are groat.
For insta.nce if the averago ra.infall in Lhe a1' f~ in ngmo 2 hl\s to b
estimated from the records of tho foul' I:-JtSt.iOllS l~nd tho fOUl·th 6u~tioll

Fig. 2

reoord differl> matorially frolll thflt of tho other tluoo , it would bo in 'orr t
to add the avera.ge of the four Htn.tions togethor "'nd divide by four to
get and apply the result as tho moan rainfall of the whole area; it would
be desirable to apply th moan of stations Nos. 1 to 3 to tho area in th
left of the dotted line, and tho rocord of stati n No. 4 !~lono to tho a.rOa
in the right. If the differonco in rainfall is attributa.bl to clwuge in
physical featurel:l, tho division of the whole area should be ma.de
accordingly,
44. VariatIon in annual, or seasonal, rainfall at the same statlon.-
Great variatioll6 are recorded in the annual, 01' 8ol\sOIlJl,I , rainfall ·a.t tho
same station, and a rainfalll'ecord for consid rable number of years is
necessary to get a. reliable estimate of mean a.nnual, or seasonnl, rainfall
at a.ny place. From a. study of rainfall records of a large num r
of difforent plaoes extending over a groat numb l' of years it has b n
deduoed tha.t 35 yea.rs' ra.infall rocords MO required for a thoroughly
reliablo estimate of the mea.n rainfall of any pIa .
45. Percentage of errors in computing mean annual rainfall.-
Sir Alexander Binnie has compiled a. statement, from whioh an xtra.ct is
given below, showing the magnitude of the rcento.ge of error whioh may
be looked for in estimating mean r from records for shorter
periods than 35 years. The s ~ 0ent from the ra.in records

'* 1:3 3&

16 IRRIGATION

of 26 typical rainfa.llstations for which records from 50 to 60 years were

a.vailable and the deviations given as a percentage of the average annual
rainfall for the total period of observation_

- I Ton Fifteen I
Twenty TWi~ty- I I Thirty

(1)

Maximum positive
I yFive
onre'
(2)

23-2
years.
(8)

14-9
years·
(')

9-0
yoars '
(6)

5-6
J yeara·
(6)

7-3
Thirty
years.
(7)

5-2
live
years
(8)

4-5
d eviation_
Maximum negative 21)-0 10-1 12_5 9-2 1)-0 6-9 4-7
deviation_
Average positive 15-35 -g- • 7 2-47 2-56 2-17 1-73
deviation.
Average negative 14-02 8-37 5-64 4-08 2-94 2-36 1-86
deviation.
Average devia.tion. 14-02 8-22 4-77 3-27 2-75 2-26 1-79

Tho above gives an indication of tho extent of the errors which may be
made in estimating rainfa.ll of a station from insufficient minfall records.
46. Correction of estimate of mean rainfall In reference to records of
an adjacent station.-When rain roc01·d., for a. sufficient period are not
availa.blo for a.ny station, a.nd records for a. long poriod aro a.vaila.ble for
some not far distant station, in whioh tho distribution a.nd nature of the
minfall is similar, a. reasona.ble correction may be made in the estima.te
of moan rainfa II by reference to the reoord of the neighbouring station_
For example if 15 years' records only wero available for a station
~md the mean u.nnual minfaU for that period was 30·6 inches, while
for the neighbouring station the mean rainfall for the same 15 years
was 34·3 inohes, but for the 40 yoars for whioh records were availabl{'
it was 33·4 inohes, tho corrocted estimato for the mean rainfall would be
334/343 X 30-6 = 29· inohes_
47. Fluctuations of annual rainfall and their bearing on irrigation
projects.-Whilo the a.verage rainfall on a. catchment, or on a
trllot to b irrigated, is an important matter, it is to be rocognizod
that rainfall is in defect of the avera.ge more ofton than in excess of it
and moreovor for all purposes of water-supply, it is in tho years of defeot
in rainfall that artifioia.l supply is most wanted.
In tho case of projoots for domostio water-supply the absolute
minimum rainfall of a.ny yea.r and a.lso tho minimum of two or threo
oonsecutivo yea.rs aro ma. tters of groat importanoo, as these works
must b so dosignod IloH to a.fford a sufficient supply under tho most
unfavouablo conditions. In tho caso of irriga.tion works it is unnecessa.ry
to seoure, under tho worst conditions adequato supplios for tho whole
rea normally irrigated, but it is neoessary to secure such supplies in
wha.t may be termed an 'average bad year'_ The ra.infall of an a.verage
bad year, or season may be taken as the mean of the lowest a.nnual or
sellsonal rainfalls in a number of consecutive yea.rs, one-third ofthe whole
numbor of years being taken for striking the a.verage_
48. Relation of maximum and minimum to mean annual rainfall.-
The question of absolute maximum a.nd minimum annual rainfall
was examined in 1 92 by Sir Alexander Binnie (Proceedings of tb.
Institute of Civil Engineers, Volume CIX) who computed the relation
between mean, maximum, and minimum rainfall for a large number
 \V ATEB-SUPPLIES AVAILABLE ]i'OR IRRIGATION 17
of stations a.nd suggested for adoption for annua.l mean rainfull til
following relation for computing ma.ximum and minimum rainfall :_
Moon annua.l rainfall 100
Probable maximum rainfall 151
Proba.ble minimum rainfall ,, 60
Probable average of two cOJliecutive year of
least rainfall ,, ,, ,, ,, 69
So far, as regards India tho information now availabl aho 8 th
above proportions to be considerably short of the fluotuations in annuaJ
incidence of rainfall which may be expected,
49, Statements of mean, maximum and minimum annual rainfall
for the Madras Presidency.-The following statoments ho. 0 n
oompiled from publishod r gisters of rainfall sw.tions in tho M.. dms
Presidenoy for the 40 years, 1870 to 1909, Statement I is from tho
statement of a.verage rainfall in the distriots of the Prosiden y in this
period which is obtained by taking the avorago of each YOM'S rainfa.ll
for all the stations in the district. The numbor of FltatiOl1S having
records for so long a. poriod as 30 to 40 years av rago ll.bout t 11 P r
district but in the moro recont years a number of l\dditional stations
have been installed the rocords of which have beon inolud d in th
district averages. ,
Statement II is a similar ono compiled with roff'renco to 22 separa.te
typical sta.tions scattored throughout the aroa of tho Madras Presidonoy,
The distriots and sta.tions are al'l'80ng din ordor aocording to tho amount
of mean annua.l ra.infall.
STATEMENT I.
Yearly rainfall betweon 1870 and 1009 of districiR of Madl'l.\s boing
the averago annual rainfa.ll of Lho rain-gauge Htatioru; of oach rustdot.
e., .,'" ~ ... i~
~:::I
e.e
~.a
.... <=1
~"
OJ

-- ....
M.
a~
'Os
e~
OJ
" .... ~~ ~ l·lim
CClf.;.
. "0 , "0 08 <=1.9

..
Name of dlstrlct.
....0,,1»
" S!
S:::l~
<=10
0"
~a
.h ~
b
1!~

...j
<=1<=10

:a
0
3 aI~
....
j~~ .. <=I
.. 0 .b
Po<
!S~ ......",
t!9
~S
Po<
;il 19£s
:<!
(1) (2) (8) (4.) 1(6) (6) (7) H8) (0)
1 Bellary 22'56 35'62 Hj8 8'61 0 '38 15'30 0-68
2 Anantllpul' 22'60 42'66 1'88 7'08 0'31 14'61 0'64
3 Kurnool 25'76 48'90 1'90 8'07 0'31 16'85 0·6(;
4. Ooimbatore 26'43 35'84 1'36 17'G0 0'0 7 20'76 0,78
5 Tirunelveli 27-25 46'86 1'72 16'14 0 '59 18'03 0'60
60uddapah 27'84 47'01 1'72 6'84 0'25 1 '23 0'05
7 Ramnad 28 ' 91 44'68 1'05 10'30 • 0'56 21'00 0'73
8 Mathurai 30'71 48,98 1'59 17'92 0'58 24'40 0'80
9 Guntur 31.00 53'30 1-00 14'55 0'46 22'20 0'71
10 TiruchirappaUi 32'29 42'45 1'31 21'54 0'67 25'22 0'78
11 Salem _. ,. 32,37 50'63 1'56 17'41 0'54 24'43 0-76
12 Ohittoor 32·81 53'12 1'62 13'09 0'40 23-32 0'71
13 Nellore 34'50 53'34 1-55 10' 78 0'31 23-4:2 0'68
14 Krishna 35'96 61'14 1'70 22'73 0'63 25'85 0'72
15 North Aroot 37'78 64'07 1,70 21'50 0'57 28'73 0'76
16 Goda.vari 39'08 63'00 1'61 18'00 0'4:6 26'50 0'0
17 Tanjore 44'23 01'64 1'39 28'87 0'65 32'03 0-75
18 South Aroot 44'86 74'35 1-60 25'98 0'0 32,3G 0-72
19 Ohingleput 40'11 73-08 1·62 19'33 0'43 20'69 0'6
20 Ganjam 45'56 (1)'48 1'44 27-20 0'00 3u' 5 0'79
21 Malabar 116'69 150'54 1'34 77'77 0'07 92'36 0-79
22 South Kanara, 140'35 183'78 1'26 98'1)9 0'08 116'08 0'80
2
18 mRIGA.TION

STATEMENT II.

RainfaU of 40 years 1870 to 1909 at undernoted stations in

Madras Presidenoy,
ri= ... . is
e3t! . ~i ld
... l!
~~
.9~
:9 •
....s"f ~~ ~~
......
Nam~ of raJufaU
_tatlon,
~
--e-
Ol:!
t!:"
.-SO" oS
gg
f..,
0"
~I»
013
"0
0_
:ea
!:
....or:-
013
~S
:e~
"I»

I~
!:II>.
a~
~g~
is I~
0"
Ii ....... ~'O ISa ~!
~
..... :.. ~ ::a Po<
(1) (2) (8) (') (5) (6) (7) (8) (0)
1 BoIlary 19'19 31'27 1'63 7'23 0'38 12'18 0'63
2 Anantapur 20'08 35'40 1'76 3'90 0'19 12'18 0'61
8 Ooimb80toro 22'01 30'36 1'38 13'67 0'62 16'66 0'76
4.M80rk80pur (Kur· 24'09 87'64 1'56 4'03 0'17 14'82 0'62
nool distriot),
3 Prodd80tur(Oud. 25'44 44'82 1'76 6'25 0'25 15'00 0'59
dapah distriot),
6 Palamoottah 2704,3 43.49 1'59 14'42 0'53 18'11 0'66
{Tirunolveli
distriot),
7 Kulittalai 28'8' 46'46 1'61 14'83 0'51 19'82 0'69
(Tiruohirappali
district).
8 Ramnad 31-60 55'37 1'75 11'73 0.37 18'37 0'58
o Guntur 32-23 52'95 1'64 18'77 0'5 8 22'56 0'70
10 Gudivada 34'09 67'85 1'99 20'1 {) 0'59 23'38 0'68
(Krishna
distriot) .
11 Matburai 34,81 00'76 1'45 22'24 0'64 25'49 0'73
12 Ohittoor 36'60 66'24 1'81 14'83 0'40 22'94 0'63
13 NeUore 37'65 62'85 1'67 11'65 0'31 22'32 0'59
14 Salem" 39'23 60'12 Hi3 20'76 0'53 29'23 0'74
15 Rajahmundry
(Godavari
distriot).
39'81 61-15
- 1'54 17'49 0'44 24'48 0'62

18 Arcot (North 4.0'36 62'24 1'54 24.96 0'62 29'66 0'71

Arcot
distriot) .
17 Villupuram 41'70 63 '87 1'02 25'98 0'62 20'66 0'71
(South Aroot
distriot),
18 KumbakoDam 42'61 63'84 1'50 22'68 0'53 20 '01 0'70
(Tanjore
district),
19 Ohingleput 46'27 78'87 1'70 20'17 0'44 29'99 0'65
20 Aska (Ganjam 48'00 70'89 1'48 28'05 0'58 36'52 0'76
distriot),
2 lNilambur 108'67 166~ 31 H$3 60'57 0'56 73'50 · 0'68
(Malabnr
distriot) .
12 Ooondapoor 141'lS9 199'11 1'40 87'07 0'61 110'13 0'7'
( outh
Kanara
di.triot).
 .A..TER-SUPl'LIES .A.V.AlLA.BLN l'OR lRRlGA'fIO 1

From columns (5) and (9) of the abovo sta.tem nts the following may
be deduced :-
(a) That the fluctuations of annual rainfall above and below
the mean are generally smaller in a largo than in a small area.
(b) That generally the ma.ximum differenc s from the a.nnual
mean rainfa.ll a.re generally proportiona.tely groater for stations of small
a~ual mean fa.~ and decrease as the mean fall increaso. (It will be
notICed that Cormbatore district and station form a striking oxc ption
to this.)

50. Average rainfall of a bad year.- From column (9) it will b

seen that the proportion of tho moan minfall of tho 10 driost yoars to
the mean faU in 40 years, which proportion may bo fairly tak n to
represent the a.verage rainfa.ll of a bad yoar, doos not diffor greatly for
different districts or singlo stations throughout the Madras Prosidenoy,
the extreme being between 0·58 and 0·8; from this it may b d duc d
that for purposes of an irrigation project it is justifiablo to assumo the
rainfall of a.n average ba.d yea.r to be two-thirds to tIll'oe-fourths the
mean rainfa.ll.

51. Definition of 'catchment basin '.- Tho tract of land draining

into any stream or rosorvoir is termod its 'oatchmont basin' and tho
area of this tract is its 'catchmont area.'

RUN-OFF.

52. Definition of 'run-off' .-The 'run-off' of a catchment ar a

in a year (or other specified soason) is the volumo of water disohargod
by the stream draining the area. or into tho roservoir recciving the
drainage in the yoar (or other soa.son). The run-off is stated in terms of
the equivalent depth of water over the catchmont aroa in inches.

53. Irrigation supply wholly derived from' run-of! ' .-Tho supply
of water for 'flow' irriga.tion is wholly depondent on run-off, and
in cases whoro full information rega.rding run-off from the catch.
ment is ava.ilable, the incidence of annual or soasonal rainfall on th
catchment is a. ma.tter of no importa.nce. The grea.t importance ofrainii 11
data. in respect of availablo irriga.tion supplios is due to the fact that
measurements of rainfall are much moro frequently available than
measurements of run-off.

54. Measurements of run-of! much to be preferred to estImates

based on rainlall.-An estima.ting of run-off based on oven the
most accurate and reliable records of rainfall is liablo to vory great
error, and it should be olearly borne in mind that ovon approxima.te
ga.ugings of actual disoharge are wberever procurable much preferable
to estimates wholly based on rainfall data. .As however it is rather
exceptional to have reliable measurements of actual flow-off from teh·
ments, the problem of oomputing run-off from rainfall records is one
which bas to 00 constantly dealt with by irrigation officers.
2A
20 mRIGATION

55. Disposal of rain falling on any catchment.-The whole of the

rain falling on any catchment basin is disposed of in one or other of the
following ways:-
(1) absorbed by vegetation,
(2) evaporated a.nd passed off in the air,
(3) runs off either over the surface or percolates through the
ground into strea.ms in the same catchment,
(4) soaks into the ground, without percolating thence into surface
water in tho same catchment.
Considering So period of several years and a catchment from which
wa.ter does not porcolate through the ground into some other catchment
a.lmost the whole rainfall comes under the hea.dings (1), (2) and (3).1
for over such a period there is normally little or no change in the amount
of water impounded as sub-soil water. A very large proportion of any
rain falling on a dry and porous soil may however in the first instance
be absorbed into the soil by soakage although all, or very nearly all, is
subsoquently redistributed among items (1), (2) and (3).
Of the above items number (3) &lono constitutes the 'run-off' j
the balanoe, viz., the difference between rainfall ~nd run-off is t~rmed
the 'rainfall loss.'
56. Factors which affect run-aff.-The factors which prinoipally
a.tfeot quantity a.nd rapidity of nID-off from a. catchment are-
(G) the quantity and distribution of the rainfall,
(b) the eondition of the area as regards geological formation,
permeability of soil, surface slopes, wind a.nd temperature and humidity
of air,
(c) the nature and qua.ntity of the vegetation in the area, and
(cl) the condition as rega.rds humidity of the surfa.ce and sub-
soil in the area at the time the rain fa.lls and tho existence of surface
water suoh as tanks, marshes, etc., which impound water.
In the absence of reoords of actua.l stream flow an estimate of run-off
must be made from rainfall reoords but the problem is a very complex
one and the estimate is liable tb considerable errors. Genorflolly the
ra.infall is tho only factor influencing run-off of which exact measure-
ments are a.vailable and the others are not susceptible of exact measure-
ment and are stated only in general terms.
67. Estimating the run.oft from seasonal rainfalI.-It is usual
to estimn.t run-off from rainfa.ll statistics in terms of a percentage of
the total fall of any yoars, months or other periods and to clnssify catch-
ments as good, ordinary oJ' bad in accordance with their other run-off
qualities. Differont percentages of run-off a.re applied to catchments
having different qualifications. Tables have been constructed giving
peroentages of run-off with refere~ce to tota.l rainfa.ll of the year, or in
the rainy season, having in view that the larger the rainfall the greater
proportion of it will run-off. The tables repl'esent aotuals of run-off
computed from the be t available ob ervatjons.
68. strange's table of run-olr due to monsoon rainfall.-The
undernoted table extracted from Strange's' Indian Storage Reservoirs •
is uitable for estim ting run-off from rainfall in the plains of South
India. -
 WATER-SUFPLIES AV.A.U.ABLE FOR IRRIGATION 21
Table of tota.l monsoon rainfa.ll and estimatod run-off and yi Id
per squa.re mile from catchment ar as,
oS Good catohment, Avern lie catchment, Bl\d catobm ilL,
""'
~ ~ ~~ 13.;.
'-e'". . e
It!
'?q 8&i
!i. '4e !i, ~ ,

~J
e "='",
""",
e'"
0
c:!
ig
..,-
0,:.:
~.2
'c
ti-
~~~
c .. ~
...'"
.....
o .
It!u
,?.5!
E::
It!8_lj
'? ..: .....
e- ~l~ tic:!

e"~
E!::l g -

...e"'"as ~~
::l
e~il :I
am ~~ 'oi c>.:g
..... ~
i~
...
0 ....

(1 \
... ~

~
;l ..
~.s

(2)
,.qfl
i.E
~

(8)
~
o.c c>
"".£:g
;;5

(4)
~
".9
~!!
g.s
(fi)
;"f
e.s
~

(6)
. 0.c-
. . Sd
..,.£~
:!ill
po
(7)
~.s
el!
.. 3
~

(8)
'Q~
.cl!
~s
~
(9)
iii
I><
(10)
'I 0'1 0'001 0'002 0'1 0'001 0'001 0'05 0'0005 0'001
2 0'2 0'004 0'009 O' Hi 0'003 0'006 0,1 0-002 0'004-
3 0'4 0'012 0'028 0'3 0'009 0'021 0'2 0-006 0'01'
4 0'7 0-028 0'065 0'5 0'021 0-001, 0'3 0-01<J. 0'032
5 1-0 0'050 0'116 0'7 0'037 0'0 7 0'5 0'025 0'05
6 1'5 0'090 0-209 I-I 0'067 O'lil6 0'7 0-045 0'104-
7 2'1 0-147 0'341 Hi 0'110 0'255 1-0 0-073 0'170
8 2'8 0'224 0-520 2'1 O'1G8 0'390 1'4 0-112 O'~60
9 3'5 0 -315 0 '732 2'6 0-236 0'549 1,7 0-167 0-366
10 4'3 0-430 0'999 3'2 0'322 0-749 H 0'211) 0'499
11 5'2 0-572 1'329 3'9 0'429 0'996 2'0 0'2 0 0'664-
12 6'2 0'744 1-728 4'6 0-558 l'2!lG 3- L 0 '372 0'864
13 7'2 0'936 2'174 5'4 0 -702 1'630 3'6 0-468 1-0 7
14 8'3 1-162 2'699 6'2 0'871 2'024 4-J 0-1) 1 l'S'!)
'u. 9'4 1-410 3-276 7'0 1'057 2'457 4'7 0'705 1-638
16 10'5 1-680 3-903 7'8 1'260 2'927 5'2 0-840 1-9ul
17 11'6 1-972 4'581 8'7 ) '479 3'435 5' 0-9 0 2-290
18 12-8 2-304 5'353 9'6 J '728 4'014 6" 1-162 2-676
19 13 '9 2-64,1 6'135 10 '4 }·980 4'601 6-9 1-320 3'067
20 15'0 3-000 6-970 ) 1-25 2'250 0-227 7'5 1'1)00 3'4 c;
21 16-1 3 -381 7, 855 12'0 2'1)35 1),891 8'0 1-690 3'927
22 17'3 3'806 8-842 12-9 2-8li4 6'031 8,6 1-903 4'421
23 18'4 4-232 9'832 13'8 3'174 7'374 1)'2 2-116 4-916
24 19 '5 4'680 10'873 14-6 3'510 8'164 9'7 2-340 Ih136
25 20'6 5'150 11 ,1)64 15'4 3-862 8'973 10'3 2-1.176 G-I) 2
26 21'8 0'668 13,168 10'3 4'251 9,876 10-0 2-834 6'5 40
27 22,9 6'183 14-364 17-1 4'637 10-773 11'4 3'091 7-12
28 24'0 6·720 15-612 18'0 5'040 11'709 ] 2'0 3'360 7-800
29 25'1 7-279 10'Oll 18'8 5'459 12'083 ] 2'G 3'639 N,M
30 26-3 7'890 18: 330 19'7 5-917 13'747 13-1 3-945 9'166
31 27-4 8-494 19 -733 20'5 6'370 14-799 13-7 '-247 9-886
32 28,5 !H20 21-188 21'3 6'840 15-891 14,2 "UOO 10'60'
33 i9'6 9-768 22-693 22-2 7'326 17'019 14'8 ,- 84 11'846
34 30'S 10'472 24-329 23'1 7'854 18-246 15'4 6-236 12-16'
35 31'9 11 '165 25,939 23'9 8-373 19'454 115-9 5'582 12-969
36 33'0 11'880 27'600 24'7 8-910 20'700 10,5 0,940 13-800
37 34-1 12-617 29'312 25'5 9'462 21'084 17-0 6-308 1'-666
38 35'3 13'414 31'163 26'4 10-060 23'372 17'6 6'707 16-6 1
39 36'4 14-196 32'980 27-3 10'647 24'735 18-2 7'098 16-490
40 37'5 15'000 34'848 28'1 11'250 20'136 18-7 7-;')00 11'424
41 38-6 15-826 36'767 28'9 11-869 27-575 19 -3 7'913 18-388
42 39-8 16-716 38'835 29,8 12-u37 29'120 19·1) 8-36 19'417
'3 40'9 17'587 40'858 30-6 13'190 30'643 20-4 8-793 20'429
18-480 42'933 31'0 13'860 32'199 21'0 0'240 21'460
" 42'0
 22 mRIGATION

Table of total monsoon rainfall and estimated run-off and yield

per square milo from oatchment areas-cont.
.9 Good catchment. Average catchment. Bad catchment.
-. ---,
a.
aa. a,; 8.
1 ~
~
...o .
~!l.a
~.s
o·
oI:I"
11:1
e
!l..;
~
f
~ r4
"'~
,=u
9.:!
~.,

'="~
98.~
~
f
...o .
"'1
II:I
U
'i'.:!
~i'.
II:I!~
o .

Iu e.:!
~~~
'a ...: e..lila=1 e.:!
h~
o .
ji 01 oj.:!
~!!~
j~
~ ..
e;
... .!
o~
..
"O~.s
U<I>
- ::I

ij 'a~
.ae 'ai~
~s
oC .. .=
3-5
~.:!
~s .,s
'5 0
~ ~l1a h -as ~l1i
~
<I> CD
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i>4
(1) (2) (8) (4.) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
45 43'1 19'395 45'058 32-3 14'546 33'793 21'5 9'697 22'529
46 44'3 20'378 47'342 33'2 15'283 35 '506 22-1 10'189 23'671
47 45'4 21'338 49'572 34'0 16'003 37'179 22'7 10.669 24'786
4.8 46'5 22'320 51'854 34'8 16'740 38'890 23'2 11'160 25'927
'9 47'6 23'324 54'186 35'7 17'493 40'639 23'8 11'662 27'093
50 48'8 24'400 56'686 36'6 18'300 42'514 24'4 12'200 28'343
51 49'9 25'449 59'123 37'4 19'086 44'342 24'9 12'724 29 '561
52 51'0 26'520 61'611 38'2 19'890 46'208 25'5 13' 260 30'805
53 52-1 27'613 64'151 39'0 20'709 48'113 26'0 13'806 32'075
64 53'3 28'782 66'866 39'9 21'586 50'149 26'6 14'391 33'433
55 54'4 29'920 69'510 40'8 22 '440 52'132 27'2 14-960 34'755
56 55.5 31 '080 72'205 41 '6 23'310 54,.153 27'7 15'540 36'102
1S7 56'6 82' 262 74'951 42'4 24'196 56'213 28'3 16'131 3N76
58 57'8 33'024 77'883 43'3 25'143 58'412 28'9 16'762 38' 941
59 58'9 34'751 80'734 44'~ 26'063 60'550 29'4 17'375 40'867
60 60'0 86'000 83'635 40'0 27'000 62'726 30'0 18'000 41'817

69. Estimating run-off from total monsoon ralnfall.-It will

be noted that the run-off in the abovo table is computod o111y for the
monsoon rainfall as in a normal year there is no appreciable run-otffrom
the showers which fall in the dry season. I n estimating the run-off
available from a catchment the aotual rainfall of successive years and
not the mean rainfa.ll should form the basis of oomputation j but when
a sufficient number of years' annual rainfall is not available the yield
of i or t the mean rainfall maY..be taken as the ba.sis for oomputing the
run-off.
60. Objections to estimating run-of! from the total monsoon rain-
faIl.-The above method of estimating run-off is open to the grave
objeotion, that it does not differentiate between different incidences
of rain having the samo total seasonal fall. It is obvious that if the
season is six months and that 60 per cent falls in the first two months
the run-off is likely to be greater than if the rainfall of eaoh month were
equal. Similarly the rlm-off from 6 inohes of rain falling in two oonse-
outive days would be more than that from 6 inohes falling in 24 days
in quantities nover exceeding half an inch a day.
61. Strange's table of run-oft from daily rainfall.-In order to
allow for such differences, which greatly affect run-off, another table
is given bylStrange in whioh run-off is computed from recorded daily
inoidence of rainfall and it is most desirable wherever records of daily
rainfall over a oa.tchment are obtaina.ble and the aoouracy of estimated
run-off is a matter of importance, that the daily rather than the seasonal
rainfall be made the basis of the estimated run-off.
 WATER-SUFPLlES A VA.n.A.BLE FOR IRRIGA.TION 23

Strange's table of run-off from daily rainfall for an

average catohment.
[For good or bad oatchments add or deduot np to 25 per oent of yield.)
Run·oft' percentalle and yIeld wbeo orlilnaI nate of the lround wu
Dally rainfall 10
,..
Dry.
~

e'.-
...
J,Ilohei. ,- .A._
Damp.
, ...... ...
Pereentllilo. YIeld In Percentage. Ylld In YIeld In
Inebel. lucbel. PcrcentalJO. mobel.
0'25 ., S 0'02
0'50 6 0'03 12 0'00
0'75 8 0'08 16 0-12
1'00 3 0'03 11 0'11 18 0'1
1'25 .. 5 0'06 14 0'17 22 0'28
1'50 .. 6 0'09 16 0'24 211 O'S
1'76 8 0'15 19 0'S3 SO O'IS",
2'00 10 0'21 22 0'44 84 0'07
2'50 15 0'38 29 0'73 43 1-08
3'00 .. ., 20 0'00 37 l-l2 GlI I'M
4'00 .. 30 1'20 50 2'00 70 2'80
It will be found Mnvenient in applying the above or tho to.blQ in para.
graph 58 to use, in preference to the table, a curvo mado from it, showing
the relation betweon rainfall and percentage run-off.
62. Classifying condition 01 catchment as regards humldIty_-No hard
and fast rule can be laid down for ola.ssifioation of the oondition
of oa.tchment a.s wet, damp, or dry for purposos of applying the above
table, this should be varied with the permea.bility and absorbing qualiti 8
of the soil and Bubsoil and the genera.l conditions of tho ootohment. The
following statement of tho classification conditions whioh have boon
used for application to ordinary oa.tchments in the plains of Madras will
servo as some guide to applying the tables :-
(a) Conditions required for tra.nsition from' dry' to 'damp ' -
i inoh rainfall in the previous 1 day.
I " " 3 days.
1 " " 7 "
Ii " " 10"
(b) For transition from damp' to I wet '_
I

! inoh rainfa.ll in the previous 1 day.

t " " 2 days.
I ." " 3"
Ii " " 5 "
(c) Transition from dry to wet is made whenever 2t inohes have
fallen on the previous or on the same day.
For instance, if 41 inohes fall in one day on a 'dry' catohment
the run.off would be-
INOBJiIB.
21 inohes on a ' dry' catchment = 0'38
(4t-2i) = 2 inches on a I wet'
catchment = 0·67

Total:: . . 1·05
..-
 IRRIGATION

(d) Tra.nsition from' wet' to 'damp ,-

Rainfall less than the following being half the rainfall in
(b) above :-
i- inch in the previous 1 day.
i " " 2 days.
t " " 4"
! " " 5"
(e) Tra.nsition from' damp' to 'dry'-
Rainfall less than-
i inch in the previous 1 day.
i " " 3 days.
t " " 7"
i " "10,,
68. Run-oft by measuring stream tlow.-The best method of a.rriv.
ing a.t the run-off from rainfall is by measurement of actual stream
flow, and as 35 years' rainfall measurements of seasonal rainfall are
required for arriving at a fully reliable estimate of future seasonal rain-
fall, it follows tha.t gaugings of stream flow for a simila.r period are desira-
ble for a fully reliable estimate of quantity of flow. It is only in very
rare instances that river or stream gaugings for so long a period are
available, but extremely va.luahle information can be deduced from
the results of gaugings for much shorter periods, and this is especially
the oa.se in rega.rd to oatohments of the limited areas (say under 1,000
square miles) on whioh the grea.t majority of irrigllotion projects are
dependent.
64. Importance of gauglngs of stream flow even for one or two
seasons.-In the case of most irrigation projeots the information
most required is the flow-off of the oatchment in an a.verage bad
year a.nd the measurement of the daily flow for a single bad sea.son
oombined with the rainfall records for this season as well as for a number
of other years will often enable an a.ccurate forecast of run-off to be
fra.med. While the a.ctual flow of a bad season gives more valuable
information than the flow of a good one, valuable results can sometimes
deduced be from the record of flo single season's measurements, even
when the season has been one of..a.bunda.nt rainfa.ll.
65. Example of above.-An example of the ' above is the forecast
made by Binnie with regard to the run-off from the catchment of the
Nagpur reservoir.
The information a.vailable was-
(a) Rainfallstatistios for nineteen years 1854 to 1872.
(b) M.easured run-off for the years 1869 and 1870.
(c) Catchment a.rea (6·6 square miles).
The monsoon at Nagpur lasts from June to Ootober, a.nd during the
remaining months there is no run-off. The recorded monsoon rainfall
for nineteen years avoraged 37·52 inches and is given below for each
year:-
Year. InOllO'. Yoar. Inches. Yellr. Inches. Year· Incbes.
lS64: 48·4:0 1 59 29·48 lS64 28·90 lS69 32·11
1 55 24·04 1800 44·50 1865 38-16 1870 87-34
1856 44·33 1861 40·89 1866 41-01 1871 44·85
1857 aH6 1862 43·29 1867 53·72 1872 39·82
18GS 81·87 1863 37'46 1868 19·28
 WATER-SUPPLIES AVAILABLE FOR mRIGATION

The run-off measurements available ar gi en below :_

Ratio 0(
Year and month. MeRllured Total tolAll'UD-
Ralnfall . rain of Total
run·off. run-off. otrto
mODlOOIl ' total mln-
fall.
(1) (2) (4) (5) (II)

I NOHES. INCUES. INo nES. I NOll]';S. IN UFo •

1869.
17th June to 31st July .. 12'76 1'25 12'76 1.25 0'09
August 9'61 3'36 22'37 "61 0'20
September 7'41 3'26 29'79 7' 7 0' 26

1870.
June 6'77 0'3 2 0'77 0'32 0'047
July 12'70 2'8 19'47 3.20 O. lq
August 11' 82 6'59 31'29 0' 79 O'Sl
September 7'99 5'95 39'28 15'74 0.40
October 4'37 1'72 43'65 17046 ()' 40

From the above Binnie ma.de the following fOl'ecast of run-off bas d
on the relation between tho figures in c()lumns (4) and (5) :-
37·52 14·23
30·0 8·40
19·28 3·(J

Subsequent observation has shown that these runs-off have be n

olosely realized.
With reference to the above it is to be remarkod that a. similar forocl\st
to that made is deducible from the observation~ of the monsoon of
1870 alone, a single season of exceptionally abundant rain.
It will be noticed that the bulk of tho ra.in falls in foul' months nd
that the conditions appear to have been speci..Uy fa.vourablo to omputing
run-off from total ra.infall from commencement of the monsoon. In
many places in MadraFI the run-off from sma.ll catchments is most of it
rel\)ized between Juno and October and in others betwe n September
and December and the method is especially applicable to Buch catch-
ments.
66. Percentages of run-off from rainfall corrected trom stream
flow measurements.-The above method of estimating run-off from
total seasonal ra.infa.ll, modified as ma.y be necessary to suit the oharacter
of the sea.sons, may be usefully applied rather to small than to largo
catohments. In all cases a study of the aotual stream flow due to known
precipitation of rain, as regards both total quantity and intensity gives
valuable assistance in construoting, or modifying, suoh a table of run-oft'
as is given in paragraph 58 or paragraph 61 above, and is likely to provo
of grea.t assistance in forecasting yields of catchments. No opportunity
of gauging aotualflow-off of a catchment, of which thA ""';,,14 must be
forecasted, should therefore, bfl nA,..l~""" - , V G KVK 'lot allow
of ga.uging for more than a 8 UAS L,eRAR

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\~\ \\\\\\\
1386
26 m'RIGATION

67. Method or reoordlng stages or stream flow.-The suoces-

sive stages of stream flow past any place is reoorded from a register
showing the level of water at certain intervals of time as read from
a graduated gauge set up in the stream at that plaoe. A gauge is usually
graduated to read feet and deoimals and is fixed in a vertical position to
some rook or masonry work, or to a pillar or post speoially ereoted to
carry it. The level of the surface of the water as indicated on the gauge
is read and reoorded at stated intervals of time, generally two or three
times daily.
68. Inaccuracies due to recording flow from intermittent gauge
readlngs.-It is obvious that, apart from negleot of the gauge reader to
read punotually and oorreotly, the method is one susceptible to great
errors in the case of rivers and streams the levels of whioh a.re liable to
great and rapid fluotuations between the intervals of taking readings.
It is usua.l to give instruotions to the gauge reader tha.t, in addition to
the usual observations, extra rea.dings during floods, a.nd espeoially the
aotual highest and lowest flood levels should be recorded, it is neverthe-
less not to be expeoted that a gauge reader will always do this at odd
hours throughout the day, and oertainly will not do so in the night time.
The fluotuations in large rivers and canals are not generally rapid, but
tho streams fed from small catchments fluctuate vory rapidly and errors
due to this oause are likely to be great in the ca9~ of suoh oatchments.
Gauge roadings 011 small streams oombined with reoord of rainfall
over the oatohment are nevertheless very valuable as rainfall registers
give opportunities of interpolating flo ds of whioh tho gauge readings
give in suffioient detail.
69. Selection of suitable positions for erection of gauges.-In
seleoting suitable positions for ereoting a gauge it is neoessary to beal' in
mind the precise object which is in view in erecting the gauge as both
the position and the level of the zero of the gauge will be affected by
this consideration. Gauges are installed for various reasons, for
instance :-
(a) To obtain a reoord of the quantity of water flowing at all
times in the stream in whioh the ga.uges are to be ereoted.
(b) To obtain a record of the levels of wa.ter surface in the stream
during floods.
(c) To obtain data from which to compute the quantity of wlll(;er
passing over a weir or through the vents of a regulator or sluice.
70. Oonslderllotlon affecting the position of ga~ges in rivers and
streams.-A gauge should be installed in a position in whioh there are
reasonable facilities for its being rea.d, a.nd if situa.ted in a. pla.ce where
the gauge reader is not subject to oonstant supervision, convenience of
reading is one of the most important considerations, in the seleotion of the
site. The site seleoted should be onewhere the water level is not likely
to be affeoted by looal shoals or obstruotions and where the water has
froo aooess to the gauge at all stages of flow of whioh reoord is required.
71. Some details or gauge erectlon.-When the objeot in view is
obtaining 80 reoord of flow-off at all stages, it is most important to seleot,
so far 80S is possible, a site for the gauge with stable river margins and
not subjeot to oonsiderable alterations of river bed level by silting or
 WATER-SUPPLIES AVAILABLE FOR IRlUGATION 27

scouring at different stages of flow I the whole disobarg at all t of

flow should pass through a single channel the surfaoe Ie el of the w ter
in which is ~hown ~y ~he gauge.; the above points are of more importan
than seleotmg a SIte m a straIght reaoh in which the flow is uniform
and free fro~ backwaters or cross currents, etc., although the e oonditions
~r~ very desrrable where th,~y can also be realized. In many place it
IS necessary to erect gauges m several sectionR and when this is 0 it is
n?cessary to . be very careful that the oorr sponding graduation on
different sootlOns o~ the gauge ar? fixed at the same levo1. Figure S
shows a gauge fixed m several seotlOns on a transverse seotion of a river.

CPUGf). fOS T 6 FOR REGISTERING F\.OOO l.EVELS •

.. __ ".!'!:'lJ'..!!l.!'t£!..Fo. !'lt~.)!o.:. ______ '

'FIG . ~..
CROIIS 6I!CTID~ OF AlliER
6KOW'NG SET OF GAUGE POSTS . __

"OR IOTO 12. FEET OF W,.T ER FIG . 3(0)

AND COMPACT SOIL..

lit
GAVEl"
•
~
"'G. 3lb)

BlED ..... V.. L

Where bridges or other masonry works, or vertical rooks exist in

suitable positions, gauges may conveniently be fixed to them, but in
default of these, special wooden gauge posts, or masonry gauge pillars,
must be ereoted and to these graduated gauge should be secured.
Gauge posts or pillars, and their foundation must be speoially designed
to suit the site, having in view the depth of water, velooity of ourrent
nature of drift and tho character of the river.bed in whioh they are to
be ereoted. A gauge post or pillar, must be shaped with outwaters on
its up and down stream edges as shown in figure 3·b and the gauge should
be fixed on one side of the post intermediate between the up and down
stream outwa ters and on the side on whioh it can most easily be road I
it should be coontersunk flush with the side of the post or pillar. Gauges
ereoted in a sandy river.bed frequently require a well founda.tion 8 to 10
feet deep suoh as is shown in figure 3 (c). Figure 3 (a) shows an ordinary
type of wooden gauge post. In a sandy or soft river.bed where there is
much ourrent a dry stone apron should be packed for 10 to 12 feet all
:round the gauge with the top at or below the river.bed levol. This is
required to prevent local scour whioh is likely to oocur in the vioinity of
any obstruotion projeoting from the bed of a stream. The gauges
28 mRIGATION

used in Madras are generally made of enamelled plate iron graduated

to show feet and tenths in white on a. blue ground and are made in
sections 5 feet long. When these are unprocurable, similar graduations
can be painted on the gauge post. The enamelled gauges are muoh the
best and do not, like painted gauges, require frequently repainting.
72. Zero of a gauge to be oonnected with bench mark.-Wher-
ever and whenever a gauge is erected, the level of the zero of the gauge
should always be connected by levelling with at lea.st one good bench
mark in the neighbourhood, and preferably with two or more j ·t he
positions and values of these with reference to zero of the gauge should
be noted on the plan, or section, showing the gauge, and desoribed in
any report on the erection of the gauge which may be made. This is
most important as it enables any change of the gauge zero to be checked
and the gauge to be accurately replaced if in any way disturbed. If a
new gauge is erected in a new site to replace a.n existing one, it is generally
undesirable to move the old gauge, and in any ol1se the plan and report
showing the alteration should show the position of both gauges, and the
level value of the zero of eaoh with reference to a good local bench mark.
78. Gauge wells.-Gauges fixed in opon and exposed water ca.nnot
be read with close accuracy, as the wa.sh of ourrent against the gauge
pilla.r affects the wa.ter level and the fluctuations of level due to waves
and surgings cause constant variations of depth. A 'gauge well'
(sometimes called a 'stilling box ') is a well which is sunk on the ma.rgin
of a river or canal and provided with a gauge showing the level of water
in the well. One or more pipes or openings or narrow slits in the side
oonneot the well with the wa.ter of the stream, and thus the level of the
water in the well is kept at the true level of the surface of the stream,
but is not subjeot to fluctuations of level caused by wind or waves or the
wash of ourrents.
A gauge well is usually open at the top and surrounded by a parapet
wall, while a. ladder, or stops, afford oonvenient access to the gauge.
Wherever a gauge well is installed, there must be two gauges with their
zeros at the same level, one in the well a.nd the other in the stream,
fixed on approximately the same cross section, a.nd the readings of both
gauges must be reoorded. This· obviates errors whioh might ocour if
only the level of the well gaugo were recorded, owing to the partial
ohoking of the oonnexion between the well and the stream. In practice
a good deal of trouble is experienced from this cause especially during
a low stage succeeding a flood, and wherever gauge wells are insta.lled
the readings of both internal and external ga.uges should be frequently
oheoked by inspecting officers.
Pipes oonneoting gauge wells with a stream should not be loss than
3 inohes in diameter, and oach pipe should be without bend throughout,
so as to faoilitate olearance. The lowest pipe must be wholly submerged
below the level of the lowest stage of flow to be recorded. Where the
outer end of the lowest pipe ha.s to be laid in sand, or soft soil, a.t or below
the river bed level, it should terminate in a. fixed wire cage a.nd be laid
in a oistern, or orate, oontaining an 'inverted filter' consisting of stones
or grovel of sizes graded from about 1 inoh on the exterior to 1 inoh gauge
around the pipe head cage. This is required to prevent silt partially
ohoking the pipe.
 WA.TER-StrPPLIES A.VA.ILABLE :trOR IRlUGATl :N

Figure 4 shows a gauge well with thr e 3-inch pipes, tho lor
pipe being fitted with a cage (figure 4.c) embedded in an in erted fil r
(figure 4.d). The woll steining in this Mse i carri d up 10 £ t abo
ground level and roofed over to form a chamb r for an Butomatio w r.
level. recording instrument.

FIlS. 4.

.. .

WINOOy' "", .... . . . . ..."

_~~\~ ~::,.A,,~c:_C..O :.~:.~ ..

ou-r ""..... 0 • .
• •uc.E. ttt w~"' ..
1"'011 '- .. oouo .

74. Automatic continuous water level. recorders-The inaccuracios

of the records of flow based on intermittent gauge roadings have led to
the introduotion of oontinuous automatic water-Iov l·r cording instru·
ments, and the installa.tion of such instruments is the only praoticable
me&n.s of getting accurate flow levels in rapidly fluctua.ting streaIIlB. Few
of these instrumonts have as yet been installed in India but ther is
clearly a great want of th \lD and it is probable that Ito number will be
used in the near future.
 30 1RRIG TION

The record of most of these instruments consists of a diagram traced

by a pencil on a paper whioh is wound round a r?volving ~m . The
diagram records the level of the wate~ at .eao~ mstant of tune. To
effect this in some instruments the pencil pomt 18 moved by olock work
parallel t~ the length of the drum at a known and unif~rm sp~ed thus
giving time and the drum is caused to revolve by a cham passmg over
.--___~=----._ __---, a pulley keyed to it, one end of the
ohain is attached to a float whioh
rests on the surface of the water
whose level is to be recorded, and to
the other end is attached a suitable
counterpoise. In other instruments
tho drum is revolved by clock work
at a uniform spoed to give time,
while the pencil point moving parallel
to its axis and geared to a suitable
scale, reproduces on the diagram
the varia.tion of the water level.
Stephens automatic water level
recorder, an instrument of the lattoT
type, is shown in Figure 5.

The clock is driven by a.

weight and the intervals of time
at which it requires winding depend
on the heights available for the
tra.vel of the weight. This type of
recorder is in use a t a station in South India. a.nd ha.s worked most
satisfactorily. Figurcs 4, 4 (a) and 4 (b) show the installation of such
an instrument over a gauge well.

75. Methods of computing flow from gauge readings.-The discharge

in a river or stream pa.st a gauging station is calculated from the gauge
reading by multiplying the area of t he cross-section of flowing water due
to each successive gauge reading by the mean velocity of flow at that
stage. Tho aroa. of flowing wMer is computed from one or more cross
seotions of the rivor taken at right angles to the direction of flow. The
v~looity of flow may be actually measured by timing floats, or by means
of a current meter, or may be computed by Kutter's or Bazin's formula.
For the latter computation the surface fall of the stream under the
various eonditions of flow must be ascertained and a co-efficient suitable
to the river chosen. The method of calculation is described in Love's
Hydraulics, Cha.pter VIII. This method generally gives the discharge
of artificial caxmls and channels with reasonable accuracy; but in natural
streams the surface fall, eross-section area and velocity are constantly
o.ltering, and the liability to error in estimating the mean surface fa.ll
~nd mean hydraulio radius, and in fixing a suitable co-efficient is great;
this method of computing flow should, therefore, only be applied to river
flow whore it is impracticable to obtain even rough actual measurements
of velooity.

76. Selection of site tor measuring flow ot a stream.-For measuring

the velocity of flow of a. stream a straight reach of length exceeding
twenty timos the width of the stl'eam should if possible be ohosen and
the part of this roach having the most reJlula.r transverse seotion and the
 WA'l'.E!t-SUPPLIES A AILABLE FOR IRRlGATION 1
steadiest flow should be seleoted for tho gauging soction or seotions. It
must be realized that there is no necessity for measuring the flow of a
strea.m at the actualseotion where the gauge, from which reading h 'v
in the pa.st been taken, is erected, unless this is also the bost pla.oo for
measuring flow. The spot ohosen for actual moaaurement may, if d sirod,
be at a distance several miles romoved from this, and should btl t.he
reaoh most suita ble for the purpose of aooura.to measurem nt of tho flow
whioh passes the site of the gauge. It frequently happens that a place
whioh is the most suitable for plaoing a gaugo to be road daily is quito
unsuitable for taking the velocity and discharge measurcm nta und 1'-
taken with a view to ascertaining the equivalent discharge for oh
reading of the gauge. The only limit, on the distanco apart botw n
the site of the ga uge and the mea.suring plaoe, is that tho latt~r must be
110 situated that no material unmeasured inflow, or draw-off oocurs
between the two places. Jf the plaoes are a. t a oonsiderable distanc , say
over half a mile apart, a temporary gauge must be ereoted at the mea·
suring site and the gauges a.t both sites read at short intervals of time
during the continua.nce of the measuring work. It is most desirobl
that the river bod in tho measuring reaoh should not bo suhject to much
change by silting, or scouring, during different stages of flow, and a. smooth
rook, shingle, or clay bed is therefore favourable, whilo a fine sandy bed
is unfa.vourable. It is, however, froquently nocesso,ry to measure dis-
oharges in a reaoh with a oha.ngea.ble sandy bed, and in suoh cases it is
necessary to frequently check the cross-sections showing tho bed levels,
a.nd to make any necessary corrections in the table of areas of water
section duo to different stages of flow, tha.t is, to differont gauge roadings.
In oertain oases it is even necossary to tako a frosh scction oyory day.
A ourvo or table showing tho relation betwoon gaugo roading and
cross-sectional area. is called the 'ga.uge area curvo " or tablo.
77. Methods of measuring velocity of llow.-Volocity of flow is gono-
rally measured-
(a) By surface floa.ts.
(b) By velocity rods.
(c) By curront meters .
 32 lRtUGATION

78. Measurement of velocity by surface floats.-A length of about

100 feet in which the uDiformity of flow and of the transverse section
of stream is grea.t should bo seleoted a.s a float run, and the run divided
into two equal lengths by transverse dividing lines, I, II, III, in Figure 6,
set out at right angles to the direotion of flow by poles ereoted on the
margins of the strea.m.

About 20 feet above the up-stream line (i), a cord a a tagged, or

otherwise marked, at suitable known intervals is stretched across the
stream. Floats will be released at successive points on the line a a and
their timing as they pass in succession the lines I, II and III will be
reoorded by a man stationed on the margin for this purposo and fUl'nished
with a. stop wa.toh. If only a watoh with a second hand is ava.ilable,
the length of the run may be extended.
Several floats, generally three, are let loose successively from each
point, and the mean of the time of eaoh run reoorded. Where the float
doe not run fairly and truly down the section throughout the run or
whor~ tho time of any run differs greatly from others starting from the
same point, the observation is wsca.rded and an additional one taken.
In shallow streams floats are let loose by men wading, and elsewhere
from a boat, bridge or cable way. Where facilities for this do not
exist, floats may be thrown in from the margin of the stream so as to fall
roughly in the required position.
 WATER-SUPPLIES A.V.AILA.BLE FOR llUUG TI N 33

Evon rough observations of this nature are likely to afford Juab)

information.
The sP_3.ci.ng o~ t~e points from whio~ floa t ar r 1 ed. d P nd
on the faollities eXlStmg for the work, the tune available and th width
of the stream.
In a large. ri~er the spacing would bo f1' q~ ntly a. groat a 100 £ t
and moro, while 111 a. nalTOW stream, or canal, It might bo 10 {< tor f
as fa.r a.s practicable the points should divide tho width of tho stroolll int '
s(>ctions corresponding with any sudden ohango in the oro s seotion of
the bed.
79. Method of computing discharge from surface velocltles.-As a.
result of observations a statemont is obtained of moan surfa. 0 lociti
y
Vp VR, VB . . . . '. ~ along linos spaced a.t distanoes IIopal t
IJ , 12 , Is> 1. . . . In diViding the wa.ter oross seotional ar t\ into n
compartments [figure 6 (an; tho depths at oach point as I.\scor~\ill. d
from tho mean of cross sections of the run being d p do' d s • . .
d n - 1•
Surface velocities are in oxcess of moan velocitios and it has boon
found from num~rous observations that to roduoe surfa to moan
velocities they must be multiplied, by a. factor varying from O' 75 to 0·95.
Generally for purpOStltl of est' 't ing irrigation supply it is safo to
apply a factor of 0'8 to 0'85 according to the size of the str am or river.
If D be the total discharge from surfa ce float obsorvations tak n
as abovo, and F he the fa.ctor for roducing surfttco to m n velooity
then the total discharge cl.m be computed from th formui~
D=F {l{{do ~dl l) rO~Vl) +l~e,~d2) C'~V2) +
+ In en- ~ + d n) (Vn - J
2
+ VII)} . . . (2)

The following are used for surface floats and Me genera.lly 8uit,ao :
Bottles, partially filled with water so that only the neck is visible,
ooconuts, palmyra fruits, oranges, limes, etc.
Buckley recommends circular discs of pu.mk out from a light wood
but these are likely to be considerably affocted by wind.
It is very desirable to ta.ke float observations a.t a time of day wh n
there is least wind and the atr ngth of the wind and dir ction with
reference to the ourrent of the stream should alwa.ys be reoorded.
80. Float observations with velocity rods.-Vclocity rods Dore wood
rods, or tin tube!'l,about 1 inoh to 2 inches die.meter,and of longth a.pproxi.
mately equal to the depth of water on the line of the float run. The rods
are so weighted that they float nearly vertically with a bout 1 inch pro·
jecting above the water surface. The lower ond of the rod should
reaoh down to a bout '94 of the depth from the surface of the stroom .
A considera.ble number of rods a.re required to suit the val'ying d pth8
of cross seotion.
Tho adva.ntages of these rods over Bul'f!1.Ce float hi that thoy givo tho
a.pproximate mean volocity, and that they are not 80 muoh affeoted by
wind.
Velooity rods can be used to grea.t a.dva.ntage in a.rtificial canals
and channels, in whir.h a 'run of uniform depths can be obtained, but in
natural streams the inequalities of the beds are usually 80 gr t to
preolude their use.
3
34 lRRIGA'l'IO

The general methods of taking and computing discharge with volocity

rods aro the sam as with surface floats.
81. Measurements by current meter.-A curront meter is essentially
.
an instrument fmIDshod with a wheel which is caused to revolve by the
forco of tho current when immersod in a stream of water, and furnished
with goar which records or indi.cates, the number of revolutions of the
wheel.
· A curve, or table showing tho rela.tion betweon current velocitya.nd
number of rovolutions of the wheol per minute is the ' ra.ting curve'
or table of the meter. Each meter requiros to be rated separately and
this is gener&lly dono by towing the meter at, different known ana suitable
velocities thrqugh a. measured distanco in still water and recording the
number of revolutions; the r suIts are plotted on squared paper showing
the relation between velocity and revolutions and the ourv which closely
ooincides with tho obs l'vation points is the rating curve. Measurements
with a motel' in tra.inod hands are more roliable a.nd a.ccurate than float
measw'ements, but caro and attention to d tail is requirod to obtain
accurate results.
The current meter is used to obta.in the velocities at different points
on a transversal cross section of a st,ream and thus to divide IIp the
scction of flow into a number of tllpartments, the discharge of each
of which is oparately computed. The general method of computation
is similar to that stated in paragraph 79 above.
T he m ter howevor meaRuros tho v( locity of water crossing l\ singlo
s(lction~nd thoro it:! no inaccura cy or complica.tion as in floll.t observations
due to the nooe sity for computing the mean area of the length ofthe
float ru~.
The numb r of ohs rvation point s and their di stan 'es apart arc
deBendent on th configuration of thc stream. The fol lowing ruay be
tak n as a rough guid in fixing thc obs rvation points in th bed portion
of th ohannel:-
Smull h llnnels l~p to 20' ·b tl width 2' to 4' }
Channols 20' to 50' bed width 4' t o 8' At all observation
Channols 0 or .50' b d width 8' to 15' points.
L arge str aros 20' to 60' 5" to 20'

The v looity in r ' l1ses rapidly for som di!)tancc from the banks and
tIl obs~rvati on pointRRhouJd thcrefore b o]os r togother 11 ar th banks.
'rh points should b looated so as to tl1k into acoount the variations of
v I oitiel:l ov r b rms, slop s, ct o.
82. Methods of observing mean velocities by current meter.-The
meter oan b us d in sevora.l ways in order to get t he mean velocity in
the verti.cal a.t eaoh point of ob ·ervation. The most a.ccurate aEl weH as
t he most laborious method when oonditions permit, is to take the velocity
ill each vertical a.t ee.oh tenth or other small fraotion of the depth.
From thes ob rva tions a curvo showing the relation between depth
and velooity an bo plotted and the area enclosed between the ourve
a.nd itl:l ax s divided by the d pth, give!) tho mean velo ityin that vertical.
The pro siver laborious a.nd the observations take so much time
thSl.t the results aro likely to bo affi cted by change of the stage of Bow
duriull the ob ervations.
 WATEtt-S P LtES A.VA.ILA.l3LE F n. llUl.IG Tl a6
88. Mean velocity by one and two point methods.- rla,.
number of vertical velocities taken as above bve demon tra d ibM
under normal conditions the moo.n velocity ill a vertical j -
(a) The mean of the velocitie at O' and 0'2 of th d p h fr m th
surface.
This involves orrors up to a maximum of a.bou 2l por nt.
(b) The velocity at 0-6 of the depth fr01:tl th urfi .
This involvos error up to a. maximum of about 5 p r n .
El'om the a.bove fa.ots the praotice has be orne u 'ual to opomt
fent meters by recording tho velocity on eaoh ortiC801 ithor 8,
depth which is ca.lled ' the one point method' or at 0'2 and O'
tho surface which is called' the two point method. '
When,the depth at an observation IJoint is }('S$ tJlI.l.J1
exceeds Ii foot the velocity n ed 00 measnnd at one point onl r m.,
2, Ii t and

*
at 0·6 of the depth and if less than] foot at 0'0 ofth(_' d pth, 1).1:1 normalJ
the meter should not b held cIa r than 6 inch H to th e b< d oUll t!tr a.m .
84. Surface velocity by current meter.- Wh n tho v locit is too hi It
to allow of the meter being lowered to 0'6 of tho dopth without unduo
deflection of the suspending line or rod tho velocity at about t to 1 foot
below the surface may be taken and a fa otor appliod similar to that u d
for surface floats.
85. Methods of operating the f"urrent meter.- Th CUrI'ont ro ter is
operated in shallow water by a ma.n wAoding a.nd at other tim s eith r
from a. boa.t or a. bridge or from a. tra.velling car (or cradlo) hanging ft m
a. wire rope which is stretch d bet"" en tw tr stIos on ither i.d of ttt<
stream. In this cradle the observer (or two obsorv 1'8 ) its a.nd ithor i
pulled from the shore or pulls himself along the rop stoppingin su ssion
at the va.rious observjng points.
The current meter most used in Ma.dras is th

lJ'IG. 7 .
.The meter is used suspended from a. flexible .c~rd with ne or two
wtnghts aooording to the strength of th.e CuttOllt ; it 18 a.~ 0 \laGd. tte.oh d
3A
 36 IRRIGATlO .

to a rigid rod. Figure 7 shows tile metor sUl:lpondod and with two weights
attaohed.
,
86. WeIrs used for measurIng ftow-oll.-Whero gauge readings are
availa.ble above weirs or in the ca.se of drowned weirs, both above and
below, the disoharges of these Ck"1on be oomputed with fair aocuraoy by
applying the reoognizod weir di charge formulre.
In the case of very small streams involving flow not exceeding 10
cusecs, tempora.ry measuring woirs being rectangular or triangular
notohe.s made with wooden planks may be tlrectod to gauge disoharge ;
these should be arranged so as to have a clear overfall at the erit:cal
stages of flow .
. 87. Gauge calibration curves.-While the prepara.tion of acourate
disoharge curves giving the relation between gauge roading and discharge
involves the ta.king of a. large number of velocity a.nd discharge observa-
tions, an approximate ourvo can be made from 4 or 5 observations of
disoharge, if taken at suitable stages of flow so as to give points fairly
di stributed along the curve.
Once a suitable curvo is available tho convorsion of a previous gauge
reading into quantity of flow can be readily made.
The ascertaining of tho relation between the readings of a gauge and
the corresponding disoharge is termod calibmting a gauge and the ourve
or table showing this relation is the' calibration ourve ' or tablt' of the
gauge,
Although gauge readings alone do not giv~ the discharge of a stream,
if the gauge readings for any period are available, the calibration of the
gauge enables the discharges of that period to bo ascertained, so long
as the section of the river, at and about the site of the gauge, has not
materially altered throughout the period.
Wher the gauging seotion is some distance below th head r gulator
in the case of large oanals, the regulator rcar gauge reading is reoord d
for th oorresponding site gaug r ading and a oalibration ourve for the
regulator r ar gaugo reading is drawn. This ourvo is most useful for
regulating tho disoharges into th oanal.
88. Run-of! computed from change of water level of an intercepting
reservolr.-Whoro the run-off of a catchment is intercepted by a reservoir
the quantity of run-off can be calculated from a record of the daily water
level of the reservoir, oombined with the daily draw-off, smplus and loss
by eva.poration and ab orptioll. The accuraoy of tho result is dependent
on the acoul'aoy with whioh thoso losses are known, and the percentage
they bear to the whole inflow, and also n the aoouraoy of the tabl , or
ourve, giving the rela.tion betweon capa.cities and water levols in the
reservoir.
Under favourable oonditions this method of arriving at run-off from
a oatchment is a. very acomate one.
89 Maximum ftood dIscharge from a large catchment.-The ma.ximum
stage of flow in a river or stre~~m is produced when the rainfall of very
great intensity falls at a time whon tho state of catohment as regards
humidity i favourablo to a large run-off.
When reliable records of aotual flood levels embraoing a long period
are available they are the best guide to what may be expected in the
future.
In the ca e of very large catchments an attempt to compute maxi-
mum flood di hargo from rainfall statistics is likely to result and in the
past has resulted in very erroneoUl~ estimates.
 WATER-SUPPLIES AVA.lLA.BLE FOR IRRIGATION 37

In such cases it is almost imperative in estimating maximum Bood

discha.rge to rely on Bood levels a.nd in the ab onc of l' orded B d lov J
observations it is necessary to placo dependence on th ro ul of 10. 1
enquiries regarding past Boods, which however should be oh ked by
reference to recorded rainfalls.
As eo rule villages situated noar the margins of riv 1'8 "'1' on sitos
above ordinary Bood level but frequontly leave so !itt! mv.rgin abovo thj
that some portion of the village-sito is submorged in oxtrnordinr.r fl d.
Enquiry in margina.l villagos will genorally licit fl\ir1y 1'. urat
information in respect to the highest limit to which wetor att&in d within
the past 20 yea.rs or more, with the year in which sllch Bood 0 Uri d.
Villagers will generally be !'.blo to point out on hon S or wells , or
with respect to fences or dema.rcation stones tho limits to which th ir
fields were submerged. Careful enquiry a.t tho s voral villag S I'. long th
course of a river genorally serves to elicit vc.luablo infonne.tion in I' gard
to past floods.
In allsuoh cases tht various points indice.tod as flood limit. must b
conp.ected by levelling and comparison of levels wille,Irord a fair indica. tion
of the reliability of the inforlIlDotion. The comparison of rocords of tho
rainfall to whioh such floods were due , with othor heavy falls will holp
in estilIlDoting to what extent tho maximum flood may oxeo d tha tr oord tl.
As a further test the computed di. charge du e to tho flo d levols as a80 r.
tained from local enquiry may be comparod with th recorded rainfe.ll
on these oocasions and from this a reasonr.bly lIo(;ourato stimato of maxi-
mum flood discharge framed.
90. Floods from rainfall in moderate sized catchments.-In th ~e
of the discharge of smaller cl1,t chments the quantity of information pro-
ourable as regards flood levels is likely to bo muoh smaller and 1 88
relia.ble than in tho case of considerable cat ohments, but fortunately
in such cases tho lia.bility to error in ostimating maximum flood from
rainfall although still considerable is not so great as in large c8.tohm nt8,
neither is the effect of erroneous estima.tion likely to be so scrious.
The forecast of maximum discharge from small and m dium iz d
ca.tohments is generally made from oonsideration of the maximum inten-
sity of rainfall recorded at places in the catohment during short periods,
such as one or two up to about 10 days, and ofth Mture of tho ~tohm nt
in regard to proportion of rainfalllikoly to run off as surface dramago.
91. Ryves' and Dickens' lormulre.-The two formullB generally
used in South India. for computing maximum flood discharge arc those
of Diokens a.nd Ryves and are both in the goneral form :-
D = C.M.p
Where Dis ma.ximum flood dischargo,
M is the a.rea. of catchment in squar miles.
p is a. power less tha.n unity,
C is a .co-efficient fixed with reforence to the naturo of the
oatchment and the intensity of recorded rainfall and any r rdB o.f
a.otual floods in parts of the same or in similar ca tchm nts.
The formulm referred to are-
D =C. M. ~ (Ryves')
D=C.M. (Dickens')
3 IRRIGATION

A similar formula ha.s been a.pplied with varying values of p, for the
calculation of flood discharg s in the United States by Fanning and
Cooley, and in Australia by Karnot.
92. Table of flood discharges by Ryves' formula.-Ryves' formula is
that most generally used in South India, but DickeJlB' had also been
much used especially in the Ceded districts. For any specific catchment
it will be plain that an error in making p too small may be rectified by
suita. bly increasing th co-effici nt C i but unless both p and C are suitable
the application of the same equation would be inapplicable to a similar
catohment of different area.
The table below gives for Ryves' formula. the equivalent run-off in
inches over the ar a and in cuse s, for a number of difforent co-efficients
and a.rea.s .
Table of flood discharge8.
Ryves' formul2. D = C.M. i
Vaiuo3 01 C.
Area In
.quare
miles. 20J
I 300
I 400 j 500
I 600
I •
I 70)
J
800 900 1000
---t-
Discharge in inche8 f rom area in 24 ho1.ws.
1 7·43 1H5 ] 4·87 18·59 22·30 26·02 20·74 33 ·4-7 37-16
6 4-·34- 6·52 8·69 10·81) 13 '03 15·20 17 ·38 19'58 21·75
10 3·35 5·03 6·71 8·39 10·00 11 ·74- 13·42 15·53 17'26
25 2·54 I 3.82 0·09 !S·36 7'C3 8·90 10·18 11 ·45 12·72
50 2·02 3·03 4·04 0·05 6'06 7·07 8·08 9·08 10·09
100 HIO 2·40 3·20 4·00 4· 0 5·t;0 6·40 7· 21 8'01
250 '. 1·18 ] ·77 2·36 2.95 3·54 4·13 4·72 5·31 3·90
500 0·93 1'40 1·87 2.34 2·80 3·27 3. 741 4·22 4·69
1,000 0·74 1·11 1·48 1·85 2·22 2·59 2· 96 3·35 3'72
2,500 0·54 0·81 1-09 1·36 ] ·63 1·90 : ·18 2·47 2' 74
5,000 0'43 0·65 0'87 1·09 1·30 ] ·52 1·74 1'96[ 2'17
10,000 0·34 0 ·5 1 0'69 0·80 1·03 1·20 1·38 1· 55 1'73
25,000 0·25 0·38 0·51 0.64 0·76 O·~!) 1·02 1·14- 1'2T
50,000 0·20 0·30 0·40 I 0.50 0·60 0·70 0'80 0·911 1'07
Discharge in oustcs (to" significant figures) .
1 200 300 400 1Ul0 600 700\ 800 900\ 1,000
5 584- 876 1,168 1,460 1,752 2,044 2,336 2,632 2,924
10 928 1,392 1,856 2,320 2,7 4- 3,2,1, 3,712 4,177 4,641
i5 1,710 2,565 3,420 4,275 5,130 5, 985 6,840 7,695 8,550
60 2,7 J4 4,071 5,'2 6,785 8,142 9,499 10,860 12,210 13,570
100 4,308 6,462 8.616 10,770 12,920 15,0 0 17,230 19,390 21,510
250 7,938 11,910 15,8 0 I!), 40 23,810 27,780 31,760 35,720 39,690
500 12,600 18,900 25,200 31,600 37,800 44,100 50,{00 56,700 63,000
1,000 :10,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,OOCl 100,000
2,500 36.840 55,260 73,6 0 92,100 lIO,500 12 ,<: 00 147,4 00 165,800 184.200
5,000 58,4 0 87,I{20 117,000 146,20 , 175,400 20,1,,700 2!-l4,OOO 2 63, ~ 00 292,400
10,000 92,830 139,200185,700 232,100 27 ,400 324,900 371,400 417,700 464,200
25,000 171,000 256,500 342,000 427,500 513,000 5£8,500 68!,OUO 769,500 865,000
50,000 271 , :00 407,200 542,90067 ,500 814,300 950,000 1,086,000 1,221,00 1,357,000
1
93. Rainfall formuIm for flood discharge only applicable to moderate
and small sized catchments.-In a.pplying the above formula to any
oatchment the sel ction of a suita.ble co-efficient has to be made. In
making such sole tion the recorded maximum intensity of rainfall in the
catchment mu t be cOJlBidered. In a catchment of very la.rge size very
great differenc s will occur in intensity of rainfall in differ nt parts and
.8 fl,lr ady stated {paragra.ph 9) hug errors a.ro likely to be III de in
 WATER-SUPPLIES AVAILABLE FOR IRRIQATI N 39

forecasting maximum flood disoharge from rainfall alone but fortunat ly

other and bett er data are almost a.lways proourabl .
In the case of smallp,nd mod rat sized oatchm nt sa und r 360
square miles, the quantity and incidenc of rainfall is' often th t
and most reliable basis to estimat ma.ximum flood disoh8rg(' nd it ia
to such ca.t ohment s that the following remuks r fer. '
94. Standard area of maximum precipitation of rain.- Tt i. known th t
rll.infdoll of maximum intenl:!ity doel:! not simultamo us)y cour ('r \' ry
larg a.re~s ~nd ~h. J'eco~s ofr .cording l:!to.ti ns 2 or j m ill apart how
great VarIa.tIOn In mtensIty of ram, although not sh will ' tf'('at difT(\r 1\00
1\8 regards annual or seasonal fall.
A ref~renc t~ the above table (paragraph 92) shows t}U\t in RI k'oting
!I. co-effiCIent C WIth reference to the rocorded gl'( atost inte.nsi!. of ra.infall
in 24 hours, it i nec s ary to arbitrarily fix Romo stando.r·d m a. to which
this maximnm rc1.i nfall may be consider(>d to apply. Tt, is (.IUS ma.ry
in Madras to take five squar milo!; as this standard, which t\1'on i ' thAt
r~ommended by Mullins in the" M '.I.ut'Il.'1 IrrigAt ion M null.1. "

95. Selection of co-eIDcient in Ryves' formu)a.- ]11 t(.'lltat.j 1

selecting a co-efficient for an ordinary gently FtloJling cntchm 'lit h
as umption is made that a suitable co-effici nt will give a run-offill in oh 8
from a 5-squaro mile ar"a which will bfl a bout qUl~l to tho maximum
rainfall recorded in 24 hours. For oxanwl<.I, if Lhe ml~ximum 1"0 rdod
rd.infi111 is 10 inches refer nee to tho t a ble (p!Lmgmph !)~) tihows th[~t
the co-efficient which would give j.hi R most noat Iy is 500; tlus
howev I' may be modified aftor cOllsici.ering other sp cj~l facts in
connexion with the catchment, fl ll ch as its 8hapfl, the slop fI f the
ground, the p"rm ,o.hility of tho s urfact~ o.nd 1111 'y J'('cord of o.otllal fi (\
which m fLy b J availablo.
It might b:l Ul'ged that this co-officient gi VOR , for an !1J'l'o. of I sqlH\JO
mile, an intensity of run-off of H;·.50 in ches, which-is much moro t han th
I' corded mfLximum rainfdl. To this obj( cti()Jl t ho r('ply iR th n.t th
rain at ml1ximum intensity n vel' continues t o fl).II for 24 hOLlrs and t hat
tho greater part of a maximum fl1ll frequent ly ifl proui pitaLt d in 3 to 6 hours
and for a small catchment the maximum fu.Jl per hour, rathor them p r
day should be considor d. It is, how 'vel', unusuul to h£Lve reo l'ds giving
tho maximum intensity uf l'1l,infu.1l p Ol' hour, th o shortost Pi riod
ordinarily recorded being ra.infCLIl per day, and if a !:Iuitabl cO-l'ffioient
and standard area is adopted, the formula givos a roo.sono.1>1 margin Lo
allow for the heavy incidonce of faU in periods of losI:! t han (L day. Th
furthor assumption made in all wing for maxim um run-off in 5 sqUl~r
miles at tho 1'.100 of tho whole rocorded rainfall ill a (lay nud not m rely
a fraotion of it, if en'on OUB, is an en' l' on the safo sid . ]t is in ffi t
the same as i f the standa.rd aroa Wt1ro 6 !:Iquaro mH·f! with a 8urfo.Ct
run-off of 84 per cont.
Again the rainfa.ll precipitlttod t akos SODlO time to sch th pln.c',
where tho maximum discharge is to b forocasted, and. tho full ov ~ tho
whol a.rea can only gra.dually arrive at this place. ThIS sorv 8 to d18tn·
but the r un-off and moderate th dit;charg in accordan' with tho
differ nces in the time required for the flow of rain wa.tor from th pm
a.t which it has fallen to th !:lood discharge station.
Th mod rltting off< ct of the above on floods at allY place is small
in a small catchment but incr(>as s rapidly with th a a of th
catchm nt.
 40 mRIGATION

96. Consideration of suitability of co-emcient with reference to data

available other than the maximum rainfall in one day. -I n fixing the
oo·efficient for the maximum recorded intensity of rainfall consideration
should b~ given to the fall on the day preceding and on the day succeeding
t he greatest fall, a.s the maximum fd.ll in 24 hours might very well
approximate to the latter plus one or oth r of the fonner,
For instan ,the maximum' fall recorded at Ongolo was 10'45 inches
on 28th October 1 95, the f,\1l on the previolls and on til succeeding
day bJing small bat ther was a fa.ll at th same place of '46 inches
on 10th Novembar 190?, preceded by a fall of 6'50 inches Oil the 9th
Novemb :>r. Under the circumstances it would bo reasonable to assume
(8'46+6'50) = 14'96 inches as a possibl maximum, and something
con iderably mor than 8'46 as the basis for fixing the co-efficient for
th'3 flood discharge formula.
In many tracts in Madras there are large numbers of oxisting tanks
which are many of them provided with rna onry surplus works and
enquiry into the history of such t anks is likely to give information
important in aSl:listing in arriving at a suitable co-offici nt. If, as is
fr: quently the oase, the surplus works havo been design d for a maximum
flood comput d from Ryves' formula, and if extraordinary falls of rain
h ve not resulted in fai Jur s owing to inadequate oapacity of surplus
works it is ovid noe ofth adeq lnoy of the oo-efficient usod, and vice ver8a,
Wh n finally fixing tho cji)-efficient for oomputing flood di charge
to b3 provided for , the nature of tho works in cont mplation must be
oon idered. Whl}re underestil11f1.tion of the magnitude of a flood is likely
to enta.il v ry disastrous con. quenc B, it is obvious that an estimate
so liabl to error should rather en' on the side of liberal provision than the
r v r ; wh re, on the other hand, the cost of works is likely to be
gr atly incr asod by lib9ral provision for floods and the damage due to
underestim ting is not likely to bo gl'eat, a more con orvative. efttilllatc
may properly be made.
As an exa.mple the dry taluk8 of the Gunt1ll' district north of the
Gundlacamma may be cited. H re rainfall registers for over 40 years
a.re availa.blo. At ono station (Sattenapalle) there was a fall of 15'20
inch s on one day in Novomb r 1 97 ther being no rain on previous or
following day. At the near st 1wo rain stations (Guntur and Narasarao-
p t) eaoh distant about 12 miles, the fall Oil th same day was 5'70
inohes at one, and less at the oth I'. The next hea.vicst fall in two consecu-
tive days aver registered at Sattenapalle is 6'46 inches, at Guntur 7'0
inchas, and at Naras,\raop t 9'30 inche . These are fairly r pI' santa-
tive of the other station of the a.
For purpo a of ordinary tank l' storation works a co-officient of 500 in
Ryv 'furmula has been adopt d a generally applicable to designs of
surplus work; in this tract, but for the purpose of tho Kistna Re ervoir
Project main canal, a bad breaoh whioh would entail widespread
d isa tel', a oo-effici nt of 1,0 0 has be n adopt d,
97. Eftact of nature and shape of catchment on the co-emclent.-
Steep or rooky oatchments involving quick run-off and small absorption
would 0 11 for an extra high co-efficient while the co-efficient of very
fla.t or ab orb nt tracts would be r duced. The shape of the catchment
ha.s 801 0 an eff, ct on floods. A catchment of a. ciroular' hape in which
the sub idiary drainage join the mR.in one near to on another is likely
to. give, other things b!}ing imilar, a larg l' flood than a long narrow
 WATER-SUPPLIES AVAILABLE FOR IRRIGATION '1
catchment. An exception is such a. ca a. th abo wit n th(' tonn
produoing the flood travels down th vall y of th cat hment· in h
110 case a long narrow ca.tchment will giv 8. greater flood tha.n ~ cir ul r
one.
Where th ro is a marked differenc in the rainfa.ll of diffi nt pm
of a catchment the flood dischal'O'e of th v ral pllort must c n id red
sopara.tely, duo n.llowance being made when as mbling tho figures
togeth~r to mn.ko allowaDco for tUllO of tramnlission tmd for 1.11 rodll ti n
of flood dl16 to the la.rger 801' a of thfl wbol(l cn.tchm nt.
98. Co-emcients frequently applicable in Madras.- Th 0 -l'ffioi nt
to be applied must bs consid red in eaoh ca e on its m rit but h
following figuros from Buckley'8 Irrigation Works of India. giv an id
of the magnitude of co-effici nt frequently found suitable in Madra
in connexion with Ryves' formula. . ,
C = 450 in fiat tracts along tho coast.
" = 560 in tracts with greater slopo 15 to 100 mil from t.ho
coast.
" =- 675 in limited al'<'as ncar the hills.
Tho co-efficient 5GO may bo oonsid red as applying to til n.vorago
catchment; and this reduoed by about 16 p l' cent in tho 'n of a ry
1la.t catohmont and increas d by 20 per oent for l1J'uas at th fo t of hills.
Thi givo'!r fair idea of the way in which tho slop nnd natul' of surfaoo
of oatohmentH uif(l\Jt the fixing of a rmita.ble co-offici nt.
99. Other fl ood formulm . ev 1'0.1 ot.her arbitrary formuJro of
different form to the above, Ilre u od for oomputing mj~ imum flood
disoharges; they however all involve largo as, llmption and non of
them are simple of applioation.
100. Marking and recording flood levels and flood d!scharges.- Tho
abov will make it clear how uncertain aro the data on which it is f -
quellt ly n oessary to compute -the mllgnitlld of maximum B OdR
and how valuable a few well establishod facts as l'<'go.rds f1ow- fffr m
storms may provo in arriving at a oorr ot stimate.
All irrigation offic rs should make a point of marking and roc rding
water levels and discharges of various riv rs, streams, surplus, Rnd I' 1:1
drainage works after ovory flood of oonsiderable magnitud , and wh )l v r
opportunity offers should roughly obsorv surfno v loeities of str am
in flood, by throwing in floa.ts and timing th m b tw n marks on th
margin; drift wood, or rubbish will frequently s rYe tho purpos of fl ts
and all that is neoessary to enabl flood discharge to be oalculo. d is it
reoord the timing of the speed at which th Be are oarri d through a. known
dista.noe and to mark the oorresponding flood lev ]s and positions of th
float run and to asoerta.in the sectiona.l area. of discharge after th fl d
subsides.
It is specially important to establish flood level marks after 0.00
considerable flood along rivers or streams which have artm ial 11 d
emba.nkments a.nd it is the duty of a.ll irriga.tion fficer in ohargo of
works to 8 0 that the e 1 vels a re reoorded by means of marks on rna nry
work and pegs at intervals a.long banks. Along important mbllonk-
ments it is d sirable to ha.ve flood gauges on a.ll masonry works as w 11
as at suita.bly spaced intermediate points. If one si~e of BU h a. ga.ug
is k pt whitewa.shed th maximum height of flood Will be hown by 1,11
water ma.rk on the whitewash which will be visible for v ral days
after the flood 8ubsid s.
 CHAPTER IV.
PERCOLATION AND EVAPORATION.
101. Percolatlon.-It was stated in paragraph 55 above that part
of th annual rain fa.lling on any catchment soa.ks into til ground and is
either vaporated or ab orbed by vegetation or is stored as ground
water mo t of whioh s eps slowly away through the ground to reapp 801'
as surface water in streams, tanks and swamps. This water passes
into and through the ground by percolation, that is, by gradual flow
between and through the partioles of the soil.
102. Percolation and absorptlon.- Th term abao1'ption is commonly
used as interchangeable with percolation and the terms are generally
so us d in this book and when so used include the offl cts of both' absorp-
tion' and' perco1t.tion '. trictly sp aking, however, 'percplation' has
reference only to movement of ground water whioh is brought about
under the op ration of tho force of gravity and' absorption' has reference
to movement or l' t ntion of water in th pores of soil or other material
by the force of oapillary attraction.
Capillary movement may take upwards, downwards or laterally.
Capillary movoments of ground water take place in direotions leading
a.way from pOl' spaces wholly or partly filled with water towards those
whioh are entirely mpty or which are 1 ss nearly filled.
Imm diatoly after ordinary rain when the surface soil is more moist
than that blow, oapillary action aids gravity and hastens the penetra-
tion of water into the ground. As soon as the surface soils beoome
.drier than tho b:}low, the capillary currents are revorsed and the
flow is upwards.
Wa.ter which enters ground in excess of capillary saturation mov s
directly downwards till ground water surface has been reaohed when
it raises that lev 1 and at onoo augments the pressure (paragraph 55)
induoing lat ral movement of s\1,b-soil water.
103. Seepage.- ' 0 page' is a term f1' quently used to donote
percolation into or from the soil. ' oakage' is used sometimes to d note
peroolation into the ground but is not us d for _percolation from the
soil.
The terms' percolation' and' ab orption ' g n raIly for the futm'e
will be us d in their oomprehensiv s nse.
104. Mean annual percolation of a catchment.- Th 'mean annual
II 1'0 laotion ' of 0. catohm nt is th depth of rain water ovel' that area.
(in inch s) whioh on an average alillually soaks away into the earth.
Perc la.tion wat rforms a v ry oonsidorableportion of the visible flow-oft'
of mo t stream and in rainless periods the whole flow of ri vel'S and streams
is derived fr'om tllis source. The quantity of p rco1ation from a given
d pth of rain falling on a urfo.oe in a giv n time is greater the more
porous the naturo of the urfa.ce and sub-soil and is less the steeper the
8urfac slopes of th area. A steep oa.tchment with a surface of hard
sheet rook connotes very small peroolation, while on a fiat plain oomposed
of deep sandy soil p rcolation will be great.
 PERCOLATION AND EVAPORATIO

105. Eflect of percolation on irrigation supplles.-Th fIi t f

peroolation i to som }..i;ent to diminish tho anllual run-off of ra.infall
but to a much gr ater extent to qualize fl wooff, I'{'duoing th di char •
a.fter heavy rainfall, by absorbing part of the ra.in into the oil through
which it percolates at a slow rate and re-appoar a. urfa wator
after the direct run-off from th fall of rain he. b n disoharg d. Th
effects of permea.ble strata which drain into the alle f a. at hmont
are similar to those of r ervoir of capacity equal to th content of th
pores of the strata, but whioh have outlets who J:('gufation i not
under control.
The beds and margins of riv('Irs, wher these ar fu:>(>l pt'rm€abl 0.1 0
a.ct in a similar way, the higher portions of tho br-ds and th~ margm 1
strata absorbing water from th riv r flow on a rising river and oontJnuing
to absorb so long as the river surftLoe level is abovo the 'gr und watcr
level' whioh is also teohnioally term d tho' wn.tor to.bl '. As th riv r
falls, the direction of percolation is reversed, the' soil gradually giving bl~ck
to the river or strea.m lower down it, course th water previously
impounded from its own flow.
As a striking instance of this, the iJ.IlV~I·y elta syswm may be
quoted in whioh the rivor channels n ar tho tail end ofth Flystem (in th
vioinity of the East Coast) oontinue to run, and flow irrigation i carried
on long after any surfac flow is passing through tho n·gulatord at th
head of the system. In this system tho fdoll of rivm' ohann Is is Ull-
usually great, and th ohannols aro very wid and Rhall w nnd run on
beds of coarse sand through permeabl strata which aro suturato.l from
surface irrigation water throughout tho onrlier months of tho oroJ) soaRon
nnd thus the' water table' is rai sed to a high I vol. '
The permeability of soils in irrigated areas or in thC' tracts through
which oanals are carried to fe d tho flO area , ill the caw!( of Joss by
peroolation into the Stl b-soil of large quantiti(,R of t,}l water whi h
enters at the head of the canal system and in oons 'qu noo of this 108
the quantity of irrigation water delivered 011 tho surfac of th Ii ItIs i
less than that which is passod into the canal at its head.
Such loss is generally estimated by moo.slIl'om nt of th
canals and ohannels past different points in the diRtJibution ays m; th
losses so measured include both peroolation and vaporation loss 8 and
the estimates which are framed of the losses of wat r in transmj Bion
between the hoad and the field s are invariably framod to inc]ud b th
these factors. Th actual percentage of the losses sustain d in diffe nt
irrigation systems from these oausos will bo 1'0£ rred to later. For tit
present it suffio s to say that tho actual losses attributable to 1 roolati n
alone vary greatly with t)le class of soil and in 0 rtai}1 cases a known
to be very great and to oause much injury by loss of wntor whioh could be
otherwise usefully applied to irrigation, and also by injuriously are oting
the health of the inhabitants in tho irrigatod traots by raising the
sub-soil water levels to an insanitary extent.
106. Percolation In sons of different klnds.~For th pUl1)O of
oonsidering peroolation the soils may be dividod into three clall808-
(a) Sound rock in situ.
(b) Grit soils.
(e) Plastic soils.
 44 IRRIGATION

. 107. Percolation through roek.-Most descriptions of stone when

unaffected by dooay are practically impermeabl and p rcolation through
m:.l.S8')S of rock of 8!lCh de cription takes place only through cracks,fissures,
bedding planes or cavities in the stone. The velocity of flow through
strah oomposed of such stone depends on the sctional area of the fissures
and where these are open joints is dep~ndent g nerally on the same condi-
tions as r guJate v locity of flow through pip s or open channels.
Where the or s of stono either owing to its ori nnn.l Htructure, or to
d composition are so open as to allow percolation, the v lomty of percola-
tion will b governed by similar conditions as in the caBO of grit soils.
108. GrIt and plastic soils.- ' Grit soils' may bo taken to include
porous and decomposed rocks and may bo describ d as soils such as sand,
shingle, gravol, otc., which are an aggregation of particles of hard
material which do not boc me soft in water and which do not adher
to one another when moist. Cloan sand is the most common form of
pure grit soil.
, Plastic soils' whon dry can be pulverized into a fine dust consisting
of particles of impalpable ~izo. When moist, such soils become plastic
and the particl s adh r to one another or to particles of intermixed
gl'it. When mix d with a further quantity of water , these soils beoom
mud and have a tondenoy to slip and flow.
109. Permeablllty of soils.- ' Grit soils' aro freely permoable and the
d gr e of permeability dep nds on the percentag which the content
of unfill d space b tween individual particles bears to tho whole mass
of the soil. This p roontage depends to a con id rable extent on the
shape, and more still on the grading, of sizes of the particles of grit
oomposing tho soil.
, Plastic soil' when damp is only slightly I rmoable. Thero is no
soil which is absolutely impermeable, but t ho permeability of tho b st
olas. s of clay when in the pZa8tic 8tate is so slight as to be practically non·
exist nt. All dry plastic soils will absorb water and onJy become '
plastic when damp while it is only in the plastic state that they are
impervious.
It is oommon in nature to fmd soils compo sod of a mixture of grit and
plastic soils, and when tho latter ili so dispos d as to effi ctively fill all the
interstic s betwoon the partioles of grit, the soil when damp beoomes
impervious. Ma s s of pur grit, such as sand and shingle, and pure
plastio soil, suoh as blaok ootton, and of mixed plastic and grit soil, such
as loam are common in nature, the fir t being permeable, the seoond
imp l'meable, and in tho case of th Ill. t th permeability depends on the
proportions of plastic a.nd grit soils and the way these are mixed.
110. Percolation gradient.-The resista.!loe to p rcolation flow
through any matorial or soil vari s in accordance with the percentage
the voids bea.r to the solid matter in the whole c ntent of soil. Where
th .re is a. flow of water percolating through pervious soil from its source
of upply to some oth r place the force moving it is gravity, and, as
in the 080 of surface water, a. c rta:n urfa.c slope or h ad is required to
induoo {fow and th gr ater the sloptl, the greater th How and vice tH!r8a.
The surft1.C slope of wa.ter moving under fixed conditions through
any soil is oolled th 'percolation gradient' and for similar soils under
tho me oonditions the peroolation gradient will be the same. The
relative p I'm ability of di.ffi ront kinds of oil ma.y b oomI a. d by
ob rving their r p otivo 'peroolation gradi 'nts' und r the same
oonditiollS.
 P.ERCOLATIO~ AND EV POR TIO

111. Water table and ground-water gradIent.- Re oj tan to til pa. sag
of wa.ter through va:iou .kind of .oils vari . v ry groatly, and thr ugh
even the most pervlOus IS so con Iderabl a to roqui c mpar ti",' I
stoop surf<\ce slopes t o induc even slow mov m nt ; furth r th uppli
of seepage wa.ter are const antl var. ing and th 1'0 ult i t.hat th re
ar gr at di1t r nc s in the lev I of ub-soil wator in ari u p rts of an
tra.ct of countr. Th slope of the sub i1 or ( ground -wntor I I 1
in a.ny tract is called t he 'groundwat er gradient and tho surfa. of
I

th ground water is often referred to A.S the ' water-tabl .'

112. ' Saturation gradient ' .- In the caso of arth n m bankmlln
which hold up a depth of wat0r against on fac, th bank be m
gradually s3.turated by percolati on up t o a certain 10 I on tituting
a gradient falling from th surfdocc of th waoor on th up- tr am f!l.
oItho b:mk at an anO'le which other thingR boing qual i fl atter or st.oopOf
in accordance as the matorial oomposing th bank is m ro or 1 ,
permeable.
The pla.ne of the surfMo of the percoh\tion water, viz. , th level at
whioh free water would be met if bor ' w re unk at a numb r f pI (lS
in the bank, is called' t he plane of saturation ' or of ' poroola.ti n' of th
bank if the ' plane of saturation ' outs the outel' fdoco of th balik, vitlibl
flow will appear along and below the linfl of into etion . In 8. oro
section of a ba nk, the plane of saturation beoom 8 a lin and i rderrod
to as the ' line of saturation ', and the slope of this as the ' turati n
gradient' or sometimos as tho ' hydrauli c gradiont '.
Tho 'saturati011 gra.diont ' of an ombankment ii; syuollymOUt; with
tho ' p ~rcolati(m gradient ' the t l'ms boing int(ll'chang abl!' ; th actual
gradient is th same for the samo soils wher~ tho vC')oci ty of porcolntion
is the same. The velocit y of percolation ill gl'!'atly intiul'nced by th
.conditions of dra.w-off and cons qu nay t he actual pore lation gradi nt
for the same soil will vary gI'( mtly undor di~ l' nt condition!:! of urainag .
Tho resistanoe of flow through n.ll soils iH groat and the voloeity of
percolat ion is vcry !)maU whon eomparod wi t h smf!\c Bow alld tJI
chang s of percolation or Raturation gra.dicnts t o suit any 'hang in tho
condition of the effect,ive hoad j only offeoted w ry ",lowly and th 1('1;8
P rmeable the soil tho slow~r tho cho.ngo. To givo an id a. of th fA,
of percolation it may be st ated that through the p OI of ooar!:! md
with a peroolation gradient of one in twolvo, velocity would b about
3 feet in 24 hours. Thus whon observing tho percolation gradi nt
for the purpose of judging the permeability of any elaBI; of !loil it ;1:1
neoessary to do so undor conditions in r gal'd to effoctive hoad, which
have not materially altered for a considorablo time.
113. Saturation gradient in a bank shown by plpes.- If th water
levels in t wo pelioraood pip s (a) and (6) sunk in tho or 88 aeotion fa
+
oanal bank as shown in figlue 8 w re found to be 97 a.nd + 5 speot.
i vely and the bank and sub-soil are composod of tho sam arth, this
would indioato a poroolation graw nt of one in four in tho bank alld sub·
soil. If the saturation plane intersects tho surface Hoil ith r on th
rea.r slope of the bank or at Bome depression in the ground beyond th toe
of the ba.nk, peroola.tion on the surface will t a.ke plaoo from a.nd loW'
the level of suah intersection. If the borrow pit had b n xoavo. d a.
shown in figure , the bottom of the pit would have boen oovered with
water peroola.ting from the oanal.
 lnlUGA'flON

If the oanal bank wer of highly impervious earth, the sub-soil

being unohanged, th lev] of water in pipe (a) would be unaffi cted
because the p roolation through the Boi] under the bank would have
produced suffioient water pr SBure at the low r end of the pipe to rai
the water in the pipe to + 97, that is, to the level due to the p reolation
gradient of the soil on whieh the bank stands.
F1G.e.
,
• , I
,
,0+-- ' 8 ---+!f' - - -
: a. P. s" ... .
I
I
'b

114. Uplift pressure exerted by ground water.- Whon wator has porco-
lated into a pervious !:!tratuDl which is overlaid by an impervious soil
in such a way that the ground water cannot rise to the level due to
p rm ablo qualities of the lower stratum, the sub-soil water will ex rt
a pressure on the und rside of the imp rmeable stratum at each point
eqmvalent to the differ nc at that point of the actual water] vel
and the level of the line of porcolation gradient of the permeable soil.

For instance, tho pressuro!:! u.t a, b, c, figuro 9, ar those due to

oolumns of water of heights 00,' b6', cc'.
1'h conditions ar analogous to thos of a water pipe flowing under
pro sure whioh i!:! laid at flo gradient I I:!S than its hydraulic gradient
llond til "p rcolation gradi nt defin s th virtual slopo of til ground
wator jw.t n. th hydraulio gl'a.dient of pip> gives its virtual slopo (see
Love's Hydraulics, hapter VI).
115. Velocity of percolation through sand.-The v Jocities of water
peroolating throu Ih ',\11(1 of variou grades as r gards size of individual
grains has b n. the subjeot of' a consid rabl amount of investigation
sp oially in OOIUl xion with the rate of filtration in water-works, and
as a. result of xperim ntal inv stigation it has b n asc rtain d that the
oondition affeoting the rate of p roolation, within oertain limits of v 10-
oity, 801' similar to thos p rtaining to th motion of wat er through pipr a
of very small a ctional 801' a and not thoa pertaining to tiow at ordinary
velooiti in pip s of normal size (vide Lov ' Hydraulic, hapt r VI.)
The ma.tter has b n treat d of in conqid ra bi detail by Park r
(Control of Water) who giv r fi reno to much of th ava.ilable
experimental informa.tion on the subject published to da.te.
 PEROOLATION )) EVAP RA'.rlO.

From uch xperimont a. formula. ha. n d . d

roughly th volocity of water p rooia.ting throu h 01 n
relation are stated in th under-noted quation w11iuh i
flu-zen's formula
V= 210d,( t +60lO) ~l . ... (A)
~

where V is t he v locity f a solid stroa.m 0 " wator ot' til( Ham tiOIll I
aroa as that of tho sand thr ugh wlu h pcroolation t k 8
plaoe (not t h') veloGity through th" po('(>" of th ·Il.nd '\\ hi ·h
mu.t be 2 to 3 times greater).
d = the • effective siz ' of the sand 1(r<1,inH in hUllcll dth.,; of nil
inch .
[Th 'effeotive flize ' of 'and it) denned as th ro(' n diam «.r f a.
grain su ch that 10 per cent (by weight) of the sand iK comp0R<'d of mall r
partioles and 90 per cent of larger particles.] .
h is the head in fe t, producing per 'olation.
l is the length in feet, of the path along whioh pere la.tion oeourll.
t is the temperatur of water in degrees Fahrenheit.
For the plains of Southern Indil~ 't' may b t r k n at + CI F;
the equation thon becomos· V = 315 d : ~I • • • • • • (5)
116. Mechanical analysis of sand.- ampl '!l of sand may b grad d
by shaking up the sample in water and passing it in suoc &lion through
a number of sieves with mesh s spaced at different dil:!tanc II apart.
Th sand retained in oach si ve i either gaugod b volum, or
after drying by weight.
Th importance of olassifying sand by th.o iz of its 0 nstitu nt
grains is a matter which has been latel coming into 1)1 min 11
in engineering not only in connexion with percolation, but al 0 with
reference t o density of mortar and COUOI'oto.
117. Sand analysis useful for comparing designs with existing
works.-It is believed thH.t no desiglll'l of irriga.tion w rkK hav up to
now beon based on oomputed velocity C'f p roola.tion flow btl.R U 011
analysis of sand or othol' !Soils Itnd the formula giv('n need OllJ.v b
cOI1!Sidered as a guid to the conditions which a.ffect v 1 ity of p roola-
tion through sand and other pervious soils while th pmctical aJ)pli tion
of sand analysis may for th pr s nt be confined to 0 ntvo.ritlon of th
sizes of sands on whioh existing workl:! stand, with oth I'S forming th
fonndations for propo ed 011e!:>.
118. Percolation past irrigation works.- Thll tl sign of il'rig!l.ti 11
works such as earthen embankment!:>, maHOlU''y dams, w irs or regulators
may aim at stopping as far as possible all p rcolation through r und r
the works or in alternativ , at rostricting percolation withiu such limits
as are required for tho stability of the works.
119. Stabillty of works atTected by percoJation.- In rally spoaking,
flow-off from p rooll1tion through r und r a work d s not affect its
stabilityucrtiess ....
(a) The p roolatioll becomes at any timo of Huffioi nt v louity
to carry off with it partioles of soil from th work or from undern ath it,
or from bank oonnexions joining the work with natural featlll 8.
(b) P ressures develop d by, and due to, peroolation a.T tmftioiout
to fraotu re and d ispla.oe some part of the work.
4 IRRIGATION

It is olearly 1100assary beforo designing Ilony irriga.tion work subjeoted

to hydrostatio pre sure a.nd composed of or standing on a perml",able soil
through whioh p aro lation must pass, to decide a.s a. pr liminary wha.tis
the hydra.ulio g.-adient (8) which will enSUTe that velocity of peroolation
flow is r strioted within safo limits.
If the h ad (h) ba fix.ed, this fixes the minimum longth (l) of porco}a-
tiou flow f"r
8
,.
= -.. .. (6)
1
Economy of design forbids making' 8 ' too small and
Security of design, making it too large.
For works on a:£ undation of olean sa.nd ' 8 ' generally varies from 1/18
to 1/12 aooording to the 00.1r8 noss of the sand; the coarser the sand
the larg<>r il>l • 8 ' and thi is so in spite of the fact that perc lation velooity
is greater in a coarse tha.n iu a fine sand b cause tho velooity requir d
to displaco tho coars(} sand is proportionately still greater.
120. Limiting velocity of percolation under toundatJons.-For tho
sup l'r:ltructure of works thero is g nerally no diffioulty in dosigning so as
to soouring ither freodom from percolation flow or suitable restriotion
of the S&nle and considera.tion will only be given now tc the conditions
under whioh sub-soil percolation takes place under works, which are in
them elvos freo from percola.tion and standing on an impervious platform.
Lot a b (figure 10) represent the section of the imporvious b",so of the
sup rstruotur and at = h, the maximum head above the work.
It is asc;umed tha.t this head is oomplet ly dis ipated at (b) the down·
stl' am toe of tho work and that p roolation water is delivered thore ali
a m ro triokle at a v locity incapa.ble of moving tho soil.
The shortest possible length of th lino of porcolatiou uudor thoso
conditions is that of the floor, viz., a O.
Writers on the subject aro not in agreemont a.s to tho exact oourse
of tho line of flow connoting maximulll velocity of pOl'()Ola Lion under an
impermeable floor through a homogolloou permea.bL sub-soil of great
depth.
Bligh considers the lino of flow aB ono adhering to th . under side of the
impervious floor or to the urfao of any obstruction but th mathomatica.l
examination of the problem by Pl'ofcs or C. . lichtor shows that the
lincs of flow probably approximo.1jfl to an ellipse.
In any case the length ' l ' of the line of flow (:a.nnot be shortor than
a b. If thorefore • l' be the length of the liue of percolation which res-
tra.ins the velocity of percolation within sa.fe limita, ha.ving in view the
natul'1.1 of the sub-soil, then safoty ma.y be sccurod by making a b equal
to • Z '.
"lQ.IO.
 1>EROOLATION .AND EVAPORATION

un. IT an obstruction to flow such as a.n impervious lin of pil (or

wells) be interpused at p or q, it would olearly be possible to redu th
length a b of floor, while still retaining a. length of percola.tion not 1 8 th&n
, I '.
There is some doubt as to the extent to whioh the va.Iu of',· is
affeoted by suoh obstruotions. If, as appears probable the flow i in th
form of an ellipse, the nearer to one or other end of the fi:x,r tho ob truotion
is placed, the greater its effect in lengthening the short at line of flo .
Bligh, however, maintains that the lino of Bow which he terms tll 'lin
of creep' olings to tho surfaoo of tho impervious barrier and that th rofor
the effect of eaoh line of piles (whioh he lays down must be at a dista.no
apart of not less than twice their depth) would b tha.t of twice th quiva-
lent length of horizontal floor. Under such oonditions of flow the ft' at
on ' l ' would be the same whether the piles were placed noar tho entre
or ends of the platform.
Bligh refers to experiments as having given cOnDrmat,ion to the abovo,
but does not give any details of the oxperiments on whioh he I li s to
support his method of computation which would need very strong oon-
firmation before it could be aocepted.
It appears on the whole advisable to take' l • as bing th length of
the shortest line conneoting the ends of imporvious barriers, and if both
barriers in figure 10 existed, the length would be a p q b and if only p
existed the length would be a p b.
122. Percolation through embankments.- Where it is n c ssary to
allow peroolation flow to pass through embankmonts or oth r works above
ground level, designs must be guided by similar considorations and tIl
velooity of peroolation suitably limited by seouring ad quato length for
the shortest line of percolation.
123. Upward pressure on works from sub-soil percolatlon.- Th
pressures develop d on the low~r surface of the floor tonding to displao
it will now lie oonsidered. The measure of those <mn bo bost estimated
by drawing diagram of the hydraulio gradi~nt duo to p rcolation pressuros.
In the oase of peroolation unobstructed by any subsoil bllrrier th
hydra.ulio gra.dient is the line t b (figure 10) and tho line x x J is u. measure
of the pressure at any point x.
The obstruotion to peroolation by an imp rvious barrior at p, while
leaving the pressures a.t a and b unaltered, causes a ohange in the slope
of the hydraulic gradient by inoreasing the length of the line of
percolation. .
If the length of the line of percolation to any point x down tr am
of p, a vertical barrier below the floor, were oomputed as is do~ for th
whole length (I) in paragraph 121 above, the length of the Ime r pre-
. uplift
sentmg +
. pressure at x would be ap Z px and t he hy d1'0,ul'10 gradient
would be formed by ourviline8.l' lines. In viow of the doubt whioh exist
as to this ma.tter and with a view to simplify tho drawing of the hydraulic
gradient, the effect of barriers in increasing the length of the. line cf .per-
oolation is, for the purpose of drawing the m~an hydraulio gradient,
oomputed in a manner different to that adopted 10 paragraph 121.
While one may hesitate to aooept Bligh's proposal to oonsid r the
depth of a vertical barrier as equiva.lent to twice the samo length 80
4
 tRRIGA'rIOlit

impervious :floor it is considered safe to trea.t this depth, for the purpose
of delineation of the hydraulic gradient, as equal to an equivalent length
of door a.nd this method of arriving at the length (1), the base of the mean
hydraulio gradient, is here adopted.
In the diagram (figure 10) hydraulio gradients are drawn for the sa.me
head (h) but with the length (1) of the line of peroolation and with the
hydraulio gradient differing in eaoh case.
Make b n = b g
and b m = r p
join t nand t m .
and draw b f parallel to m t.
(1) With no impervious barrier under the floor (a b) : -
under this oondition 1 = a b
and the hydraulio gradient is the line t b.
Let the horizontal base of the gradient be I" then in an oases,
the meo.n hydraulic gr~dient is-~
)

In this case I = I) and the line of mean gradient is t b.

(2) With an impervious barrier r p under the floor :-
under this condition I = a p b
and the hydraulio gradient is the line t k f b
In this case 11 = a b + r p = a m
and the line of mean gradient is t m
(3) With an impervious barrier b g under the floor:-
undor this oondition 1) = a g b
and the hydraulic gradient 1S the line t g b
In this case II = a b + b q = a n
and the line of mean gra'lient is t n
124. It will be notod that no maximum net upward pressure oan be
d veloped on the seotion of floor upstream of the barrier c d whioh holds
up the water to the height h above the work, beoause the h 3ight of the
water standing above this sect;on of the work must more than oounter~
b90lanoe any upward pressure due to peroolation.
Down-stream of this point the work must be so designed as to safely
withstand upward prossure due to the hydraulic gradient and the diagram
olearly shows that if the length of the part down-strea.m of this is
inoreasod, this pressure is also inoreased and vice verBa.
The tota.l pressure on the floor is considerably increased by the down-
stream sub-soil barrier b q and, although this barrier makes ' 1 ' larger and
therefore the work safer against removal of soil by percolation, which is
technica.lly termed' piping " it entails more pressure on the floor down-
stream of the superstruoture.
If the sub-soil ba.rrier had been put up-stream of the superstructure
or if the floor up-str am lengthenod to an equal amount the same effect
as regards peroolation would be produoed, but no extra strain would be
pla.oed on the door.
125. Best position of pUes or wells for checking percolatloD.-SO far
therefore as percolation a.lone is concerned no sub-soU barriers or parts
of floors should be down stream of the superstruoture holding up the
f t• •
 PimbOLATiON ANn EVAPORATIO

.As ~upe:struot~al works over or through whiah water pa. quire

proteotion Immediately below them to prevent ero ion by noh,
these must have floo~ down-s~rea.m of the ba.rri r for rea ons oth r tha~
those due to peroolatIOn. This matter will b further dealt. with wh n
treating of the details of design of such works.
126. Rate 01 evaporatlon.-The rate of eva.poration, tha.t is vaporiza.
tion, of water varies greatly under varying olimatic influonoos.
After a series of experiments on tho subj ot Mr. G. Dinos rooorded
the opinion-
(1) That no evaporation takes place from wa.ter unl ss th mpern.
ture of the water is grea.ter than that of the dew point.
(2) That the amount of evapora.tion from wa.ter is :proportional to
the differences of the pressure of the vapour at tho temperature of tll
wa.ter and at the temperature of the dew point.
(3) That the first and greatest cause of evaporation is th mov-
ment of the air.
(4) That wha.tever tends to increase tho temporatur of tho wtt.tor
increases evapora.tion.
(5) Tha.t \vhatever tends to lessou the temporaturo of tho dow
point lessens evaporation.
127. Measurement of rate of evaporation.- Moan lU111t1A.l evaporation
is the mean depth of water (in inches) ovaporated annually from l\ 1'roo
wa.ter surfa.ce.
Evaporation is frequently measurod by mt ana of a Shl\lJOW pan flol\tod
on the body of water whos ovaporation raw iH to bo asunrtained; by
this mea.ns the pa.n is kept a.t tho same temperature and oxposod to tho
same air movoments as the wa.ter in which it floats.
The pan is filled with water up to a. corta,in mark a.nd fillod up da.il'y
to the fllIomo ma.rk, the qua.ntity of water required for r pI ni Rhmont,
after ma.king allowa.nce for recorded rainfall , boing th moasW'o of th
quantity of water ovapora.ted from tho area of tho surio.co wawl' of tho
pan.
There is reason however to believe that evaporation from a pan suoh
as described is greater than that from a. la.rge ah t of wator and that in
oonsequence records of evaporation thus measured giv~ oxe 86iv
results. Referring to this, Parker says "Modern studios show that th
ova.poration from the water surface of a largo r I:!Orvoir is oonsidorably
less than (genorally about two-thirds) that which is observed in ordinary
eva. pora tion pa.ns ".
. 128. The following table shows the moan daily tomporatuI sand
evaporation lossos observed during three yoars at t he Assuan Reservoir
on the Nile :-
Temperature Evapora· Temperature Bvapora.
llontbl. deirOOl. t1on. Months. dCifCCl. tl D.
Flohr. Inchee. Fabr. loch •
(1) (2) (8) (1) (2) (3)

January 62'0 0' 15 July 03'5 0'43

February 67'4, O'OS August 92'7 0'4 2
Karch 6Hl 0-24 September .. 88'0 0'8'
October 8.2' 0 0'28
~ril 81'7 0'30
November •• 72'9 0'22
8S·1 0'36
J~ 81'3 0'43 December .. 62'7 0'16
MeaD for 1 year •• 79'3 0·29
4A
 mnrGA.TION

The 101'18OS recently observed from a.n eva.poration pan in Red Hills
.rank, Madras, are given below. The monthly losses in inches are the
average of 2 or 3 observations for whole months taken in different years
between October 1914 and 1917 : -
INOHlQS. INOHES.
January 4'66 July 0'73
Februa.ry 4'70 August 6'00
March 6·SO September 0'66
April 7'77 Ootober 4'79
May 9'00 November 3'97
Juno 6'69 Deoombor 4·27
Total •• 70'59

Evapora.tion losses observed in the Krishnaraja Sagar, Mysore, from

evaporation pans during the years 1924 to 1926 are given below :-
INOHES. INOHES .
June .. 7·2 October 7·1
July •. 5·2 November 5·9
August 5'5 December 0'6
September 6·3 January 0·9
Similar losses by evaporation in . Mettur reservoir as per land eva.
poration test oonducted at Mettur during the years 1928 to 1934 are
given below :-
INOHES. INOHES .
January .. 7·32 July •• 7·04
February
Maroh
April ..
7'61
12'09
8'68
August
September
Ootober
.. 0·28
3·26
·1'82
May •. 6'60 November 2'79
June .. 7·55 December 4:- 60'
Note.-Bign* indioates in inohes rise where rainfall exoeeds evaporation. Plain
ftgurea indioate a fall where evaporation exoeeds rainfall.
Kennedy givos the lossos from ·evaporation por day in tho hot weather
in the Bari Doab Canal as 0' 18 inch per day whioh is sma.ller th,m would
be eipeoted.
He estimates the minimum lossos by poroolation from the same oanal
at 1'9 inoh por day, that is, over ten times as muoh.
Buokley states II Loss by evaporation alone rarely oxceods 0'4 inoh
a day in the hottest and driest weather in India".
129. EvaporatIon and absol'JltIon.- Losses of water reoeived into
reservoirs and canals which are not due to visiblo draw· off, are attri.
bUta.ble to evaporation and absorption, which la.tter inoludes both porco:
lation and absorption. The loss due to these causes oombined can more
rea.dily be ascertained tha.n the loss due to eith~r cause soparately; a.nd
measurements of losses and allowances ma.de for losses generally oombine
both these losses in one item. In tanks at times when there Is no in.flow,
and when the draw·off is acourately known, the combined evaporation
and absorption )osses oan be readily and aocurately determined by
oomputations based on the daily water.levels.
 PEROOLATION .AND EVAPORATION 33
180. Loss Jrom tanks.-The loss from tanks by absorption doo no
~oubt vary greatly with the nature of the hed, but this even if abnormaJ.
IS generally m';l~h reduced aftet a tank has hem in existen for ome
years by deposItIOn of fine ailt all ov r the tank bed.
Referring to projeoted reservoirs Parker says :-
• U A safe practical r~le appears to be as follows :-Allow for va.po-
ratIOn and leakage combmed, the qnantity r ported as ovaporntA-d from
a free water surfaco, i.e., from a, small evaporation pa.n " (Control of
Water, page 741).
Su~h a rule would not of courso apply to a tank tho bod of whioh wal
ex~ptlOn~lly p.orous unless the surface had beon coverod with lay r
of Imper.vlOus silt nor to a. case whero a. largo quantity of water is lost by
peroolatlOn through, or under the embankment· but it is a. good work-
ing rule for ordinary caseS. '
181. Losses from tanks in South India from evaporation and absor.
pt1on.-The monthly losses of water in tanks in South India would be
about as follows :-
January 4 inchos. July 6 inohes.
February 4 August 6
March 7 " Soptomber 6 "
April 9 " Ootober 5 "
May 10 " November 4 "
June 7 " Dooember 4 "
" 72 inohes or 6 foet.
Yearly total "
132. Losses 1n canals and distributary channels.- Tho lossos from
evaporation in ca.nals and distributarios flore dop ndent on tho fr water
surface exposed and never amount to a considerablo p TO ntag of the
whole flow; as a ma.ximum they are unlikely to xceed 5 per oent and
may be frequently less tha.n ha.lf this.
The losses from peroolation are dopondent on the naturo of tho soil
through which the canals are carried and of tho sub-soil drainage oondi.
tions, that is the percolation. flow.
Tho lossos by peroola.tion may bo quito sma.lI, say a,slittle as 5 por cont
or loss or very large in somo cases exceeding ono-hAlf of tho whole water
a.vallable.
From the above it follows that tho groat variation in lossos from ovapo·
ration a.nd peroolation in oanals is practioally all duo to p rooIation as
distinct from evaporation although it is usual as air ady 0 plained to
measure or allow as one item the lossos duo to both oausos.
188. Losses from evaporat1on and absorpt1on In canals and dlstrlbu·
tarles.-It has boen genorally assumed for purposos of Oflolculation that
peroola.tion 10ssos from oanals vary as tho wetted aroa and as tho square
root of the depth and tho formula proposod by Dyas moro than half a
century ago is quoted by writers in roference to this matter.
Dyas' formula. is P=C Vd where P is percolation in 0U900S per million
square feet of the wetted surface, , d' the depth of canal and C a constant.
As, however, more recent investigations have sho~ that thev looity
of peroolation through tho interstices of fino soll varIes as d and not 80
Vd as was assumoa by Dyas from the analogy of o~di~~ pipe
disoharge, the formula may be oonsidered as of doubtful suitability.
 5' mBIGATION

In practice for purposes of design of large oanals it is usual to olassify

soils along the length of canal alignments and, negleoting depth, to allow
for peroolation at so muoh per million square feet of wetted area.
The allowances ·for Madras which are at present authorized per
million square feet are-
1 Decayed rock or gravel 10 ctrsecs.
2 Alluvial or red boil 8 "
3 Blaok cotton soil 5 "
4 Rook 3 "
These arp. of course E.ubjeot to modifioation according to the speoial
oonditionE. of each caBe; for instance fissured rook may leak very freely.
The allowanoe for black cotton soils is believed to 00 greatly in exeell of
BtctuBtllos&es.
Any soils which are out through at a level below the ordinary water
table willlf:ak into the canal whenover the canal water is below the 'Water
t.o.ble level.
The levol of the ground water table has a oonsiderable effect on peroo-
la.tion losses; as soon as the spa co between the percolation gra.dient and
the water table is saturated, tho rato of percolation loss from the canal
will 1:>0 reduced (vide figure 11).
FIG.IL

184. Percentage losses b, evaporation and peroolatlon.-For distri.

butaries and wa.ter oourses the probable losses by percolation and
evaporation are generally estimated in the form of percentage
allowa.nce. This system is a.lso sometimes applied to the large oana.bi
of a proposed system.
Some idea of the losses whioh may be incurred in a canal system
is given from the following estimate made by Kennedy of those on
the Bari Doab Oanal in the cold season of 1881-82, viz., that out of
every 100 o.ft. entering the head of the caMI 20 o.ft. were lost in
the main oanal and branches, 6 c.ft. in the distributaries and 21 o.ft.
in the village water oourses.
This left only 53 o.ft. delivered on the fields and of this he estimated
·that about 25 o.ft. was used up by uneconomioal methods of watering.
The observed losses in the Punjab in a length of 52 miles of the Bari
' Doab Oanal were measured as 12·7 per cent of the flow of 2,114 cusecs
'measured at the upper end of the length; the velocity of flow varied
between a mean of 4·4 ft. per second at the upper a.nd 2·8 ft. per second
at the lower end of the length.
A seoond length of 63 miles down this canal where the upper discharge
wa 336 ouseos, showed a percentage loss of 19·1.
Ob erva.tions in the Sone oanals in Bengal give similar results.
The above losses are by no means of exceptional magnitude and
amount to about 8 0111008 per milL sq. ft. of wetted area.
 PERCOLATION AND BVAPOB.A.TION
ISIS
135. In canals running in r tentive soils such as the hla k oils of
the Godavari and Kistna deltas the losses by percolation are small.
Some years ago wa.ter was impounded in the Kistna Dolta 0 as to
stand in a length of several miles of canal in the pericd of closure from
March to May of the year 1909 and the level moosur d w kly; th
losses during the period wero not more than what might be attributed
to tho effects of evaporation. On the wholo the 10 from can J
and channels in these deltas from ovaporation and p l'colo.t,ion aI' n t
in excess of 10 per cent and are possibly considerably 1 sa.
On the other hand tho losses from ohannols in light oils in th
upla.nd tra.ots throughout the Madras Prosidenoy are likoly to be quite
as great as those in the Punjab, and the remark in Buokley's Irrigation
Pocket Book that " losses from 10 to 40 per cent between tho hood of
a.n irriga.tion system a.nd the field o.ctually water d are to be expooted "
ma.y be endorsed as generally a.pplica.ble in outh India.
 CHAPTER V.
SILT AND SCOUR.
186. Classes of sllt.-Silt is the non· floating solid matter transported
by flowing water in rivers, canals, etc.
With reference to silt, Pa.rker states :-
"From an engineer's point of view two classes of silt exist in
All rivers. These a.re :-
(i) Bed.8ilt which' is rolled along the bottom of the river.
(ii) Lighter particles of silt which are carried forward in the
water, as turbid ma.tter, or 8uspended 8ilt "
a.nd this olassification is here adhered to .
.AB the size of particles which can be carried as matter in suspension
depends on velocity of flow, it follows that silt whioh may be in sus·
pension in the steeper and more rapid part of a I'iver's oourse ma.y, in
the lower and more sluggish part of the course, beoome bed-silt.
On the other hand as the process of rolling along the bed of a stream
causes attrition between the particles tending to divide them up into
sma.ller individual grains of ma.tter, what may be coarse silt in the upper
part of a river may by this process be converted into fine silt lower down.
187. Factors Influencing the nature and quantIty of river sllt.-
The silt carried by a river is the result of erosion by water of the rooks
and soil in the catchment area of the river and the proportion of Bilt
to water and nature of the silt carried depend on the nature of the surface
soils and surface slopes, and on the amount and distribution of rainfall
in the catchment. Generally speaking the upper portions of the Course
of a. river are steeper and with more rapid currents than the lower portions
and the silt is coarser; in many places where rivers issue from the hills
large quantities of heavy shingl~, and oven boulders, are carried along
the river bed.
Further down in the plains, silt is ge~ra.lly confined to small shingle,
gravel, sa.nd, and earthy matter.
188. Nature of alit In Madras rlvers .-In most of the rivers in tho
plains of Madra.s tho 'bed-silt' consists of coarse sand and in some
places of small shingle and pebbles while the silt in suspension is finer
sands and ea.rthy argillaceous matter of a pla.stic nature.
139. Measurement of quantity of slit In suspenslon.-Computations
of the quantity of silt carried in suspension by flo river or canal, a.re made
from the data obtained from measurements of samples of silt carrying
water, taken from different depths and positions transversely across it: '
From a measurement of the quantity of water ana of solids in the
samples their relative proportion beoomes known, and by applying
such proportion to the total disoharge during the period to which each
set of measurements is appliooble, the total quantity of silt carried in
suspension in that period can be computed.
 SILT .AND SOOUR 67

140. TakIng samples for estimating quanUty of slit-The proportion

of silt to water incrooses in varying proportions in aocordan with th
depth below the surface and it is for this reason n cessary in t&king
samples of silt·laden water at any point in the transver otion of
river, to take these at different depths below the surfa ,dividing th
whole depth into a suitable number of parts. If the bottom is soft,
care must be taken not to disturb it in any way when taking th mpl
noores1i the river bed. The silt in the sampl s is separated from th
water by filtration, dried and weighed and from this th proportion
by weight of solid in suspension to liquid is ascertained.
141. Meohanlcal analysis of nature of sUi in suspenslon.-If d irod
the composition of the dry silt can be further ana]ys d ill ao ordan
with the nature and size of the partioles j thus olay may bo 8 parated
from sa.nd, a.nd sand may be analysed into variou siz s of gmin .
The size of partioles composing silt is of importanr in tho d ign
of canals as the transporting power of a stream dop nds on the siz and
speoifio gravity of the partioles, and while ooarser partiole may sink
and cause obstruction in the canal bod, the finor ones will b OI\rri d
in suspension through the canal a.nd out on to th irrigat d fi Id .
Silt oan be graded acoording to tho size of the pa.rtiel II oomposing
it by pa.ssing it through a series of screens of known siz of mesh (para-
graph 116 a.bov ), but another and
PlQ.I2. . very oonvenient syst m of classifying
silt has b n introduced in tho Punjab
a.nd is now frequ ntly us d. The
standard of measurom nt adopted
und r this system is tho looity in
feet per second at which tho partiol s
sink in still water. Thus sand grains
which sink 1/10th of a foot in one
second would be '0 ·1 grade sand.'
and those sinking in 1/5th of a foot
"0·2 grade sand.'
142. Punjab system of sand
anaJysls.-The appara.tus used in
the Punja.b for grading silt is shown
in the sketch (figure 12) and is termed
a 'silt olassifier'. The measuring
glass is graduated in 14 divisions
oach of volume 0·001 -of a cubic foot,
a.nd oooh being ·07 foot in d pth.
One-tenth of l.\ cubio foot of silt
GRADUATE.D C,I..A$S . is thrown into tho water with which
the tube is filled up to level 6·5 feet,
and the intervals of time taken for
NUB81!..R RJllf ca . the silt to settle in the measuring
glass to the level of oooh graduation,
or a.ny required graduations are not d.
Thus if the heaviest sa.nd reached the bottom of the tube in 21 s oonds
the ra.te offall per seoond would be 6'5 = 0·31 foot, and this sand would
21
be c 0.31 grade'. If the wh~le sam_ple ~ the tube up t~ t? ~Oth
graduation in 58 seconds the hghtest sand WIll have fallen (6 5- 7), I.e.,
~8 IBJUG,ATION

5·8 feet in 58 seoonds, the whole sample would .therefore be ' 0·10/0·31
grade sand.' In practioe it has been found that, with the usual Punjab
grading of oa.nals, sa.nd lighter than 0 ·1 gra.de causes littl inoonvenienoe
a.s it is oa.rried in suspension by canal water through the outlets and
on to fields and that it is only the sands of 0·1, and eoarser grades that
cause trouble by obstruoting the oa.na.l flow by silt deposition.
143. Proportions of sUt oarried In various rlvers.-The rosults of
some of the mea.surements made of the proportion of silt in suspension
to water oa.rried by rivors are noted below:-
The Indus in flood 1/240
The Nile in flood 1/666
The Sutlej 1/60
The Sone in flood 1/180
The Kistna. in flood 1/100
The Cauvery in flood 1/726
The Tungabhadra in flood 1/150
WhUo the above figures give some idea. of the quantity of silt observed
as being oarried in suspension in times oj flood it must be realized that
the highest floods do not necessarily or even generally carry the highest
proportion of silt and that floods of the same magnitude in the same
rivers carry proportions of silt differing by more than 100 per cent.
Generally a. rising flood carries a greater proportion of silt than a falling
one and a flood ooourring after a long period of draught carries a higher
proportion than other floods.
144. sut quantities in the Kistna and Cauvery rivers.-Daily silt
observations were taken in the Kistna. throughout the flood soasons
(June to November) of three suocessive years and the maxim'll'" pro.
portion of silt to water measured was 1/42 by w0ight (1/68 by volume).
The average for June which was the month of highest silt proportion
was 1/61 by weight (1/98 by volume). For the whole period of measure.
ment (June to November) the average was 1/297 by weight (1/475 by
volume). It is olearly the last figure only which will, when applied
to the quantity of ilow, give a reasona. bly olose estimate of the total
quantity of silt oarried in suspenSion during the period of observation.
Similar observa.tions have been taken for one flow season, June
to December 1909, pre-Mettur period in the Cauvery giving an average
for the whole season of 1/2105 .by weight (1 /3370 by volume). The
maximum proportion observed on anyone da.y was 1/344 by weight. '
145. Relation between measurement by weight and 'by
volume.-The observations in the first instance give proportions by
wight. In order to find the relation between weight of (chemically)
dry silt, and volume in the case of the Kistna and Cauvery, a. sample
of damp alluvial deposit as it lay in the river margins was taken as a
sampl volume and the weight of this known volume after drying wu
determined. In both ca.ses the weight oa.me to between 98 and
100 lb. of dry silt per cubio foot of damp silt. The a.mount of absorbed
·wa.ter in the aase of the Cauvery sample wa.s 17 ·53 lb. per oubio foot.
146. Quantity of sIlt yearly transported to the sea by large
rlvers.-The total qua.ntity of suspended silt carded by rivers yearly
to the sea. is enormous. The following give some interesting detaj}s of
tbe results of oomputations made in regard to this.
 SlloT . AND SOOlm
G9
Sir Benja.min Baker omputed that the Nile discharged 1270 mill
o.ft. of silt yearly into the Mediterranean . Humphr ys a~d Abba'
oomputed the Miss.issippi silt discharg , at about 6,750 mill. c.ft.; thi
would s~ffi(le t~ ralSe 241 square milAS 1 foot in d pth annually. The
Kistna SlIt carned amounts on an average to 4,220 mill. o.ft. rly.
147. Exclusion of bed silt from slit measurements.-Th a.bo e
estimates excludo. the bo~ silt ~r~m c~nsidoration. No sati 11 tOI'1
method of moasunng bed SlIt has, It IS behoved. b n discoy 1 d. WhiJ
it appears probable that bed silt carri d fO),WlloI d is a consid m bly Je s
quantity than silt in suspension it is known nev rthel s to b in many
oases very large.
148. Alluvllun and alluvial formatlons.-WhiJ l'iv r silt is d ri ed
from the erosion by running water of the rocks a.nd soil in th catchm nt
it is impossible for water when not in motion to retain silt in suspension
for any considerable time and a. check in velocity of llo current highly
oharged with silt causes immediate deposit of part of tho suspended
pl~rticI6s. Thus wherever water of a. river cha.rged with silt spills and
spreads over a wide surfa.ce. so as to lose a groat part of its velo ity. it
deposits silt on that surface thus raising its level. River silt thus d po.
sited is oalled 'alluvium' and the flat lands formed by d position of
a.lluvium are called' alluvial formations.'
It is usual to find that rivers which flow through alJuvial tracts
have raised the ground surface, by deposition of their silt, to such &
h'3ight that it is only subjeet to submersion by exc plionalJy great floods .
if the natural denudation due to wind and rnin balanroR th eff. ct of
silt deposition tho further raising of level of the tract altogoth l' "oos 1:1.
149. Rivers running through alluvial plaln!.-Ri\7('J''; runnilig through
alluvial plains have generaly very tortuous oourses ; any part of a
margin which is more friable than the rest is likely to btl r d d causing
the river to deflect into a. slight curve and this induoes 1\ more l' pid
current in the concave side, and slower Bow on the convex, al"d this
aga.in further a.ocentuates t he curvature by inoreas d erosion on th
conoove side, a.nd by silt deposition on the convex. By reflex aotion
there is a tendenoy of the current after pa.ssing such a curve to form
a. similar concave erosion below on the other side of tho river with a
similar convex But deposit oppositt' to it and such action is ropeatbd
throu6hout the CO.lrse of the stream. This action has the rosult of
_making the river oourse a. continually winding one.
150. sut deposit In lakes.-When It river or stream .:mters a depr088ion
forming a lake itA current is checked and it d posits silt in a fan ahap
over the lake bottom, and pushes out into the water a shool. or seri 8
of shoals, of whioh the surfacalevels are gra.dually rais d by silt depotiit
until sufficiently high to give lodgmant for th&. growth of v g tation,
whioh further aocelerate" deposition of st'diment from river water, from
wind, and from decay of vegetation. The shoals thus gradually b com
dry land through which the river in one or moro branches finds its way,
still pushing out into the lake further shoals. Thus in the cour of
time the whole lake must gradwilly be transform d into a.n alluvial
pI in through which the river will flow, only k ping op n a water wily
of such area that the combined oross-section area. of tho branch 8 of
the river are suffioient to carry the normal discharg .
 lBRIGA.TION' .

151. Formation of deltas.-By similar action shoals which are

gradually rais':ld into dry land are formed in the sea. by silt.bearing
rivers. The land so formed by the deposit in the sea of the silt carried
by rivers in suspension generally takes a triangular shape, and from
this originates the name' delta' given to tracts so formed, because the
form of the Greek letter bearing that name is a triangle, and resembles'
In shape the deJta of the Nile.
A delts is formed by successive layers of river-borne silt deposited
in the sea in the form of gradually rising shoals until they reach the
surface when they continue to grow, partly by the seasonal growth and
deca.y of vegetation and partly by continued deposition of silt, and
floating drift, from the river until, in course of time, a plain is formed
which at its upstream part is at such a level as only to be submerged
during high floods. The seaward end however continues gradually
to push out into the sea and continues to grow, unless checked by tidal
or other ourrent carrying away the silt. Some rivers although ca.rrying
largo quantities of silt do not form deltas and this occurs where powerful
ocean ourrents exist, and where the rivers outfall into deep water.
152. Formatlon of ban.-Where a river outfalla into an open
sea there is usually a' bar' which is a ridge of sand, gravel,
or mud, whioh forms, across and partially obstructs the outfall
channel. The formation of this barrier is due to the conflict
betwoon the river ourrent and the sea.. The bar is formed in some
places of the bed silt which the river current can push no further,
while in some places it is formed by the action of the sea in piling up
sand and gravel along the coast; generally both causes operate. The
a.otion of the sea in piling up detritus along the coast is well illustrated
along the east and west coasts of South India where oontinuous lines
of sand ridges and bars run for hundreds of miles along the sea coa.st. j
the sand is the ooarser detrital matter carried to the sea in river water,
mixed with fragments of shells, and of rocks eroded by the a.ction of the
soa on the ooast. The existence of sand ridges and bars has the effect
of forming along the ooast long stretches of lagoons, locally termed
'baokwaters " and marshes running paralleJ to the sea and separated
from it by the sand ridges.
As a result, in many plaoos the rivers do not discharge straight into
the sea but turn, when they reach the ooast, for some dista.nce, taking
a oourse parallel to it along the backwater, until finding a weak place
in the sand ridge, the water breaks through into the S(\I\ across an Of 'en
ba.r whioh forms the river mouth. These bnrs are not freqot~ntly station-
ary, but the opening travels up and down the coast under the nction
of the preva.iling seasonal winds and ooean currents. In the dry Sell-AOn
theso openings a.re frequently closed altogethtr by tha 8 ction of the Sf:a
in forming a sand ridge across them to a level above that of high tide,
Iond they remain closed till they are re-opened intbe next rainy sooson
by the land water in tho lagoon rising to sllch a. height as to aguin br.,a,ch
ftOross "the ridge into the sea. Such a brea.ch occasionally oocurA, 'in a
different place from the oust omary one, and occasionally much local
loss and inconvenience is thereby callsed.
158. Distinctive feature of deltalo traots.~It will be noticed Utat
from the point at whioh a river t:nters a delta it generally ooaSeB to rff('eivc
tributaries and in addition shows a tendenoy to subdivide into bra.nches
whioh themselves in turn show a ailnilar tendency to subdivision.
 61
This tendency to subdivision is olearly tr&ooabl from th
silt depoRition by which the a.Iluvial tracts through whi h th rh nd It
bran(:hes ~ow wore formed. The deposit of silt from th flood ov rDo
on either side of tha rivers will naturally be hoovi t 0108 to til riv r
margins and grow less in thickness the greater th di tanc s'wn.y. Thus
on either side of eaoh river, or branch, alluvial plain iR form d of
whioh the surfa.co slope is away from the river. The d position f ilt
is sIlecia.lly hoory along the margins of ea.ch rIver branch form.ing local
projeotions abov the level of the plains which act lik low fl od bank ,
and these serve to retain Welter in tho river branche ev n wh n fio"illg
at levels above those of the marginal plains.
Wherever the main branch, by erosion in a curve or otll rwi ,
breaches the high margins, the slopo of th surfa.oo b ing away from the
river, there is 80 tendency to form a sepa.rate outfall or branch, a.nd ven
for the whole river to become divorted to a new courso. This accounts
for the number of bifurcations of rivers and their branch r; in tho d Jtaio
portion of their course. As each riv r branch forms an alluvial traot
on each side of it, the splitting up of delta rivers into bra.noh gl'ootly
assists the formation of the fan shapo which suoh tracts uauaJ1y nssum .
The margins of each branch are raised and the land on oithe1' sioo slopes
away from the branch, and low ground is form d between th bran h
faoilita ting drainage. These low lands drain into the lagoons and marsh
stretching along t.he ooast divided by sand ridges from th 01\, and th
drainage of delta lands finally reachos the sea through natur 1 or aTtifloi )
openings in the sand ridges.
6.2 tiiRIGA~ION

Figure 13, a. plan of the delta of the Mahanuddoo river from Buckley's
"Irrigation Works of India", clearly displays the typical features of
a delta., viz., the triangular shape, the number of branches into which
the river divides, a.ll of which run on ridges, the absence of tributaries,
and tho outfalls to the sea through lagoons.

a:
'"
UJ
Q
0
:::l
Z

-.
(f)

t!J
or:(
:z:
ct
:E
'" ...:z:....'"
0

...C
..J
W
a
 Str..T AN» SOotrn

154. Gradual flattening of surface slope of delta rlver.-Th con.

tinuous process of formation of a d Ita caus s th grndual pushing ou
of the river mouth into the sea and as th sea I I remain ih SI\lll thi
must entail the graduall1attening of the surfa fall of th riv r in th
lower part of its courso, with a consequent t9nd nc to diminishod flo d
discharging ~pa.city . Also as the soa is approach d, th n mil v I
of the ma.rgmal land becomes gradually low r with r ~ nc to 11 d
level in the river and a gr ~~ter proportion of th riv r flood ""nt r js
discharged ovor the margins .
On both the above grounds thero is n tendency for l'i\'ofs to hu.
~ter 110od-carrying cap~oities wit~i.n th iT ma.rgins, wh r th y nt(lr
theIr deltas than the combmod capacltIes, of the ri\' rs and h ir bmnoh s
lower down. This tends, in the stagos of d Ita forma.tion to dit
tho raising of the level of the lower alluvial tracts, but wh n tll (I bl) m
fit for occupation it results in subjecting thes tracts to incouv(lni ntly
fToqut'nt submergonce by floods.
155. LiablUty to constant change of delta rIver channeJs.- Tho
causes also accentuate the tendency already noted for tho ri\'el's in t,he
delta to change their ourso, and to throwing off brn.nch R, llolld also to
create a. tendency to change by widcning or d pening tho eXisting ri ('r
cbannels to such dimensions as will enable them to ac('omm dlLt , with
an ever flattening surface fl\Il, an incroosed qurmtity of flood discharg .
This last is much inC'l'oasod if tho throwing out of bra.nchoB is eh okod,
but, on tho other hand, whon a new branch is for mod oxisting branch(lt;
may partially silt lip. From tho above it will 1.;0 undorstood that, tIt m
is a gr(lat tendoncy to change in tho regime of river branchoR diMha.rging
through doltaic tracts.
156. Characteristics of delta rlvers.-Tho sp oial charactoristi 8 of
a delta and the rivors which trlloVOJ'SO it may thus Lo summarized :-
(1) Tho branches of a. river which run through tho alluvial lands
forming a delta run on the higher pents, or ridges, of th tra t , llnd th
goneral surface slope of the soil is away from the margins. The lowest
lying tracts or va.lleys arc intermedia.te betwoon the river branches.
(2) Deltaic tra.cts are always below the ma.ximum flood 1 v I of
the river or bra.nches through whioh they run.
. . (3) Thore is a oonstant wndency to chang() in dolta riv l' hann Iii.
(4) 'T ho flood-carrying capacity of the rivor bran -he'S wit.hin their
margins arc generally smaller than that of th main rlvor at tho hood
of the delta.
157. IrrIgation facllltles in deJtas.-The formation of a d Ita orr. r
great facilities for 110w irrigation. The rivor water-l vols fr qu ntly
rise above the levels of the land surface which is flat and slopes away
from tho river margins; the soil is usulloUy very fi rtil and b ing soft
gives facilities for the cheap construction of ~nals. On th otb T.hand,
there is the liability to frequent and eXCCSSIve submergence and mjury
by 1100ds a.nd the tendency to the change of river channels with corr .
sponding risk of serious damage to occupiodar. a.s: II?'igation works in
deltas therefore consist of suitably controllod d18trlbutlOn canal sys m,
a.nd works to restrict and control submergeD by floods, and damag
to occupied areas by change of river channels. The flood co?tro) ~oTkB
comprise flood banks on either side of river chann Is alloWlD;g .8Ultabl
seotions for flood discharge, a.nd weirs, regulators and trammg and
6 iB.RIGAT ON

COI18tant unknown, and b is the bed width. But whilst thus supported
the silt is bing moved forward with a velocity V, so tha.t the amount
of silt traI18ported win be equal to Ab Vn."
" It is here pre umed that a.ll the silt s diment is in suspensi n but
there is doubtless a small portion of the heavier silt simply rolling along
the bed. This amount would vary as bV instead of bVn ; so that the
value of n to include rolling silt would be somewhat less than it would
be if the suspended silt a.lone wero conaid r ·d. "
" If it be assumed that the liIDouuL of silt supported iR propor.
fiionl11 to the upward pressure of the defleoted currents of water, which
va.rios Rumply as V2, the expression n = 1 + 2 or 11, = 3 is arrlved
at. " I

162. Kennedy 's law considered theoretically.-Kenuedy 's equation

V 0 = cd'" may also be deduced from theoretic cOllsiderations. The silt
quantity q carried forward per foot width of bed ma.y be represonted
by the equation q = AVn.
The qua.ntity of water Q clI>rri d tl.t a v locity V IJCJ' foot widt h of
d pth dis Yd.
. y'uantity of sill; q
If p represents the l'atlO qUllu t't f t ' then 1J = -Q'
1 y 0 wQ er
and q = pQ.
= AV"
also Q = Vd
therefore A VII = ptt V and V" - l - '!!. d
A
_I _I

Hence V = (i) 11 _ " X d n -I

The l\ b(JVU equation ma.y be written in the form Vo = cdm . . . (8)

The values of c a.nd m experimentally dedu cd by Kennedy as applica.
ble to the silt oonditions of the Bad Doab ca.nal system were c =0·84
a.nd m = 0·64. This value of m corresponds with a. vaJue of n = 2·()6.
The va.lue of n is probably somewhat less than 3 beca.use bed.silt is
inoluded.
Kennedy's Equation is
Vo = 0 ·84 d O... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. (7)
The equation gives the relation between velocity a.nd depth which
will seoure the carrying forward silt to wa.ter in the proportion (P), and
if the silt and water which enter the canal during a. season are in thiE
proportion the canal will be non.silting.
168. The assumption is that pis unchangea throughout the system,
and that however the disoha.rge be varied in va.rious canals, the relation
between Vo and d must be unaltered to secure the transport of the same
kind of silt and the same proportion of silt to water.
For silt of different kinds the same genera.l relation would hold,
but the va.lue of the co·efficient c or the power m, or both may require
slight alteration. "
The aotual values originally propo ed by Kennedy have been sue S8-
fully applied to the construotion-of new, and the remodelling of existing
ohannels, in whioh the na.ture of the silt differed greatly from that carried
in the channels originally observed, a.nd there is reason to believe tha.t
 SlL1' .IJ SUn. ti7

in many case.s, but little a.lt~ra.tio~ is req~' d

1.0 llIako f ) lI1ult~ applicable
to very varymg cla.~se.s of slIt. 'I~e r latlOn b tween elodt r and d pth
to produce a. non-siltlllg channol III any axis iug lSylSt m ma. b as r-
tained fro:n aotual observati~llS in xist.iJ~g chann III of th sy ,t Ul , hirh
~ve attallled perm~nent reg·tme by plo~t~g th r ult on squar d paper
Wlth depths as abSCIssae and the y 100ltlOH 110'; Ol'diMto~,
The constants of the ourve of the fOI'Ill,
Vo = cam
whioh most nea.rly suits the results way hI' t ake n aR l)uiu~bJ( t.o Lh
conditioru; of the oclollals of the Rystem.
By working in this way tho follo, ing quat.iollH h.", b('l1Jl twol\'Nl
for the channels in tho God~~vMi and KistllH. dolta liystoillH-
Godavari Vo = 0·67 il O ' ~ • •
Kistna. Vo = 0·93 d U. 62.
164. Reduced values of Kennedy 's V",-'l'uo followillg Ii t,~\Ulll\ ilL
gives for tho various va.lues of d tho ('riti('a l y .]orHy Yo obtainod from
Kennedy's formula. which is gellorally rcfo1Trd to 11,:-; " J\cmnrd y's " 0,"
The formula is Vo = 0·84 (Z 0.0"" .......:, (7)

(d) D , pth in
feet,
1
I2 3 4- 5 U
7 8 I {) 10 J:! 15
(VO) critical 0'84 1'30 1'70 2'04 2'35 2'64 2' 92 S' l8 3'43 8'67 "12 4'7
velooity
in feet
per
seoond.

165. Variation of velocity to sutt dlllerent kinds of sllt.- Wh II owing

-_
to the difference in tho cht\l'30ctOl' of silt it i!3 com-lid('1 {·d d(~l)ll'll.blo to
modify those value!), this is usuuJJy douo by altoring c IcnviJlg (Z '·' ~· that
is by ta.king a proportion of Kennedy'l:l Yo.
Not only is this f;ollletillloS advi""_~bJ(l in iliIfeWllL cl;I,llaJ" out ill tll
tail reaches of tho same canal it hn.s by oXllOri T1(;O 1)0 JJ found d Hil'ablo
to reduce tho oritica.l volo<:ity.
Writing on thil:i I:luujeot ill May 11107 with RJlOl:jl~1 l'ettll'lllH 'O to Uw
Punjab rivers and aftor much oX}JOl'iOllCO lmu b(: )) gainod on ('alll~l
systelllS Vl'opol'tiull d for" (,hi.; V II, KUHno ly HIH.t('h (Hydno.ttiil ' j)it~·
grams ) : -
(0,) "'rho OJ'itioH,[ veloclt,y (Vo) h n~ l'(lfoJ'l' d t,o IIlay Iw d fitH'd
aH the mean velooity whioh for 1\ ('hantlol of givOII dnpt,h 1)11 II, IifUld "iJtNl
bed, or running fully !lilt-charged wit,h whlit IIlny bfl call1ld t,ho "It.I\ llchrd
sand-silt found in river beds JURt afhll' they l(laYo th(· hilh-l, will jUfi t
keep that clumna! all the yOlil' round from eith(.ll' silting 01' sc lll'iug ii,,,
bed. . . . The following are the most COllllllOll caSOR wh T{l AOlntl
modifi.~tion 01'\"'"0 is oalled for, and where such i.tI Jleedeu wO.l.Uay ( 1I1.jll1ato
its amount by the pel'oontago 01' fra tiOll of whioh mmd. no,,,JlJHti utod
instead of V; for exampJI) 0 -8 Vo 01' 1· 1 V o, 01,0. "
(b) "Modification of Vo due to position of offtnk on tke ri11er."-
,. When the offtake of the canal is far from the hills th sand b ing
muoh fin r is easier carried and therefore a 1 8S valu than Vo Will8Uffic ;
5A
6 IRBIGATION

how much is difficult to say, perhaps down to 0·75 Vo in some cas s, Lu

the real value could be simply enough obtained by selecting a few well-
defined channels in nearly permanent regime, and observing the mean
volooity and depth. 'l 'hon the ratio of this velocity to Vo will give
fraction of Vo to apply in any new design.. If, on the other hand, thc
canal head were in the hills, and from a boulder instead of a. sa.nd bed, it
would be necessary to contemplate th annual removal of shingle or
even the coarsest sand a.nd pebbles; a.nd the head rea.ch, where this
would happen, would have to be steeply graded according to the 'oil.
Lower down where only the standard sa.nd would reach, Vo would be
allowed, the saIDe as for a riv l' with a sand bed."
(c) "Effect on Vo of changing the method of !tead 1'egulation."-
" Occa.sionaHy, means may be adopted at the head of a canal to exclude
the full p,'oportioIt of silt in the river wator especially in flood seasons.
Thus t he river may be partially ponded-up on the offtake side by means
of closed under sluices and divide walls, etc., regulation being done a.t
the fa.r side of the river, and the pond occasionally scomed out through
the sluic s, This materia.lly reduces the sand silt, entering the canal,
and b sides this the \vhole canal ma.y be shut off during really heavy
fl ods, so that the cana.l supply is not fully charged, and a less value than
V 0 oan be given. Thi may be exemplified by a. reference to the Sirhind
C~nal, which, with normal river regulation, silted very hea.vily O"wing
to too sma.1l a slop , but which, since the adoption of a. change in regula-
tion on the abovo line, has given no trouble, and now runs with a. value
ofO ,9 Vo " .
(el) " Vo decreases in lower reaches of canal and distributa1"ies. " -
" Whon a canal gives off a branch or distributary, it ooca ionally happens
th lot the offtake takes off more than its propel' ahaI' of the sand silt,
due for the most part to the sill of the sluices being at or near the bed
lovel and drawing in much of the lower stra.ta sand, which in stea4y
fl w, p}rtly rolls along the bed. The same thing may happen even if
the sill is fairly high due to some persistent local eddy raising up this
saond, and in such a case the ofibake will be overcharged wjth sand and
require more than Vo, and th parent channel will be left rather under.
oh'\rged. On ome canal branches the a.ction is fairly well ma.rked
and the tail reaohes ha.ve compara.tively litt.le sand left and oan be
graded to give less tha.~ Vo-:-0'9~Vo aOl~etimes. It is on th( distribu.
taries, however that thIS actIOn IS certam and most marked because
here the outlets are and should be at the bed level and draw off the
rolling b d sand direot, with little or no stirring up aotion of the main
body of the fl w, whioh would otherwise equalize the distribution of the
and from surfa.ce to bed. The result is that the greater part of the
he~vy s~nd is drawn off by the outlets in the fir t few miles of the head
reach of the distributary, so that the lower reaches can be gra.ded to
much Ie s than Vo and this accounts for the fact that the grade n ax the
he d of a distributary mnst always be and is much steeper than farther
down. The fraotion of Vo to be graded for, therefore should usually
deorease gradua.lly from Vo at the head to 0'95, 0,90 and 0·85 Vo and
in some very long channels even 0·80 V may be safe; and this is fortu-
nate since in very flat country it would be otherwise impossible to get
the requisite slope. Moreover to grade for VOl the whole length would
in some cases of poor soil caus erosion simply because the water havinS
little or no charge of its own, can pick up a local supply."
 SlLT AND SOOUR 69
(e) "lncre:"se of Vo and erosion from eXce.!,tit>e t1 locity,"-" Quite
Itcommon case 18 where a ca.na.l reach hl'.s boon gra.d d too ste p or wh n
the banks a.re eroding from too great depth and elooity thu 0 •
charging the supply to such an extent that the branch s or cllstributari
lower down are una.ble to cn.rry the exce s sand. Th remedy helo ill
of course to stop the cause, though very often this may 0 on for J' ra
before the evil is recognized and many more may elapse l.~for th I med
can be ~pplied. In man.y soi!s an exc~ss grt'.din giving nly 1·1 Vu will
cause thIS trouble (especw,lly If depth IS great) raising endle difficlIlti
fa.rther down, and this all points to the ne essit of corr ct gra.ding in
~he first p~aco , and ~he danger of tampering with an isting well. ti h.
hshed regrme especIally when we remember th.at such. mi tak cn.nllot
be remedied at once, but must wait opportunity, often for y ~ rH. "
(f) "Effect of ponding.vp in ,·egulating 8I1ppliu."-" oructim
where a canal bifurcates, one branch may require a h ding up of til
supply to a greater height than the other, and Whetl ach bran h is run
a.lternately in rotation, wha.t happcns is that there is alt mat ponding.
up a ccompanied by sand collection on the bed. a.nd th n low ring of
the level with a consequent scour, carrying all the accumulated edin , nt
into the lower level cha.nneI. Thus, the fower channol bec mes r.
charged, and the highet· nnd ·rchD.rged. This action O<~n only l.o I m di d
by so designing all regulfl.tors that the offtal{ S aro n.11 Rimilr.r e.nd r.t on
level of siU with no ponding.up ever neces a.ry. To fn. ilitr.tc thi , all
double regulators should be built as one work n.nd not Hom distanc
apa.rt, as is the case with !Dany of the older works."
(g) "Effect of K1ltter's N on value of Vo " . - " When 0. chann 1
is silting badly and the cause seems inexplir,able, "ftor euminating th
possibility of any of the above·noted elements, ref<lronrfl will no d ubt
be ma.de to the longitudinal section, and it may S~flm thl\t th full Vo
obtains. and that the diagrams show th re should be no BU h troub)(l.
l'his is, however, tacitly assuming thn.t the v"luo of Kutt r'B N hi roally
0·0225, whereas it is a not uncommon occurrenco thn.t fr m long n( gl ct
the side slopes are in very bad order, and the rcal vfl.lue may in such cnsos
be 0·025, or in a very bad case 0·0275, which, of cour!> , w uld by 110
means give Yo· For this reason, if tho real ratio of Vo is wa.nted in any
particular case, it will not be enough merely to consult a drawing, o.otual
observa.tion is necessary, a.nd not a.t one site but at many."

Lacey's theory of uniform flow in AUuviaZ rivers and canak-

Kennedy's equation is most conveniently written
Vo = 0·84 m D' ~
Kennedy termed the regime mean velocity or "Critical v locity", the
velooity at which the channel, rp,gard d fr.om the main!,(manc vi w point
neither silted nor scoured. The equatIon was derlv d by K nn dy
from Upper Bari Doab canal data and he regard d the sa.ndy silt of that
ca.nal as sta.ndard. The co-efficient • m' for that oano.l b ing unity.
He recognized that the grade of sand played a part in this relationship.
Sands coarser than standard were assigned valu s of tho critical velooity
ratio ' m' of 1·1 and 1·2 and finer sa.nds va.lues from 0-90 to 0·80.
Kennedy made no correlation between the wa.ter surface slope of
regime channels and the mean velooity or the vertical depth. He a. 'gned
 70 IRBIGATI N

slopes to his regime channels by employing the Kutter equation. - Ken.

nedy was in no position to oorrelate the rugosity co.effioient 'N' with
the critica.l ratio • m' as a mea.sure of silt grade.
Laoey employing Kennedy's data and treating the hydraulio mean
depth as the fundamental variable, whereas Kennedy introduced the
silt grade o.s the variable, obtained the equation
V = 1·17 Ri . . . . . . . . (1)
which within the limits of Kennedy's experiments fitted his data with
accuracy Observations of regime channels by Lacey showed that the
original horizontal beds and side slopes often va.nished and with them
the possibility of ~couratoly oomputing Kennedy's 'D' The value of
C R' oould always be oaloulated.

Whereas in Kennedy's general equation Vo = CD'l

where both '0' and 'n' vary and therefore it is difficult to co.ordinate
the results, in the Laoey formula, the index of 'R' remained oonstant
in all oases while only the vo.lue of the oonstant varied. By su bstituting
a silt factor 'f' equal to unity for standard silt such that
V
_=fi
Vo
Lacey's formnla beeomos
Vo =I·I7,y1fR . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
where Vo = the oritioal velooity
f = silt factor
R = hydraulio mean depth.
By plotting Kenn dy's data the results of oritioal velocity observa.
tions in Godavari Western Delta. and various other data on the subjeot
Laoey obtained the relation '
Af2 = 3·8 Voe or . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
Qf2 = 3·8 Vo 8 . • . . • . • . . • . (4)
This formula shows that for a gi~n discharge and silt faotor, the oross
seotional ar a, wetted perimeter, and slope of a stable ohannel are eH
uniqu ly determined. This formula also shows that the silt trans.
porting power of a stream varies as the sixth power of its velooity.

Combining equations (2) and (3) a general equation can be deduoed

by means of which the wetted perimeter of a oanal can be directly oalou.
lated from the discharge
Vo = I-17,y1 f Ri
hence R = 0-7305 Vo' • . . . . . . . . . . • • (a)
f
Af2 = 3-8 V06
_ _va
A - 3-8 o
- p • . • - • - (b)
Wetted perimetor P = AIR
ubstituting the values of A and R as derived above
 SILT AND S OUR ,1
p ~ Vo" . 0'7305 Vo'
= -f-
·- -:- f
3'8 VoJ
= 0'7305f • • . . . • • • • • • . . (6)
But from equation (4) above.
J.& f
V o. _Q'-
n - {3'8)"'!
ubstituting in (5) we have
3'8 ..f
p = xQo-
0'7305 f 3'8("~
P = 2'668 QO.$ or 2'67 Q"5 . • • • . • (6)
Thi~ shows that the wetted perimeter of a stable silt transporting ohalmel
vanes as th~ square root of the discharge and is inder end nt of tho silt
transporte~ III all stable channels of the same discharg having the same
wett-ed perImeter and the silt factor d termining tho • shapo '.

" ·0 .1! { , ;, : /
"
.... "".
t,
.... '"
'"
\.
. " ' ..,. .,
'.
,,~.,
•

.. ~ ~ • COARef: SIL'T . .L ''--=

-......... - - ... - - -. r -..: I .~
. . ..., ••• • ~ ••• •• • •• • • • .J ....... , ••

.. --.. .....
\

....,_ .
' ,• • to " •• /'

"~. , .~'
~,
" ....
fIN!!'.' SILT.
,:.~

FIG. 18 (a).
Natural silt trausporting channels have a tendency to H.SBum a semi.
elliptical section. The coarser the silt tho flatter tho B mi-ollip and
the greater the width of water surfaoe j the finer the silt the mor n arly
does the section approximate to a semi-cirole. Thus two olem ntary
principles govern the dimensions of the stable channols in alluvium-
(i) all stable silt transporting channels flowing with the sam m an
velocity tend to assume the same shape j
(ii) all stable silt transporting channels of the sarno disoharge hav
the same length of wetted perimeter irrespective of the pa.rticular grade
of silt carried.
The va.lue of Laceys ' theory is that it is the first to define tho vague
term • silt content' by a definite physioal oonstant and deduoo the final
regime seotion and slope in terms of that constant. Mr. K nn dy's
method of design has the inadequacy that it gives an infinite number of
possible slopes a1}d seotions for a given discharge and • silt oontent'
and measures • silt content' by a term which is not a physical oonstant
of silt. In fact it was a rough 'initial r gim ' th ory.
Imagine a new canal dug broader, deeper and fla.tter tha.n n d be.
When silt· bearing water runs in it, the v looity will be 80 Blow that the
silt will deposit on bed and sides, and the channel will .. silt up." lithe
silt is all heavy rolling material, both bed a.nd sides will be of the sa.m
material a.nd the seotion will become roughly elliptio. H there is also,
as usually, fine suspended muddy materia.l this will adh r to th Bidea,
72 IRRIGATION

and mud berms will form, particula.rly if a little a.ssiste.nc be given

in the sbape of banging branches. Tbe sbape will then be roughly
trapezoidal. Generally, such a channel will be irregular in plan and will
require some aRsistance to gain straightness. Mter a couple of seasons
of judicious training to straightnesil, not forcing it to an arbitrary 8hape,
a. ohannel of good appearance will hav!' formed in its Own Rilt and, provided
no ohange is made in the "eilt content", this channel will retain its
shape and slope.
A ohannel which has formed its shape and slope in its own silt finally
is said to be infino.l regime. If the ,. silt content" be altered, another
series of ohanges will occur till a new final regime is attain d. Every
different discharge has a final regime section and slope of its own for
a definite ,. silt content.It

In attaining final regime the a ction form a itself before the final
slope. The conditions of a ohannel which has formed its section in its
own silt, but has not had time to form its final slopc is called init1',al
regime. Different initial regime shapes occur at the one site as the slope
adjusts itself progr sRively to final r('gime. Final regime can be attained
by scour, as well as by flilting. If a canal be designed too small and
too steep, in soft soil, then it will sconr till it attains final regime. There
are, however, very many soils which arc hard enough to resist scour.
In such soils a canal may attain permanence, but not final regime. Final
regime implies not only p~rmanellce (which would be attain d in a
concrete channel, for example) but also formation finally in the channels'
own lJilt. It is a failure to reali. e this fundamental which still causes
wrong analyses of canal behaviour. Mere permanence is no test of
final regime but if it occurs in a filling reach with good natural berms
then it is very likely final r gime exists, and there are formulre for
testing it.
Obviously steadiness of discharge is an ess ntial to final regime,
so feeder ca.nals will not normally exhibit it p rfectly. Distributing
oanals, which run full supply or nothing, will be suitablc for finding final
regim r ach s. River will be bad; but, in high flood, when the particle
oj the bed matel'ial il3 active, injtial rC'gime will certainly exist, and final
r gime reaohes may be found at places. A little oonsideration will
show that regime ooanne]s run on an active layer of bed material.

THE LAOEY FORMULlE AND THEIR USE.

(i) The wetted perimeter jormula.-Let • P' be the wetted

perimeter and 'Q . th discharge (steady) of an initial regime channel,
i.e., one that has form d its seotion in its cwn silt .
P = 2·67Qi .. (1)

The great va.lue of this formula in practioe is that it does not depend
on • silt' oontent. Different silt oontents will affeot shape but not
perimeter. Except for very small ohannels P is not much different fro m
B t he bed width, so that with this furmula. by it elf there is no ohance
of designing channel brea.dths inoorreotly; nor of making exoessively
~ng bridges over rivers.
 SILT AND COUB 73
(li) The 1'egima te8t fol'm'lda.-Let 'v· be th mean J ity
of a 'final' regime channel and'S' its slope expre eel a fra tion
..nd 'R' the hydrauliC' mean depth
Then V = ] 6 3,vR~S (2)
If this f?rmula. and (1) ~ot~ h~ld. the chann I is in final r gim. Th
gt'f'..a.t practlOal value of thls hes ill th fact tha.t it dol'S not d pend on
" silt content."
(iii) The sl'Jpe formula.-Provid d (1) and (2) hold, it i legitimatE-
to use the formula
S = f 0/' (3)
1~44.3 Q '/0
= 0.000542 f 6 / '
Q ' I·
to define the silt factor' f '.
(iv) The fundamental formula is-
V = 1·151YfR (4)
The real use of this formula is when 'f' has b(.\cn found rOt, a cha.nnel
from (3) always subject to (1) and (2) being satisfied, to us 'f' 80
found in (4) along with (1) to d sign channel s ction. The scotion is
normally assumed trapezoidal as this is the shape canals ar dug a.nd
which, very approximately they retain.
It should be noted that if (1) and (2) are not stl.tisfied th n (3) and (4)
are ineonsiswnt.

CANAL DE~IGN.
The bulk of oanal design eonsistR of r mod lUng, or xtending xisting
systems. The correct prollednre is to start by finding what the ystom
is doing. This is aohieved by sel cting probable finul rcgime r aoh 8,
for tht\ir steadiness of disoharge permanence, and bl'ing in filling. They
are then checked against (1) and ( ~ ). If thl'y pass tho test l'(,MOllllbly
well 'f' i.. found from (3). Generally it will bl' found that . f' averag A
out fairly constant over large areas of a· syst"m; but ~ill Elhow (Jon~id' ra-
ble local variation. The r ason for the local val'iations should be Bought
in channel head-regula tOrR , and in outlets whioh ma.y be so situa.ted
with respect to the parent bed level that they do Mt divide Hilt fairly.
~nerally it is easy, and advisable to dist"ibutf'l 'f' fairly, giving
offtakes a little hi~her 'f' than parents, for 'f ' tends to inor aH
in a long channel due to absorption, increasing the silt load. How, a.nd
whether, to do it is only learnt by experience of regulator d sign. Having
found how 'f' is distributed, and to what extent it is p08sibl to redistri-
bute it. formula. (3) can then be used baokwards, with the 'f' d cided
on to find proper channel slopes. (4) is then used with (1) to find S c~ions.
, f' is a physical constant of silt, and cannot be fix d arbitrarily.
It can only be decided from what obtains at site modifi d a littl by
modifying regulator design. It is almost impossible to mak a channel
taking off at right angles have less 'f' than its parent; but y to
give it up to about 10 per cent more. The only.cure for a. system whioh
,iTe8 universal silt trouble is to try to exclude silt at H adworks.
74: IBRIG:\.TION

The table b low gives trapezoidal seotions, with ! : 1 side slopes,

and slopes for a range of 'f' that should oover almost all praotical
oa.ses. Notice that halving disoharges adds about one-eighth to slope.
Q C\Ul(:)C8. 10,000 5,000 2,500 1,000 500 250 100 30 10

{(f= 0'6) 0'051 0 ·058 0·065 0·075 0·085 0·095 0·11 0·135 0·16
S x 10' (f= 0·9) .. 0·100 0·118 0·136 0·150 0·166 0·186 0·22 0·27 0'32
(f= 1·2) .. 0-] 62 0-183 0'205 0·240 0·270 0·300 0·35 0·43 0'52

{(f= 0-6) .- 23ii 163 IUS 70 47 32 19 9 3·5

B (f= 0-9) 240 168 ll8 72 49 34 20 10 Ii
(£= 1·2) 242 170 120 73 51 35 21 10'0 IHI

f f = 0'6) .. 13·0 10·5 8·25 6·5 5·2 4·0 3·2 2·' 2·1
D (f= 0·9) 11-5 9·0 7-25 5·5 4·4 3·4 2·7 1·9 1·5
(f=1-2) 10·() 8·0 5·50 5·0 4·0 3-l 2·4 1-7 1·3

NOTlll.- Tablo aNume8 t rapezoidaisoctlOD8 0(6. : 1 side slopes. SectlOD8 cease to be aceurate In
the region of 10 OU80 8, as at 81te, they deviate from trapezoidal a'ld hecome elllptio. At vary
small dlloharlles trapez(Jldal 811.68 become unrenl.

SILT-VANES.
" ilt V8,neS " and the " Silt Vanes cum ourved wing arra.ngement"
nre by far the most effioient of the devices to exclude silt from (or adjust
silt entry into) an offtake in the vast majority of cases. " ilt vanes"
are merely diverting walls constructed in the bed of the parent channel
at the h ad of the offtaking channel. (Sketch on page 6 of Chief Engi-
neer for Irrigation Circula.r Memorandum No. 1098/33-AEP, dated
28th May 1934:.)

Tho upper layers of water in the parent channel have Ai considerably

higher velooity than the low r layers and have therefore oonsiderably
greater momentum; and oonsequently the lower layers which contain
the heavy silt are deflected more easily from their course and are drawn
into the offtaking channel more readily and in greater quantity tha.n
the upper layers .

In virtue of thiFl, in the case of a channel taking off at an angle with

the parent which is carried straight on, if the offtaking orifice is, say,
at mid depth of the parent it would be possible to cause it to take off
a smaller proportion of silt from the parent by thoroughly roughening
the bed of the parent (for its full width) say with transverse low wall
on the bed just upstream of the offtake : for that would oause heavy
silt to be thrown to the surfaoe and thus some of it whioh would otherwise
have been suoked up from below into the offtake would be carried down
by the parent ohannel by the surfaoe water which ha.s the greater momen-
tum. The roughening will have to be in the full width (or at least in
a large width) of the parent as otherwise the plaoe of the heavy silt
laden water thrown up would be taken by the equally heavily silt laden
water adja.oent to it at the bottom of the parent, sinoe the bottom water
has the least forward momentum. It is also possible by merely roughen-
ing artifioially the bed of the parent ohannel just upstream of the offtake
and a little removed from the edge to oause a. small offtaking channel to
dra.w less silt in virtue of the rev fae cross ourrents that ar ol'eatecl
thereby.
 STLT .UW SCOUR
11S

E~
10:
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0 : S
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.tf\ D 4 ~

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, .: ....
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rJG. tS (b).
76 IRRIGA.TION

The obstruotions (low walls built in the bed) must be so plaoed that
the lower layers of water thrown up by them shall not have a. ohanoe
of entering the offtake.
FIG. 18 (0).

, IN[)£X . SKE.TCH PLJ.N

0'" SILT VANES '

\,
"PA""E.HT C""NNt.t.. •
.«
~ ~

"

CRO~S S£.CTION .

L
 SILT AND 800tJR '1'1
Sil~ vanes a.re ~al'dly suitable for oa.s s in whioh th disoha.r of th
offtaking ohannells mor than one·third of that of the r nt ~hannel .
t~ough there .have been cas S of the kind wher they
WIth very satulfactory results. In such CMe the" " .. "d .
tv benu ·
S1'It vanes " d ' "I S smta ble-vid sketoh below :_ 4.L... Wlllg oum
eVlce

\
STRAIGHT PART AT SL.OPl:.
,To 1 W,T,. C~HT~r:: LIN ,

FIG. 18 (d).

If it is proposed to use vanes alone in such a case, ca.re should be

ta.k.en that there is enough water passing ov r the van s to fill the off·
taking channel with plenty to spare. If badly designed or built or
incorrectly positioned. their effect may he small or th y may actually
~use more silting in the oiftaking ohannel. The effect of the "ourved
'Wing cum silt vanes" design is that not only is all the surfa.c water
enclosed by the ourved wing forced into the offtake but a. oonsiderabl
portion of upper layers of water outside the QUl'ved wing is also d fleeted
and foroed in.
Silt excluding devices adopfed for tll-e BezwaM He.athluice.-
The Bezwa.da. Headsluice, at the time of construotion. was provided with
two tiers of shutters with the object of working the bottom tiers whenev r
the e:xpe.nsion of ayaout under it demanded suoh a oourse. Suoh a
contingenoy arose and it became necessary to open the bottom tier of
 l1UtlGA'1'l.O

shutters. It was thell found that the opening of th bottom shutters

would draw in a la.rge quantity of silt into the main canal and deteliorate
the channel seotion. To prevent this happening, th following improve-
ments to th approaoh ohannel and headsluio were oarried out;-
(1) A silt wOlll was constructed in front of the headsluioe j-

(2) the l'evetment on the left margin of th leading channol waa

trained to propel' shape ;
(3) thc groyne in front of the undersluioe/i Was extended.

~ E~T~:NS10N
KI~TNA RIVE."
I
, }
rIG. 18 (e).

166. Deposit or heavy ant near canal heads.-Wbile th OOlTect

gra.ding of canals in ac ordanoo with Kennedy's prinoiples does much to
minimize troubles from silting, this grading alone will not in mOEt
 LLil A.AD SOOUR 7
oases enable th COaI'lS61' bed-sand traru;pOl t d by a ri I' to b oa.rri
through th? canals on to the ~ Ids. Th COtU'so of ca.ru\J i fr qu ntly
for lo?g ~ta.nces. through fI'l~ble a.lluvium, mo ' t of it omp cd of
ma~rlal silt ~eposlted by th rl {I~ from which th irriga.tion wa. r i
~(mved, a~d lD such a. caso a. vcloOlLy sufficient to transport the h j
1'1ver bed silt would be more than lluffi('it'ut t.o l'od tho ma.rgins f th
cana.! cut through suoh Boil.

Lt:tk.e

.. G<ts · 00 ' 1 IfN'/II,

.""
f;!/VIIIf 1J.IJ+tiz. , · oo

2o ·NoI.csAT 40 'ells
ORIL££D /"7CRNlEOIIITC
li£/WEEN 40' No/.L"

METTUR DAM
GROSS SECTION ~"( D.EEPEST FOllNDATIOll 3
/>;r ABOUT L S. 2.7:~ O
.
SCII LE , 1"- 50 '

1'10. 18 (f).
Much trouble Is therefore still expol'ieJJc tl fronl Lho ~ndillJ( up
of canal heads by silt depoRit in th41 firRj, t~w U1ijtlH Lelow tho h da of
(lanaIs .
This should be minimized by design of a. ca.nal h
with a 'View to pre'Vent the entry of be~ silt as fa.,'
methods by whioh this ma.y be effe t~d mil b dNl n
dealing with design of head works.
The diffioulties ma.y also bo dealt with by provisjon o~ l:wouriDg
sluices in the canal, some miles below the head, through which, wh n "
 80 lRBIGATION

water is a.vaila.ble, Bome of the heavy silt may be scoured out of the
canal back into th river_ Wh re effective arrangements of tbe a.bove
natur cannot bo provided, it is frequ~ntly necossary to resort to periodio
elwa. va tiOll and remova.l of the silt from tho head rea.ch of a. cana.l which
is 0. T' mody which tends to become more a.nd more oxpensive the longer
it is canied out, owing to gradually increa. ing lead and lift.
167. Sllt deposit in tanks.-The statement made in para.graph
150 above of how silt carried by a river is deposited in the form of Flhoals
in 1\ lako, iF! clca.rly also applicable to silt deposit in tanks.
Wh r 0. tank is large in cOlup'lri 'on to the a.nnual l'Ull-Oft· frOID
the catchment area., all the water-borne silt carried by t he run-off water
will b deposited in the bed of the tank. 'I'he heavier silt will be
depo itod wh<'1 e the foedor strooms outfan into the umk, but tho fine
silt, which ta.koo a long t ime to settle, will be spread more evenly all over
the tank bed, and frequently th" thickest deposit of such silt will be below
the d ep st sta.nding water, that is, in the vicinity of the bund. A small
amount of tho silt deposited in the tank may be removed by tho water
drawn oft· throngh outfa.ll sluices, but such action cannot bo other tha.n
very local.
When the run-off of the catchment of a. tank is large in comparison
to tho tank capacity, so that the tank surpluses freely for long periods,
it is possible that a considel'abl proportion of the lightest silt in suspen-
sion may b pa.ssed off with the surplus water, but the bod silt, and all
but the lightest kind of silt in suspension will be doposited in the tank-
bed.
The ra.te a.t which a. tank which wholJy intercepts tho run-off of
a. catchment willlos() capa.city by deposit of silt, depends very greatly
on th proportioll whioh the run-off bears to the capacity of the tank.
For insta.noo, if the annua.l run-off into a. tank of capa.city 500 mills.
c.ft. has Bilt to water a proportion of 1/1000, and averaged 1,000 mills·
c.ft., the yea.rly silt deposit would be a.bout one mill. (l.ft., a.nd the tank
would b ' half fiUed with silt in 250 yoars, but if the tank were only 80
mills. o.ft. capaoity, it would be nearly half filled up in 40 years.
From tho point of viow of silting it is desirable to loca.te a. tank
flO that tho area of catchment intercepted is limited to the area which will
give, on a bad year, a run-off sufficient to fill a.nd replenish the tank in
u.ooordanoo with its irrjgation requirements. Intercepting a. run-off
di proportionate to the r quirements is a defect.
The ch~ins of tanks, so oommon in South Indillo, constitute an arrange-
ment likely to reo ult in the unduly rapid silting of the upper tanks in
whioh a displ'oporti na.te quantity of silt is deposited.
The doterioration of the tanks of South India by silt deposit is con-
tinuous a.nd very serious. Many of the tanks have been impounding
silt for oenturi s and have lost very considera.ble proportions of their
original capo. itios to the great injury of the crops under them. No
effeotiv remedy for this has been discovered and the problem is one
which b oomes increasingly serious as time goes on.
On of the methods of checking silt deposit is a.fforestment of the
oa.tohment area and construotion of oheck dams to prevent erosion~
Afi'orestation of catchment a.reas of numerous tanks would be a formidable
task. Oheck dams made ot brushwood a.nd stone may be the easier
JJl thode This is xpla.in d below.
 SILT m BOOUB

The 8S enc of th met~lOd is to r due th velocity of flow ill tht'

stt'ea~~ so as t~, prevent t~eIr bed and banks being cour d and to indue
the ' silt load . broug~t mto th~ stream from its catchment to dep 't
in the. st~eam It~elf. without bemg carri(d down into the tank. Thi
reductIOn m veloCIty IS aft"ect€d by erecting " check dams " of rough.ston .
brushwood or other similar material. The cheok dams ar oh a.p and
simple structures of rough·stone, bamboo or brushwood Mro 's th wid h
of the stream as indj.oat d in the sketohes accompanying this note,
The main point that has to be carefully consider d is th mUll
and location of the check dams required, It is obviously d irabl to
minimize the ~eight of the cheok dams, t o avoid large afflux 8 and falls
at the dam Slt(~S . The number of check dams required in eaoh r o.oh
of the stream will depend mainly on the bed fall of the str am. Th~~
dams must be placed suffioiently near each other to nsure that n.s muoh
of the stream as possible is controlled in other words, th iut rvals b tw ell
dams should be chusen with the idea of flattening th slope of th stl' am
bed, sufficiently to reduce the velocity of the flow to a figur whi h th('
soil will stand without eroding. Tho location of th dams will also
depend to some extent on the facilities available for erecting th m, .g.,
the pr sence of a rocky outcrop in the stream bed, with faiJ'ly high bankH
a.re favourable indications, but the position of ubl'lidial'Y dl'ainagt' in}
eOO., must also be considered,
It is also necessary to ensure that the banks of the strt'tLm 8>1'(:) Hot
eroded. Suoh erosion may exist at bends, Wall of subsidiary drains,
etc. Erosion of the sides may also be s t up when a check dam is put
in. Such erosion should be prevented by prot Cting the slop s with
brushwood edging, roughstolle packing, or planting slrrubs and .n.a.na.1.
An important point to consider in building check dams i, to CI18Ul'
that the heading up caused by the dam does not result in scouring th
soil under the dam. No att mpt should be made to make th dam' watol'
tight.' In loose soil, it may be necessary to drive casuarina. or bamb
piles or " horses" and fill in with brushwood, stont" etc., and proteot th
bed by roughstone packing, etc.
In carrying out a scheme of check dams for any stream or va.ll ,
it will be advantageous to work downstream from the upper r aoh 8 and
extend the control to lower reaches sub cquently. If the stl' am ha
very steep slope, it is desirable to start with a sma~er h ight for th ch ,o
dams than may ultimately be necessary. The height of th dams may b >
gradually raised in 2 01' 3 seasons as silting in the reaoh abo, 0 and h~lo
ooours.
It will also be neoessarJ to provide small check dams on th Bub idi&ry
IItreams flowing into the main stream.
In some cases oart·tracts, foot.paths, oattle tracks. etc., follow the
course of the n~s. In these caAP-R, cheek da.ms will interfere with
traffic. This may result in a portion of the check dam being d molish d
or pulled out to make way for tr~ffic . . Neoessary provision must be
made to divert the tra.cks or to prOVIde sUltable ramps.
168. Regulation of Impounding to avoid snt deposltJon-SuPlo
th.a.t in the case instanced above in which the renk hclf filled with silt
40
in years, a. set of powerful deep sluices wore provided in tho ~nk bund
at the stream drossing through which the Iun.o~ could he d.iJch.a.rg d
without any heading up as quicklyes it wa r IV d, then, f, r 0 long
6
 82 llULIGATlON

808 no heading up took plaoo, the silt would be discharged with the water
through the sluioos, and it would not be deposited in the tank, which
could be filled from the low flow of compa.ratively cloo.r WE.ter recei'\"ed
a.fter the floods. H the natUIe of the run-off and the demands for water
were such as to rendor this a suitable system of working the tank, its
serviooa.ble life could be grea.tly prolonged by such a meth<.d.
With this object in view, this method of impounding is resorted
to in the ca.se of the groa.t Assouan Resorvoir across the Nile in Egypt.
Wure it not for this system of regul~tion of impounding tb() rebeI'v("ir
would silt up rapidly 80S tho Nile floods ca.rry much silt a.nd tho total
a.nnual flow is many timos groo.ter than the reservoir ca.pacity.
169. Scour.-Scour is the process of erosion a.nd remove.} of matter
by tho v.ction of running water.
Tho I>O:'U ing power of water depends on tie velocity of its flow
whore in contl"ot with the eroded mr..terial, and a.lso on the ne.tUle
of the materie-l.
Rcour is alf'o gree.tly affected by the ditocticn of the flew with rega.rd
to the surfr.ce expoSt,d to ul'osion l?ond by e.ny sudden (;ru:.ngcs in diJcttien
or velocity of flow. lhe rCJt.SGn for this is, toot BUlh lhangef; hMe ihe
effect of glElC.tly inClee.sing tte numler and the power of eddies which
are the mr,in ctl.ue.es of scour a.nd which giTe to wLter its silt tll!.ne.pOlting
propel'ties.
Edd:es a. e prcduced WhOI e,er sudden obe.tructicns a.re interposed in
the wr.y of a cUl'lent, and if the sUlf. .cos on whic.h the CUIlent acts are
not sufficiently hr.l d to 1e C8.pr.ble of lebisting tho extra. ercding power
due to the:'.e eddies, local scours in the vicinity of the obstructions will'
be formed.
Scour is thus prc.duced by eX('essi,e ,elocity of flew, or by sudden
chr.nge of .elooity Or dil ecti n of fl(., w pI {ducing tUJ LtLence e.nd ClOSS·
ourrents, resuJting in eddies, abnormel both in numler end er..elgy.
Owing to the effects of mr.rgine.l sceur tho COUl'ses of ri,ors running
through r.!luvie1 soil r.re no. 'orly r.lways ery tortuous and in e.ddition their
1:ods ve.ry g)()r.tly in d(Jpth, in sen e p!&({!b d«,p pools &Ie scooped (Jut
by odd:es in Hoeds which a.le Cl'.usw eitl.el' by sudden 1::onds or obstruo-
tion in the course of the stl()t',m, or by oxcesshe Yelocity in the upstream
ro<,.oh Budd(mly chockod and dissipated in oross-currents and back flow.
170. lrrlgatlon works and scour etrccts.-Scours in the vicinity
of irrrig&tion wuks built in ri'\"'01s, or sceUJs in a.ny parts of artifidal
().,\nl1.Js are usue.lly OOrmful, a.nd failUIos of works rue not infrequentlY
due to this causo.
Wa.ter pr.ssing over weirs, or through regulators and sluices, is fre-
quently necessarily subjected to sudden (he.nbes in velo cities of flow, and
generE'Jly also to changes of directicn of fl(' w either horizontr.l or artical,
and the beds and margins of ri'vers a.nd C8.ne.ls in the vicinity of such,
works a.re therefoJe specially lia.ble to sco~. .
The chang s in local condition of l:ed .a.nd ma.rgin prcduc('d by scour
6re in themselves likely to accentue.to any sudden a.nd 10001 cOOng s in
wster ourrents, and thereby reach in produoing proportionately more
rapid scouring action. .
171. Mature of damage done to irrigation works by scour~--:o
J!:xoessive SOOUl' in the vioinity of ma onry or other works founded in
 SILT A.ND iJOUR 8

the bed Of.&.l·ivel' 01' oa~ is likely to affeot th tability f th

by unde~g foundatIons O&using settlem nta, lip or oth r failut
Contmuous scour of beds of canaJs causes lowering th 1 v 1 of '\\ t .
dOwiI_lg in it, and. thereby entails loss of command of l&nd. ur}
margms &~ &ny pomt of & cana.l tends to prcdu ,by J fl a.oti H, ur
&t sucoeSSlve pla.ces on &lterna.te sides of the cc.nr.l for gl eli tC.lll
below the place where the origina.l scour occuned. •
172. Providing protection against scour.-~ the 0& of ro8o onry
wo~ks dalll:age by scour ~~ould to gual ded e.gr..mst by n.rrv.nging 0 f. r
as IS pra.cticable for aVOIding sudden che.nges of v locity Il. d dil ctic.n
of flow, a.nd where these must occur, by providing suiw.bJ pr t cLi n
for the beds and ma.rgins of the ri ers &nd cana.ls for 8&£ disw.nt 8 nL y
!Iond below the works.
In the case of canals a.nd channels generally, the ~ locity of fi w rou t
be such a.s will, as f&r as pra.cticable, carlY fo)we.ld in btlb}Cnbi<ll, th
silt entering the head of the canal with the irrige.ti n we.t '1', luI, \\hith
will not be sufficiently ra.pid to causo erosion of ted or me.l gins in t h
a.bse~ce of su~den changes of direotion. Where such chang 8 ocellI',
specw.l protectIve works must be provided.
It is to be realized that Kennedy 's l1on-t:lilting and non-scouring
velooities are applioable to oha.nnels in steady regular flow ov r oompara-
tively smooth beds, and round regula.r gr·adua.t curvo , a.nd that 1000.1
interruption of such flow- will re nIt in local iLt 01' scour, whj ·It will
frequently give rise by reflex action to repetition in suce bsi,- place. tor
oonsiderable distances below th site of the original disturbanoo.
173. Eroding power of clear water .-As flow at u. rLain v locity
and depth oonnotes power or tl'allBportation of a eertain p J'C ntc.ge of
silt of certain quality, it follows th.&t whor~ a. ca.nal, flowing a t a. locity
whioh will tra.nsport a proportion (p) of silt to wat 1', if:j suppJi d at th
head with water with a. less proportion of silt, th le wW Le a. wndenoy
to piok up a.nd transport from the cana.l 1:; d or mal gin th baJc.nce
of silt required to make up this proportion. It is found that this ta.,k
plaooe a.nd that silt deposited in the upp r rea.chOIl f cana l wh n
river wa.ters a.r6 heavily oharged with silt, is picked up and can; d for-
wa.rd when the river water becomes clear, a.nd that while til 1 may e
great ses.soMl difference in the turbidity of wa.ter neal' the h d of 1.\
system modelled on Kennedy 's system, th 1'e is littl sou, ona.l di~ 1 11C
towards the tail end of the ohannels.
Thus a. oa.MI which may not SCOUl' with silty wat l' ma.y d 80 with
olear wa.ter fiowing aot the same depth and velooity.
·173-A. Tortuosity of rivers and rIver trafDfng.-Ea.oh river may
be divided into three seotions (1) Upper section comprising the non·
deltaio region where the river runs in a. valley through comparatively
harder soil, (2) middle section comprising the deltaic region where the
river either actually spills or could spill if there were no embankmentl,
(3) Jower section oomprising the tidal region. .
In the first reach where the river runs in a. valley and a comparatively
harder soil, tortuosity is not ma~rial. Bu~ in ~he eeo! nd an~ third
reaches where in the most of the Important nvers m Madras J re81denoy
(Godav~ri K llshna. and Cauvery) banks are provided, to safeguard the
deltaio t~ot from inundation, the relation between embankmente and
tortuoaity becomes an important matter.
64
 iBBIGATtON

Most of the rivers carry a. strong current and erode their banks where
they pass through the second zone, and frequently change their courses.
This continuous attack on th.e banks and cbange of course may become
80 serious as to cause very heavy damage to valuable properties. Even
the existence of important places on the banks may be threatened with
extinction. The subject of controlling the tortuosity of rivers, preventing
and reclaiming the eroded portions by protective me3.Sures at reasonable
expense is therefore a matter deserving important consideration.
Different methods of these river conservancy or river training works,
as they are called, are adopted in the three important rivers of this
Presidency, Godavari, Kistna and Coleroon (the flood carrying branch
of Cauvery). The following are used in Godavari and Krishna;-
Nanal Roller Revetment or Durbalt Rollers (N.R.R.}.-These consist
of rellu grass bundles of 8" diameter, with silt inside and tied with ooir
ropes on the outside.

DURBAH RoLLER WORK

. L.

FIG. 18 (g).
N.R.R. is done at sites or"active and important sets, where it is used
along with stone revetment. This 1s used with stone revetment in
Krishna. a.nd with or without stone revetment in Godavari. Stone
revetment is ca.rried up to a. height where ma.rginal erosion is heary
and above this ~.R.R., which is cheaper, is done to prevent the receding
flood from erodmg the unprotected margin and getting behind the ston
reve~m~nt. N.R.~. should be regarded as a. temporary protection
and It IS most satisfa.ctory when used along with and a.bove stone revet·
ment. Where it is used without stone revetment its use sh()uld be
restricted to compa.ra.tively unimportant and less active sets, where
some protection is required. In such cases it is desirable to rest its toe
Qn pitched atone a.nd on a. ledg out in t~e soil to prevent slipping.
 SILT AND SOUR

l!eve~ment and pitching:-This is the most suitable method of pro-

tectmg tmportant and actIve sets. The protection takes the form of.
pitched apron and reve~men~. The. apron is formed slightly above
summer water level and Its WIdth vanes from about 6 feet in compa.ra..
~ively shallow water and flat under-water slope, to about 8 to 10 feet
10 very deep water and steep under-water slope. A revetment is built
to rest on this apron and is taken to a suitable height, u ually th h ight
to which ordinary floods in the river rise. Above the rev tment th
slope is usually protected with nanalroller. '
Where the set is gentle or the soil is hard and not liable to disturbance,
the top width of pitohing may be as little as 4 feet. In hard soil, casu -
rina piles driven close at the end of the apron ma.y be cheaper and may
enable the width of the apron to be reduced. In sand or asUy rodcd
soil, wide aprons are obviously necessary. The revetments should
invariably rest on a ledge cut on the margin a.nd not on made-up sOlI
or on the loose stone forming the pitched apron beyond the margin.

FIG. 13 (h).
NanaZ plantation.-This is a. cheap and eff, ctivo method of proto ting
margins if erosion is not severe. There a.re three methods of pln.nting
nanal.
(a) Planting nannl with cuttings l' 6- apart.
(b) Planting dubbus.
(c) Planting nanal cuttings with roots.
1. (a) Planting nanal by C1£tting~.-These sticks should b{ h Ithy
having not less than three knots and me-Bsuring not less than Ii fe t.
These a.re dibbled in three for every hole at interva.ls of ) t feet. l'h
planting must immediately follow the falling water after flood. No
watering is required for this and the growth is gen rally good, often
attaining a height oHen feet jn three months.
(b) Planting nanal by dubbu8.-This is l'lwtable for all Rand shoal
and hard oily clay or stoney soils. Holes measuring 9- in dia.meter
and 1t feet deep are made a. ~ lot rvals of 4 foot or say 7 P(I' IIquar .
Clump of gre n nana.) are dug up with roots and a.r(' plAnted in
these holes with their roots at IC'ast one foot below surfa.ce. Til hole8
are then fill d with half cu bic foot of good ailt, earth ha.ving a.n o.dmi.xtur
of fine sand. 1oto each hole is then poured one pot full of wat r tlO
that the ea.rth may settle w II and good "patboos " or cup-like bMW
are made round each plant to receive and hold half a..pot ofwa.ter. These
require watering daily for the first 10 days, a.lternate days for th 20
days and once in three days for the next three montb.s.
 815 IRRIGATION

(c) Planting nanal by cutting8 with 1'QotB.-This is suitable only for

low sand shoals were owing to the presence of water at the surface.
holes cannot be made. Healthy nanal sticks are dug up with roots
and are planted three for every hole, the holes being made with a orow-
bar. These are put at 2' intervals. These sticks being planted with
roots gr~w more quickly than others.
Young stioks should be ohosen and planted within 24 hours of their
being cut. Cuttings must not be forced into the ground without
a hole being made.
2. Brushwood groynes or" silt fences ".-These 0.1' ohiefly useful
in places-where there is not muoh scour-to encourage the formation
of a foreshor. These are not suitable in places where water is deeper
than four feet. These are construoted generally of 45 feet lengths at
intervals of on -fourth furlong and are placed at an angle of 60 0 to 70n
sloping downstream. rrhey consist of three rows of bamboos driven
three feet apart and fined in with brushwood, seoured down by oross-
bamboos ti d for every row.
Brushwood edging.-This serves two purposes. (1) Stops the under-
Clltting of the bank by wave action when the water level iF! low and
(2) stopF! the washing away of the eroded matter in floods .
When water level is low, the wa.ve action washes away the sloping
faoe of margin and gradually undermines it. The margin then slips
bodily into the bed and the slipped material is washed away. It is
neoessary to Eltop this undermining when the water level is low and this
may be done by brushwood edging. In tidal plaoes, as the undermining
still continues in front of the edging this method is not reoommended
in suoh places. When edgings arfl put in, their further repairs by way
of driving the exposed pegs ,nd furth er filling in are very troublesome
and difficult.
Durbah rollers-(Facines made 01 nanal).-The durbah rollers
described above can be effeotively substituted in place of brushwood
edging in all tidal places. If they are undermined they sink of their
own wight and the pegs securing them can easily be driven. If they
am at nny time over.topped by the tides another roller can be added
on. -
B,'ownlow's weed.,.-These consist of a series of anohor crates to each
f whi h n. I'ope i fastened, and brushwood tied to the rope supporting
the I .'e end on the surfaoe ofthe water. The anchor crates are bamboo
pyramids of 6' sides filled with half cubic yard of stone. The ropes
N
ItI' made to a size of 4tN and 3i girth for v rtical and horizontals,
r peotiv ly, out of the ordinary ooir. The orates with the' vertioal
rop II 8,ttltOhed to th 01, ar sunk thr in aoh row at intervals of 10'
the 1'0' in their turn b ing placed 30' apart. The horizontal ropes
A.1'O i d !)u.rn,]lel to the line of margin connecting in three lin s the
V l'tiCA.! l' P A of all crates. team l' ropes are then tied orosswise at
interval of f' cry 10' at right angles to the line of margin and parallel
to eaoh row of crates, every third row orossing over the row of cra.tes.
Finally branches of bushwood are tied at intervals of Ii feet to all the
rap . The ize of these br nohe va.ry from It' to aN in diameter and
, to 10' in 1 ngth.
Tho 801' very pen iv and are ~o be used only when the depth
of water olose to the margin, is grea.t, thE' ourrent strong and the soouring
notion oonsiderable, -
 SILT AND SOOUR 1
Irrigation canaljall8-(Di88~pa,tion oJ energy below fit," ).- fj 11
may be defined as a work d slgn ~d to seoure th low~ring of th '" ter
surfa.oe in a. stream and the sa£' d vstruotion of th urplu n rgy so
liberated." The surplus energy may b d stroy d by variou m th
They are,
(1) Impa.ot, (2) Interna.l friotion, and (3) Friotion on th tted
boundary. The existenoe of bed and side Scour blow Dlany falls i
evidence that surplus energy, not otherwis de troy d doe • work' on
the watted boundary of the str am. Th existenc of x nsi .. pro.
tection " and "rough ning " below many fa.lls implicitly r oogniz this
fact. (4) Aeration :-The theory involved in this is that thoroughly
aerated wa r behav s as an ernul ion in whioh stl' am lin s 'annot
exist. A'~ration therefore provid s a means of br akiug up th troam
lin"s in residual rugh sp"ed jets. The oon qu nt d struotion of n rgy
app3a.rs to be dependent on internal impact and work don on th w tt d
envelope.
Applying these principles, th following class B of works are
constructed in connexion with falls for destroying th en rgy.
1. Bajfleol-This is a. small wall or projection built trs.nRV rs ly,
across the line of flow, on an horizontal platform at oorrect 1 v I, wh
function is to defloct the Rtream flowing down a glaci with hyper.
critical velocity, so that it flows horizontally at th instant at wb.ieh
impact occurR in the standing wave.
Baffle walL--This is a waH built transversely acrORS the line of flow
of a stream (a) to head up the water above it to suoh a d 'pth that
a standing wave shall form, (b) to withstand the actual impaot f
a high.speed stream of water and so dissipate energy.
Deft !(tor.-This is a small wall or projection-usually sloping on
the up..ltream fac -built transvor ely across th lin of Bow at thl' nd
of the down tl'eam protection, whose function is to dcfll' t reRiduu,1
high-spe d streams a,bove the bed. A horizontal r v l'P b droll r
is formed down-stream of the prot ction, which ensures that any Roour
shall take rlace well below the masonry works wacr it 110 long r oon·
Eltitutes a danger t" stn hili ty.
Design of jlnmed falls with glaCIS, baffles and ,Zejlrctt'rs.-A Bum
fall consists of-
(1) a standard long.throated, standing. wave, Bumo.m ter ( II,
(2) a glacis slope and pavement on whICh a ba.fIl 15 fix d to
dissipate energy, and .
(3) a. cistern downstream of the baffle. and a de~eotor a.t th down-
stream end of the cistern to defleot the high velOCity b d Btr am and
oause a horizontal bed roller to form.

DE. flo I.t TC)R

 88 lRBIGATIO

The a.ction of the defleotor is diagrammatically shown below :-

---- -------
~- -
- - -----------
- -------- ------
FIG. 18 ( ).
At th toe of the glacis,rvery high Jvelocities are generated and the
nergy in exoess of that required for normal flow is dissipated by the
standing wave that forms. Though a standing wave dissipates a con·
Iliderable amount of exoess energy in the form of heat, yet residual
eddies and turbulenoe persist and the distribution of velooities down·
Htream' of a fall does not approximate to the distribution in a normal
ohannel. Therefore, when the materials of the ohannel bed are erodible,
heavy scour results: where the height of the fall exceeds one·third the
depth of the ohannel, oonditions are markedly improved by adding
a properly designed baffle.
De8 ign of baJfte ana baJfte pa"?Jement.-Maximum dissipation of energy
by a. standing wave oocurs when it forms at the toe of a glaois . In
praotice, if there is a sloping glaoiFi the standing wave may form-
(1) on the glacis.
(2) at the toe or
(1) doymtrea.m of the Loe.
t'IG. 18 (k).

LONGITUDINAL JECTION '"

- ~I -~1 -----
1~ -.. 112
- - - - - -.-- -

&l:L.-!!_-:r.,- --------:_,:---..------'ii
.
- ---.- -

~y~...,J.--
--,:----

"" (/~ : q~
_ _~1~_~~
.__-_-_d_
. - '\:O~tL£C~R • ~
 SlLT AND OOUll

(1) If the tn.uding" av fOt1Us on the glacis. \Vor thel no bam

the ba.ffle should be fixod on a pla.tform a.t a highE"l lev I thllon the ca.nal
bed le vel so that the natural "'ave \vould thea form at the toe on th
platform .
. (2) If the standing wav woul form a.t the toe of th fA.U, th bam \
sh ould be fixed at pavement level.
(3) If the standing Wave would form downstream of th th
glaois should be extended and a oistern provided of such d pth •
bring the wave to the to€' and the ba.ffle fix d on the bE"d of tlw oiBt<>m .
Th height of the baffie should b tlqua.l to 1'3 a, wh re d, = toll
depth of wat r on baffle pavement at toe of fa.ll (a 'uming no .W. w
form d). The values of d2 may be obatined from the gmph printed ill
C.B .I. publication No. 10, plate V.
The distanc(' of th", baffif' from the 1;0(. of fn.ll ::-:: 0'25 d,.
Design of cisterns .-Even though the n rgy is {feotiv ly di!lsipa. d
. by a baffle near the toe of the f~ll, the distribution of v lociti 8 is not
normal. hence a cistern and defl{'etor 801' pro id d.
Depth to which the pavement oj the cistern is to L'€ stmk.-At tiw
point where the downstream flum.:: width is equal to thre ·fourths hod
width of the channel, the d pth of wa.ter which i n ocssary to giv th
mean velocity of V = C X 0'84: d 0·84: is caloulat d. Th diff r n
between this depth and the normal d pth do"vnstrcam gives th am lint
by which the pavement is sunk below the downstrea.m bed 1 v 1.

---r -i

Bo

J
I

FIG. 18 (1) .

The vaIu of L for various valu s of B3/BO and div rg 110 of J

in 4: to 1 in 10 are, given in plate VI of C.B.I. publicati n No. 10.
Ad fleotor is fixed a.t the end of the oistern, i. ., o.t a. d istanc L from
\vhere diverg'3no3 sta.rts. The height of tho deflector is 1(12 of ..D.
plus ~pth of the oistern b elow the de ign d ca.nal bed I v ~ownstr am.
'fhe sida divergenc es should not b e ~ha.rper tha.!l a. pa.rtlCula.r va.lu •
oorresponding to the "\Taine of the ratlO of bed width of ohannel blow
fall to the norma1 depth in ohannel.
90 IBJUGATION

ross-section oj the ci8tern and side 8lope dejtector8.-" A oistern with

0.semi-elliptioal cross-section gives a much better distribution ofvelooitiea
than a, oistern with flat b .:d. The side slo~e d flectors are b n ficial
by causing the bed roller to form over the full width, thus preventini
th form.a.tion of oork screw eddies."

SLOPE: OF
OEF'LECTOR.
r:.rD o£ru:c'rOR.
FIG. 18 (m).
Scour downstream of bed regulator.-" Experiments have shown
that where a deflector was fixed, the material tended to bank up behind
the deflector to a slope of 1 in 3 to 1 in 4, and therefore the deflector to
be fully effective, this soour should be allowed to occur."
Flat pitching prevents the formation of the benefioial bed roller.
Protection should be laid to the natural slope of 1 in 3.

"':':r~
. •............ :- ...', ;."'.. . :~..';':~i:':".
FTG.18 (0).
" Roughening "-Method oj destroying energy below a fall.-Wherever
conditions admit, hydraulio impact for the destruction of energy is pre-
ferable. Where there is no hydraulio impaot, ntire reliance must be
plac d on roughening the oistern to destroy surplus energy. This can
be aocomplished in two ways, (1) by incr a ing the roughness per
square foot of w tted area or (2) the actual area may be incr ased. In
practice, it is more oonomical to make the effective roughness of the
wetted envelop as high as possib).fl a.nd reduce the cistern area to the
minimum.
The artifioial roughening destroys the energy in two ways (1) by
inoreasing the aotual wetted area it increases the boundary friction, (2) if
oorr ctly shaped, the high speed filaments of the stream are oontinuously
defl ot d, int ract on on another and so grea.tly inor ase the internal
friction whioh in absen('e of roughening, is very low.
By pra.otioal experience, it is found that bed projections a.re the most
efF otiv. "Rough ning " or friction blocks may projeot into the body
of th str am with safety, up to on -third of the full supply depth.
The hape of the friction-blook is important. The funotion of the
block is to divide th approaohing high-spe d Rtream and defleot the
filament. Th following type us·. d by Mr. Montagu, M.I.O.E., eto., is
suitable. Roughly, in plan, the friction blooks resemble an equilateral
tria.ngle with round d corners. The baok face is vertical. The other
two fa.ces ate slightly battered. The top is sloped from the front (rounded)
corner to the baok dge to give an upward deflection to filaments at this
point. Th whol tapers from the base to the top, to lend additional
atrength.
 stL'r AND OOtTB 91
~uoh fHotion bloo~ ~B:y be inserted in lin " aoro 8 the oi 'n fi r.
the mtervals between mdlvIdual blocks being from I i to 2 tim til h . ht
of the blook. Suocessive lin s may be " staggered " in rela.tioll to n
a.nother and should be eparat d by about twic the height of a block.
. The .lengt~ .of roughening requir d varies in aoh oa • If ffioien\
Impact]s antlOIpated, a. roughened length of oi tern equal to thre tim
the fuU supply depth will be ample. Wher ther i no impact a I ngtb
equal to six or more times the full upply depth may b 1 q{w d . A
rough formula for the I ngth of cistern to be rough ned is giv n bv
C X D 3 (2 X HI. 1(. "

Dl
,vhere
Dl = Depth in th cist ern.
D2 = Depth in the lower chalUlt'l.
HL = H :ight of the drop.
C = Co· efficient depending on the type of impact.
Values of C.
For vertioal impaot C= 1
For horizontal impact s .. 3
For inclined impact with baffle 4
For inolined impaot without baffle 6
No impact 8-10
Where hydraulio impact oocurs, the roughening should begin a.t
a distance about Olle half the height of the st anding wave b low it. It
should be follow d by a short length of smooth ciRtcrn, equal to about
half the length of roughening .
.dutomatic 8urplus gates /01' Eed-hi1l8 tank.- These iiUJ'plufi gate al'
40' X 8' lOt" and were supplied by Messrs. Duncan tratton & Co.,
Bombay. These gates consist of a r ctangular plat e weld d to stifF ning
beams, which are hinged on the sill in bronze bearings. The gate if!
supported by vertical suspension rods which are attaohed by links to a.
pair of beams resting on rolling bearings and kept in positi n by a rein·
forc d concret e counter-weight. In the normal position of th gate,
the counter.weight rests on two supports. As water in the lak ris 8
i" to 1" above F .T.L. water begins to overfiow th shutters, and th
pressure on the gat overcomes the oount'? r-w ight and th gate b gins
to drop . The water is thus allowed to "pill over th top. If tb wawl'
level in the lake still increases, the gate eontinues to fall until , if n c flBltry
to deal with the exces , the gate fall fiat . Whcn tb gl\l;{> is fn,l!ing,
however, every new position increases the v rtical compoD nt of th(
water pressure and unle s some damping device were provided, tho gak
would faU rapidly and damaged. This is proven d by the "I' .ria l !'olling
bearing 6n the beams. Thr e or four cylindrical Rpur th al' 8 t on 0.
oircle on the beam, which engage with similar te th on a straight rack
fixed to the vertical support. For ev I'y diff r nt position of th gate,
the beams change their angle of slope to the horizontal and th distanc
hetween the point of support and the oount 1'-W ight gradua.lly inor a. II.
The moment of the oounter.weight about the ful crum ther by inor as fI
II.nd partly counteracts the increasing water pr ssur mom nt on th
gat. In the reverse process when the wa.ter 1 v I fa.lls a.nd the oounter.
weight lifts the gate, the moment of the counter·w ight d or S 8, a.nd
although the water may fall rapidly, the COllnter·W ight g ntly falls to
it original position.
92 DBIGA.TIOlf

The staunohing of the gate on the sill and sides is covered by pa.tents·
Tha.t on the sill is a patent push plate, while the sides are sta.unoh,x l by
pring blades which are pressed against the masonry by water pressure,
The spring blades and staunohing bars just touoh the sides of the masonry
when there is no water and do not rub hard against the ma.sonry if the
gate be mov d up and down, but, when there is water in oontaot with
tile ga.te, it enters the pocket in the spring blade and pushe the staunch.
ing bar tight against the masonry sides and stop leakag .
.
In order to eliminate vacuum between the gate and the sill, which
might prev nt the gate from rising when the water level falls, an air duct
is provided in the abutments or pier, connecting the space at sill level and
~he air abov the top of the abutment or pi 1', so that no vacuum is formed
at any position of th gat .
Radial gates.-These gates are made of iron plates bent to the shape
of an arc of a circle, strengthene<l in reA.r by cross-beams, ties and strutR,
to withstand the water pressure. The shutter moves about two pivots
fixed on either .side, in the masonry of the piers forming the vent. The
shutters are raised or low red by means of .G. rods work d by manual
labour from a platfor,m above.
The advantages of this type of shutters are: (1) When the gate is
op~ned, the curvature of the shutter introduces a bell mouth ffect on the
orest and the gate has a high co-efficient of discharge and (2) the water
pres sur aoting on the shutter face will assist the easy raising of the
shutter. .

Agnia1' Aqueduct.-This i.e another big work in this Presidenoy. It

is on the Grand Anicnt canal at about the 57th mile from the Grand
Aniout. The oanal orosses at this plaoe the Agniar, a big drainage course.
The oatohment area of this drainage oourse at the site is 335 square
miles and the maximum flood discharge was originally computed
as 58,300 cusecs. The aqueduot was oompleted in November 1933. It
oonsisted of 36 vents 12 fel·t Ii inohes wide. The normal bed width of
the oanal in this reaoh is 631 feet and full supply depth 6'2 feet. The
trough of the aqueduot is 541f feet long and 39 ffle~ wide. It is
designed to oarry a discharge of 1,181 ouseos.
In November 1939, there was continuous and intense rain in the basin
of the Agniar for about ten days and as a result, several upland tanks
br aohed and extraordinary floods (95,600 cusecs against 58,300 ouaeos
for whioh the work was designed) came down the str am. The maxi.
mum affiux noticed at th work was 9'00 feet against 3'90 feet assumed in
the design. This un xpected flood washed away the last two bays (35th
and 36th) th adjoining abutm nt and 200 fi et of canal embankment,
forming a deep oourse and Roour b low, aft; cting a portion of floor too.

Th wa.terway having thus proved inadequate, it was decided to

inor ase the same wh n the reoonstruotion of the washed out portion
was oonsidered. The l' pair works oonsisted of reconstructing the
two wash d out vents and extending the aqueduot practically to the
lengtl1 of embankment washed away. The aqueduct inoluding the
extension can dispose of the maximum flood disoharge (95,600 oua os)
,nth an affiux of about 5'25 fe ~,
 This section compris 8 seven vents of diffi rent pan , l' okon d fl' 1U
34th pier, the first three following almost th origina.l d sign. Th
other four spa.ns follow the Pulig dda a.queduct d ign, and th tt'ough
has been divided into thr oompartments and th id wall ha.v
been design d as beams to carry the trough. This porti n of th
aqueduot is entirely of cement oonorete and r inforoed conorete. Th
necessity for adopting varying spans aro from the fa.ot that p rtiOllR
of the old wa.shed out structure got scattere d and buried h r a.nd th
and these spots ha.d to be a.voided to ('nabl foundation wdls being mlk
properly.

AO\A.L S HV'riE or ... "'<:'\~I\P aLUOC'

/'I' .... ". to•• roo.,.

FlU, J~ ,0) .
RADIAL SHUTT,R ARRANGEMENT

F;~~~~~;~~~~;~~~~~

ASU"Me"N"
-----'.___
"'.'

FIG. 18 (p).
 ND OOl1R

,
.-....
;.
~~ .i
t .... "
.~~ ~ .

.•
C>

«
c:
2
w
x ~
J U

«
w
~ '.,
• .
·
.·
i
...
W
~
I
1/1
..• " V

.'".. •
"
0 ~ J
0
2 U
0

..E
0
~
~
'!
Z
w
i
w
! II

ii
~

FIG. 18 (q). ~
 CHAPTER VI.
HEAD W RK '.
174. Irrigation Head Works.-From p.n engineering 1'. pe .t head
w rks ma.y be divided jnto two ola.ss 8 ; -
(a) Diversion works.
(b) Storage works.
Class (a) works v.re generBJ.ly associa.ted with direct -flow irrigr, ion
and olass (b) with ta.nk irrigc.tion.
:1hore ar , however, many storage works which receive suppli s
diverted into them by means of cle.ss (a) works a.nd the mo.jol'ity of cIa .
(6) works serve the combined purposes of stol'a.ge and diversion.
175. Diversion works.-These ha.ve their site in the vicinity of the
pOint f offta.ke of'tho head of the oonl11 system ll1 the river from which
the water supplies are drawn.
The works usually consist of -~
(a) A weir acros the river of sufficient height to ma.int8.in a wa.ter
Level above the work suitable for the supply of the cs.na.l system, the.t is,
a level which will give 'command' of the e.rea to be irrigated, and
which will giv sufficient depth of flow in the cs.naJ to carry the required
supply.
Weirs across rivers are in South India. frequently tenned ani('11/s
thit; being the Ta.mil word for a river weir.
(b) A ca.na.l taking off from one or both of the sides of the dyer
above the weir and capable of carrying sufficient wa.ter for the supply
of the irriga.ted area aot a level which ensures the command required
fol' supply by direot flow. .
(0) A • hea.d sluice' fl'equently termed a. • heed regula.tor, , by
mea.ns of whioh tho qua.ntity of water r.d.mitted into t,he cl1nl.'.1 is limited
and controlled.
(d) Weir scouring sluices.
(e) Flood ba.nks or other proteotive works sufficient to seoure the
weir from being out.fla.nked by floods in the river,
Of the a.bove, the cs.na.l from below the hea.d slui e is part of th
eli trlbution system which will be d I.',lt with la.OOr under tha.t hood.
176. Level of weir crest.-A weir is essentially a rough stone or
Dlllosonry ba.rrier 01' wall built aoross the river by means of which wa.ter
level upstream of the work is ra.ised up to t,he crest or tcp level of the
weir before any of it ca.n po.ss down the river below the work. Mcdern
weirs are frequently fitted with some form of crest shutters which can
during floods be la.id .flat with the crest, or raised oJee.r of we.ter Jenl,
and these shutters enable water to 1:e hea.ded up to the shutter crest level
without obstruoting the river by so large a b~ier as would l:e neCeBSa.1Y
to seoure the same heading-up by a solid weir without shutters. 'The
term • shutter crest level' signifies the level of the shuttet top when
standing ereot on the orest or sill of the weir 01' regula. tor,
The orest of the shutters or, whero there a.re no shutters, of the solid
weir must be at such a. height as to seoure adequa.te oommand, thB.t ie,
to enable a suffioiently high water level to be maintained in the canal to
irriga.te t,h required In' a b. fl w.
 · DAD WORKS 7
The weir &18.0. mUst be high enough to ensur passing into th can J
adequate qua.nt~tl~s of Water to supply the seasonal r qui! menta of th
crops up to the limit of the full,flow of the river.
177. DiSadvantages_ of..a solid well.-The ereotion of a olid w ir
across a river generally entails serious incollveni nees;-
(1) Raising flood levels above the work.
(2) Causing accumulation of silt a.nd rise of river bed and ft qu ntly
tho formation of shoals above the work.
(3) Causing scours of the rivor bed below tho work,
(4) Inconvenience of water supply in the down stream in tilli
of scarcity of water.
(2) and ( 3~ abov~ are ~ minimwn in a rivor with a rooky bed and
are aggravated III a l'lV01' WIth a soft bed OV01' which much b d silt i
transported.
The great~r the proportion of the whole waterwa.y whi h ill blo ked
Dy a solid barrier the greater the evils enta.iled and it i th l' f, r
undesirable to block more of the waterway of a riv I' by a. solid w ir than
iH necessary to effect the object in view; from this onsideration th
advantages to be derived from crest shutters beoome at once appt.rent.
178. Regulator substituted lor a w8lr.-OcCD.sionalJy in pIa of
a weir a regulator is built across a I'iver to effect a simila.r purpo . This
oonsists of a number of piers with a suita.ble flooring botw n them and
with grooves in eaoh pi.er in whioh are installed lift shutters of tjuitabl
height capable of being ra.ised a.nd lowered.
These shutter" are lifted by ge:u' installed on the toP!; of the pi l'ti
01' on a bridge platform oonnecting the hea.ds of the piers. The adv80ntag
of a regulator as compared with a. weir is tha.t it effects the pUl'pOS of
a weir without greatly obstructing the water way.
179. Head sluice.--The head sluice must bo cap!\bl , with wat J' ~t
urest, level of the weir Or weir shutters, of pa.SI3Ulg through it th full
supply required for irriga.tion, and al"o of tihutting out ox tiS river
flow from the canal.
In silt bearing rivers it is nocossary to al'l'ange tho &ite and dosign
of the works a.s to exclude as far as possiblo river bod silt from b irlg
carried into the canal along with the irrigation water.
The mea.ns taken to secure exclusion of bed silt frequ ntly utaH
considerable incroa.se of cost of the work, a.nd the extent to whioh th
are justifiable must be decided for eaoh caso sopa.ra.tely on its morits.
With a view to excludo bod silt the sill of th head sluico should b
at a level highor than the deop bed of tho river, a.nd tho tjluice shutterti
should be in tiers so a.s to enable the canal to be £00 from wa.ter dra.wn
from nea.r the surfa.co of tho rivor at timos when tho water is heavily
charged with silt. In operating the shutters the water should bo pa.ss d
through the sluices at the lowest possible velocity, that is, should b
drawn off at tho highest lovol praoticable. Tho total l;luice WB.y provid d
should be sufficiently la.rge to onable tho supply to bo pa.sl:lod a.t lUodomto
velocities through the sluices.
The position of the off-take and tho condition of dru.w-oif sho~d b
arranged so as to avoid as fa.r as possible causing sudden obe.ngos III th
direction or velocity of flow which, as has b on explain d in hap l' V
entails the forma.tion of eddies which lift bed silt, a.nd caw; it to b
carried into the canal.
7
9 mRIGATlolt

180. Scouring shdces.-Bluices with sills at about the deep bod level
of the river generally form part of the sub idiary works of a weir. The
function of these sluices is to ke p open a suitable low water channel to
conveniently feed the canal head sluice and to deepen the river bed in
front of the head sluice with a view to the exclusion of bed silt from the
oa.nal. The scouring sluioos a.re placed on the extreme flank of the weir
above which the canal takes off a.nd the head sluice is generally placed
with its face close up to the margin of the river, so that the scouring
sluices will draw directly across the face and keep the river bed in front
of it scoured out to a considerable depth below the sill level 'Of the head
sluice.
181. Divide groyne.-In order to form a definite leading channel to
the head sluices and scouring sluices along which the draw of the latter
will be concentrated, it is desirable to build a. divide wall or groyne
running up-stream from the junction of the scouring sluices with the
weir. This work is termed a 'divide wall', or' divide groyne', and it
should extend a. considerable distance above the up-stream vent of the
head sluice.
182. Plans of typlca] head works.-The head works of the Sirhind
oa.na1 system at Rupar on the Sutlej (figure 14) show works in relative
positions described a.bove. The profiles of the scouring sluicos and head
sluioos are given in figures 56 and 57, Chapter IX.
II r
HEAO·WO.RK5'~ SIRHUID:CANAI..
I

Figure 55, Chapter IX, gives a plan showing the rela.tive positions
of the Toludur regulator and head luice constructed on the Vellar in
South Arcot district.
183. System oj regulating head and scouring slulces.-The aim of
regulation is to pass water through ~he head sluices in quantities required
 nAD WORKS

£0.£ irri~ation, .which. while conta.ining the normal pc p rti n of in

suspensIOn calTICS as little bed sand as possible into th canal.
The role of tho ~couring sluices is t.o keep open through th ri
doop channel Jeading to the head sluIce and by occa iona] our k p
the bed of this channel where it pas s in front of th h d slui a a
depth lower tha.n the head sluice sill, a.nd so minimiz the amount of t
silt pa.ssiug into the canal.
It has .been f?und in practice t~at the simultaneous '\J orking f h ld
and scourmg slmces although eft ctmg the scow' of th )'jw'r 'ted il1 front
of the canal sluice, also so stirs up a.nd lifts the heavy ilt, that much
more bod silt pa.sses into the canal when the scouring lui ar open
than when they are olosed.
It is, therefore, desira.ble not to open th scow'ing slni s WhOll h
head sluices are dra.wing water and if praoticH.blo th latt r should b
closed before opening the former for the pw'pose of soouring the bed of
the approaoh channol. When this channel is de p and wholl th scouring
sluices are closed, a pool having but littl velocity is formed oppo ito tho
head sluices, from which po 1 water should be drawn from 1\ high 1 v 1
so a.s to give the requisite supplies without drawing b d silt.
It is thus desira.ble to have head sluices wjth ample entwa.y 80 a.s to
allow of the irriga.tion water boing drawn a.t low velooities from CHI high
a level as possiblo, and to ha.vo scouring sluice which ar oapabJ of
being kept altogether dosed under most conditiolls of river di charge,
but which whon opened will pass water with groat and ullobstru too
velocity thus affording the maximum of scouring effect.
The discharge capacity of undersluioos should be larg in oomparison
to that of the approach channel so that silt may be rea.dily mov d 8.1 ng
it and the sluices should be capable of being operatod undor l~Jl conditions
of river flow_
The a.bovo system of regula.tion has bo n devoloPQd ()f la. [1,1'8 in
Northern India and ho,s been highly succcHsful in rooucing siJt dO}Josit
noar the heads of cana.ls. Tho troubles oxpoJioncod ii'om this cau ha.vo
been far more serious in Northern India. than in Madra.s.
It is frequently impra.ctica ble, on account of the r quir m nts of
supply, to close canal hea.d slnicesl1t aU times when the apIJroach ohannel
requires scouring, a.nd it is then for the officer in charge to d cide wh th r
to open the scouring sluices in spite of the extra silt d posit involv d,
or to wa.it to scour until local rain or oth I' conditions p rmit tho cl sing
of hoadsluices . No hard and fa.st rule can be made a.nd in each oos th
na.ture of regulation must be decided with rofer nee to local conditi llfi.
184 Flood banks.-Tho· effect- of building a. solid w lf blo king
a portion of the waterway of a river is to rais the high flood] vels above
the work and it is necessary when designing a weir to compute th h ight
of the maximum flood leveL If the na.tural levels of the country to
which the bank connexions of the weir on eaoh sid of the river 0.1' j in d
are not a.t such a height above flood level as to prevent any spill passing
from the up-stroom to the down-stream side of tho woir round the .(lauJu;
of the work, it is necessary to prevent this by flood banks conn oting th
weir fla.nks with high ground.
Even where there is no danger of the weir fla.nks bing thus turn d,
the rise in maximum flood level may canse serioua injury by subm r n
to marginal lands, hou, s, etc., and pI' tective flood banks m y, on thi
ground, be a necessary adjunct to head works.
7A.
100 lRBIGA.'EION

A spill rormd the flank of a weir generally entails sorious risk of a deep
channel being cut round the flank through which all or a. large part of the
river flow may be diverted.
rfhis is one of the causes of failure of weirs and instances of weirs being
out·flanked by omission to properly maintain the protective bunds
are by no means rmcommon.
The adequaoy and propel' maintenance of such banks is a matter to
be speoiallyattended to, as breaches in these are likely to entailsorious
failures, while the upkeep of bank connexions of weirs frequently entails
but little work and in oonsequenoe is likely to be overlooked.
185. Sites lor diversion works.-The seleotion of the best site for head
works involves oonsiderations of ma.ny factors and is frequently a matter
of oonsiderable doubt.
If a definite area has been selected for irri~a.tion tho head works must
be placed, so that full' oommand 'may be attainod by a weir of rea onablt.
height, and S6 that the oombined oost of the oonstruotion of the head
works and of ou tting the canal from the weir to where irriga tion commonces
shall be as small as is consistent with the efficiency of the works. Gene-
rally tho higher the head is placed up the river, the greater the cost of
canal but tho less the height of weir necessary. The na.ture of the soil
through whioh the canal hea.d reaohes must be out and the nature of the
foundations of the head works must be oonsidered; on the one hand it
may happen that a most fa.vourable site for head works cannot be a.dpoted,
because it entails large quantities of rock cutting in construction of the
oanal, while on the other a favourable line of cana.l may have to be
aba.ndoned on aocount of the cost entailed in construction of head works,
to suit this alignment.
It is rare that a site can be obtained which does not entail several
anfavourable conditions and the bost site is that which will give fully
effeotive works at the lowest cost having in view both oonstruction fmd
maintenance oharges.
186. Favourable conditions for sites of bead works.-The following
a.re favoura.ble oonditions of site for head works : -
(1) A straight length of river in which the flow is fairly uniform and
generally parallel to the axis of tl!.e bed, and which entails little cost in
flood banks and training works to keep the river in its course and check
marginal erosions.
(2) A roach not very wide or encumbered with shoals; for, not only
does a wide reach entail extra Jength of wei.r but it is subject to aggra. vated
trouble from bed silt.
(3) Good foundations; rook and olay a.re especia.lly d sirablo.
(4) Low oost of outting the off-take canal from the weir to the point
whence it oommences to irrigate.
(5) Proximity to materials required for COnBtruotion and good
oommunication with the sources of supply.
It is generally impmoticable to se1eot a site in whioh all the above
oonditions are oombined and the seleotion must b ma.de by carefully
weighing the advantag s and disadvantages of each possiblo site. .
187. Direction of a weir with reference to rIver axls.-As a rule
a weir should be built at right angles to the axis of th river; an obUqu
direction, b sides enta.iling a grooter longth of weir, is likely to develop
face scours, i.e., scours parallel and olose to the upstream fa.ce of the weir.
 HEAD WORKS 101
On rook, boulders, or hard gravel, scours n ed not be [. red and it
may be eoonomical to build an oblique weir in order to tak d antag
of local oonditions as regards foundations.
Buokley (Irrigation Works of India) says that a weir inolined towards
the off-take channel head is found to be an advantage in ri or with bed!,
of boulders and shingle as with this feature the low wat r tJ m i
direoted to the head of the off·take channel, whilo in such a rivOl' bed
danger from face soour is small.
188. The dotails of design of th compon nt partl'l of di er ion works
viz., of weirs, head and scouring slnicoR, otc., are dealt with ill detail i~
succeeding chapters.
SroUGllI WORKs.
189. Storage works as head works.-When a carmI Or ilTigation
Itystem has a head sluice drawing its irriga.tion suppJi s directly from
reservoir, then the reservoir itself is the head works of t h canal Or sy tern.
An irrigation reservoir generally combines tho fune"i ns of at rag
and divorsion, the latter being efft'lCted by drtnving water headed up by
~he dam from a level suitnble for th) command of tJlO aron to be irrigc. ted
onder the canal suppliod from the reservoir; occasionally, how " r th
reservoir is used only I:\S a. stora.ge work to impound or Ruppl m nt the
direct flow of a river and sepo.rate works Iloro conRtrlleood to div rt
the water on to the land to be irrigated.
190. Oomponent works of a reservolr. -Tho compon nt works
oonstituting an irrigation reservoir are :-
(a) A dam whioh impounds tho water.
(b) Ono or more outlets 01' supply sluicoR t hrough whi h irrigati n
water is drawn from the storage work.
(0) Surplus works to pass off any inflow in oxcoss of whnt can be
safely impounded.
191. Reservoir dams. -The dam is genorally either of masonry or
earth, but such works havo been constl'ucood of steel and also of ston
fillin~, with a water tight face 01' brnnting, whi h hl:\s boon mado of arth,
ooncrete, or wood, or steel she(1ting.
In the case of storage works the impounding of considera'bl qua.ntiti
of water makes it necessary to hold up against the up-stream fae of the
dam depths of wa.ter generally considerably great~r than in the caRe of
iliversion works. The dams of tanks in South India arc gon rally of earth
and are termed bUrlds or banks. Masonry dams can only be built wb n
sound rook foundations are availa.ble and are gcnerc.lly restricted to sites
where considerable depths of water have t o be impounded. A mAsonry
dam may combine tho funutions of a storage and a surplus work wh n in
addition to impounding a. quantity of water it is design d to pass surplus
over its crest. uch a work is techniCl"lly a high weir and may b cllollod
an 'overtlow-(""tn.m ' or a 'weir-dam' to distinguish it f,'om a dam ov r
the top of which water is not passed.
Under no circumstanoos should water be passed ov r tho top of _
earthen dams ; the topping of an earthen dam by tho impounded water
almost invariably causes tho breaching of the banle
192 Reservoir su,pply sluloes.-The outlets or supply Blui 8 from
a tank are generally located in the main dam, In the case oflv.rge earth n
dams, outlets are occasiona.1Jy made through deep cutting or tunn J8
round the flank of the bund so as to avoid building a sluice through th
 102 IRBIGATION

bank; this, however, is unusual and it is customary to carry the outlet

through the bank. The sluices are necessarily provided with regulating
arrangements which give control of the quantity of wa.tcr drawn off
through them.
193 . .Reservoir sUpply workS.-These usually take the form of a weir
on one or both flanks of the tank. The crest of the work is usually
at the full tank level (F.T.L.) a.nd the discharging capa.city sufficient
to dispose of the computed maximum surplus wa.ter without th:'l wa.ter
rising above a fixed level, which is termed the maximum water level
(M. W .L.). As in the case of diversion weirs, reservoir weirs are sometimes
provided with some form of crost shutters, with the object of securing
a lower M.W.L. without sacrificing the storage capacity, that is, without
reducing the F.T.L.
Oocasionally surplus sluices are provided either in place of Qr to
supplement the surplus weir. In the case of oluthen darns surplus
~ luioos are generally nea.r one flank of the dam but in masonry darns they
are placed in any position convenient having in vjow the facijities for
working the sluices and disposing of the surplus wa.ter. In the case of
overflow-dams the dam itself forms the surplus weir.
194 . Favourable conditions of site for reservolrs.-Tho following are
favourable conditions of site for resorvou's;-
(1) The supplies of water at th:.: site during the flow sooson should
be fully ad~quate, but not very grcatlY in excess of normall'eqwrements.
(2) 'tho oapacity required can be secured with a darn of r asonr.blc
ma imum height and total content.
(3) Tho nature of tho foundations of the dam should be suitable
and should not entail very costly foundation works.
(4) The dispoRition of material required for the work should be
cpnv ni nt and communications to the site good.
(5) The sito should give facilities for the economical and safe
disposal of surpl-u water. . .
, (6) Where the tankis to be fed from an artificial canal , tho'construc.
tion oHhis canal and its head works should not entail great expenditure.
(7) Eoonomical line of canal should be available for distribution
of the stored water.
(8) The bed of the .proposed reservoir should be but slightly permo·
~'ble .
This la.st oondition is specially important when the wat r feeding the
'&ank oa.rries but a Bmall percentage of plastio silt.
As in the case of the site for diversion works the advantages and
disadvantages of eaoh site in respect to tho 'above mu t be car fully
weighed and that site which entails least cost in the construction and
maintenance charges for safe and effective works should be Elelected.,
195. There are in many irrigation systems large numbers of diversion
works and storage works in positions far removed from the heads of.the
systems and which are not classed as or considered as 'head works.' Such
works ar , however, in effect the head works of the canals or channels
which take off from them a.nd, from an engineering point of vi w, their
treatm nt should be the arne as works of a similar nature which are'
aotually clas ed as' head works'.
The design of storage works including earthen and masonry dams and
subsidiary works is d alt with in d tail in subsequ nt chapters.
 CHAPTER VII.
HEAD WORKS.
MASONRY DAMS •
.196. Definition ot n;tasonrr dam and weir.-A masonry da,n is 1\ wall
whICh upholds on one SIde of It (the upstream sid ) a ma s of \Vat r t.o a
certain limit oflevel not grea.ter than that of the top ofth dam.
A masonry weir is a wall which not only upholds water a d 1\ dam
but is designed with a view to water passing over it top and whon t~
ooours there will be water, ~ith surfaces at different J vI, b th on i
upstrea.m a.nd downstrea.m sld s.
Masonry ~tI'uctures over which water passes if of onsiderl\bl h ight
(say 30 foot and upwards), ar generally]' £, IT d to as 'dams', r mol'
particularly a.s ( overflow dams J , and the rigid di tinction in nom nclatur
betwoon dams and weirs such as i. made in tho above definit.ions is not
preserved, but for purposes of examination of oonditions of stability,
the distinotion is neces ary.
Masonry dams are divided into two class s:-
(1) Gravity dams in which tho water pm sur s ar rosi ted by th
weight of the dam only.
(2) Arched dams which are huilt in the form of horizontal ar h s
an!! in whioh the water pressures 0.1'0 rosisted by th rcaction of th
abutments at each end of the arches.
GRAVITY DAMS.
197. Distribution of pressures in a masonry structure.-In tJ) th ory
of stability which relates to the distribution of pressur along tho lin
of any joint of dams and other masonry structuros it is U88'Umea that th
ohange of intensity of pres. lIT'O along any horizontal joint is Uniform, and
this implies tha.t the curve of pI'essure distribution along a joint is a.
straight line. The mean intensity of pressure along 0. joint of unjt width
is the total of the whole pressure dividod by the length of the joint support.
ing it and under the assumptior. ma.de the maximum or minimum intenl:lity
of pressure must beat tho extremities of tho joint. Dnd r such conditions
it can be proved that:-
if SJ = moan stress
and S = maximum or minimum intensity of stress.
thenS = SJ ±~) ..
(1 (9)
where b is the length of the joint, and cis th distan from th ntr
of this length to the centre of pressure, that is to th point wh 1'0 th
resultant pressure outs the joint.
198. From equation (9) the rela.tions between mean and maximum
intensity of pressure on any joint can readily be asoorta.in d if tho position
of the resultant pressUl'e is known.
Applying this to particular cas S : -
(a) If the line of resultant pressure pa.s s through on extl' mity
of the middle third of the base-
In this case c = ! b and the maximum pI' sur is
SI (1 + t) 2
= SI = twice the moon pressur ,
and the minimum pressure is-
SI (1- ~) = nil .
104 mRIGATION

(b) If the line of resultant pn~ssure were in the extreme position of

outting an end of the base, in this case c = ~ and:-
the maximum press~~ is 8 1 (1 + ~) = 4 81 •
the minimum pressure·is 8 1 (1_- ~) = - 2 S,
Here the maximum pressure is 4 times the mean and is developed
at one end of the base, a.nd a negative pros uro, that is, a. tension, having
an intensity of twice the mean pressure, is developed at tho other end of
the base.
(c) If the line of resultant pressure cuts the base somewhere within
the middle third, say, at I of its length from one end of it,
b
then c = 12
the maximum pressure is S, (1 + ~) = 1! Sl
the minimum pressure is S, (1 - ~) = 1 SI
(d) If tho rosultant pressure outs the base in the centre then c c: c
a nd thf) maximum a.nd the minimum stress is equal to 8, t he moon stren.
199. Diagram of distrIbution of pressure In a JOint.-The distribution
of pr saures on the base of a masonry dam resulting from the position
of the centre of pressme can be conveniently shown diagramatica.lly.
If AB in Jigure 15 be the baso' trisected l'lt D and E and bisected
at C, draw semicircles AOE and BOD intersecting at 0 and with radius
!rd the base.
. Tho points of intersection of the resulta.nt pressuros with the basc
which are shown for purposes of illustration 0.1'0 : -
Rl intersects tho base at E one extremity of middle third.
.. R. " M between centre of base and ono extre-
mity o{middle third. .
R~ inter eots the base at centre C.
R, " K outside the middle third.
Join the intersectioils of the I1lsultants and base with 0, and from 0
draw perpendiculars to these lines cutting the base in PI1 P2 , p.. These
points are neutral points, where no pressure, either compressive or
tensile, is developed on the bas. The distribution of stress along those
joints is shown by the shaded areas in the Jigmos 15 (a), (b), (c), (d), the
stress at any point along the base being proportiona.l to the length of the
porpendicular from that point to tho boundary line of tho shaded area.
In each caso the mean stress Sl is the sarno and is that at the centre
of the base.
R , (figure 15.0,) show the ooso typical of th elementary profile
desoribed in paragraph 205 below.
R,. (figure lo-c) shows t ho case whoro pross,!re is uniform throughout
the base.
 HEAD WORKS 105
R_. (figure IS-b) is intermediate between &1 a.nd R. and xhibit8
a maximum stress less than in case R ..

,.....,..

R. (figure U'.d) shows tension at one enT mity of t~ ba ; this is

a oondition which should not be developed in a weH d sIgned dam.
 106 mRIGATION

200. Deduction In respect to distribution of pressure.- ]'ro;m t he

abovo it is clear : - .
(a) That when the centre of pressure pa ses through one extremity
of the middle third of the base, or other horizontal joint of a dam the
stresses vary uniformly from zero at that end of the joint most remote
from · the centre of pre sure to a maximum at the other end which is
equal to twice the mean stress (figure IS.a) . .
(b) That if the centre of pressure is outside the middle third, tension
is exerted for some distance along the end of the joint most remote from
the centre of pressure (figure IS.d). .
(0) That if the centre of pressure falls within the middle third, there
is oompressive stress throughout the joint, which stress is smallest at the
end remote from the centre of pressure and greatest at the other end;
t he nearer the centre of pressure is to the centre of the joint the nearer
the maximum stress is to the mean stress, that is, for the same total
pressure, the smaller is the maximum stress.
It is by de igning so as to induce this condition that :the pressures
developed in high dams are kept within safe limits. '
201. StabUlty oondltlons of a gravity dam.-A masonry dam must be
designed so as to be safe against failure : -
(1) By over.turning.
(2) By rupture from tension.
(3) By sliding.
(4) By orushing.
202. 'Tbe middle tbird ruJe '.-As masonry is unsuitable for with·
standing any considerable tensional strosses, dams should be designed
so that no such stres es are developed. From what has been shown
in pa.ragraphs 198 and 199 a.bove it is clear that, to be Msured of this,
t]le oentre ofpressllre must fall within the middle thi1'd of the base and of
every horizontal joint; tllis constitutes a guiding principle of design of
masonry dams and satisfies oonditions (1) and (2) above and is known
as ' the middle third rule ' .
The most economical condition under which this p1'Ovi8o is fulfilled is
when the line of resultant prossure under the condition of greatest stress
outs the base at one extremity of the middle third. Where this occurs
oondition (4) will be satisfied if the ID&sonry is capable of safely bearing
a compressive stress (8) equal to twico the mean stress (81 ) and subject to
this the shortest base and series of horizontal joints, and therefore the
most eoonomical dam, will be obtained when the centre of pressure under
extreme oondition of stress passes through the extremity of the middle
third of oaoh joint.
This oondition must obtain both with tho ' reservoir full ' when the
maximum water thrust (P) is exerted on t he upstream face of the dam,
and with the ' reservoir empty' when t here will be no wa.ter thrust and
the centre of pressure of any joint will He in a vertical through the centre
of gravity of the par t of the dam a bove that joint.
208. Th minimum profile of masonry wall which, when acted on by
its own weight only, fulfils tho 'middle third ' condition, is a triangle
with eith l' the angl s a.t both extremities of the horizontal base acute
angles or on of the e angles aoute and the other a right anglo. I n t he
latter 080 e the entre of gravity of the masonry passes through one extre.
mity of t he middle third of the base and of ach horizontal j oin~ in the
struoture.
 READ WORKS 10'7
Similarly the minjmum profil whi h fulfil rul
when subjeoted to the pres ure of water with it urfa f th
d&m is a triangle and it can be shown that th miuimunl t,i n of a
dam of impervious masonry whioh fulfils this rut is a right a.n 1
triangle with the water face vertical.
This proposition holds only so long as the weight of th rna onry p r
oubio foot is not less than twice that of water.
The minimum length of base roquil' d for such", prom i cornpu d
below;-
Let b be the length of base required.
Let p be the specific gravity of rna onry \\ith r pe t to water
oonsidered as 'lmity.
Lot R (ngure 16) repro ent thl) lin of resultant pI' ur wbich cut
the base (b) at the downstream extremity of th middl third.
Let P be the total water pressure agr..in t tht, fa of the dl\lu.
Let W be the weight of tb dam resting on the ba
Then referring to figure 16,

Hbp 2W
W = -2- and H = bP
P= t H"
P *
b
W=iH =i Hbp
iHa
Hence b·p = Hi
H
and b = ---= ......•• (10)
'lip .

204. Security against sllding·-As regards liability to liding r.t n joint,

this depends on tbe friction and cohesion between the surfa CR mo ting
in the joint.
The cohesion between mortal' and ston if! con sid arbJ(I but v ry
varying, and this item is neglected in oomputation and r mains aR a factor
of safety aga~t failure at a jojnt by sliding.
. The eo.effioient of friotion (tan a) between dry maRonry surfo. R is
.generally taken. between 0·67 and 0·75 wh r a ropl'Os 'nts t}w Mlgl of
friction; a thus varies between 34° and 37°.
For safety therefore P, the tesultant botw en th horizontal 't hrust
of water above any joint, and W the weight of the dam plu th verti 1
component of wa.ter thrust above the joint, nlust hot be inclin d to th
v rti<lalll.t a greater angle than from 34° to 37°.
Condition (3) therefore entails that the ang] -in figur 16 sha.ll not
exceed 34° to 37° according to the class of masonry .
. Care should be tak~n in building a dam not to have smo th joints,
but to leave at eaoh level an irregula.r urfaco with larg nunt I'}' of
stones projeoting from it 80 as to inorease th resieta.noe of the
joint to sliding and if this is done a gravity dam whioh fulfi the
other conditions of sta.bility will a.lways also fulfil this one• .
J06 IBRIGATIOli

205. 'The elementary proftle '.-It has boon shown that the correot
theoretical eoonomio profile of a masonry da.m is a right angled tria.ngle
with the upstrea.m face vertioal and with a width of ba.se expressed 'by
the equa.tion.
H
b= tv' p (10)
where b = the width of base
H = the height of vertical side of .triangle and
p (rho.) = the speoifio gra.vity of the masonry: ~
This figure is termed by Bligh (Praotical Design of Irrigation WOI'ks)
the ' elementary profile' or 'elementary triangle ' and is moat useful in
affording a rapid means of preliminary examination of the proportions of
any masonry da.m. .
A da.m in the form of tho elementary profile (figure 17) fulfils the
following oonditions:-

The resultant pressure at all times falls within the middle third of tho
base. 'When the reservoir is empty the oentre of pressure of the weight
(W) of the da.m passes through the upstrea.m extremity of the middle
third, and when the reservoir is full, with water at level of the apex of
the triangle, the resultant of the oombined forces of the water pressure
(P) and the weight of masonry (W) passes through the downstrea.m
extremity of the middle third. The profile is thus the most eoonomical
whioh fulfils oonditions (1) and (2). It also normally falls within the
limits of oonditions (3).
206. Weight and speolftc gravity of masonry.-Masonry da.ms or
weirs usually built of stone masonry or stone concrete.
Modern concrete da.ros are frequently built with larg numbel'"s of
very heavy stones bedded in the ooncrete, whioh ha the ffect of raising
the sp6cifio gravity of tho oonorete~
 BEAD WOlmB I 9

The specific gra~vity is the ~veight of the material ompa d with

that of wa.ter consIder d as Ulllty. If the weight of water per cubi
- foot is distinguished by the letter' w '.
'" = 62! lbs.
= .1..6 of a ton approximatf~ly.

/ "".Ia.

The weight of masonry. per cubio foot is thereforo "'p. Tho lip ifio
gravity ofatone masonry dams may generally be taken at 2t whkh ill i\
of a ton (140 lb.) per oubio foot. Good briok work may he takon as of
speoifio gravity 2 whioh is about ,1., of a tOll (124} lb. per cubic foot).
207. Maximum stress due to resultant pressure.-Referring to th
elementary profile figure 18, it will be seen that (R) the resultant pr 88Ul ,
reservoir full, is in a direction oblique to the base a.nd that a moan inten.
sity of pressure greater than that at right angles to the ba.se could
developed along a series of indentations along th base of which th on
face of the indentation is at right angles to the direction of Rand th
other, whioh would not expose any surface to pressure, pal'all I to R.
The aggregate length of base thus exposed to pr(lS8ur would be qual
to the line A C = hi = h cos 0,
Where 0 is the angle the resultant R makes with tho vertical .
Thus the mean intensity of pressure in a direction at right ang
to that of the resultant pressure l'eserv ir full is
R R
booe8 -;;; •• .. lIt
110 llUUGAT10N

If R' = R Sec 8 the above equation may be eXpressed in the form

~ = R Sb 0 8 = ~1 • • • • • • • • • • (12)
but R = WI Sec e and therefore the last equation may also be written
as R' = W I Sec e Q
(13)
where WI is the vertical component of all forccs 'reservoir full, ' that is,
the weight (W) of the masonry plu8 the vertical c<?~ponent of water
pressure on the facc of the dam ; when the face is vertical W = WI'
208. It is generally convenient, when representing these forces
graphically to plot from the expression in the form of equation (12),
that is, instead of plotting the resultant force as R and the base as
b cos e to represent the resultant as R Sec eand the base as b. -
Plotted either way the same result will 1:e given. a~ regal'ds mean
and maximum pressure which can be developed. Both forms of plot-
ting a.re shown in figures 18 (b) and (0).
209. Equations giving relatIons between pressures and stresses.-
From the form of the elementary profile (figure 17) we can derive the
following relations :-
Haw W
:r> = "'2 = Vp -
H H'w-vp
W =! H X ~. /
p
- X wp = - -
2
(14)

RI = pi + W l = (H;W) 2 ( 1 + p)
H 2w - - I 1+ p
(15)
... R : 'T VI + p = WV - p-
R' = RSoo e= w(l ~ P) = W (I + ;) (16)
So = maximum pressure on base ' reservoir empty'.
2 W·~ H 2w . I - X ' 1-
= ,- = b
~p ~p Hwe
H .' •
(17)
Sf = maximum pressure on base 'reservoir full'. .,
. H2WV-'-- ' .. .
• b
.2& '
008 9 = _!!_
I+'p
X
~i::-
.1- = Hw
(I + P) . (18)
VP ~ P

Cos e= ~=
H2 WV -
p =
v- p .. (19)
R H l wv;;+I v~+r

210. UnIt for computation of presssur8S in force dlagrams.-It will Be

seen that in figur 17 the area. of the triangle of base H represents the
water pressure in units of cubio foot of water 'OOch of weight ~ .
imilarly the weight of the masonry is the area. of the e1emen~ry
tria.ngle in units of oubio feet of masonry ea.ch of weight ~p.
If the base of the wa.ter pr sure tl'iangle were plotted in' the same
pressure units (viz., 1 oubio foot of masonry~ as the profile of the dam
represents, then the base ofthis triangle would be ¥ instead of H,' and
P
the triangle area. would l' pre ent water pressure in units ea.ch equal to
weight of 1 o.ft. 'o f masonry ; the same applies to the profile of the dam.
 lJEAD WORKS 11
This nreth~ of plotting all pre 'ur s Oll a ba' of lmily gltal 1 c./t.
of masonry IS adopted for convenience in all diagrams, and ho th
forces P and Ware to each other 80 . the area repr nting W3 t r 1)1 Ul e
and area profile of masonry respectively.
In ca es where the heights of the e are th sam th 1\1 V r
the mean width and members of force diagram can in su h 00.
directly plotted from the width of the masonry and pr ' ur profil .
To reduce to tons the results in force diagmm plotted to suoh unit
the lengths I?~st be multiplied by the weight of 1 o.ft. of ma nry =
Wll = _!_ tons.
r . 8.
1ft cases where heights of profiJe have b n liminat d as c mm ll,
the results must also be multipJied by the eleminated h ight to arrh'
at the pressures in tons.
Thus in figure 18 the water proesw'O at A i pI tted as l! and
in the diagram of forces figure I8·a, the water pressUle P is p{ t d
a.s equal to AD and the vertical force W as equa.l to AB.
Thus lengths taken directly from th profile aJ al)pli d to th n.
struction of the diagram of forces.
211. stresses worked out in tons per square foot.-If it is requi d
in this case to give the results in tons, the results in th lin I seal Dlust
be multiplied by t H wp, the common height of th area.s bing H.
The reason for the t is that the forces have, for conveni n ,b n
represented as the bases of tho triangular figUTOS, whereas th ar LS of ('h
triangles are equ!l'l to half the bases multiplied by th ir h jght~.
As an example, definite dimensions will now b appli d t th prolll
figure 18 ..
Let H = 99 feet and let p = 2!, thon ";p = t
and A B = b = 66 feet; i H wp = 3 l.·
. A soale is a.ttaohed to the figure on this basis. oa)ulg from tho
diagram of forces-
R = 79 feet and 79 X 3.-\ = 244 tons.
RI = 95 feet and 95 X 3 iM = 294 tons.
RI It
bl = 55 feet, therefore b' = H = 1'44 also iii = a
= 1'44.
1'44 X 3h = 4'45 tons.
In alternative by ' applying the formulm from para.graph 2 9
above.
H'w
From formula (15) R = Tifit. = 136 X 1'8 = 245 tons.
";p+l .1 -
From formula (16) R1 = R seo (J = R ";p = ",l/R = 294 too .

bl = b cos (J = 66 ~ ,.; p ="; ,I.. X 66 = 55 feet.

p+ 1
In plotting the diagrams of distribution of pI' ur figu 1.0
a.nd c the m n prossnr S a.r on a. SMI ten tim 8 that of fign 18.a.
The maximum stress measur d from th diagrams is 2'9 {; t j,e.,
2'9 X 3 .... = 9 Tons.
 112 mRlGAt.rION

212. Pressurea In an elementary proftle of speeUlo granty 21.-

It will be oonvenient now to tabulate the values in tons wOiked out
from the equations of pa.ragraph 209 for masonry of a speoifio gravity
of 21 (p = 21) whioh is usua.lly the approximate weight of stone
ma.sonry in a dam-

Numborof BedUQ!d to·

Equation. tonawl~
equation.
p=2t.
( 1(,)
- H2W.v-
Weight of elementary profile W = - 2 - P
H'
. 48
/l+p H'
(15) Resultant pressure reservoir full R = W V -p- .. 1·2W=,O
H
(17) Ma.ximum unit stroBBreservoir empty H wp
16
reservoir full H to (p:+ 1) •• H
(1 St
" 11'1

213. Limit of depth of elementary proftle.-If the maximum safe

uuit stress on the masonry is determined from equation 18 one can
oompute the limit of height Ht.. of a dam designed on the basis of the
elementary profile.
If the Greek letter lambda ().) is this streBB then
). = H,tw (p +
1)
. ,t
000 H,t tho limit height = to (p + 1)
Whero 'Y is tons pOI' square foot
a.nd p is 21
H). = 11 ·1). .. (20)
Tho limit of stross allowablo in stone masonry dams depends on the
na.turo of tho maool'iu.l used and varies from abou~ (; up to 16 tons per
sqUt~re foot involving a. ra.nge of height from 661- to 177 i feet. The
tendonoy of late years especially in America is towards llollowing
higher St.fOSS.
214. ' HIgh ' and ' low' dams.-Where it is required to build
a. gravity dam to hold up water to a depth greater than what the limit
of unit stress would permit when determined on the lines indicated by
the elementary profile, the part of the dam b low the limit depth must
be designod so that tho 0 ntl'es of pressures reservoir full and empty
hall fa.ll nom'or to tho centI' of the base than the extremities of the
middle third; the nearer these are to the centre of the base the nearer
the maximum streBB approaohes to the mean stress. This is olearly
illustra.ted in paragraph 199 above.
Such dams aye freq,uol'\tly referred to e.s 'high' dams in contra.-
distinction to ' low' dams in which the limitations of allowable stress
on ma.sonry do not t\ffoot the design,
For 'low dams' , th basis of design should be that of the 'elementary
profile', the aim bing throughout each seotion of the dam 80 far as is
pl'aot,iroble to k p tho line of re istance reservoir full Or empty, within
tho middle thir~ of each horizontal joint and as olose as possible to thf
extremities of ~uter boundaries of_this zone.
 llEAD WOtms 114
2t5~ Crest, width o~ ,a masonry dam.-In aotual pra tioo it i of
'oourse Imposslble. to ngl(l1~ adhere to the el montary profil as a dam
must have a certam cr st WIdth, whil also it r quir s some' fr -board'
above the maximum water level.
The crest width (a) of a dam is fixed from considerations of th
special requirements of each case such as the nature of traffic if any
required to pass over the top of the dam, tho nn.turo of tho crest ~utters'
if any, and the spa.ce required for them, etc. •
Bligh suggests the following empirical rela.tion between H nnd a
whioh is generaJIy suitable :-
a=,yH .. ... (21)

216. Free-board of a dam.-The 'frco-board' of a dam, toot is,

the height of the crest abovo water level is genorally fixed from considera-
tion of the height of the waves likely to be raised at the dam site and
this depends on the 'fetch', that is, the longest straight length from
the dam face of water surface exposed to wind.
Stephenson's rule for finding the hight (h feet) of wave with a C fetoh '
of F miles is given in the equation
4
h = 2·5 + 1·5 ,y F - ,yl!" .. (22)

Generally the top of a dam would be raised above M.W.L. to a. height

somewhat greater than h and tho frce-hoard would seldom be less than
4 feet.
Tho water level for purposes of stability should be taken eithcr (1)
a.s the top oithe wave that is to h feot above M.W.L., or (2) as the lovol
of t.he crest of the da.m.
217. Prome for a 'low ' dam.-The necessity for having a erest
of a certain width and height above water level alters tho position of
the lines of resultant pressure from those of the elementary profile
bringing that with tho reservoir full (R) fUl"thcr towards th" centre of
the base, and thus increasing stability, but throwing that with reservoir
empty (W) a little outside the middle third.
The adjustment required to rectify this is to gi'Vo a slight proj ction
outside the elementary profile to the lower part of the upstream face.
The adjustment required is worked out by Tudsbory and Brightmore
(Prinoiples of Water Works Engineering) and tho resulting profile is
shown in figure 19 in whioh the parts of the adjusted profile lying outside
the elementary triangle are shaded.
The adjustment required to the up-stream face to bala.nce the top
thickness is only 1/16 of tho latter and in many _cases may be omitted
80S unnecessa.ry.
114: mBIGATlON

When such balancing masonry up-stream of th3 vertical face of the

elementary profile is introduced, it is fnquently given as a slight and
continuous batter starling either from the top of the dam or from some
point below water level.

FIG.t,.
Eo .... - .a. ff e IS..-t-
OF. 2.0. fi' .. ·..sO ~~.
o~ • a·1 (I..fit ... 4e~;f.!'l'
,
"A eGa' ... u.6 =' 0',:6
' .'
",.

... ~o FEE".·
!'-
I
I

rt
.11
1'6
I - ~
.I
I

;
I

I
I

I
I . , __
.~ .~ ~ ____ b,."
c 7 __
________~~~~ "'~
4 ~____
- -- -.
~ - __
- ~
- .
e;, .,~ A B

.... 10 ~
.. c an FJ.:
~IGi ~ i9 la.)

FIG,19(~1
 HEAD WORKS 115

,218. All ~he informat~on me ssa.ry for th d ign of th pl'ofil of

a low dam of the grl), Vlty typ has now b en gi on.
'r he profile (figure 19) clea.rly di plays th typ and th div rg n
frOID the elementary profile required on aocount of th cr ·t width and
~his profil.e eonsti~utes a suitable d~si~n for a low dam wher th masonry
IS of speCIfic graVIty 2i, and the hmlt of sa£' compr ssiv tr s not 1
than 10 tons a square foot.
If this is the limit t,he dam as shown is the maximum h ight which
comes in the category of 'low dam.'
In case~ of dams which need not be caleulat d for stability with
water as high as the crest level, the baso width down·str m of th
vertical from the wa.ter fa.ce at water level would be as b foro ::- whor
H is the depth of water and thus would be slightly less that that in
figuro 19. In consequence of this the up·stream proj ction of tho fae
to counterbalance the weight of the top would have to be slightly
inoreased to get the best theoretical profilo. This may b dOD by
making a trial profile and testing this for sta bility by computation or
by a diagram in the manner subsequently d scl'ib d for a ' high·dA.m.'

HIGH MASONRY DAM S.

219. Design of a ' high ' dam.-The design of a 'high' dam is
8 much mOre complox process tha.11 that of a ' low' dam and th distri-
bution of material in tho profile while following the same TU] ·s as th s
nocessary for low dams is governed by limitati 11S in 1'0 p ct to
maximum stresses in l11P,SODrY. In addition to this it is most undosirablo
to inorease the width of base in the lowest laYbJ's of a dam pl' filo by flat
slopes as this weakons tho t e 01' hool of the dam. It if:! not desira.blo
to have any slope fla.tter than 1 to 1 on eithcr face.
Such limitation introduces new fa ctors, and in practico in dosigning
a high dam aftor arriving by calculation at a theoretica,l profile on-
forming with tho standard 1'ulos, it if:! u8ur.l to fix 0. final PI' filo whioh
is a practioa.l modification of the former a.nd to test this PI' file £ l'stability
and stross limit by calcula.tion and str~ss diagrams. In th following
paragraphs is desoribed a method of computation for arriving at the
theoretica.l profile a.nd methods of testing the d l'iv d practical profLIe
both by a.rithmetical oomputa.tion and by diagram are all:lo giv n.
In important Cl'.ses both methods may Le omploy d as oach forms
a chock on tho other .
220. Formulm applicable to design of 'high' dams.-Tho following
method of designing the theoretical profilo of 11 'high' dnm blow th
limit depth of water suitable for a ']ow' dam is due to Messrs. 'l'udsb ry
and Brightmore (" Principles of Water Works Engineering "). Th
design of the dam from water surfaco to the low dam limit is assumed
to be that shown in figure 19, the form of which is a.lso du to the same
authors.
The method depends on the following propositions :-
I f U is the distance of the contro of pr ssuro from that nd of the
horizonta.l base at which the stress is greatest, then from quation (9)-
(paragraph 197 above) the following can be deduc d:-
U = ~(2 .!...)
- 2S • (A)
3 j
116 IttRIGATtON

Lot '" = the Bmit stress in masonry in tons per square foot.
H = the depth of wa ter.
tD = the weight of water pe( cubic foot in tons.
W = the vertical force due to weight of masonry and of any water
Jying over any sloping section of the up-stream face.
b = the width of the base.
Then from the above equation (A) the following relation can be
derived (the proof of this is given in "Water Works Engineering ").
W~H')
b= V. /WHB (
-X- 1 + 4 WZ . . • . . . . • (B)
If W be known even approximately the value of b which will keep
maximum stress within the limit'" can bo deduced with closo accuracy.
Having found the length of b from equation (B) it ha.s to be ascer·
tained how it is to be placed under the masonry dam, that is, how much
(x) of its length is to project up-stream of the vortical from the UP·stloom
edge of the orest of the dam.
Referring to figure 19-a if 0 1 is'the point whore W acts on this base
the length of whioh is termed bl then the conditions requile that 0 1
b,
shall not be oloser to the up-stream faoe than 3'

The base bl should be so pll:~cod that 0 is Oat a distance

1
b; from its
up-stream extremity.
If moments bo taken round 0 1 of tho vertical forcos on either side
of it the sum of such moments must equal zero.
From this tho follOwing equa.tion is derived :-
P;l{ 3 boo - hi' +6 XI (6 0 + hi) + 2 bo b l }

-
wX I
12 (
H +H ) I (2 bl - 3 xJ - .
Wo
(b- 3bo -
l -
Xl
)
= 0 (0)
where ..
HI = depth of water at base, bl = H dl • +
dl = vertical depth of new strip added below tho base boo
XI = the projeotion of the end of the base b abovo base bo, that is j

up-stream of A' .
Thus referring to figure 19-a and the known base AIB of tho low
dam, the value of Wo is tho resultant vertical pressure due to W the
weight of maRonry plU8 the vertical component of water pressure and
this is known.
To find the longth bl of the base at a depth d l below AIB (the base
of the low dam) the va.lue WJ can be approximately ascertained by
continuing the profile With the samo side slopes for a vertical distance dl
below the base AlB and computing the additional weight.
The method of procedure is demonstrated in the following example:-
221. Example 01 deSign 01 a 'hIgh' dam.-As an example, a case of
design is taken from " Water Works Engineoring" and suitable actual
dimensions assigned to the low drun-figure 19 and lower layers will be
 REA.D WORKS 117
designed to a depth of 150 feot below tho or t level whi h it is assumed
is also maximum water level. " ,
The top width a = 10 feet.
p = 21 and limiting pressure A = 10 tons.
The limit depth of the low dam is 11·1 A = 111 feet.
III 10
Also AIB = bo = -v- +16 = 74·6 foot.
P
It is required to design the lower portions of tho dam down to 150 {; t
below water level.
To do this the vertica.l space from 111 foot to 150 f; twill bo divided
into four horizontallaminro, numbers I, 2, 3 and 4 or bases of 1 ngth
bl> b2 , h8' b, at levels below water,
H\ = 120 foet.
H2= 130 "
Hs = 140 "
H, = 150 "
Correspondingly will be denoted tho vertical depths d l , ~, d s , d. of ·
eaoh lamina and the projeotion of each baso up-stream of tho ono above
it XI> X 2 , X~, X~ and the vertica.l oomponent of weight of masonry and
water above eaoh base WI> W2 , W., W...
First Lamina-
Wo = 265 tons, H = III feet. bo = 74·6, x = 0·6 foot. Approxi-
mate weight of lr.mina produced from III to 120 feet bolow wat()r in
tons.
120
= 9 X 7~'6(I + ill)
= 44 tons.
2 X 16
Then as a first approximation WI = 265 + 4.4 = 309 tons.
Substituting values in equation (B) .
. /(120)3 (120)' )
bl = V 36 X 10(1 +4 X (309 2 X (36ji = 82'5 feet.
Next stop is to find Xl from equa.tion (C).
_ 9_
16x 24
[3 X (74'6)2 - (82'5)2 + 6X 157'1 X XI +2 X 74'6 X 82'5J

-36~112 [231 (165 - 3x) - 265(';9 - Xl )] =0

.'. 1'6x12 + 199 XI - 177 = 0
. _ -199 +,.; 39,601 + 1113 ~ = 0'9 foot
•• Xl - 3'2 3'2 .
From the approximate values of hI and XI thus found ma.ke a seco~d
ca.loulation of the weight of the la.mina plu8 that of the water on Its
+
up-stream face (viz., 44·2 2·8) a.nd WI will be found to be 265 47 = +
312 tons.
Substitution of this value in equation (B) gives a revised valu
bl = 82·3.
The difference is too sma.ll to affoot the value of XI which thus remains
0·9 foot.
118 IRRIGATION

The results a.re therefore-

WI = 312 tons, bl = 82·3, XI = 0·9 foot.
X = Xo+ XI = 0·6 +
0·9 = 1·5 feet.
Second Lamina-
H~ = 130 feet.
The weight of the lamina produced from profile above (first approxi.
mation) plu8 overlying column of water
=~~{ 82'3 + -i (82'3- 74'6)} + I;OX+i31: 0 X 1'0 = 58 tons.
19
Wi (first a.pproximation) = 312 + 58 = 370 tons.
Applying this to equation (B)
~~~------~~~---
t b ~2 5 £, t
wage 2 = V / (130)8
360
(
1+ 5184 (130)" )
X (370) 1 = . ee.
Applying this value of ba to equation (C)
we get X 2 = 1·4 feet.
From these first approximations of b2 and Xs recompute weight of
second lamina plu8 water.
+
Wa = 312 59 = 371 tons.
Recalculation of equation (B) with this value of Wa gives.
ba = 92·4 feet.
The va.lues at base of second lamina are thereforo
Wa = 371 tons, 62 = 92 ·4. x. = 1·4
+ +
oOo x = ·6 ·9 1·4 = 2·9.
Third Lamina-
Ws = 371+ 67 = 438 tons.
bs = 102·8 fcet.
Xs = 1'4.
The a.bove are a first approximation.
The assumed values from prolonging the slopes of the trapezrid
above are so nearly correct that no second approximation need be worked.
For third lamina the base dimensions are
Ws = 438 tons bs = 102·8 ~ = 1·4 feet-.
X = 2·9+ 1·4 = 4'3 feet.
Fourth Lamina-
Similarly the fourth larnirul. gives
W. = 513 tons b~ = 113' 3 foot.
+
x, = 1·4 feet, X = 4·3 1·4 = 5-7 foot.
The lower laminoo fulfil the following conditions for ' reservoir
full' :-
(a) Weight of masonry plus water lying on up-stream fa.ce 'reser-
voir full' acts at the up-stream extremity of the centre third.
(b) Maximum stress is limited to 10 tons per square foot.
It does not, however, necessarily follow that the ma.ximum stress
f reservoir empty' might not exceed 10 tons and this will be examined

by the method of moments in paragraph 226 below. .

222. Practical profile based on the theoretical proftle.-From the
profile of the laminro as drawn figure 19-b it will be seen that the sides
of the tra.pezoids have slightly different slopes and that in drawing
a practical seotion the profile would be simplified so as to have as few
ohanges of slope as eoonomica.lly possible.
 lIEA.D WORKS 119

For the dam in the above example, the pra.otical construotional prome
may be as in figure 20.
IUI'S

"'G. 20 .

The practioa.I profile must now be

examined to soo if it fulfils the required
conditions, viz.-
(1) Lines .of resistance within the
middle third.
(2) Maximum stress of ma.sonry not
to excood 10 tons per square foot.

223. Essential divisions of a Joint of a clam.-Beforo proceeding

further the distribution of the different essentia.l parts of eaoh horizontal
joint in a dam will be examined :-

.. '9 .... ' •

'"

L-

If • b' be the length of the horizontal joint under exa.mination

(figure 21) this may be divided into three parts by the centres of pressuro
reservoir full such that b = n' + +
v u.
Let H be the depth of water above the joint.
" M be the moment.
u P be the total horizontal water thrust above tho joint, and
u W' be the weight of the dam plus weight of water on the slope
(if any) of the up-stream face.
Take moments round the intersection of R with the base-
iPH=M= W''/)
M
.'. v = W' • • • . • • • • • • • • • • (D)
b=n'+v+u
... u = b - (n' + v).
224. Formula for stress In the Joint of a dam.-Aga.in if the oontro of
pressure is within the middle third of the ba.se a.nd distant 'u' from the
end of maximum stross. .
 mBIGATION

We havo from equation (9), paragra.ph 197 above.

. S:;::: 81
(1+1)60) ",'" (9)

also () = (~' - u)
W'
and SI= -b-
Substituting in (9) for () and 81
then the maximum stre~s S = W'(
b 1 + 3b -b 6u)
8= 2':' (2 _. ~u) . . . . . . . (E)
This stress is the maximum vertical stress on tho horizontal base,
but if the resultant-R is inclinod at an angle eto the vertical the rosulting
maximum stress 8 1 (as already explained in paragraph 207 above)
becomes
- b- ( 2 - 3U) ' () . . • • (F),
I

8, = S seo e = 2W b sec
225. Method of moments for testing' stabUity.-The test of the
practical profile referred to in pa.ragrl\ph 222 above will ~ow be undor-
taken by the method of moments. The method can be applied to weirs,
regulators a.nd other structures as woll as to dams. . .
Divide the da.m up into a suitable number of honzo.tltallammm.
Consider ono of these as in figure 22.
1,,)(1 a. Take moments round
a vertical axis any
convenient distance
from tho up-stream face.
It is assumed that
the weight (W) and its
_~~~J' ~~ __ ______ ____ __
~I ~ moment a bout the axis
~

k·_ -n~-*~--" -- . .-j+ - - "tt----+l , reservoir empty' is

I I
I known from the work.
II
- ( J . - ..... _ . , , _ _~

f+ - - - - - - -"b - - - - - - - ~-Tj ing . out of the upper

lam~1/.ce.
The weights of the parts A, B,C and their individuaLmoments about
the axis can be oomputed.
Reservoirempty.-The sum of the moments ofW, A, B, a.nd C round
tho axis gives th~ moment of the whole weight (W) on the base b about
the same axis .and this moment divided by W will give the length (a n) +
of1ihe lever arm' reservoir empty.'
Thus n (reservoir empty) beoomes known.
Reservoir Jull.-If the up-stream face Of the clam from the water
surfaoe down to the jOint is vertical, the weight (WI) 'roservoir full'
will ~e the same as 'reservoir empty' (W). If, howo.vor, the up-strea.m
fa.ce 18 sloped,separote moments must Be taken for the condition (reser-
voir full' and the values found of-
n' reservoir full as well as of
n reservoir empty.
From equation (D), paragtaph 223 above .
M
v = Wi . . . . . . . . . . " .. (D)
 BEAD WORKS 121

From this 1£ will be found by equation .

. b =n'+ v+u .
.... 1£ = b - (n'+v) . . . • . . . . . (0)
226. Exam))le of test by the method of moments.- The praoti I
profile, figure 20 of paragraph 222 above, will now be tested throughout
the whole height of the dam for 'middle third' and limit of tre
(10 tons per square foot) by taking moments round an a.xis 10 fi t ,
from the. vertical up-stream face of the dam. In this oxample the unit
of weight and pressure is taken 6 S the weight of one cubio foot of
masonry. The dam will be divided into la minre above ba 8 a t ) v Is
below water surfaoe 30, 60, 90, 110, 150 foot.
(I) Seotion to 30 feet below water surfaoe (b = 20 foot).
, Reservoir empty and full. Wights. L vor arm. Mom&nt.
Rectangular portion a.bove level 30 300 15 4,500
Tria.ngula.r portion above level 30 75 23 ·33 1,750
Total 375 6,250
, 6250
n = n = 375 - 10 = 1~.66 - 10 = 6·66.
9 30 x 30 X 30
Moment of water thrust 4" X 2 X 3 = 2,000.
M 2000 1
v= W = 375 = 5·33. 3' b = 6 ·66
n :..::: n' = 6·66 ft.
v = 5·33 ft.

Total . . 11 ·90 ft.

b = 20 ·00

,,-= 8·01 ft.

(2) Section to 60 feet below wator (b = 40 foot).
Reservoir empty and full. Weights. Lever arm. Moment.
Portion of dam a.bove level 30 375 6,250
Rectangular portion between levels 600 20 ]2,000
30 and 60.
Triangular pOrtion betwoen levels 300 36 ·66 10,998
30 and 60.
. Total •. 1,275 29,248

, 29248
n = n = - - - 10 = 22'9 - 10 = 12·9.
1275
2 X 60 X 60 x 60
Moment of water thrust = 27 = 16,000
16000
v = - - = 12·55
1275
~ b = 13·33
n = n 1 = 12·9
v = 12·55
25·45
b = 4{)·OO
1£ = 14·55
122 mRIGATION

(3) Seotio to 90 feet below water level (b = 60 feet).

B!l88rvoir empty and full. Weights. Lever ann. Moment.
Portion of dam a.bove level 60 1,275 29,249
Reotangular portion between levels 1,200 30 36,000
60 and 90.
Triangular portion between levels 300 56·66 16,998
60 and 90.
Total •• 82,246

n = n, =
82246
- - - 10 = 29·6 - 10 = 19·6
2775 ,
2x90X90X90
Moment of water thrust = 27 = 54,000
54000 1
v= -
~~
- = 19·46 -3 b -- 20
n = n' = 19·6
v = 19·46
39·06
b = 60·00
'U = 20·94

(4) Seotion to 110 feet below water level (b = 75·3 feet).

Reservoir empty. Weights. Lever arm. Mom.ent ..
Portion of dam above level 90 2,775 .. 82,246
Da.m between levels 90 and 110.
Tria ngular portion up-stream of 20 9·33 186·6
vertioa.l faoe.
Reotangula.r portion down-stream 1,200 40 48,000
Triangular portion down-stream 133 74·44 9,900·5
Total 4,128 140,333·1
n = 140333 - 8 = 34 - 8 = 26
-
4128
Reservoir full. Weights. Lever a.rm. Mom9nt.
Reservoir empty as above 4,128 140,333
Whole water on slant up-stream face. 88 8·9 783
Total ..
4,216 141,1l6
, 141116
n = - - - 8 = 33·5 - 8 = 25·5
4216
2 X llO X llO X llO
Moment of water thrust =
27 = 98,592
V = 98592 = 23.4
4216
aI b =25.1
n' = 25·5
v 23·4
=
48·9
b = 75·3
u = 26·4
 HEA.D WORKS 123

(5) Seotion to 150 feet below water level (b = 113·3 foot).

Reservoir empty. Weighta. Lev rarm. 'Mom nt.
P6rtion of dam above level 110 4,128 140,331
Triangular portion up-stream of verti. 80 6·66 532
0801 face between levels 110 and 150.
Rectangular portion down·stream 3,012 45·6 ] 39,147
Triangular portion 680 94·6 64,32
Total 7,900 344,33
344338 .
n= - - - 4= 43·6 -·4=39·6
7900
Reservoir full. Weights. Lover rum. Moment.
Weight of dam and water on th slant 4,216 141,116
face above level 110.
Masonry only between levels 110 and 3,772 204,007
150.
Water on slant face botwoen lovels 231 5·95 1,374
110 and 150.
Tota I .. ,210 346,4.97
n' = 346497 _ 4 = 42 ·2 - 4 = 38·2
8219
Moment ofwa.ter thrust = 2 X 150 ~/50 X 150 = 250,000
250000
CI = 8219 = 30·4.
..!.b = 37·7
3
n' 38·2
v = 30·4
68 ·6
b = 113·3
u = 44·7

Maximum 8tres8 on ma80nry in tons.

Reservoir empty-vide equation (E):
2 X 7900 ( 3 X 39'6) 7900
Ma~mum stress = 16 X 113.3 2 - 1I3.3 =9(56:4 X 0·95
7505 .
= 906 .4 = 8·3 tons.
Res3rvoir full.
2 X 8219 ( 3 X 44·7 )
Maximum vertical stress = 16 X 1I3.3 2 - 113.3
= ~ X ·82 = 6739~6 = 7·4 tons.
906·4 906 ·
Wa.ter thrust 150 X 150 X 4
tan 9 = Weight Reservoir full - 2 X 9 X 8219 = 0·609
9 = 31°20', Sec 9 = 1·17, Sec 29 = 1·36
Maximum stress = WI = 7·4, Seo 29 = 10·06 tons.
The actual vertical pressures reservoir empty (W) and reservoir
7900 8219 .
full (WI) are 16 = 493 tons and 16 ::;:: 518 tons showmg that tho
 124 mRIGA'aON

weight of water resting on the up-stream sloping face when the reservoir
is full is 20 tons.
227. Graphical construction for pressure on up-stream sloping face.-
Before making a graphioal representation of the distribution of centres
of pressure and stresses in a 'high dam' a method will bo described of
delineating graphically tho waMr pressures on the up-stream faces of
dams which are inolined a t an angle to the vertical.
Let the up-stream fMe ECB of the dam profile ADECB (figure 23)
be vertical for a depth EC .:..... HI from the water surface which is level
with the top of the dam and at a slope for the rest of the total depth
(H). Draw BB" at right angles to CB, the sloping portion of the face
and equal to ~p. Produce BC to meet the water-jevel
• in F and join B'F.
As BB' represents the water pressure a.t B the triangle FBB' represents
what the total pressure on the face of the dam would be if the whole
faoe were sloping up to water surface (like FB) and each perpendicular
to any point in the face such as CC' gives the pressure at that point.
Therefore the area ofthe trapezoid CB ' represents Pz the total water
pressure on CB which is applied in a. direction perpendicula.r to CB
through tho centre of gravity of tho trapezoid.

.~~ ·~I.:I

Through B' draw B'P parallel to CB and join FP.

Through C draw CK horizontal. The area of the triangle FBP is
equal to that of the triangle FBB''being on the same base and between
the same parallels and the area of the trapezoid CKPB bears the same
proportion to the triangle FBP as the trapezoid CB' bears to th,e triangle
FBB'. Therefore the areas of the trapezoids CC' B'B and C~B are
equal to eaoh other and to the water pressure on CB. The latter area.
equals the mean width in a horizontal direction multiplied by the vertica.l
height.
The direction of the pressure is at right angles to the face and the
centre of pressure is the point at which a horizontal through the centro
of gravity of the trapezium CKPB cuts the face. Make CN equal to ~l
join EN. The pressure (PI) on the vertical part of the face EC is repre-
sented by the area. of the triangle ECN and acts horizontally at 1/3 EC
above C.
If the water face was AD instead of ECB the water pressure (Ps)
would be represented by either of the equal triangles DAX or DAT
applied at 1/3 of AD from A and at right angles to the face AD.
228. Stablllty diagram or a dam.-The practical profile in figure 20
will be taken as a concrete example for examination of stability and
 ltEAD WORKS 125
stress intensity of a dam by graphical methods. Th pro duro is a
follows ;-
Draw to a suitable scale the dam profil DEE'FBA (figur 24).
From A draw AA' at right angles to AC and mako AA' qual to
!~ \ ' ,
e "

TO"O.
II ~ :!Ii~ ... M =697.5
, 16
2'10 ", 3 0 TO"".
" ; --Ie- ;506·1.
II 697. & 'r0 ....
,; : ~a- :: ".16'
-\ .!i : 4.46 ,.ON S.
" ~&3 It 30 'rON, .
w" ---"16"- " 4&9
.'!! - 48e t: 4,3 TON"
b - IIS ·S

FIG. 2. 4.

S
.1
I
I
126 mRIG.ATION

PH= (49 x 150) = 66·66 feet. Draw A'J parallel to CA. Produce AC
.
to meet the water line a.t K; join JK and A'K. Draw CM and CC'
parallel respectively to AJ and AA' to meet JK and A'K in M and 0'
respectively. From CM cut off CS = ~ = 40 and join SD. The area.
of tho triangle DSC gives the water pressure on DC and that of the
trapezoid MCAJ the water pressure on CA.
Divide (H) the whole depth of the dam into 5 laminm of equal depth
by horizontal base lines distant ~ = 30 feet apart. The weights, centres
of pressure and stresses on these base lines are to be delineated by graphic
statios.
From what has already been stated it willbecloar that the press res
PI> Pz, Pa, Pi) p., on the up-stream faces of the laminm are proportionate
to the moon horizontal widths of the shaded pressure triangles or tra pe-
zoids opposite to them and will act at right angles to the face ofthe dam
through the centres of pressure which are the pOints of inter-section of
horizontals through the centres of gravity of the shaded pressure areas
and the face of the dam.
Similarly the weight Wu W2 , Ws , W., W. of each lamina may
bE represented by half the mean horizontal widths of the laminm of the
H
profil ea.ch of height 1> while tho prossures due to the weights of each
of the la.minm will aot 'Vertically through their centres of gravity in the
vertical lines gu g2' gs, g., gb'
A diagram of foroes (figure 24-a) may now be constructed by drawing
a vertical line from any convenient point a along which thc mp.an widths
ab u blo u oldu dle u el/ u of sucoessive laminm oftbe dam are set off.
Aga.in from the point a in a horizontal direotion set off tho mean
widths aDa, 0202 , c2d2 , of the aroas of figures representing PI' P,. and
Pa• From the extremity (d2 ) of this line, draw alino dd 2 parallel to the
direction of p. and p. and set off along it d3 ea and ed a the moan widths
of the areas representing these water prossures.
Draw Rl> R2 • R 8 , Ru R6 which represent the resultant prel:lsuros
of the masonry weights and water pll'ssures of the each laminr. .
Draw the four dotted cross lines bl c~ , 01 dr, d l e2> eI 2./ ~ ' joining the
lower end of one resultant with the upper end of the next.
Take any convenient point 0 as a. pole and draw the converging mys
from 0 to each of the di'Visions of the vertical line a / I'
Take any convenient point' q,' figure 24-b, in the verticr,} gl whioh
passes through the centre of gra vity of tho uppermost lami.na. of the dam
and produoe the vertioals (It> gs, g., which pass through the centres' of
gravity of the other laminm.
(1) Through C q' draw qa and qb parallel to the ra.ys oa l obI> the
latter cutting (/2 in b.
(2) Draw be parall I to the ray 0 01 outting qa in x .
(3) "cd" " 0 d1 " qa. in y.
(4) " d e " " 0 el " qa in z.
(5) "ea" " 0/1 " qa in a.
Then a vertical through x passes through the centre of gra. vity of WI
and Wg •
Th n a v rtical through y pass s through the oentre of gravity of Wu
W2 and Ws'
 HEAD WORKS 127
Then a vertical through z passes through the centre of gravity of
WI' W2 , Ws and W•.
Then a. vertica.l through a passes through the c ntre of gravity of
WI> W2 , Ws, W.. and W6 • •

The intersections of these verticals with the bl} s of the 1l1min

give the intersections on these bases of the resultant pr s u • r S oir
empty'.
The lin~s of resultant pressure • reservoir full ' Ru R~, R., tc.,
are drawn 111; on the dam pro~e pa.rall~l to the ~e line in the diagram
of forces, RI IS drown from the mtersectlon of PI With g and i produc d
to intersect P 2 • I

From this interseotion draw a line parallel to the dotted line c b

on the diagram of for-ces being the resultant of P u P 2 , with WI' llioni
where this intersects U2 draw R2 on profile parallel to R~ on the diagram
of forces.
Similarly in succession Rs, R., R& are drawn on tho profile a.nd
where these points cut the base lines of the laminoo are pOints of centr
of pressure • reservoir full '.
The ourve of pressure • reservoir full' is dra. wn by joining up the
points where R I , R 2 , eto., cut the basos of the oorresponding laminoo
while the ourve of pressure • reservoir empty' is obtained by joining
up th o points where the vertical through the contro of gmvity of all tho
masonry above the base of each lamina outs that ba.so.
Th') resultant total stross R6 is a.cting on a horizontal base. If th o
stregs on a plane at right angles to this is required, this may b found from
the interseotion at NI in the diagram of forcos of a vertical line from
the upper extremity of R6and aline at right angles to R6from th other
extremity. This gives the value ofN) = R6 Seo fJ.
To reduoe N) to tons the length in feet has to bo multiplied by tho
H 1
comrilOD height factor '5 = 3~ ft. and by wp = 16'
Scaling from tho dia.gram N) = 372 ft ~
1 . ' .
N) = 372 .. X 30....
X 16 = 697·5 tons.
...
Mean pressure 697 ·5 = 6·2.
113·3
A diagram, figure 24-c, below tho base of tho dam profilo is oonstruoted
in the manner desoribed in paragraph 199 and figure 15.
Sotting off the mean pressure of 6·2 tons and construoting tho diagram
the maximum pressure resulting is 10 tons • reservoir full '.
229. Analysis of resu.Its of the above example.-Analysing th~ roaults,
it will be observed that the ourve of resultant pressuro reSeIVOlr empty
falls slightly outside the middle third from 30 feet to about 100 fi t
below water-level. l'his was to be expected from tho mct that tho
batter of the water face only commenoes at a depth of 00 feet below
water-level. .
The tensional pressures developed would however be so small that the
profile need not on this account be rejeoted.
In ~Il other respects the profilo is suitable and the max!mum pressure
just reaches the limit 10 tons which is the basis of the design.
128 lRniGA.Tlolt

It will be seon that the graphical results correspond a.s closely as

can be required to those given by arithmetical computation; this method
of examining the distribution of stresses has the a.dvantage of more
clearly depicting the forces than the more exaat arithmetio method,
while a.t the same time involving less labour.
280. Another graphlo method.-A simpler method of applying
the foroe diagram to the dam profile is adopted in figure 25 which gives
a profile of the Wigwam Dam (United State8).
The dam was designed in 1893 for a water depth of 90 feet, but was
only built to a height of 75 feet, the proposal being to subsequently
raise it when more water is required.
The diagram is drawn for the ultimate height with a. top width of
12 foot and water level reaching the top of the dam. It will be seen by
teference to figure 25 that the dam has been divided for pnrposes of
exam.ination into 3 lsminm and in the method here adopted instead of
computing the pressure oneaoh lamina separately as in the previous case,
this has only been done for the top lamina giving a resultant R I • Then
WR, the sum of the weights of Nos. 1 and 2 laminm aoting vertically
through their oombined oentre of gravity, is taken, the line of action
being ascertained by gra.phica.l construction as in the last case, figure 25-b.
The interseotion of W2 with P2' the line of r sultant water pressure on
the faces of the two upper laminm, gives the point from which R 2, the

FIG. 2.5.
"(!!:..o. E.T.. Il t.CUua __
,,
"
" ",
 READ WOlU{S

resultant, is draWh parallel to R2 in th for e diagra.m. Again p. i tb

total water pressure on the fad'e of the dam a.oting e.t 1/3 it h ight and th
intersection of. this with ~he vertical W througb th ntr of gravity
of the whole gives the pomt through which the r sultant H. should bo
drawn.
As before the pressure Nu whioh is Rs sece, ma.y be found by OOllS-

truction and reduood to pressure in tons by multipJying by K = 3 Ii t

3
1
and bywp = -
16.
1
The line d" Nt sca.les 130 foot. Therefore Nt = 130 X 30 X 16 = 246
tons. The mean stress on the base at ma.ximuID loading is therefor
!~~4 = 4·56 tons. The ]))Aximum stress ( reservoir full t is found gra.phi-
cally as before (figure 25-c) and equa.ls 9'4 tons.
The pressure on the ba.se ~ reservoir empty> in the fore dia.gram is
1
ad == 99 foot a.nd 99 X 30 X 16 = 185·6 tons.
185·6
Mean stress on base 60.4 = 3·54 tons and the ma,ximuDl stres8
reservoir empty is found graphically and is 7·4 tons (figure 25-c).
231. Analysing the results it will be soon that if tho wat r lovel is
raised to a height of 00 feet th re will be tension on the upp r part from
about 15 to 45 feet depth. Below this level tho dam is suitable 8
a gra. vity dam.
It should" however, bo mentioned that the dam, I1lthough d sign d
as a gravity dam, is ourved in plan to a. radius of 600 foet . and the .
designer possibly relied on the support which arch /!lotion will gIve to the
upper pa.rt of the dam if the water level is raised to the top of the masonry.
The natW"f) of t4is support will be desoribod in dealing with sroh d da.ms.
It a.ppears however more probable that surplusing Ilorrangements ma.k ~t
impossible for the wa.ter to ever rise to the top of tho dam and the .m.a.Xl-
mum water level is 5 or 6 foot below the top.

F" IG .26. 'rhe method employ d in this diagra.

is superior to the previous ono in that
each resultant is independently drawn
for the whole mass above the base of
each lam.in.a. so that errors ar not oumu-
la..tive and eaoh result is independent
of the others.
Tho method is howev r only appli abJo
when the wator fa.oe is ono slope through-
out.
282. Examples of existing blgh clam••-
A few pro£10s of gravity .dAms whioh
ha ve been erected are now glven.
IURE:N& QAM~
139 IRBIGA,1'ION

(a) The Furena dam, France (figure 26). Built 1862-66. This
is the first da.m built conforming to modern ideas as regards proportioD.&
of profile.
It was designed by M. Delocre and is built of rubble masonry.
FIG . 'Z.7 •.

PERJ'tAR DAM.

(b) The Periyar dam, Madra8 (figure 27). Built in 1889- 96 of

stone conorete faoed with rubble masonry. The mortar used wa.s made
of kunker lime, surki and sand.

=
_"""T. 0,..011.." } -
kHC"l.ora D"<8I"".'
at-DCk• • ,. .. f' J

I""'''''Y'''" •.

MARIKANAVE DAM. ASHOKAN DAM.

(c) The Marikanave dam, Mysore (figure 28). Completod in 1904
of rubble masonry. The mortar Was kunker lime and surki; no sand
",vas used.
(d) The Aslwkan or Olive Bridge dam, New York (figure 20). Com-
~let d in 1912, Cyclopean Masonry faced with concrete blocks. The
mortar was Portland oemont and sand. A special feature of this dam
is the introduotion of drainage shafts and an inspeotion gallery which is
also a drainage gallery with outfalls at intervals leading to the down-
fltream faoe. This provides for the escape of any water peroolating
through the up-stream face and is a feature coming into use in modern
~~. .
 ttll'lAD WOBltS 131
233. The Assuan 4amo- The Assuan dam aoro s the N°} (figure
and 30-a) was oompleted in 1903. 1

tI CIJ ,

III - II)
0 ClJII)
,
, ,.
I
III

~
I n
1'1
,..1ft FIG.30
III PI
<
>
~ ...

I
Co) (If
, r "z
lot
0

0
o- ,.- ~ ."
ell (It ~
..... Ot.,o. 0
c.., .
~

--
I'D : ~
,,~
fA ~
flCI'I 0
PI
I ell 0
I
r
I
I
I
C
«'
'"
:.
~
• III
rII
C
:I>
•>
"
I
Z
0 ASSUAN DA ••
J of :.
• :0
I
.. !'

..
I

&~
"'..

'",.
lit
of

,.•
CIJ
a

The dam has a very massive profile whioh was adopted because
of the large number of sluice-ways traversing the body of th dam through
whioh the whole flood discharge of the Nile has to be passed. This is
the first ~servoir dam whioh provides for passing the whole dood
 IRRIGATION

disoharge of a la.rgtl river through 'luices in tho dam btit t.h m th d

is likely to be widely followed in the future.
The method of regula.tion flo t Assuan is to pass through the sluice wa.ys,
without impounding, the ir shes of th river during the ady part of the
soason when the so are most heavily charged with silt a.nd thus prev nt
the bulk of suoh silt being deposited in tho r s TVOir b d. Impounding
is resorted to later in the season when the river w{"ter carries only EmaU
quantities of silt.
,
283-A. The Mettur Da.m aoross the Cauvery (Fig. 13-f) is one of the
largest dams oonstruoted in reoent times. It was oompleted in the
year 1934. The dam is 5,300 feet long and oontains 54·6 million oubio
feet masonry. The reservoir formed by the dam will impound 93,500
million oubio feet and it will baok up 33 miles to the foot of the 70 foet
high Hogankal falls. Besides serving the needs of irrigation, it will act
as a flood moderator in times of extraordinarily heavy floods. It is
also utilized for the generation of hydro-electric power.
Importa.nt partioula.rs of the dam arc given below :-
Catchment af a 16,300 square miles.
Width of river at Dam site 1,100 feet
Greatest h ight of dam 214 feet
Width of dam at top 20·5 foet
Width of roadway between parapets 16 feet
rop of dam above M.S.L. .. .. .. .. 801·00
Greatest bottom Width at deepest portion of dam 171 feet
Maximum depth of storage 165 feet
Maximum Boods (1924) . 456,000 cuseos
Maximum disoharge oapaoity of surplus works .. Ci50,000 ouseoa
Full Reservoir Level above M.S.L. .• .• + 790·00
MaXimum wa1(er level abovo M.S.L. + 796·00
Nos. Sizo. Sill.
Irrigation sluioes-
. High level 8 10!, X 16' + 720·00
Low level I) 7' X 14' + 670·00
Hydro Eleotrio turbino pipes 4 8~' din. + 640·00
Surplus sluices .. .. ! 16 60' X 20' + 770·00
Ellis saddle Hoape 810' long + 791·00
Two speoial £ atures of this dam whioh deserve mention are the
drainage gallery and contraction jt>ints, and these are briefly described '
below.
Drainage (Jall ?·y.-'l'his Serves as a longitudinal inspection ohamber
8.S well as an outlet for the seepage water from the fotmdations. It
ru.I L'l through three-fourths of the length of the dam. Suitable oross
drainago galleries conneoting the above with the down stream face of
the dam serve also as entranoes to the main gall ry. Vertical drainage
sho.fts, one foot in diameter, extending to the full height of the dam are
provid d o.t intervals of 15 feet throughout the length of the dam,
these being conneoted to the drainage gallery.
Oontraction joint8.~Variations in temp~rature _gen rally cause
masonry to xpaud and oontraot and in a large mas , a mile in length
o.s Mettur Do.m, variations in length would b con iderable and .numer-
ous craoks would normally develop. To localize the formation of these
oraoks, th dam is deliberately divided into sections of 126 feet length.
The joints at these seotions are sealed against water by means of a oonti-
nuous flexible U shaped oopper strip oonneoting abuttiIlg seotioD,S.
In front of this oopper strip is a diamond shaped reinforced oonorete
 lJIaiAD WuRKS \ 133

staunohing post, standing v rtically on non£ rrou

its vertioa.l faoes b ing coated with marin gin -vid
NOTE.-Sketch I.-Indioating stanuobing post in plan shows how ij) fits betw n
the a.dj&eent blooks of maaonry .
Sketch 1I.-Indioates what happens when the blooks of masonry oontract and
separate at their joint.
When the joint opens, the water pr SSUl' t nde to foro the taunohlng
post back against the joint behind it and thus k p it sealed, this Oootion
being aided to some ex nt by th pIa. tio sub tanoe in whioh th p t
is set. Should any water esoape past this po t; it has still to pass the
flexible oopper strip and should it pa s even the latter, it will 8 harm-
lessly into a drainage shaft s t on the elir ct lin of th joint and find
its way to the drainage gallery, to b eventually diBoharg d fr ly at
ground level in r 11.1' of the dam. (For further details about th R TVOir
and other particulars, History of th Cl.I.uvery.Mettur Proj ot by
Mr. C. G. Barber ma.y be r £ fl' d to.)

It'W. 30 (b)

II
234. • upWt t and' flotation '.-If a masonry dam is built of imper-
vious masonry on a. foundation of impervious rook devoid of cracks
and fissures there is no hydraulic pressure develop d under the bas or
in the joints tending to lift the masonry.
In building larg m.a.sonry dams great pr cautions o.r tak n to
seoure imp rmea.bility of the foundation and of the water fae ofth work,
but the atta.irun nt of this a.im is a matter of difficulty and unc rtainty,
and it is now g nornUy recognizod that in spite of all precaution 80me
 mRIGATION

percolation genemlly tak:es pmc and the trend of modern d sign is to

make provision a.gainst any great development of uplift pr ssure under
the foundation or in horizontal joints or"cracks in a dam by draining
the down-stream portion of the base a.nd body of the dam.
The uplift on any joint is the sum of the upward pressures due to the
hydmulic gmdient between the up and down stream end of the joint;

w ....
F'G. SI.
;( _ore ...
, I
,~ THI UNIT 0' ""TllI",',eu...
,,
I

" • .... OTTt.. '.TN"C;".'O"~

, ~ 0, WilT .. ".

, ,,
, I

, " I

~' II

this has been already explained in Chapter IV above in connexion

with th uplift on an impervious floor overlying a pervious foundation
soil.
Referring to figure 31 where AB is the base of length (b) of a masonry
dam with a d pth (R) on the up-stream fae and assuming that the
foundation is not fully watertight and that half th up-stream head (H)
is ab orbed as • head of entry' then the uplift head is tHat A and it is
.n.il, at B, where all the h ad i dissipated. The total uplift on the base
is therefore t X ~ X b= ~b and the oontre of this pressure aots on the

ba at ~ from it up- trea.m and (vid triangl AJB, figure 31). lfthere
was no 108S of h ad on ntry, the uplift pr ore at A would be H and the
whol uplift on the ba t Hb and thi~ is call d the' full uplift' due to the
head water level.
 READ WORKS 136

If drains ar intro9-uood in th ma omy (a shown io figure 31) iving

a free outl tat F to percolation from a width of ~, from th up-
face, and if the ba.se of the dam is connected with ucb a y m of droin
t~ 0 the uplift bead 00 th ba i di sips. d from tb point F and th
.Wldth ofba e on which uplift acts is redu d from b to t band th uplift
_will become i Hb (th triangle AJF) .
The pl'ovi ion of body and ba drainag(' is a foa tuI' in man modern
gravity dams ofwhieh an in taneo is given in figUl'CI 29 above, and although
th e 10 'sos by lea.kage 91' theroby H1,ely to ho onaiderablv in l'CElS ld
uplift is to a. great OXte11t liminated. ~,
Oth r preea utiona against uplift ar eith I' (1) to mak th founda ti 0
and mo onry imperm able or (2) to make provi ion for tho foro of uplift
in designing the profile of the dam. In ma.ny Cll se th form I' ha b n
attempted, but generally without fully sucoessfulrealization . Th latter
is occasionally v lJowod for and is an absolute safoguard if • full uplift'
is provided.
In the elementa ry t.rianglo full uplift in volv s a.n in TeAS' of bn&e
H H
from :;;p t·o ,y'p-I which with a specific gravity of 2i i an in rep. of
.about onEY-third tho quantity of masonry.
nch an increl',so would involve v ry great additional cost, and
careful staunching or cutting out of cracks snd fissures in the foundation,
and watortight masonry on the up-str am fa e oombin d with drainage
is gen rally resorted to .
From tre. point of vi w of uplift it is n distin ct advantage in a dam
that the down-stream portionFl of the mSFlonry profile hould bo Born •
wha.t permea ble if strength is not th ereby impair d, but tbe upstream
face for 6 fe t or 8 feet in widtb should be of th mo t imp I'm able
masonry that can be built; and in large dams it is usual to employ a
ri«her and more imp~rvious mortvr for a few feet from th water faoo
tha.n for the remainder of the profile.
235. It is h re convenient when discussing uplift to conaid l' the
effect of a oertain d pth of t vil water lying against th e down Fltrearn face
of the dam. '1'hls eldom ocom's in dams unless, a.s in tho case f the
A suan dam, tb re are la.rge sluices in the body wall, but it nearly always
do s in weirs. .
It is 01 0.1' that under such conditions drr ina ge oannot b fl' oted
below the level of the tail water and that either h ed, or tail wat 1', or
both, may exert uplift. If the down- stream bulk .of the profi] or found.
ation were permeable and the up-strea.m watertlgbt, uplift duo to tbe
d pth of tbe tail water only would bo developed .
. If the dam foundation is slightly permeabl throughout and tail
water is standing a.gainst the dam as repr nt d in th figur 31 by a
cbain dotted lino, tbe uplift will be conaid rably gr a r than wh nth re
was ...0 ta.il water ther bing no drainap-o below this level, for I full
uplift' will be de~eloped up to level of tail water. The· a.rea. of four
ided figure AJLB repres nts the uplift on the ba.se AD, th assumpti n
being as b fore that a. head H/2 is lost on entry. The full uplift du to
 IRRIGATION'

tail water level is represented by the area AMLB the unit being one oubio
foot of water; of this total the triangle KBL is neutralized by the reverse
pressure of the eq nal triangle TBN representing the vertical component
of the b.lck pressure on the dam.
Thus the net uplift due to the tail water level is the figure .AMKB
which is equal to AETB, the volume of masonry below the tail water
level. If therefore 'flotation' for this volume be allowed it is equival-
ent to full uplift dn to the tail water level.
As there is absolutely no drainage below the level of tail water full
uplift due to this level will be gradually d veloped in this portion of a
dam wherever the foundation and the masonry are not practically
watertight.
Unless really impervious masonry and foundation can be secured,
some uplift for all masonry below the tail water level should be allowed
for in design; and it will generally suffice to allow for the full flotation
dl,le to any t:J.il water level which is me.intr.ined for a considerable conse-
'lntive period. In mo t ca,scs where this is done there will be no necessity
to ma.ke any further allowa.nce for the uplift due to theher.d water level
but in the oase of a oonsiderable difference of level, drainage of the
masonry profile should also be provided for.
The term' flotation' is frequently used as synonymous with' uplift'.
It imp!ies the reduotion ofthe weight ofthe immersed material per cubic
foot by the weight of a cubio foot of water. If the specific gravity of the
material is p. the effeotive weight per oubic foot of masonery subject
to flotation is (p-l).
h figure 31 the full uplift due to the tail water level is represented
by the area AMLB whereas 'flotation' is rep,resented by the e.rea.
ETBA which equals AMKB. The ba.la.noe of the uplift (the triangle
KBL) is oounterbalanced by the triangle TNB, the vertical component
of the water pressure on the face of the dam .
It will be realized from this that where' flotation' i8 taken to represent
'Uplift on a dam or other 8tructure, the rtical component of Wit. ter pressure
on any face of the structure is being used to counter-ba.lance uplift and
,,~ly the horizontal component8 oj water thrusts remain to be balanced.

ARdHED MASONRY DAMS.

236. Arched masonry dams. -In suitable sites masonry dams are
frequently built arohed in plan, the abutments of the horizontal aroh
wh~oh ~he dam constitutes being the rock forming the sides of the gorge
whloh 1S spanned by the structure. Suoh struotures are d signed to
S\1~t in by ll,l'?h aotion the water pressures brought on them, th pressure
bemg transmltted to the abutments through eaoh horizontal a1' h ring.
The lowest lamina of such a dam rests on the natural rook foundation
a.nd its movement as an elastio masonry aroh must be restrained by
adhesion to the immovable foundation and it oannot act as 2. true arch
but ' must be ubj oted to oblique strains. In spite of this, experienoe
has shown tha.~ a dam oomputed as an aroh taking a.ll water pressure
bya.rch thrust 1 a stable structure and this being 60, the fact tha.t nea.r
 READ WOBltS 137
the base, part of the pres ure i resi ted by trans r
negleoted. tre my

The weight of the masonry is distributed oyer the ba a in a gra ity

dam and the dam must be designed so that th distribution ofthi wight
with the ' reservoir empty' does not ca u tre a
on the masonry.

237. Stress in arcbes under water pressure .- The p 8 ur of wa r

aots normally to the surfa.oe in oontact and thorefore th pressure n th
extrados of an arch dam is radial to the aroh and th lin of pre uro
through the arch oorresponds with it curvature.
The whole pressure transmitted through a horizontal arch ring
exposed to wa.ter pressure oyer the extrado which is th water fl'. is
R X P, where P is the water pressure per qllP,r foot and R the radius
to the oentre of the aroh ring.
R is, in practice, frequently taken to the xtmdos (the wa.ter fa. e
of the a.rch ring) which is an inacouracy on the side of safi ty.
238. Formulae giving stress In arched dams.- Let 8 and J b the
maximum and mean stresses in a horizontal arch ring th n fr m th
above are derived the simple equations:-
8 1 --~
b (28)
_ RHw
b - s, (24)
where H is the depth of water, w the weight of water per unit a.nd b the
width of the lamina or arch ring j where b is small in oompa.rison to R
the average stress 81 differs but little from the maximum 8 and j = . '
Where this is not so if Rand RI be the radii of the up and down
stream fa.oes of the aroh ring the relation betw n mean and maximum
stress is given by the equation.
2R RHw 2R
8 =8 1 X R + Rl = - b- X R + Rl
and RI = R~
therefore if the limit stress is A then:

(25)

also
b= R(1 - V.l _ 2 ~w ) (26)

239. Theoretic proftle-a trJangle.- As in the case of the gravity dam

the theoretic economic profile of an arched dam would be a triangle with
the apex at water level. Also the up.stream faoe should pr fi rahly
be vertIcal unless the distribution of pressur s on the base ' r noir
empty' renders it .no?ossary. to giv~ t~is a batter in ord r to bring the
maximum stress Wlthm a smtable lInut.
 IBBIGATION

. 240. Crest width of arched dams.-Practica.lly the orest of the arched

dam must be given a oertain thickness determined from gan ral or loea.l
oonsiderations. 'f!lis would seldom be I ss than 3t foot but i generally
considerably less than the tQp width given to a gravity dam.
Bligh proposes a top width (a)

a = V2 H (27)

!loS suitablo being half the width he suggests for a gra.vity dam.
241. Maximum stresses allowed in arched dams.-It is usual to allow
higher stresses for an arched dam than for a gravity dam a.nd this has been
justified by 8uccessfu!- practice.
The weight of the masonry of the aroh although not taken into
con ideration in calcula.ting sta.bility of the dam do sa sist towards this
and tends to reduce the oOl~puted aroh pr sames and for this reason it is
desirabl to koop the water fa.ce either vertical or with 8.S small a batter
u,s conditions permit of.

242: The Bear Valley dam:-The most remarke.ble example of !!Iuch

I~structure is the Bea.r Valley Dam (figure 32) construct d in Oalifornia
Ln 1885. Its top length i 300 [i et , top thickness 2! to 3 feet and thickness
4:8 feet below the cr st is 8l feet, At that I vel, it rests on a curved base
lS ':f1 et wide but ofa. slightly dlffereJtt'radius so tha.t th offs ts on eithe~
'~d.~ of t~~ 8t f~~t la.m.i~a. ar~ :varyi~~. :' • .

FIG.32..

...

-ItO'-1'j

CRO&S- SECTION OF
Bf.AR VA L. ... EY 0" ••

, The full'r s rvoir level is 4 f, t below th orest or 44 feet above tIM

base oft's ts, whit
the radiu to the water fac at this I Ii 342 fi ct.

F rom thi . S -_ R Hw
b -
_ 34:2 X 44 X 2 - 49
17 X 36 - tons,
 REA.D WOl\K 13

PLATE: I-TllE BEJ.ll VALLEY DAM

140 mRIGATION-

The dam is oonstruc£ed of uncut granite laid coursed in cement

mortar with a hearting of rough rubble. The work is regarded as one
of the engineering wonders of the world and while it cannot be recom·
mended for imitation, its suo cess justifies the greater pressures usually
allowed in arched as compared with gravity dams.
It may here be remarked that Parker computes a reduction of arch
stress in this dam owing to the assistance given by the weight of the
masonry aoting as a gravity dam as equal to a bQut 17 per cent (Control
of Water, page 408).
MS. Australian arohed dams.-Several arched masonry dams designed
on the basis of equation (24) have been oompleted in Australia. in recent
.
years and have proved suocessful and economical works .
Examples among these are- .
_ The Barossa Dam (figures 33 and 33-a)
and the Mudgee Dam (figuers 34 and 34-a).
The maximum arch stress on the former is
95 X 200
34 X 36 15i tons and
50 X 253
on the latter 18 X 36 = 191 tons.

BAROSSA DAM.
SECTION. FIG. 33.

!IITa II .. AN. FIG.8IS(a)

 READ WolUts lit

SITE. Pl.AN Off MUOala DAM.

I'IQ. a4 •

..
~..,,,
;:
F
Fl6 .S4(G)
.UDG&.6 DAM .

244. The Path..ftnder dam.-The Path·finder Dam, United tates

(figure 35). is oited as an example of a la.rge arohed dam, The arch
stress in this oase can be oomputed' by equation (25) and a diagram
of foroes treating it as a gravity dam is also depicted in figure 35."
from whioh it is seen that the resultant' reservoir empty' outs th ba.
very olose to the oentre. The maximum intensity of stress 'reservoir
empty' is worked out from expression

S = S, (I + ~) = 5~ Xx 2:~. (1 + 6 ~ 2t) = 7-26 X 1' lG ~

8'46 toni.
 lltRIGATION

Worked as a gra.vity s ction, th resultant pressure' reservoir full'

falls just out id the extremity of the to of the- base and worked out on
this b!}sis the maximum stres ( ) would be
4 X HR1wp 4 X 210 X 98
= 9 6 = 54:"7 tons per square foot.
b 4 X 1
2 H W· 210 X 2 X 1/36
The maximum arch stress = b ( b = 94 ( 94)
if 2- R)~210 2- 210
11'66
- 16'8 tons per square foot.

The a~tua.l aroh stress would, however, bo oonsidera.bly less owing to

the resistance afforded by the weight of the da.m acting as a gravity
dam.

F'Q.6&.
-----, I

, I
I
I
I
J

,14-- - - -It. "1;---

""DIU . . . . Pll"
.
• I
PATH
.... FINDER DAM •

245. Arched dams only applicable to narrow gorges.- It is olear

from th st formula. for pr sure that there is no economy in conskuct·
ing an a..roh d dam with a long radius a.nd, ther for , it is only aoross
U8ol'ro\v gorg s that suoh dam oa.n suitably be oonstructed. With a
limit of pre sure of 10 tons per squa.re foot and a radius of 270 feet the
volumes of ma.sonry requiI d for an a.roh d dam and for a gravity dam
 y:g 1> W RK

&re approximately equal. If th pr sure i raised to _ ton th radiUII,

..hioh brings about a sjmi1~r state, i 5oo.£i t.
It has been shown by Captain Garrett, R.E., that th mo·t oonomioal
ourve for a given span is on with a central angl of about 12 d g
(Government of India T chnioal Paper 170 on Aroh d Ma our am) .
wh~n working with small pan (say und r 150 £ t), it is de irabl t~
deslgn for a smaller oontral angl a a c rtain thi kno . is d simbl to
prevent peroola.tion. For this roason, tIl arohes of buttre da1l1 a
generally given smaller central anglos.

B UTTRESS DAMS.

246. Bu.ttress dams.-A buttres da.m oonsist of a numb r of

buttresses or piers, dividing the space to be damm d into a numb l' of
spans. To hold up and retain tho wa.ter b tween these buttr s , pen I
are oonsti'ucted consisting of horizontal arch s, or fon-o· onor ·to be rns
or slabs, or steel beams and plating.
A buttress dam thus bears a resemblance to a bridg laid on its
side, with arches or other road· bearing platform vertical and on tituting
the water face of the dam, a.nd the pior laid on th ir up riv l' fa
constituting the buttr ss s. Wh 1'0 th space b tw en th buttr s s is
spanned by arches, these dam are term d ' arch d buttr~ss dams.'
247. Stability of buttresses.- In considering gravity dams, th
stress s and stability are examin d with l' for01Pe to Po ali 0, or profil ,
of the da.m, 1 foot in width, but in the cas of a buttress dam, it if:! n s·
sary to consider the thrusts and weights of one buttr 8S and two ad jac nt
naIf spans. With this exoeption, the methods of xamining th forc s
on the buttress are generally similar to thos employed for tho gra ity
dam.
248. Panelling between buttresses.- If the panolling b two .n tb
buttresses consists of mason y arches tho strOS!:IOi.i in these 801' thos in tho
archos of a.n a.rched dam.
Where ferro· conoreto or steel pan lling is mployed. tho dosigns
may bo worked out from the loading due to water pressur in a. similar
way to the road.bea.rers and platform of a bridge.
In the case of dams and many other irrigation works. wight in the
structure is a feature tending to stability alid thus ordina.ry ma.sonry
even at slightly high r prices is pI' f<lIable in such works to ferro·oonor t
or steel struotures. .
249. Arched bu.ttress dams-The arch buttre s dam is th only typ
of buttress dam likely under existing conditioll8 to. oom into xtensive
use in India. and the d sign of this type alono is d s It with in detail.
It is d sirable in such dams to build the sl'oh with an axis inclin d
to the vertical at from 30° to 45°.
While this increases the total pre sure on the fac of tb aroh • it
does not inorea e the intensity of stress and it has th effect of depr ing
the interseotion of the resultant of the wa.ter pr 8SUl'6 and weight of
 ihtu(U.T10

masonry, and of making the resultant to take a steeper angle to the

horizontal a.nd thus inoreases the friotional resistance to sliding which is
a. danger to which this type of dam is specially liable.

250. Spaolng of buttress for arohed dams.- The spaoing of the

buttresses will depend on the depth of water and the nature of the founda-
tions and should be considered separately for each case. Generally,
the spacing in the olear would not be less tha.n three·fourths olthe depth
of water or more than.twice the depth. This only refers to arched panel.
ling and when ferro-oonorete facing slabs or other panelling is used the
buteresses would be closer together than three·fourths of the depth.
The width of the buttress should be suffioient for the skew backs of the
arohes to rest on.
The arch may be suoh as to subtend an angle at tho centre of 100 to 120
degrees. '
251. Stresses due to the weight of masonry of an Inolined aroh.-
Part of the weight of eaoh aroh ring of an inolined aroh is carried by arch
aotion and supported by the reaotion of the abutments a.nd the remainder
is carried from eaoh aroh ring to the sucoessive rings below and is supported
as in a gravity dam, by the reaotion of the found.a.tion.
If A be the angle with the vertioal of the axis of an arch, Ro the
radius to the oentre of the aro~ ring, then for each cubic foot of masonry
of weight wp a part equal to wp sin A is supported by arch aotion and a
pa.rt wp oos A is supported by the rea.ction of the founda. tions.
If Sa be the stress in the arch induced by the weight of the arch
itself.
Sa = wp sin A X no . . . . . . . . . . . . (28)
and Sa must be added to the stress induced on each arch ring by the
water load to get the total thrust on the arch ring. 'l'he stress on the
base or any joint of the a.rch at right angles to the a.xis is found as in the
oase of a gravity dam allowing wp cos A instead of wp for the weight of
each oubio foot of masonry in the profile above the joint.
252. Example of a deslgn of an arqhed buttress dam.-An example
of design of an arched buttress dam subject to the following conditions
will now be worked out. (Vide figure 36.) .
Conditions- ~

Depth of water H to the top of the dam 40 feet.

Arohes to be stone oonorete and buttress rubble ma.sonry of specifio
gravity 21. •
Deaign oj arch.-The axis of the arohes to be inclined at 30 0 to the
vertical and the limiting stress in aroh masonry to be 10 tons.
The sp oing between buttresses in the olear will be ma.de 1t times the
depth = 60 feet.
Th radius of the a.rohes to the ihtra.dos will be made 371 feet which
gives a central angle of 1060 and a. versed sine of i.
The top width of the arch will be 3 feet, this being about t tv' H from
equation (28), paragraph 231 above.
The slopes of the up a~d down. stream faces will be the same.
 The bottom width (b) to giv the limiting tr s will
more than that given h. oqtmtion (:'6), paragrl ph 2:..
tho ~xtra st re s due to tho weight of the a.rch.

ARCH BUTTRESS
DAM.
SCALE
"tiliiliiEiliiilT~iiiiiiiiiiii;iiii_;;;:rr:fiiiiiiiiii;;;;;;:!~=;o;;;ij1'·nr.

FIG.86.

,.19 . 96(4)

,
.. - fO~'"I
_OTION OF
8\1TTFlE • •

10
 IlmIG ATION

A suitable width bas been found by trial to be 6 feet and the suitability
is tested as follows : -
The value of (b) being ' considerable in reference to the radius, the
long formula equation (25) must be applied to calculate the arch stress
due to water pressW'e.
B= 2 Hw - 2 X 40 X te _ 8'7 to •
b b 6 6 - ns.
R(2- 'R) 43'5 (! - 43'5 )
The arch stress due to weight of arch is-
Sa = wp sin A X Rc = 1/16 X ! X (37·5 + 3) = 1·3 tons.
Therefore, the total arch stress S + Sa = 8·7 +
1·3 = 10 tons.
Design of buttress.- Tho buttress may be made 10 foet thick at the
ba.se and batter at 1/20 on eaoh side (figw-e 36.b).
The general method of designing the buttress is by trial tested by
oomputation or graphio statios in a similar way to a gravity dam profile.
There is, however, an indeterminate factor which must be discussed
before proceeding to design the buttress, viz., to what extent the weights
0/ the arcl~es may be expected to contribute to the ·stability 0/ the buttres8.
It is evident that they must do so to a oonsiderable extent as the
buttresses can neither slide nor overturn without the same happening
to the arch or at any rate to part of it. The greater the angle at the oentre
of the aroh the greater will this assistance be and vice versa.
In dealing with this question, Bligh oonsiders the whole of the two
half arohes on either side of a pier as constituting an up· stream prolonga..
tion of the pier split into two diverging bra.nohes.
He plots the equivalent weight of the two half arohes distributed
as a' subsidia.ry part of the pier extending up. stream to a plane tangential
to the up. stream faoes of two adjaoent arohes. This appears to be an
ov r·bold assumption but it is oonsidered safe to inolude i of each half
aroh and oonsider these as oonstituting a split up.stream prolongation
of the buttress terminating at a, a, a, a, in figure 36, the interseotion with
the prolonged pier of the plane intersecting the arches at i their length
along the extrados. _
The longitudinal seotion of this prolonga.tion of the pier is the portion
a', a', a, a. It is a.ssumed that the prolongation is of the same si~e batters
and top and bottom width as the rest of the buttress. This is a fair
assumption as the oontent of the 1 length of the two half arches about
oorrespond with the oontent of prolonged buttress.
Under this assumption, the up·stream slope of the buttress is a a,
in seotion (figW'e 36) a.nd a. similar slope is given to the down· stream
end of the buttress. This latter is merely a matter of convenienoe and
a.ny other suitable slope may be given. '
If l is the ba.se of eaoh of the sloping ends of the buttress and the
thiokness at bottom and top / and c respeotively, then the weights of the
.loping parts of the buttress up and down· stream are equa.l and eaoh of
IH 80 x 40
volume +
6(2/ c) = - 6 - X 26 = 5,200 o.ft.
In this case as the sloping ends of the buttress are exaotly the same
up· stream and down· stream, the centre of gravity ofthe whole 'buttreses
must pass through the oentre of the portion of the buttress of whioh the
top is horizontal.
 JtEAD WOlUrS 147

Th volume of this oentr&l portion per foot 1 ngth i ~ (J+ c) =

320 oubio foot.
The buttress should be made of suoh length as to bring the utre
of pressure near to the centre of the base so as t() make th maximum
pressure on the foundations Ile..rly equal to th mean p sure.
The water pros ur (P)isth areaofth triangl ofpl'l'ssuro(figu.ro3G),
multiplied by the di tance (70 foot) betw n buttl'6 os utI' to c ntre
and equals 29,600.
This is applied along P in direction at right a.ngJ s to the xtmdos
slope d, d, a.t a. point a.long a' a' one-third of it length from the ba .
It is found by trial, by means of the dia.gmm of forc s, that by giving
a length of 14 foot, mOOStU'ed from a, to the horizontal from top of but-
tress, the line of resultant comes noor to th c ntre (m) ofthe ba· a Ie
and it is therefore so designed.
The weight of this 'Portion of tho buttross is 320 X 14 := 4,480 units.
The whole weight of tho buttress is thus 10,400 +
4,480 = 14, 0
units. Plotting this in a clingram of forces (figure 36-c) tho r sultant
quaIs 40,000, a.nd outs tho baRe a Ie throe foot down. stream of the ontre.
Tho base scales 69 Ii t long. The mean pI' SSUre on tho bl'o!! du to
. 60800
Nt IS 69 x 10 x 16 = 4·{) tons.
The centre of prossuro is 3 foet from the oentro of the baso .
. 6t
Therefore the maximum pl'Ot:!8ure = 8 1 ( I +
1) )

= 4.6 (I + 6~a)
= 4·7 X 1·26
= 5·9 tons per square foot whioh is
suitable.

258. Quantity ot masonry as compared with gravIty dams.- Tho

amount of masonry pOI' span works out to approximately
14,560 cubio foot, arohwork
10,733 oubic feet, buttress

Total 24,203 oubio feot per t:!pan,

. 24,293 ,('
t ha.t 18 70""" = 347 o.ft. per loot run.
A gravity sootion with lIo 6 feet top width a.nd a. suction oftho elementary
profile has a. oontent of 539 o.ft. per foot run.
The a.rch section has thereforo a. groat dealles8 bla80nry.
Tho cost, howevor, of all masonry and espeoially the arch work would
be more p .r unit for tho buttresl:l dam than for a. gra'Vity on .
On the whole, there would, however, frequently be sa. vmg in cost by
using this type of dam whioh is one likely in the future to como more
largely into use.

lOA
 CHAPTER VILle
RIVER WEIRS.
254. Deftnitlon of a welr.-A weir is a dam over the crest of which
w& r is discha.rged. From this, it follows tha.t a certain depth of water
is usua.lly standing against the down-stream face of the dam wh n it is
acting as a weir a.nd also that, unless the course of the outfall c nnel
receivin,g the overfall water is hard rock, protective works in the form of
masonry or pitched aprons or water cushions are necessary to prevent
erosion of the bed of the channel by the water discharged over the weir.
Where the weir stands on hard rock, the dam or weir wall alone
oonstitutes the principa.l work but where the stream bed is friable, the
weir wall is frequently but a minor item in the whole work required for
the construction of the weir.
The general principles of dosign of the weir wa.ll are the same in all
cases, butlOertain modifications whioh will be Uescribed later a.re n cessary
when the structure stands on a permeable foundation. It is assumod
that the weirs referred to in para.graphs 255 to 264 arofounded on impervi-
ous rocks.
255. Fu.nctlons of welrs.- Divort;ion weirs [~ro uI;ually of far lesI;
height than masoID'Y dams, and generally run from 10 to 30 foot height
a.nd their primary object is the ra.ising of tho lovel and the div rsion of'
wa.ter from rivers ana. strea.ms into ca.nals. There are, however, a oon-
sid rablo number of tna.80nry weirs which combine tho function of diver-
sion with that of storago while there a.re others which a.re primarily
da.nil; for atorag of wa.ter while throughout a. pa.rt or the wholo of their
length the dams a.ro used as surplus esoapes for passing off oxcoss flow
which cannot be stored.
Somo of these work have been built to a gl'O(l,t height end a.re termed
• overflow da.ms' or simply • dams ; and not woirs, but these are for the
present purpose .oonliidered and referred to as weirs.
256. Elementary proftle for a weir wall.-The olementary profile of
tho gravity weir is a triangle with the ap x at the maximum water lovel,
the tliangle top being cut off -at the crost levol of the weir. The base of
j
this triangle would, as in the case of the gravity dam, bo H where H
p j

is the depth of the base below maximum wa.ter surface. Generally as

in the case of the gravity dam, the up- troam face of the economical
pl'ofile would be vertioal.
In praotio ,it is, however, fr quently desirabl to koop"he downstream
fa.oe of a weir .wall at a toopor slope tho.n a. vertical upstroom face would
admit of, and the up-str 'a m faoe of Q weir is, therefore, frequ ntly built
with a ba.tt r.
In figur s 37 and 37-a, a. weir profile and a foroe dia.gram are dra.wn
showing the ma.in and ba.ok pressures of water on the weir faces.
 RIVER WEIRS 14:9
If the height of the weir wall be Hand th depth of water pa ing
over it be fl, the base (b) of the tri&l soction may be H + d. H 1'6

the elementary triangle is alfb 8. ;,/fJ

"'G. 37 .

J.'

The water pressure on the up-stream side i.' shown by th flhn.d d

portion of the triangle abf the lino hf boing equal to H +
p
d. whilo tho

piece cut off the top has a base ~.

p
The ba.ck prossure from the tail water is r ' PI' ont d by the Rhaded
triangle ksm. It will be seen that the rosultant pt'Ossuro (R) falls witLin
tho middle third of the base.
257. Formulm for moment of water pressure on the face of a welr.-
Let P be the whole pressure on thc fac of tho woir (0.1; in figure 37).
" Ph and Pv b the horizontall1nd vertical components ofP.
" U = the length .of th inclined face of tIt weir.
" d = the depth in feet of wa tor ov r the crost.
" r = the slope of tho face
= the horizontal component of the slope for a.oh vortical
foot.
Then taking the units of length and £ rce as ol,;le foot and tho wight
of one oubio foot of water-
P =! {(H + tl) + d} X U
U
P = ..,9" (H + 2d) •••
Similarly
Ph =
H
"2 (H + 2d) • • • • • . . .... (2 )

H ) rH
and Pet = fH ( 2' +d ='2(H.+2il) ... • (29.a)
160 nmIGATION

The oentre of pressure, that is the point of application of the horizontal

force PA,-is at ~ distance above the base equal to ¥(: ! ::)_ Hence,
ifM be the moment of horizontal pressure about a point in the base
HB
6 (n + 3d) M= -
. (30)
> I,

If the water.8ti~face
, . is at the level
H8 of the weir crest,
M = 6" - . . . . - . . - . . . (31)
258. Effect of velocity of approach on a welr.-The extra pressure
on a weir due to the velocity of flow of the wa.ter is provided for in stability
diagrams or oaloub..tions by adding to the depth of the up-stream water
,
a depth equal to t4~ head (ha) du~ to velocity ofapproach (kG = va)
2g so
that the depth (d)' over the crest is (d1 + htl ) where d, is the actual
computed, or obs~rved depth of flow.
It may be added that d, is not the aotool depth passing over the crest
but the differenoe betwoon the crest level and the level of water a short
distanoe up-stream of the orest olear of the draw of the weir (vide
figure 37).
AJIlux and backwater curve.-The rise of wiJ.ter surfa.ce in a river
or a canal due to a.n obstruction caused by the oonstruction of a weir
or a regulator across it is an importa.nt matter to be deoided. -
Oa8t (1).-ln the case of a olear overfall ,weir. this is obtained by the
formula.
,3/ Q"
d= V (10 X w)" X 2g

• - 3/ --:-=-=-
Q :::-
" - " " 7.
V 64'4 X (f C X w)"
Where Q = The disoharge of the weir in cubic feet per second;
w = Width of weir in feet;
. d = The depth on crest of the weir (taken from aurface
above weir) in f~et. Fig. 87 (a).

If th orest of the weir is above the original surfa.ce of water in the

ohannel, then-
The aftlux = R = d + Y (Height of weir orost above the origina.l
surfaoe of water in ohannel).
OlUe 2.- 1n the case of & submerg d weir in which C = 0 (that is,
when the oo-effioientis tak nap tJle ]lame for both parts, i.e., submerg d
portion 80nd olear overfa.n portion)
Q .R
• • •
th nd
• •
=
• .0 X W X V2g X
+-
ViI . .rS
Q :':':'r'- H
; .' • • • . 0 X w X 8-025 X VH~.J3
 BIVEB WEIRS 151

Effect 0/ afflux on ckanneZ.-When the affiux oau d by a w ir

has been ascertained as desoribed above, it is often n oeS88.ry to time.
the length o! the ohannel, above the weir, whioh will be affeoted by the
affiux, that IS the length above the weir in whioh th new water surface
will be above the original water surface. Nevil1e giv s the following
formula. :-
Fig. 87 (b).

H H is the affiux oaused by the weir at D, AEB j s the original surfaoe

of the wa.ter before the oonstruotion of the weir at D, ACD the n~w
water surfaoe caused by the weir and if DE be drawn horizontal to out
the original slope at E, then CD the length of the" baok water .o urve" =
1'5 to HHimes :lID.
The Merriman's formula. for finding the backwater curve is
1= ~ - d1 + D (! _ ~) (() d, _ () da)
2 0 2g }) D
Where D = Original depth of water in a wid(' roctangular ohann I
in feet.
d, = Depth at any point of the backwater curve above .the
dam in feet.
d, = Depth at the dam in feet.
I = Distance in feet, measured from the dam, or obstacle
causing the affiux, to a point at whioh depth is = djO
i = Slope of bed of stream, that is, the sine of the angle of
. the inolination of the bed ( = fall divided by I ngth).
c = The co-efficient applicable to the particular channel
in the formula (v = c ,vRs) for the disoharge of th
channel.
g = 32·2
259. Crest wldth of a welr,-The crest width of a weir must be fixed
with reference to the following theoretical and practica.l considerations :-
(a) The theoretical considera.tions are the depth (d) of water over
the weir orest, its velooity, the specific gravity (p), and co-effioient of
friotion (,..,) of the ma.sonry. . ,
The width (a) of a horizontal joint at crest lovel to ensuro 'against
sliding would be a = ~ .
f.Lp
and assuming i as a safe value for the co-efliciont of friction this
3d
beoomes a = 2"
and th!weir orest width should not be less than this.
152 IBBIGATION'

(b) The practical considerations are-

The height oftne weir.
The nature of the drift carr~ d by the stream.
The width required for crest shutters or for traffic of a.ny kind.
Bligh suggests the following empirica.l rule for the crest width
which subject to the minimum a =
•
;dp may be adopted under 'ordinary
oonditions.
a =-VH +,.;a, , (32)
260. Condition of maxlmum stress on weir walls. -In the cas of a
dam, the oondition of maximum stress is when the water level a.bove the
ba e is a maximum, and this condition also connotes the stat e in whioh
the head of water on the dam is great est .
In the caae of a weir, the great er the discharge the smaller is the
difference of level b tween the head and tail water surfaces and the
o ndition of ma.ximum water level above tbe work gen rally connotes
that of minimum hea.d on the work; and tb condition of ma.ximum
h a.d on t work is that in which th head wat0T is a t the 1 vel of th(
orest of tho w if or w ir shutt rs and no we-tor i pe.ssing ov 1'th w irA
The oondition of head water at a maximum level is g n rally that of
maximum stress in high weirs, and in low weirs the condition of maximum
stress is not infrequently that of head water at weir crest Tevel, out thele
are many weir in which the maximum stress is induc d by somo condition
of flow intermediate between thew two a.nd it is neeessa.l,y to ascertain
for each weir wh.a.t is the condition of grea.test stress.
261. DltJerent states of water pressure on a weir wall.-To find tho
maximum overturning moment on a weir, it is necessaJ.'y to consider it
under two different stateo'l .
State I.- When the up-stream water, or (head wat 1',' is at orest
level, or, if th re are crest shutters, at shutter crest Jevel.
, In thi state, the down-strea.m water, or 'tail wa.ter,' will be at about
low water level (L.W.L.) and the oonditions of water pressure on a weir
will be imilar to those on a dam.
In thi sta.te, th hood on the weir, that is the difference of levels of
h h d and tail wa.ter is a maximlUl1,
Blate II.-When water is passing over the weir crest.-As tho
depth. of wa.ter pas iug over the weir orest inoreases, the head on tho weiI'
decrca' s and the lovel of the tail water oontinually rises.
Two 0 nditions of disoharge occur under state 11-
II (a) When th weir i submerged.
II (b) When th w ir is discharging with a clear overfa.n.
NOTlIl.-In th caee. of jungl6 streams which are dry in summer and whioh
audde Iy bring in floods duo to SUlIlIJler cloud, eto., and raise water table dIs of
the aniout, the L.W.L. may be taken I\S the bed of the stream itself.
262. Overturning moments on a welr.-
Lot H be th h ight in feet oithe weir wall above th base.
II a he th orest width in feet.
IIb h th width oithe base in feet.
II b th height in foot of the crest shutters.
" D he the d pth of the tail water above the ha . I
II Mo b th overturning mom nt on the weir, th U}Uts of weight
tmd length being one cubio foot of wa.ter and on~ foot.
 RIVER WEIR) 1

The overturning moment will b considered a th difE r n n

the horizontal water moments on either sid of th w iI', th v rtical
components of water pI' me being oonsideI' d as p&.rt of tb woight
resisting overturning.
State I.-This state connotes the maximum ov rt1ll'ning mom nt
on tho weir when no w&ter is PI'. sing over the r('. t a.nd thiRitl giv n by th
equation (31).
M = H3
o 6 (31-a.)
If tho weir has crost. shutters fe t high tho ma rimum mom n ,
state I, is-
= (H+S)!
Mo (j • • • • • • • • (Sl-b)
State II (a).-If h is the diff'erenc of 1 vel of hood and tait water
then th height of the ta.il water a.bove the w ir cr st i d - lb
Mo = 6H ~ { H + 3d - H - 3 (d - It) L J
= IH"h
a.nd thi is a maximum when h is a maximum , viz. :-.:..
when the ta.il wa.ter is just at weir ('re t I vel that is, wh 11 th
state II (a) merges into II (b) and cl = li.
The maximum overturning moment under stat IT (a) will thus
occur when the weir is on the point of becoming subm rgcd.
State II (b).-If D be the depth of th k .il water abov(' the bafl
then from equations 30 and 31 above
Hlf
Mo = I f L (H + 3d) - If
D!}
Mo = t (Hs + 3d H" - D~) . . . . . " (33)
263. To find the condition of maximum overturning mQment of
a weir when water Is passing over the crest.-In ordN' to find who)1 Mo il! a
ma.ximum it is necessary to know with referOJ;l(' to t'.i'.ch woir th r Intive
value of d a.nd D, for values of D varying up to flo maximum of D = H.
In order to arrive a.t these va.lues accuratoly it would 00 11 cessary
to ascertain by calculation, or by actual gl'.uging th(~ riv(1f dischargA@
at the site of the proposed weir for several stages of flow.
From the results a curve oan be drawn giving th o r.elations b t.woon
gauge readings and discharges; from which'th river dis harge corr-
sponding to each water level will be known. Th disoha.rgeR of til 0'
proposed weir for various values of (d) in the limits of flow would elso be
oomputed and from the r~sults the value of a corresponding to any
specific value of D would be ascerta.ined.
When the weir extends the whole width of the riv l' and th e latter
is of oonsiderable width in compa.rison to its depth say width not S8
than 30 times the depth, the value of d is roughly proportio.n at to that
ofD. .
Under these conditions, ..
tJ
d = KD and K =- where K is a. constant.
D
In suah So case, if the river water level is known for a.nY one discharge,
the value of D for that discha.rge is known., and the corr sponding va.lue
of d ca.n be calculated, and thus K ca.n be ascertained with sufficient
accuracy for the purpose required. . .
 15' IRBIGATION

If possible the value of X should be fixed from a value of D COMot-

ing- .
(a) For a submarsible weir, the level at which the weir would become
submerged (viz., D = H)
(b) For an insubmersible weir, the highest .flood of which a reliable
water level and discharge can be ascertained. ,
Having found the value of X as described above, the condition
of flow produoing the maximum overturning moment can be asoertained
by tho following method which is due to Mr. S. V. Xanakasabai Pillai
of the Madras P .W.D . (Paper No.6, Sub-Engineers' Associa.tion, Madras,
1917).
Substitute KD for d in equation (33).
Then Mo = 1/6 (Ira +
3 XD H' - D3).
This expression is a maximum when
D = HVK. ,
This gives the coi't'dition of tail wa.ter level connoting the maximum
overturning moment of State II.
The ba.se of a. weir frequently stands on a platform above the low
water level of the river and the tail water is not raised to the Jevel of the
weir base until a oerta.in depth of water is passing over the crest.
Let t be the depth of water passing over the weir when the tail water
is at the weir base level.
a
Let be the depth of water passing over the weir when the tail water
is at a height D above the base.
In this oa.se d - t = KD.
d- t
.'. d = XD + t a.nd K = D
When Mo is a. ma.ximum D = HVK
. d D' H'X H2(d - t) ... De = H' (d-t) .
an = =
- D --
and d = KD + t = K8/2 H t. +
Substituting for Da and d in equation (33).
When Mo is a. maximum
Mo= ~a (1 + 2 KS /2) + 1/2 H i t...... (34)
264.. Condltlon of greatest stress of a weir built on Impervious soll.-
When a. weir is founded on an impervioUs soil and construoted of iIl).per-
.vious masonry the weight of the masonry is not affedted by va.riations
in the water levels above or below the weir and the moment of resistance
to overtw.r:Ung is praotical1y oonSta.nt. . .
It is true that the moment of the vertioal .component 'of the nier
standing over the slope, if any, of either fac.tf forms part of the total
moment but its effeot is so small that the above statement may be·ac;cep.
ted as applioable to all ordinary oases. '. . . .
Thus the condition of maximum stress on a weir built on· impervious
foundation soil is that which connotes either-
(I) Head wa.ter at the crest level of the weir shu.tters . .
(n) Tail water a.t ma.ximum .flood level~ or at . the level H,v K
a.bove the base of the weir, whiohevor is the lower. .. -.
The weir must be so proportiol;ed tha.t its moment of resistance
a.bout the downstream extremity of the middle ·third of its .ba.se.must
not be less than the overturning moment under· (l) or (U). .
If there are no weir shutters State n is· always that_ of 'maximum
stress.
 B.IVER WEmS US5

266. Varl~g moment of res.istanc~ of a weir bunt on pervious

soU.-When eIther the foundation soil or the mnsonry oomposin.g th
weir is pervio~ the effeotive weight of the mil. omy i reduoed by uplift
a.s explained m paragraph 234 above. The exaot incidenoe of uplift
depends on ~determin.a.t? factors such as loss of the head on entry,
the permeability of the rIver-bed soil, the llature and thickness of the
foundation platform and of the apron upMtream ' of the body wall and
the level of the tail water.
In desig.n ing irrigation weirs anu rogulators on permea.ble soil Bligh
provides for uplift by treating all In.)" rs of masonry below til level
of the tail water, under the condition considered as su bject to full flotation,
that is, of effeotive weight (p -1) per cubic foot, and all ma. onry above
this level as having effective weight p per oubio foot. This allowance
is a suitable and sufficiently aoourate provision for uplift in aU ordinary
oases and is adopted in this text book.
In oases where a weir is built on very pervious soil and wh r its
orest is much above the maximum level of tail water the aJlowano
will be insufficient and in such oases partial flota.tion for tho wl'\ole profile
may be allowed as well as full flota.tion for the portion of the profil
below tail water level.
266. Condltlon of greatest stress of weirs on per\tlous 'soll.-
When full flotation up to tail water level is allowed for, the moment
of resista.nce of a weir to overturning diminishes as th tail water rises
and is a minimum when the tail water is. at or above cr.est level. Under
such oondition it does not follow thl\t the wator levels giving tho maximum
overturning, moment of· State II connote also the "condition of greatest
stress and, as a faot, in most cases the oondition of gr atost stress, jn a
weir liable to submergenoe is when the tail water is at orest level, th.at
is when D = H. Th.ere are some rare exooptionli to Lhts and under
oertain oiroumstanoes the conditi9n of greatest stross is when D = H,v/ K.
For ordinary oases oocurring in praotice it is s'afe to assume that
in weir8 8ubject to flotation the condition of greatest stress of State II
is when the tail water is either at crest level, or at its maxjmum flood
level if this is below crest level.
267. Examination of stabllltyof a weir by the method of'moments.-
The stability of weirs ma.y be examined either .by arithm tioal computa-
tion. or by diagrams and an. example of the former method in respect to
the body wall of the weir shown in figure 3 is worked out b low by the
method of moments whioh method has alrea.dy been described in pa.ra-
grapbs 223 and 226 a.bove, which may be re£ l"red to for the symbola uaed
for the divisions of the bas"e. '
The weir of the figured dime11Siona is built of briok (sp. gr. 2) a.nd is
subject to flotation and also to submergence. Wh en th e tail water is a.t
crest level the observed depth of the head wa.ter (01 ) is 4 feet over the
orest. The base of the weir is ~t low water "level. ThE" weir is provided
witl- crest shutters -3 feet high.
State [.-(Figure 38).
"U' _ (Fl+S) ' _ (10+3) 3 366
.au.o - ,6 - 6 ~ .
Stage Il.-(Figure 38-a).
4 -'--.
From the d ata we have K = d
Dl
1
- 10 - 0:40 and,yK =
0'63.
156 lRJUGATION

Ii G Md Dare th values oonnoting crest and tail w ter 1 vela due

f,O the maximum. overturning moment (M 0)' then
D == H -VIC = 6'3 and d = KD = 2' 5!a
Me, = 1 {108 + (3 X 2'52 X 10') - (6'3)3} = 251.
If tbe weir were not subject to flotation State I would be that of
ma.ximum stres" for which the profil has to b tested for safety. The
weir however is subject to flotation and the condition of maximum stress
is till unkno wn nd stability, ill b exam illed by th e mothod of moment,
both in Sta.t I and II.
State I (with her,d water at shutter crest level-figure 38).

Taking moments round 0-

Weight. Lever 111m. Momen\..
Masonry profile (7
Water on slant face
* + 1 J) X 10 X 2
{3 X 2 xl ..
180
6
5·6
1'0
990
6
t X 2 X 10 10 0·67 6·67
Total 196 1,002-67

_ 1,002-67 _ 5'11
", - """"1ii6 - .
Horizontal moment of water tbrust = 366.
366
v, = lU, = 1'87.
", = b - (n, + ti,) = 11 - (5'11 + l'S7) = 4'02.
State II.-(l) With tail water at weir crest level (figure 3S-a).
Taking moments round 0--
Weight. Lever. Moment.
Masonry profile with flotation
9 X 10 90 . u-5 495
NOTE.- The ver$loa\ component of water thrust is oliminated by taking uplift
in the form of fiotation.

n.. = lS'tS.
Horizontal moment of wat r thrust = d12Ht = ZOO.
200
till = PO = 2'22.
"#= b - (n/l +v =2) 11 - (5'5 + 2'22) = 3'S.
 As i b = ?'67 the oentre of pr nre i.n thi the
middle third of the base. tate II i that of groat
(2) Moment will also be taken with the tail
that is, when D = 6'3 and rJ = 2'52' (qgure 3 ·a).

Welib ~. Lever IIrm· cmleDt·

Weight of proiile with fiotntion .. 90 4 6
Extra weight above tail water lev I
1 (7 + ,48) X 3'7 " .. .. ,. 28,6 167.3
Water on slant face above tail
t x 3·7 X -74 1·37 0-26 0'3'
Water level { 2-52 X .74 1'86 0·37 0·69
'1' tal .. 121 ,83 653·33

653'33 •
n= 121'83 = 0'36.
The moment of hori;&ontal water thrust is 251
251
v= 121'83 = 2'06
.'. u = b - (n + v) == 11 - (5'36 + 2'06) = 3'5
Thil:l is 80 larger value of 11 thl1.l\ with the tail Wl\t l' I:\t tho or t, I\nd
it will bo found that t]Jis will, as a. rule, be the ca.so.
In the a bove xampie State I would be the oondition of grm\to t
stress if tb . weir woro not eubjoot to flota.tion.
It is on.l,\' in excoptional OMeR that woil S l\r ollsidered e.s fro from
uplift a.nd it is desirable to 1l.11ow for flota.tion as above exoept wh ro tbf'
weir is fouuded on h l'.rd rook free from cracks v,nd fissuros, or on imp rvioul'
cla.y,
268. Formulae for the moment of resistance ot a trapezoidal weir
with flotation to level of the tail water.- Let Mr be th e moment of
rosi ta.noe 11bout a. point (0 ), at the downstream ext)' mity of tho middl e
third of tbe bl',se and let the other symbols be as in pa.ragraphs 257 and
262 above.
State I.-H~d Wi/,ter a.t shutter crost level.-
Mr = k [p H u" + [p H (a - r H) + 2 r H (H + 2 S)] b
- p a H (a +2 r H) - r' H ' (H + ;} )] (35)
If tbe upstrea.m face be v~rtical, then-
Mr = H p W a1J - a")
6
+ ... (3S·a)
If both faces of the weir have the 6a.me slope-
Mr = ~{ [(p + l~) H + 2{ S] b~ + a (p H - H - ). b

- ~a2 (H + a S) } (a5.b)

State Il.-(a) With t ail watE'r at weir crest level-

.1(, = H(p,;- l){ b' + (a -rH) b - a (a + 2 rH)} . •• (36)
This i the general formula for the moment of resistance of a trapezoidal
weir subject to 'full flotation' &nd fulfilling the 'middle third' rule.
158 RIGATtON

From.this equation it will be seen that for the same moment of resistance
, b ' is a minimum when ' r' is zero, that is, the up-stream face vertical
gives the most economical profile- ,
If the up-etroam face be vertica.l
=
Mr H(p;;-l ) W + ah _a") (36.a)
If both faces of the weir ha.ve the same slope-
Mr = H(p;; 1) (b" + ab) (36.b)
II (b) With the level (If tail water " h" feet below the weir
crest- '
Mr = % {[R(p-I) +11 (2 - H) b' + [ H(p- I) (a - rH)
h 2 h ]

h' ( 11
+ 4 ah + II 2h a + 2 rh - 3 r H - 5a) -+- %rh (h + 2d) Jb
-a H(p - I)(a+2 r H) + a~'(3a+3rH - 2rh - ~ a ) - 3ah(a
+ 2 rH - rh) + (r M ~ (2 h + 3 d) - 3 rh' r H (h + 2 d)} .. (37)
If the up stream face be vertical :-
Mr = ! {.[ H (p - l) + ~ (2 - ~ ) ] b" + [H a , (p - 1)
a h' 2 h h2(
+ 4 a h + H (I f- 5) ] b + a'
Ii 3 - Ihf ) - a' H (p - 1)
- 3 a' h } . (37.a)
269. Finding the base width of a welt by caleulatlon.- It is usual
to arrive at 0. suitable s otion for a. weir wall by trial, selecting a suitable
orest width, taku1g L~S a trial bH.so the width of base of the elementary
tri~\gle' modified from cOIl,sideratioll,8 of flotation , Crest width, eto.,
and to tost for stability as described in the above example or by
diagrammatio methods desoribed later and modify the profile as the
results may indicn.te.
If, however, th e orest width and the slope of the up·stream faoe
is fixed, th base width required to. bring the resultant pressure to the
down.stre~m xtremity of its mid\ile third may be found by equa.ting
the mom ll.t of resistanoe given in paragra.ph 26 with tho corresponding
overturn.ing moment and solving 11be quadratio equa.tion for b, the base
width.
' ~or instanc ,in the eM of the weir forming tho subjeot of paragraph
267. abovo, tho length of baso as arrived at by this method is 11'75 with an
up-stream batter of ono in five; with a vertical up-stream faoe the base
width noces ary iSl'oducod to 10 foot, a reduction in the area of the profile
of nearly 10 pOl.' oon.t.
270. Stabll1ty diagram of a welr.-Iu pu.ragl'a.ph 267 above a weir
was examiIl,ed .for tability ~y arithmetio computa.tion. An example
is now giv n of oonstruction of a. sta.bility diagram.
The weir profile is shown in. figures 39 8J\d 39-b .~nd is 14 feet high
with 7 feet arest width · while tho oonditions of flow are such that when
the tail wat~r is at weir orest level the head wa.ter level is 6 feet above
the weir arest. The speoifio gravity of the masonry is ~1 and both faoes
h80ve a batter of one in four. .
• d 6
From the above we h.a.ve K = D = Ii = '43
H X _y'K -:- D J = '65 X 14 - ~·l.
 RIVER WEtR

The lines of pressure and weight are plotted on th profile &.Ild in the
force diagrams.
State I.-With head water at shutter ere t Ie el-The foro and
resultant are PI , W, R I (figures 39 and 39·a).
f

,~f
" I.
' ,

,.,....
, " , i~
r· L
,
,

I
.... - - -~W-:""_-:!-.:'::Ir~""'"
'tG.39.

W . I- .
I
I ,

, " II
I ,
I I
I ,

" I

",
State II .-(a) SUPPosulg the weir sta.nding Ollllon impervious founda.
tion with tail water at 9'1 feet above base.
In this oase dl ..:.. '43 X 9'1 = 3'90 feet.
The foroeslUld resultant are P" 1'2' W, R2 (figures 39 and 39.a).
(b) Supposing the weir to be 01' 8 pervious foundation with tail wate,
at orest leve1.
6
rAe ioroee IWd resultant are P" P. I i' W, R. (figures 39·6 and 0) .
 160 IRRIOA'rION

'1"he fore diagrams a. made taking the moan width for the areM
.,!the figur 8 , th comm n h ight being H = 14. In figur 39 (a) t·h ro
is an exc ption to thi in the 'I'.so of th trianglo pr s nting .th pr sure
P I whioh i-of height (P + S) = 17. 'l'hus the fore is represented by
t 1- of the moan width of the triangle. imilarly the triangle representing
P 2 is ofhoight only 9-1 feot and the force is r presented by 9'1/14 of the
mean width of th pr ssure triangle.
In figure 39-b and c only tho horizontal components of water pres·
sures a.re plotted, the vertioa.l components being absorbed in resisting
uplift as explain din hapter VII, paragraph 235_
From the above oxample it appears that without flotation state I is
that of greatest strOjis and that the profile is of ample base width if
founded on imp rvious rock. If on p rvious soil -tate II is the condition
of gr atest stress p.nd the base width is inad quaw.
The r quired bas width in this case wh re both w ir faces have the
!>ame slop ma.y b readily ascertain d by substituting in equation B6·b
of perl1grr.ph 268 abov , the known values of a, H, a.nd p_
Then Mr = 14 1~ It (b~ + 7b)
H~ d 14,= x 6
The overturning momont Mo = - 2- = - - 2-

a.nd equating those b' + 7 b + (3%)" = 14 X 3 ~ 12 X 4 + (3%)1

= 403'2 + 12'25 = 415'45.
b = 20'38 - 3'5 = 16'-8S feet.
This shows that on a pervious soil a batter of one in three on both
faoes is r quired.
271. Importance of recording the depth of head water on weirs on
the point of submersion.- The above shows that it is important in regard
to a submersibl weir to record the depth of tho head water when the
weir is on the point of submergence as this information is neoessary to
enable th ta.bility of the weir to be exa.mined. The information should
be reoorded on the pla.n of the woir.
272. Dhukwa and Sunkesala welrs.- A few seotions of weirs built
on rook foundations will now be given-
(a) The Dhukwa weir acr088 th~ Betwa rive,. ,in Bundelc'Und(fig'ure 40).
':IG. 40 -

......

This w ir has re ontly boon built. The pa. sage undern a.th i used for
lowering the ore t hutters whioh can be reI a d by moving lever arms
the ends of whioh proj ot into th pe.ssag ; it i &1 0 u ful &s a. mea.ns
of oommunication. Th profiL a.pproxima.tes to the elem utary triangle
with rna. omyof 'p ifio gra.vity ...1 and it i 1 a.r that the weir ha been
designed without a.llow noa £ r flotation. The foundation is ha.rdrook
a.nd it is probabl that little uplift is developed. It is notioeable tha.t
 RIVER WEIRS 161
foundation stop walls Bt both the up cnd down stream 0 rt miti of tho
baso have b ~n provid d.
(b) The Su.nkesala anlout across the Tungabhadra (figure 41).- Thi
a weir 2.cros the Tungabhadre. riv r at th h ad of th urn 01-
Cuddapah canal. It wr.s originally built-(l 66) three 1i thigh r tlll',U
hown, but it broa.ohed in I 2 and the or st WB th n ut down.

... 952· 4 ~:::.:::aF=====~==-'"

FIG. 4 '1. ~~ )
SUNK ESALA WEI R.

.
•Rz,_
THE WEIR BECOMES SUBN\E~GE.D WITH WATE.R AT + 952.4-'
The ste.bility diagram shows that evon now tIro lin 13 of r sultv.nt
prossures (R. and R 2 ) fall outsid the middle third both undor state I
and state II without a.ny a.llowance for' flotation'.
It is to be noticed that when building tho weir 8. bl1nk of clay Wll.S
formed up to nearly crost level age.inst tho up-stl: am fa.ce e.nd tho conti.
nued oxistence of this work is probably due to the roduction of hydraulio
pressure caused by this. The utility of 8. bank of impervious olay up-
stream of a masonry dam' or weir in reduoing both diroot and uplift
pI' ssur should be noted.
273. Au.stln wetr.-Figuro 42 gives the section of tho Austin woir
dam aoross the Colorl'.do rivor (Texas, U .. A.).
This ru:.m fuiled during a high flood in 1900, it is b lieved, by sliding
on the ll:'.minated horizontal yers of limeston on whioh it stood and
through which leakage is known to ha.v passed. Thus while tho da.m
was subjeot to uplift there was probably little cob sion botwocn tbo
layers ofrock on whioh it stood. Tho round d top is she.ped with a v' w
to ooincide with tho natura.l trsj ctory of the fo.lling water whil th
rev r ourv t the bottom i given to guid the wat r from a nearly
Vi rtical to a horizont&l course when loaving tho masonry at th foot of
the dam.
11
162 lR1UGA'J'ION

PLATE II (a).-AUSTIN DAM, TEXAS, VIl!:W TAKEN DURING J!'LOOD,

A J!'EW MINUTES AFTER TRB BREAK.

PLATE II (b).-AuSTIN DAM, TEx S AI'TEtt SUnSnmNOE OF FLOOD, OJ!' APltIL

1900, SROWI ro ECTION OJ' YA ONR,{ MOVED BODILY DOWNSTREAM.
 RI ER WEIRS 163
Such a shape is tormed a.n oge cur e and was at ono tim muoh used
in India, but this form ha now boon a bandonod for low weirs as it •• a
found to induce scours in the mLwgins r.nd in the bed of th run·off Mun 1
owing to the very high volooity with whioh tho wa ter is proj otod h rio
zonrolly from tho foot of tho fall.
AUt1>TIH DA1'
COLO~AOO RIV E.R .
(IOS0 Fi '-ONQ.) C;O" PLE.'T£ O 16S I.
"AI&.UI 1900.

FIG. 4 2...

The praotioe now adopt d in India is to dissip te as fl; r [,,1:1 pmctic!',bJo

the velocity of tho water moving down ·strcam frOI11 tho too of th work
r.nd this cen be effected better by an overft'. ll into a we.ter cushion OJ' on
to r,:1 p,protl. The ogee shapo is l; owevor much used i.n America for wei!'!:!
on rock found",tione.
For high weirs (ovorflow da.ms) it is proba. ble that a. rounded crel:lt is
th e best form .
Subsequent to the failure of the dam in 1900, the dam was recon·
structed in 1915. Even this partly failed in th e next year of its
reoo "1struotion. The remnants of the 1915 dam were taken up for
reconstruction in 1938. Thus in a period of .fifty years, Austin dam has
boen out of service due to accident for 40 years.
In the rehabilitation almost all the existing structure of 1915 was
utilized. A portion of the dam on the left wa transformed into a
stable and satisfaotory overflow, gravity section. The crest was raised
by 3 feet. The prome of the dam was out back and keyed to give a
bond for the down· stream concrete reinforcing. Drains were provided
at the joints between the masonry and concrete to prevent hydrostatic
pressure from breaking the bond. Sufficient bonding to create an
integral and monolithic action in the entire tructure wa obtained.
The added oonorete seotion is thoroughly keyed into the rook to prevent
sliding.
In the broken out section on the left portion of the hollow dam in
addition to strengthening the buttresses, the rook surfaoe down· stream
from thiE' section was protected against futuro erosion with a thick
concrete apron.
llA
164 IBRIG.A.TION

The upstream deck was strengthened. Piers at 60' centres and 9'
thick were constructed to support a battery of four 51 X 18 feet tainter
gates.
In the analysis and design of this part of the dam, the large piers
were assumed to support safely the hydrostatio thrust on the gates,
while the dam was assumed to carry the silt and flood loads safely.
In the intact portion also, the buttresses and upstream deck were
strengthened. Piers at 60 feet centres and 9' thick were built through
the hollow dam to support a battery of five 51' X 12' tainter gates.
A thick concrete apron was constructed to preV'ent future erosion of
the rock downstream of the dam.
The most important work done is these the solidification of the
foundation. A thorough sub-surface exploration rovealed that an exten-
sive grouting programme was necessary for the structure. Along the
upstream edge of the solid dam and hollow dam a concrete cut off wall has
been oonstructed. Extensive grouting has also been done. This grouting
and cut off construction has holp Bd to render the dam foundation
relatively impervious to the flow of water, a condition that formerly
diei not exist under the dam.
274. Buttress welrs.-Buttress weirs and arched buttress weirs may
be designed and constructed on similar lines to those dcscribed for this
description of dams.
In the case of weirs, this type of work gives special facilities for the
oheap construction of a water cushion, the cushion walJs of each bay
resting on the down-stream ends of the buttress forming a sories of
cushion cisterns between each pair of buttresses. A section ccc of such
a cushion wall is shown in dotted lines on the section of the arohed
but-tress dam (figuro 36 above).

WEms ON SAND.

275. Weirs on sand and other friable foundations.-When weirs are

constructed on sand or othor soft soil it is neco sary to protect the founda-
tions of the masonry weir wall uom injury by :masonry aprons down-
stream of the wall and Rometimes also up-stream. Sand is the soil on
whioh such weirs are most commonly construoted being in the absenco
of rock the usual soil in river beds, and the weirs now treated of are
weirs founded on sand but the general prinoiples and methods of design
apply equally to woirs founded on other soils such as gravel, loam and
.clay, eto. .
When the soil is imperm able the speoial features introduced in
design to guard o.ginst injury to Lhe work by percolation are uncalled -
for, but proteotion against scour js required in all soils other than rook.
W irs on sand or perm a.ble soils are generally low weirs and those
on sand are almost invariably diversion dams as contrast d with storage
dams.
'Ihey vary in height generally from 8 to 14 {I et and are frequently
works of gr at length and magnitude. Most "eirs acrol'S rivers with
beds of sand are drowned weirs', that is, they are subj ct to sub-
mergence.
 RIVER WEmS 165

276. Causes of (allure ~f sand foundatlons.- and is incompres ible

and. forms a. good fo~da.tIon for ma onry works, if it ca.n be proteo d
agamst erOSIOn or dIsturbance, and the protective aprons of a weir a.
designed to effeot this.
There are two ways in which sand foundation under a. weir oan be
disturbed-
(a) By percolation.
(b) By scour or erosion.
The effect of percolation in moving sand and the m thod of guarding
a.gainst such movement under an impervious platform have already
been described in Chapter IV, paragraphs 120 and 121, and the measures
required for protection against scour will now bo treated of.
The discharge passing over a weir 0 est at a level much above that of
the tail water involves great increase of velooity over the normal flood
velocity of the river and if no protection immediately below the weir
wall were provided, the erosive power of the water would inevitably
excavate a deep hole close under the wall and thereby the foundation
soil would be undermined and the work would fail.
A protective apron overlying the sand immediately downstream of
a. weir is therefore a structural necessity.
277. Apron down-stream of the weir wall.-The apron down-str am
Of the weir wall fulfilE! two functions :-
(1) Whop. thero is an OVOl'faU on to it, some of the xcossivo v locitv
due to the head over the weir wall is destroyed by impact. .
(2) The locality of the scour in the river bed is tra.nsferred from
immedio.tely below the weir wall to down-stream of the tail of the apron.
The width of the a.pron should therefore bo suffioiont to onsuro thM
any scour oausod below the weir wl',ll shall be suffioiently far I' moved
fwm it as to leave the soil on which it stands unaffected.
It is impracticabl to make the apron wide enough to ensure that the
flow-off of wa.ter from the tt',il end shall be of such a nature as regards
limit of velocity f'.J1,d absence of eddies a.nd eross currents a.s to provent;
a.ny scour of the sand immediately down-stream of the toe of the apron.
The down-stream section of the apron is therefore made of looso stone
or blocks of ooncreto which will conform to any deeponif'.g of the slJ,l1.d in
the river bed bolow it with tho corresponding slipp,ing of the sand on
which this loose apron lies to form a gradually sloping side to tho oo.vity
caused by scour. .
'rhe tail apron stone sottles with and conforms to tho fa.co of the sand
slope and·forms a. protective covering for the same, proventi.ng the scour
W'orkip.g ba.ck up-strea.m towards tho solid a.pron a.nd body wall a.bove.
The greater the velocity and turmoil of tho wa.ter a.t the too of tho
apron, the deeper the toe scour is likely to be all.d the grea.ter the width
a.nd depth required for the loose stone of the tail a.pron or ta'bu8.
278. Types of river weirs or &nicuts.-From tho above considera.tioni
the following alternative methods of doa.ling with the wa.tor pa.ssing over
the weir crest a.re indicated :-
(1) It ca.n be dropped from the crest on to a solid a.pron builtlli
or noorly a.t the low water level of the river below.
166 mRIGATlON

By this means much of the excessive velocity is dissipated et once

and a seotion of flow suffioient to ca.rry the discherge with normal river
velocity is formed close up to the body wa.ll and thus the action down-
stream of the toe of the work is much reduoed.
(2) The whole (cross-sectional) width of the apron can be formed
as a sloping surface from crest level to the dry packed downstream a.pron,
the level at the lower extremity of the slope bei.1',g about the low water
level of the river.
A sloping apron may be formed either by 1', solid masonry slopir.g
platform or by filliT',g in of stone over the river bed to the required I vela
the surface being of lp,rge stones dry p!'.\!ked a.t the required slope.
Bligh has divided weirs on send foundp,tions into three types and
his classification will be here follow d :-
Type A.-Vertical drop on to a horizontal floor (vide figures 44
a.nd 45).
Type B .- Sloping masonry a.pron (vide figure 48).
Type C.-Rook fill sloping apron (vide figures 50 p,nd 51).
He subdivides type A into two types-
In type AI the eurftlce of the a.pron is at or blow L.W.L. (figure 44).
In type A2 the apron is p".rtly or wholly e.bove L.W.L. (figuros 45
and 46).
279. Apron up-stream of an anicut.- In addition to a. down-stream
apron the body wall of a weir not infrequently l' quires protcction from
soour on the up-strea.m sido.
Such scours are chiefly due to cross currents, a.ny current running
in. a dil'eotion parallel to the fll-ce of the work beir,g speoie.lly dr.ngoroutl
as ca.using deep soours. These ourrents r.re most likely to be formed
where the weir is situated at a part of the river whero the course is
orooked or ob3tructed by shoals or where the main current is not parallel
to the axis of the river or the weir not a.t right angles to the current.
Proteotion ag'.inst soour above_e. weir is generally given by a flp,t or
sloping rough stone or block apron; where cross ctlrronts p.re developed
either !',bove or below th weir they are checked by 'hl....l1.gir.g groynes '.
280. Hanging groynes.-Tbese ere groynes of rough tone run out
from tbe work r,t right a:ngl s to its length, the top level of the groynes
would geT'.Orr.lly be within 2 or 3 fect of the m".somy crest level if up-
stream of the work a.nd (',t r.bout low water level if down-strep.m of it.
281. Considerations governing design of aprons.-The lengths and
thickn s of th a.pron required for weirs m'e olel1tly not susceptible of
d termina.tion by cr.loulr.tion r.r,d they must b fixed with roferenoe to
and by study of tho dimensions, oonditions ,,!)d history of existir..g
suoce sful work m'l,d of ft'.ilur s.
I n compari \g works, the conditions e.s r g ~.rd':l height of crest, the
Vi locity and depth of water pr..ssU~g over tb work, the no.tur of river
bed, c.nd the np,ture r,nd speoific gnwity of tIle ma.sonry of which they
are oomposed mll t b carefully noted, a.s it is obvious that ell th s
itoms mll t have a:1 effeot on th de igo of the prot ctive a.prons required
to render the works eoure.
 RIVER WEm 1 7
Ill, prepa.ring de igns of 1', weir to be built on and it is ncar to
con ider and combin th above requir ments with tho n c p..r for
proteotiort against dangerous velocity of percolation or d&ngerous uplift
pressures whicb aro su ceptible of definite ol',lculation as d crib in
Chapter I V, pr..ragrr,phs 119 to 125 above if tb lo.ssifioa.tion of c.nd I\S
reg 1.rd its powers of s_,fely withst3J1.dir,g peroole.tion without pipulg is
known.
282. Classification of river bed sand.- If! is tho steopost slop of
the peroolr.tion gr&dient which ensure sefety cgainst 'pipip,g ' ill, r.1l,
p:>.r ticulr.r soil, thon the ler,gth (1) ofth shortest line ofp rcole.tion und r
n heed (H) should not be loss than H X C.
Bligh hD.S divided river bed sands in.to four cll'..Ss sand I),ssign d to
each class a va.lue for C fl.S below ;->-
Glass I.- Light sand I1nd mud (as in tho Nilo) = 1 .
Glass Il.-Fine mi cr,ceous sand (a.s in tho Hima.lll.ynn riv 1'8)
C = 15.
Glass III.- Coal'sc-grv.inod sa.nds, as in the entra.l and outh
Indi r. (this ia the commonest vfl.rioty) C = 12.
Glass IV.- Boulders or shingle D.p.d grev 1l1.nd s/lond mix d C vnri s
from 9 to 5
UHing the abovo classifioatiOIl tho lop.gth of impervious apron nee saBry
to prevent 'piping' and th e distribution nnd int~nsity of uplift;
pressures ea.n rOfl.dil y be computed.
From this, t·he woight I'.nd tho thi cknoss of f.l.ny imp rvious o.pron
necessary to resist uplift CM be calculr.ted.
283. Formulm for computing widths of aprons.- From the o.bov
eonsidera.tions and tl1.king tho Na.rorn. w iT I~S n. standr.rd Bligh hl\8
evolved, Il. series of o qu~.tions giving df'.tr. for computing suitable widths
and thickness of different p8rts of the [',prons of weirs found d 011 sa.ndy
soils.
These formulro havo been t estod by comparison with existing suecoss-
ful works a.nd found to generally I'. gree with such sta.nda.rds.
Bligh'tl formulre with some slight altore.tiona havo been ('. doptod in
this manul'.ll1ond a.re given below, th e notations used being-
l = shortest length of percolation.
l. = lop,gth of percola.tion for computing uplift prossur os on the
apron (vide Chapter I V, p~re.gl'(1.phs 123-124).
C = the classificr.tion numb r of th b d sa.nd.
H = Tho stc.ti c hoa.d under tho condition under inv stigo. tion,
thp,t is, the difference of lovel of th wa.ter up and down-
stream.
Ha = Diffcrenco of level betweon tho or st of weir ahutters and
the surfaco of tho main apron.
Hb = Difforence of lovol botw n cr st of mr,sonry body wall of
w it' e.nd lowest Wl'.ter lev 1.
HI = DitF ronce of level between th t op of th crost Ahut ra and
lowest w~tor level.
NOTE.- Wbere there are no weir sbutters Hb will be subst ituted for B . iD
any formul lll.
 168 mBIGATlON

q = computed maximum disoharge in cuseos per foot rUll of weir

orest.
(a) The minimum percolation length is found from the equation
l = 0 H. .. .. .. .. .. .. (38)
(b) TI~e widtlt of the main (impervious) apron (W) down-stream
from the body wall is a proportion of 40 va.rying as the root of Hb and
taking Narora. weir (Hb = lO foet) as a standard.
Hb
W=4C,\ W j (39)
(c) Total width of apron down-stream of the body wall.-The total
width (L) of tho r ar apron (viz., the main masonry apron plus the
loose apron) would be affected by tho height of the obstruotion (Hb)
and also by the disoharge (q) per foot run over orest of woir.
From this is fra.med the formula. for typo A weirs.
In;:
L = 10 OV W XvIT 75 _ .. (40)

For type B or 0 weirs L should be inoreased by 10 per cent.

The formulre reprosonts that L va.ries as the square root of Hb a.nd
of q which is not unrea.sonable, but this and the last oquation are admitted
to be purely empirioal.
Bligh gives a list of a. number of existing Indian weirs and shows
tha t the aotual valuo of L agrees fairly with the results given in equa tion.
The width of the talus is tho difference betweon Land W, the width
of any impermoa blo floor required up-stream of the body wall is reduced
by inoreasing W; it will therefore oocasionally be economical and
desirable to inorease W beyond the width given by equn.tion (39), thereby
oorrespondingly reduoing botlt the width of the talus, and of the up-
stream apron.
284. Thickness of aprons.-When oonsidering the question of
thiokness of aprons it will be realized that there will be a praotical
minimum thickness required for stability under the action of falling or
rushing wa ter while the main apron which is impervious ma.sonry (types A
and B) must ha.ve suoh additional thickness as may be necessary to
render it safe against blowing up oy tho uplift pr~ssure acting on its
under surface.
The minimum thickneIJ8-
(1) Tho main apron will be genera.lly not loss than 3 to 4 foet
thiok the latter being a minimum for type A in respect to the part of
the apron whioh the overfall impinges.
(2) The dry paoked apron or talus will vary from 3 to 5 feot in
thiokness aocording to the nature of the river bed and velooity of ourront
and type of weir. Weirs of type B require a heB vier talus than type A.
(3) The up-stream apron, as a rule, should oonsist of a layer of
imp rvious olay over whioh should be packed So proteotive layer of
roughstone or conor te blooks or briok of about 1 to 2 foot in thioknf'ss.
If a solid ma.sonry apron is us d up-stream of the body wall it may
be I! f, et thiok or upwards. •
Tho body wall design may follow the lines of the design of weirs on
rock foundations with the oxception that allowanoe for flotation should
always be made.
 RIVER WEIRS 16

285. UpUlt pressu.res on the main apron.-Th re remains to oompu

the extra thickn ss, if any, requir d for the main apron to with tand
uplift and this is best done by first dra wing a ction of th w ir having
dimensions oomputed from the considerations and quatio:ne above
stated and then testing the a.prons so dosigned for uplift stability, making
any alteration shown by suoh examination to be de irable.
The section of the profile weir required for tPis oxamination oompri 8
tho body wall, main apron and impervious up- troom ft or, togeth r
with any lines of piles or any wells proposed as founru1tion work below,
the bottom surfa.ce of the impervious floors.
286. Example of weir deslgn.-An a.ctual caso \vill bo now tak n
up as an example :-A w il' is to be constructod on co<'!,rse sand ( = 1_).
The weir wall will bo ofrubblo stono masonry 7 fe t high above L.W.L.
surmounted by 3 feet falling shutters.

(b)
"". _n __ .; ___ ~ ~.~ --n---01
~!M¥? ~II..,..."DO
p
~ ~
D1.«. ....... " ......

. ",
-.>---- •••.•
-_- --~- f
•• _.,- 1·"0
4. . . .u

I • ,10
tl 4-
t ,
(0.) /l
.
,, ,.AT
,"
I

,I" ,
'I

.i
~','
'~' .

The weir will be of type A with the main apron surfaco at L.W.L.
Tho maximum discha.rge per foot of weir is computod at 70 cusoos and
the maximum depth of water passing over the crest S foet and at such
time the a.fflux is 2t feet; the weir becomos submorged when 4 foot of
water is passing over the orest.
In this case H~ = 10 foot, H. = 7 foot, H. = 10 feet, and q = 70.
287. The body wall.- The body wall requires a. 6 fi t top width
to leave suitable space for working th falling shutters.
The weir will be built with th same slope on both faces a.nd tho bas
width should be that requjred to ~)ring th resultant pressur und or
states I or II to tho down-strea.m extr mity of the middle third.
170 IRRIGATION

The requir d b '.so width in oach str.te mcy b ::l calcula.ted r. below:-
Rere Bb = 7, a = 6, = 3, d = 4 r.ndp = 21·
State I.-Sub tituting the ab ::>ve vE'Jues in formulre 35-b, para-
grr,ph 26 -
1/12S(2t + I !) X 7 + 2! X 3] b" + 6 (21 X 7- 7 -3) b
- IS (7 + 9) = MJ = (7 +o 3)3
33,75 b'+ 34'5 b - 288 = 2,000
b" + 1'02 b + (0'51)' =!~\5 + 0'26 =68'06 .
b = S'25 ._ 0'51 = 7'74 ft.
Stale 11.-. ubstituting the ahovo values in formula 36-b-
7 ~ ~{ b" + 6b} = M~ = ! d Rb' .
b" + 6 b =~~ 12 X 4
2 X 7 X 5
b' + 6 b + (3)' = ]34'4 + 9 = 143'4.
b = 11'98 - 3 = 8·9S.
For stability, str.to II roquiros tho widost b .so a.nd f. suitr.ble slopo
is ono in fivo giving eo ba.se width of 8·8 feot which will b ?doptod.
A str.biHty r.nd r. forco dir.grr.m (figures 43 r.nd 43-a) r.re for purposos
of illustrr.tion drr.wn for both tr.tes I r.nd II in t or.d of only for the
latter-
State 1.- Th'l for cos 1'.1' P, t:m d Wand thl) rosulk.nt R , .
State I I.- Tho forcos p.ro P" P 2 r.nd W t:m d tho rosultcnt R 2 •
The diagra.m confirms the rosult obtr.i.ned by cr.lculr.tion and the
profilo is suitable.
288. General proposals for foundations and apron.-It is proposed
to found the body w~,ll on r. plr.tform of concreto b jng th up-stream
continuation of tho m:-.in apron and not los tha.n 4 £ et thick. This
will :\..'1; nd 3 f ot up-strea.m of tho fl'. e of tho wall r.nd] foot from the
up-str am r,nd down-str am ends two rows of teo I or ferro-concreto
shoet piling will bl,; providod to bc drivon t o 12 feet blow L.W.L.
Tho p roolr.tion 1 ngth l = CBB = 12 X 10 = 120 f ot.
From equr.tion (39) tho longth (W) of tho mein r.pron is-

W = -1 CV -m-
l()= 48 V
/-
;0 = 40'3.
Mp.king tho floor 41·2 f, et, this with th b:-.se of the body we.ll will
giv~ B longth 41·2 + .
= 50 feet from the up-strel.'. m hool of the body
w.\ll to th down- tror.m nd of the mr.in p.pron. The r.bove ~s will b3
n from figur 43-b will giv r. p rcola.tion length 4 53 + +12 feet =
69 fe t. Thi mak no p,llowance for the up-stre::o.m pilos, and leaves
a.n addition".l length of (120 - 69) = 51 fe t to b 3 provided. Tho
up- tr am p,pron may b ma.de 50 fdet being 2t feet of puddle cby with
1\ eov ring of It fe t dr p:.ck d rubble stone.

Th p rcolr.tion length l = 4 +
(50' ~ + ") + +
53 12 = 119·6 feet.
Th ffoet of th up-stream pil sin lengthoning tho line of p rcola.tion
+
is in ignificant being ( fiO~ SI - §O) = 50·6 - 50 = 0·6 fe t.
 RIVER WEIR 171
Tho pi] s would thooroticdly b bvttor pia d r,t til up- tro~\m nd
of the apron so fe r r, peroolr.tion is conoorn d , but pk. od f. shown th
afford protection to the body wdl foundeti n in Of. e of cour cURph'. ing
the p.pron r.nd puddle in a ny pr,rt of th length of tho work. Tho wh 1
width (L) of the down-atror.m apron is found from qUI', tion (40).
I -y:r;-
L= }O C,,", 10" X "
/ q
m = }20
.J To .J 70
- 7-
75= ] 20
X, X-
96 feet.
The down-str a m 100 0 (',pron = !)(l - 41·2 = 5li f, , t.
289. Testing the main apron for uplift by a diagram.-It is
now neoessary to plot the section of til(' imp, rvi ollR woir floor and drr,w
tho hydrp,ulic gmdient r presenting tho pre, ,tH('S. n ('[',('h pr,rt of tho
down-strea m impervious e pron.
A profile of the work is dl'a.wn figllr 44 r.nd b _low it figur 44-a,
the dia.gram of the hydmulio gl'p, diont r. lld offootiv(l woight of th
flooring.
This only affeots the impervioul" p~ '. rt of tho fl oor from a a tit(' up-
strea m end of tho up-stream apron to e tho down-strnn.m end of the
main apron.
The soourity of the Ir.ttor from uplift by th npw;,rd proRRuros
developed on its lower surfr,oo will now bu oxr,minnd .
Those pressur s should b· oountorb:~ lr. n o d by tho woight f tho
mp,soury of the eo pron with r, mD.l'gin f r sr,foty of !~ bout 20 p r oc nt.
Construot figure 44-a showing tho upwr.rd r. l,d clownwr.rd pl'Ossuros
on the section of tho work; this figure is dr'I',wn 0 11 (" b ',fw (/, n r PI' Ronting
low m.tor 1 vol; for gro['.tor clol'.rno. fl tho vorticr,l flor, lo iA Tm ,de twir.o
the horizontr.J.
Mark off a e = 103 foot tho longth of tho imp rviouR floor .
In prolong.'.tion of this longth comm ncing from tho down-stl' I.m
end, mt',rk off the vertical heights of obstru ·tions below tho rivor d((,p
bad level, which is in this CLSO L .W .L .; th:"t is m:'.ko e h = l2 fLwt, viz.,
the thickness of floor, plus tho dopth of piles !'.t e e.
Mp,ke 11, m = 8 foet = proj etion of pil at b b low tho und~r surfr.oo
of floor.
Mak m n = 4 foot = dopth of floor !"t np-st mr.m nd a a. Er ct
tho vortiop,] a a' oqur.l to (Hal 10 fo t. Join a' n. This lin givos tho
mean slope of the hydmulio gl·adient.
From m draw flo line p.·, rr.lIol to a' n outting vorticl'.Js from a and b
in a" a.nd b' rospootively.
FroD' 4 drll VII ~ similM parallol cutting v~rticals from b aDd e
in b" and e.
172 mRIGATION

Then tho hydra.ulic gradient is the firm line a, a', a", b', b", e', e.
Owing to the downwwrd pressure of wtlter up-stream of the shutter,
there is no resultant up-
ward pressure up-stream
of line c c' but down-
stream of this, the level
above L.W.L. of any
point x in tho gradient
line gives the pressure
head at the correspond-
ing point on the under-
side of the floor and this
upward pressure must
be counter-balanced by
the weight of the floor
at that point.
290. Etlectlve weIght
of the masonry of the
apron.- In plotting tho
weights of tho masonry
available to balance tho
upward pressure it is
important to remember
that the whole woight
por oubio foot of any

-
...
masonry above
down-stroam water level
of the oondition under
the

examination (generally
the L.W.L.) as compn.red
with water is (p), the
weight of any masonry
lying below that level
is by flotation, that is,
. by uplift reducod to
(p-I) .
In the case undor
discussion p = 2i and
I (p - 1) = Ii and all the
I masonry below floor
I level is also bolow
..
I
.~
I L.W.L., and thorefore
I weighs Ii compared
I with water and that
I above L.W.L., as in the
I body wall weighs 2! per
I oubic foot.
I
I 291. Diagram of
t etl~ctive weight 'or
. ·-ld apron.-Tho net weight
-11 of masonry lying above
5' oach point between c c
 RIVER WEffiS 173
and e e is therefore now plotted in figure 44-a as v rtienl lin abov
the base which is at L.W.L.
+
e e" = (7 X 2i 4 X 1t) = 201
a a" = e e" = (4 x Ii) = 5
and the height of each point on the resulting lino c" p a" e" abo 0 th
base ropresents the offective downward pressur of masonry in term
of foet of water heights, or what is the same thing tho lev 1 of ach point
on it is the pressure hoad which the ma.sonry can balance and thi should
be about 20 per cent above the head as shown by th hydraulic gradi nt.
It is unnocessary in praotico to draw the weights of tho' bodywa ll or
any other walls where it is obviou that theso provide adequa wight;
this has baen drawn in this oase merely for tho purpose of oloar d mon-
stration of tho method.
The effective woight of tho floor boing uniform all tJ long tho lino
d e and the upw2.rd pre .SUTO gradi nt bing sloping th£' critical s tion
is a2.t the too of the body wall. The diagl'&m show a me..rgin of oxcoss
length of d' d" over dd' slightly more than 20 per c nt; nnd honc tho
weight ofthe floor is adequate.
At e elf the weight of floor is exessivo and might b l' eluoed if tho
iimit of thiokness imposed by other oonsiderations woro not sp dfi d
as 4 feet.
292. Balancing head of a ma&onry apron.- Tho thicknoss actua)]y
roquired to resist uplift would in this, and in most Cl~SOS, givo a tmpo-
zoidal section to the floor. In this cl:'.se it would not be unrer. onA l!le
to make tho Boor thiokness diminish gradually frem 4 folt p, t d to 3 feet
at e by sloping the underside of the floor upwards f!.S shown by tho dotted
line d 8. In suoh oase the line of balancod hoads would bo d W SW (figul'
44-a).
Reference to tho above figme ~hows thn.t, as the hydra.ulic gr.a.diont
c' e' represents vertical heads, at each point, viz. :-the lev I to whi('b
w.-..tor would rise in a. pipe passod through the floor e..t tha t point, tho
W
counter b:1lancing woigbt gl'e.diont c· pd" e simihdy ropro nts st epo}"
point tho level of water which would just balanco the offcotiv woight
of the ma.sonry at that point and may be tormod the balancing hov.d
of the masonry.
293. Alternative diagram of effective weJght of apron.- If
the lovel of the under surface of the imp rvious flooring w re laid fl.t
'a. lovel above d' e' throughout no upward pressure would oomo on the
floor.
Tho pr ssuro thus depends not only on the floor wight but on its
level.
The base levol in this pressure diagram Iv'!.8 boon tak n as L.W.L.,
whereas tho underside of the floor is 4 feet below this.
This ha.s been oompensated for by deducting 4 fi thad for 'flota-
tion' from the total woight of masonry lying below L. W.L.; and the
result would have boon preoisely the samo if the full weight of masonry
had been allowed and the undersido of this floor plotted at its tru level
eN' e'''; because e c'" and e e"' each are equal to tho thiokn 88 of the
floor in feet and th lines aN d'" and e" e'" ar eaoh equnl to 4 X p; that
is, no deduction is to be mado for flotation if the woight of masonry is
plottod on a base line coinoiding in lovel with tho underside of the floor.
 114 IRRIGATION

In tho caso of woirs of types Aa and B this method of plotting is

lrequontly tho simplest and when adopted no ueduction i8 made for
flotation.
,
294. Combined ellect of level and weight of apron on its
' balancing head '.- The clOl;H gra.sp of the influonce of tho level of
tho underside of the floor is of importance in computing the effective
weights of floors whioh are wholly or in part above the downstream
water level whioh is the baso line from which the hydraulio gradient is
plotted. In every oase what has to bo oonsidered is the • baIa.ncing ,
water lovol duo to the combined effoct of the level and woight of the
floor with roferonoo to the virtual water lovel givon by the hydraulio
gradient.
295. Design of talus and ' Inverted fllter '.-In respeot to tho
profile in figuro 44 of the 2.bovo oxamplo a fow rom!.',rks aro now added
in rega.rd to the loose apron (tho talus). It will be seen from the section
that this has boon divided by a longitudinal dW2, rf wall 2 feet wide into
2 parts, 25 and 30 foet wide rospectively. The up-stream pa.rt is pro-
vided with 3 foot stono pa.oking over one foot of quo.rry rubbish while
the socond part is 3 foot of packod stone only.
The soction shows settlement of the tail of tho latter which woUld
gradue.lly be ~used by scour down-stream of the too of the apron. The
stOllO of this ta.il apron would bo added to from time to time, ifit appeared
desirable, the necossity being judged from periodio surveys and sound-
ings of the depth and positions of the scours below tho weir.
The up-stream soction is oxpeoted to remain intact and the quarry
rubbish aots so as to quiokly dissipete any remaining pressure at the
down-stream to of the main apron, elso checking any t endency to
piping or blowing of sl1nd upwards through the open stone paoking.
This arrangomont is similer to that usod in a sand filter bed to prevent
sand boing romoved by percola.tion but is inverted, tho sand being in
this case below and not e,bove the gravel end for this reason it is termed
I an inverted filter'.

Tho arrangemont is conomice.l and effectiv~ I1nd constitutes an

additional sa,£ guc.rd against • pipWg '. Broken brick or stone, shingle
or gte,vel aro elso suitable me.terials for an inverted filter.
296. Design of up-stream apron .- Tho up-stream apron is 2! foot
of puddlo, cov rod by I t foot of dry rubble. The puddl is thic~enerl.
at the junction with th piles to ma~e a good joint. This is most impor-
t tmt as failure in this rospect would mako the up-stream apron useless
so far as pero la,tion and uplift is oonoorned.
297. Example of a weIr of type A,..- Au example of a weir of
type A2 is now givon.
Th conditions aro !.',ssum d to b as follows :-
Body we.ll cro t above L .W.L. = Hb = 12 fi t (vide para.graph
2 3) i cr at shutters 4 fe thigh: therefore HI = 16 feet, orest with
7 feet.
Equal faco slopos of ! up and down-stream.
This prop. d profil (figur 45) may be t sted as was done in tho
previous oxampl i it is here assumed to be su~table. The majn apron
 IVER WElnS 115

floor is 7 fcot bolow tho bod WoU ere t ; th minimum thi kn s of th

main fioor is t ntr,tivcly fix d p,t 4: foot.
• Tho valu of th
•
mo.ximum eoroputod
flo d diseharg of tho
I~
" woir por foot run i 75
~I GUile es = q. Tho weir
, ft is to bo built 11 ooar 0
sand (elt~ss C = 12).
l Th L.W.L. Hond doop
i b d of tho rivor is a.t
~ lovel 100 and tho +
1 t.ypo of foundations will
I btl I'limih~r to tho lnst
, 0 -!IDlplo, tho d t,ailtl
I boillg aH in tho pr filo
I (fignr .. 45).
: Tho millimUlll It ngth
I of poreo lll.tion il:) found
1
' I from oquatioll (3 ), 1 =
I
1
I t 1:.. Hs = 12 X 16 = 192
r, J1 \ foot.
,~ "l' I I Tho minimum longth
~ ~
': 1. 1\
of main a)JI'OIl (W) from
~ ~ ~{ i l l oquation (39).-
I~::; '
I
'I I .leli) • \V
.... , =::: 4C V:iT - ~
.__ .: ,~r_-~,I
____ .~ ' I-~rl

-_..1_- ''JI·,-
. .
- - 'It!
~ = 4 ,JTI
'
HI
= 4 ·I),sa.y,
l! 49.\- foot .

fE
•,
-- I' _k _-- -'-1q,J Thil:! longLh wi ll bo
:U~I='::'i! _-:. -:_-_--. --=-___1 )Jl'olongcd by an impor-
1 viow; apron 30 fo t loug
1 and 3 f( t thiok. This
I prolongation savos 30
I [out of talu!:I a.nd also 30
'J fo ut of up-stroam apron,
I and i!:l t.l1Ol' -[oro not
,
I oxtravagant whilo givillg
!:Iomo littlo u.dditiono.l
, I
t
s eUl'ity. Tho
longth (L) of th down-
total
I

Ij:
I IltroaD1 apron from qun..
tion (40)-
/ Hb / '9
I L = l OC VIo X' V 7'5
, I
+, = 10 X 12 /~X /~
I

.,
;it
= 132 f ot,
'V 10 V 75

.11
,, Th roforo the width
of tllol us is (132 - 79.)
______ __ -A
, = 521 £ t. From figure
46 th I ngth of undor
sid· of tho imporviou8
main pron as proloDged
116 ffiRIG.A.TION
/

onder the body wall is

(14! + 491 + 30) • = 94: foot.
The down-stream piles = 10 '"
Total .. 104 "

Allowing IlS in paragraph 288 abovo 1 foot for the up-stream piles
and 1 foot for the depth of th bottom of the puddle apron below the
deepest bed level the length of puddle apron up-stream must be 192
- (104 + 2) = 86 feet.
The profile of the wbole impervious apron with piles and body wall
must now be completed (figure 45) and the diagram ofbydraulio gradient
a, a', b', b", 10' 1 showing virtual water levels must he drawn (figure 45-a)
as in the previous case on a base at L.W.L.
The actual level of the underside of the aprons Co ho It 10 is plotted
in the diagram and in parallel lines (chain dotted) drawn a.t a distance
from it of the thiokness 'Of tho base multiplied by (p), giving the lines
d" h', h g and g' l' which show the balancing water levols due to weight
of aprons.
These show that the apron is amply safe with a good deal of margin.
298. The up-stream apron and the talus.-The up-stream apron
ha.s been fixed a.t a level a little bolow L. W.L. so that the puddle clay
might never become dryas puddle in this condition cracks and becomes
ineffeotivo.
Tho talus of this weir has not boen plotted in the sootion.
299. Comparison of types AJ and A~ of weirs.-If the weir had
been type At and tho upper main a.pron surface ha.d beon at L.W.L.,
the underside of the aprons oonstituting the base would have been
on lino 0'" 16" h'" 1''', 5 foot lower 'than plotted, and th balancing levels
would be obta.ined by plotting tho full woight of masonry apron and
water ov~rlying it, on the base c'" ])/' h'" j"'.
For the 4 feet apron the weight ordinate would be 4 P and for the
3 feet a.pron (3P + 1) as I foot of water overlies the apron surface. This
balanoing level is plotted (figure 4fj-a), viz., the lines d'" k' kg" and gn' f"
(oha.in dotted).
Theso show tha.t under these modified condition for a length of about
24 feet from tho body wall tho main apron would require additional
thiokness without making aay a.llowance for fa.otor of safety.
This brings out olearly the effeot of leveZ of the apron on the uplift
pr ssures and the advant~ge in having the apron above L.W.L.
Considerable saving in pumping a.nd contingent expenses in r,otual
oonstrnotiolJ reault,s f,.om being able to Jay tbe apron without unwatering.
A weir of typo A, 801 0 has the advantage vver type AI that there is
a smnller vertical fall on to the apron; for these reasons the fermer
type is froqmmtly preferable to the latter. On the other hand the
raising of tbe floor r strids th waterway over it and thus increases
velocity at the down-stream too (,f the work.
 1"17

300. 'two tnethods of drawing diagrams of uplift foroes. - ' 0

methods of plotting pre sure dia.gram ha.ve b n abo 0 d cribed:-
(a) That of plotting both upward water pI HW' and quiYa.1 t
downward apron weights ii'om a common ba. 0 at the lovel of th d wn.
stream water of the condition und r oxamination (g n rally L.W.L.)
and allowing the masonry weights as POI' (P- ]), l' speoth'oly, for Boh
unsubmerged and submerged foot. of m(\· oury.
The method is not of universal application and il:! unsuitablo unl
the down· stream imporvious aprons are horizontal and ith r (I) wholl.
submerged or (2) with tho underside horizontal and a.t th 1 vol of th
down·strea.m water.
(b) '!'hat of plctting the upward water prOSSlIl'e as ill (a) bu t plotting
the weight of the impervioUB floo), on u base at the lev I of tho und l'
surface of each length of that floor.
In this method. the length of the wight ordina.te at any point should
be p multiplied by the thiclmoss in fi ot of the ma.sonry of the floor pl1{
the depth of water standing over the aurtac of th floor at this point.
This method is of universa.l application but a. li ttle I s conveniont
~ha.n (a) for wholly submerged horizontal 8.1)l'on '.

801. Computing uplift without drawing a dlagram.- lt i po siblo

to verify the safety of a weir aga.inst uplift from the socti n of the work
without drawing a. separa.te dia.gram.
Referring to the last example (figUl 45) the percola.tion longth lJ
from the seotion of the work ie-
lJ = (1 + 86 + 9 + 14 ~· + -W~ +30 +
10) = 200 f ei.
The mean hydraulio gradient is therefore 2~~ OJ' 1;'0 ' ~tarting from
L.W.L. !1t the up-stream end of tho upmn, whero the maximum head
is 16 feet and working along the und~rside of tho base at w6ry 12. foot
of peroolation length tho uplift head is reduced by one foot with roferenoe
to the level of L.W.L. as datum level. The uplift hood ran thUB be com·
puted for the oritical poiuts JD the proBlo, vjz., veritcally below tho
down·stream toe of the body waH (d) , at any change in thi cknoss of tho
a.pron (h) and (g), and at ~h e tail ond just up· stream of tho pilos (J) .
Tlius in figW'e 45 tho uplift heads reduced to th lev I of L.W. al -
At (d) the uplift head is 16 - 1 + 116 + 9 +_ ~~ = 16 _ 1W'u = 7 f t
(:t'5 12'u
(about). The masolll'Y apron is hero 6 f(.let thiok of whioh 1 foot is
below L.W.L., and therefol's subjeot to tiota.tion The uplift hea.d
it could balanoe a.bove L.W.L. is tl)erefore (5 x 2! + 1 X I i) = 12, feet.
There is thus ample thiokness against uplift .
. At (]b) the llplift head is ( ]6 - 1112~:) = 6! feet {abou\') from
L.W.L. AB the underside (jf the floor is one foot a.bove L .W.L. the
uplift hee.d on it is only 51 foot. The thiokness of masonry above (1~)
is 4 foot and the balancing hea.d is 4 X 2J foot = 9 foot. Tho Boor i.
therefore amply thiok.
At (g) t he uplift head on a. sul'faco at a level aIle foot above L.W.L.
. 162 .
IS '\ 16 - I 12'5) = 2 feet. The balancing h a.d due to .masoluy ia
21 X 3 = 61 feet .
.'"
118 IlUUGATIOti

At (e) the uplift head on the under surface of the apron would be

(16 -1 -1~~:) = - :5 that is, there is no uplift.

802. The floors and bank connexlons of all works holding up a head
of water to be designed for seeu.rlty against plplog.-The methods des-
oribad above of designing weirs of type A on permeable soil so as to
provide a platform of a length which will give a safe percolation gradient,
that is, a suffioient length of creep and also so as to make the flooring safe
&gainst uplift must similarly be applied to other types of weirs and also to
othor irrigation works which hold up the water above them to a higher
level than that of the water below. These works include regulateD,
sluioes and drops.
Not only must the length of creep under the floor be sufficient, but
a hydraulio gradient suitable to the marginal and embankment soils
must be provided round the wings and bank oonnexions so as to ensure
a suffioient minimum length of creep against failure by percolation round
the flanks of the works having in view the maximum head to which the
work wjll be subjected.
808. The PaJar anlcut (North Areot dlstrlct).-The Palar anicut
breaohed badly in 1903 under the action of the highest recorded flood
in that x:iver and a oonsiderable length of aniout was carried away.
Figure 46 gives a seotion of the anicut before it breached, and figure
4-6-b the section after restoration.
From tho levels and dimensions given in the figure we get
Ha = H b = 10.
The maximum disoharge per foot run of crest is computed at 97 cusecs.
The olass of sand gives 0 = 12. If we assume that the grouted
rubl:le forming the main apron of the original profile which failE'd is an
impervious floor tho value of l for the profile is 91 feet against 120 feet
r~quired as found from formula l = OHb. The length of the main apron
(W) is 46 feet against 48 feet given by equation (39) paragraph 283 and 50
feet given by the new profile. - ,-
The total width (L) of tho whole apron downstream of the body wall
is 76 feet compared with 136 feet given by equation (40) and 100 feet
given by the new profile.
Examining the uplift oonditions it must be observed that an apron
grouted from the top after laying cannot; be a satisfactory impervious
apron as at the best the water penetrates to three-fourths thickness of the
apron before it meets the impervious grouting. In this examination,
however, the grouted apron is assumed as masonry.of specific gravity 21.
The aotual hoad observed during this flood was 9 feet aOQording
to the up and down-stream levels reported which are shown o~ the
profile. . ~-

The total gradient length (h) is 91 feet giving a. hydraulio gradient of '
11 , From this the uplift head on the underside of the apron at the
0
down-stream toe of the body wall and with reference to a. base at 490 +
 RIVER WEIRS 17

(the level of th6 water below the work) is 9 - 25

10
= 6. foot.
Th apron
.
is submerged a.nd ha.s weight (p - 1) = 11 units per oubio foot a.nd til
ba.lanoing head ofthe a.pron is Ii X 4 = 5 £ t . 'Thu ev n with a. oJid
1ll&Sonry floor the apron would not hav~ be n ~af aga.inp, "plift..

" •• 4 .
..ALAR AN'S",..

~-. ,

'FIG •.46(41

Fto..46(b)

Sim:ila.rly the uplift hea.d at b is (9 - ~~) = ' 4'2 foot. The bala.noing
head is Ii X 3 = 3'75 feet and is insuffioient. The same thing is ·shown
graphioally in figure 46-0,. This is quite enough to a.ooount for the failul'e
oftha weir apart from' piping.' . - .. .
:. It is proba.ble, however, th~t both .oau'ses oontributed t~ fallure. This
is ~ c:a.se where the submergence of the IIoprons ma.kes all the di.ffi r noe
between safety and danger as the lIo.pron of this weir would be safe aga.inst
uplift when, as is in fa..ot UBual.at jihis aDieut. little or no water is passing
over the orest.
Examining the new profile for uplift at 0,1 and bl the percolation
length l = 39 + 14 + 20 + 13 + 30 = 116 feet. In oomputing this.t~e
depth of the wells only has boon counted, the piles being omitted fro~ -
, t
180 lBRIOA'fIO

til Qomputation 808 it is not considered l' a onable in thi peoial ca

to add the depth of all the vertioal barriers. Th hydrauli gradi nt is
~= A. Th uplift head at al with roference to the down· tream water

level <+ 490) is ( 9 - ~:) = 5 £ et .

The balancing he&<} is I i X 4 = 5 feet. The apron is just sufficiently
thick to resist uplift without 11y margin. At b, the uplift j~ ( 9 -~) =
2, feet.
+
The balancing head i8 Ii 4 = 5 feet and this is amply strong.
The design may be oritioised in the light of the formulated sy t m of
design as follows :- The lower main apron might be 3 feet and the upper
one 5 feet thiok and the ma onry up·stream apron might be replaced by
puddle oovered with dry j!!tone which would be e,qually effective against
percolation and les8 expensive. The piles were put in ohiefly as a
proteotion against soour by up·stream oross ourrents to whioh the failure
of this aniout has been a.ttributed by some engin ers.
The inverted filter made by a layer of 1 foot of quarry rubbish under the
talus may be noted. This practioe has been employed in Madras fort
many years and is also notioeable in the old profile. The quarry rubbish
below the imperVious aprons does not appear d sira.ble as being likely to
inorease creep on the underside of the floor.
Extensions to the anieut by the addition of a retaining wall below
the dry a.pron 50' long aDd a. talus 20'·-0" were carried out after the
heaviest reoorded flood of 1930. Fig. 46(0) shows the above additions.

804. Oondition of greatest upllft on weir aprons.-In weirs of typ A2

the condition of g{eato t uplift is frequently tha.t at whioh tho tail water
is just at tho lovel of tho main apron surface and this is generally, if
not always, the oase when there are no crest shutters. The uplifts
oxamined for the PalM' amout under such a condition must approximate
to tho above computed.
. 806. PaUure and reatoratlon of Karora welr.-This weir failed in
1898 by the 'blowins up' of 350 feet of the main apron. Part of-the
pitched and wouted apron was blown up at the Sl\llle time. At the
time of the ia.il~'th"O 8tability of the floor wa under investigation, pipes
pauing through the main a1!ron which had be'.ln inserted £ w day before.
showed an' unsafe uplift pressure on the underside of the floor.
The weir as originally oonstruoted is shown in figure 47; it i provided
.nth oreat. ahut.tors 8 feet lUgh. .
At the tim of tM fallure the up.strelUll .apron with the underl)'inl
pucldle ht.d been di tur'bed in pl~ 0 that it was giving littl protection
to the work against perco]ation.
 RIVER WE 1 1
Pre ure diagra.m, figure 47 (a), shows the oondition before the up-
.tream apron was displaced. The ma onry is brickwork (p. gr. 2)
and ~he grouted pitohing has been oounted as of p. gr. 1 3/4.

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 IRRIGATION

Xhe weir is built on fine sand (0 = 15) •

. - Tho diagram shows that the apron was insufficiently thick and 'that
the mean percolation gradient was somewhat steep even with an intaot
up-stream allron.
The displacement of the puddle brought matters to a crisis and the
main apron failed by uplift.
The restored weir, figure 47 (b), alldits pressure diagram, figure 47 (c),
show the present condition of the weir whioh has shown no further
signs of weakness.
It will be noticed that the down-str~am impervious apron is shorter
than before fa.ilure, thus reduoing pressure on the down-stream main
apron while the inoreased lengt.h of peroolation is secured by the increa-
sed ltlOgth of the up-stream a.pron. An extra weight of main apron is
seoured by the water cushion now provided.
The studies matlo regarding the failuro of this weir lod to investigations
by ClibbOl'n, Botesford a.nd othor engineers on whioh is ba.sed the method
of design of weirs on sand described in this chapt-er and first formulated
by Bligh in his" Practica.l Design of hrigation works."
806. The Lower Chenab weir at Khankl examined as an example of
type B welr.-This is a low weir with 6 foet crest shutters,the crest of
the body wall being only 7 feet above L.W .L. It stands on sand of
grade C = 15.
The work failod t,hree years after construction by the oollapee of
the ~a.in a.pron.
The profile (figure 48) gives the section subsequent to restoration.
Prior to the ooUE\pse of the main apron the up-stream apron oonsistod
of dry stone pa.cking 50 feet wide and 2 feet thick without any puddle or
other impervious floor material.
In restoration the 'sloping part of the talus of dry stone was inorea(.ed
f rom 3 to 4 feet thick and grouted while a new up-stream apron was
construoted on 0. puddle base 50 feet wide and aline of wells 8 feet wide
and 20 feet deep with their tops'" feet a.bove L.W.L.
The additions have been suocessful and the weir has worked satis-
faotorily for the last fifteen years.
In the pressure diagram, figure 48 (a), the grouted rough stone apron
is taken as effeotive with a sp. gr. of If. The ma.sonry apron has
n. sp. gr. 21.
The diagram shows in dotted lines the hydraulio gradient before
13 1
restoration with a mean slope of - = - (neady) and a.fter restora.tion in
65 5
13 1
oontinuous lines with a mean slope of - = -
193 5 (approximately).
The original distanoe was olearly utterly inadequate and the weir
probably failed by 'piping,' the sand being washed out from under
masonry apron whioh oollapsed.
 1

It will ~ noted .that ~ the original profile the apron wight

was suffiolent against uplIft. The balanoing level of this apron is
shown hatched in the diagram.
In the present profile it leaves
a. large IDDrgin of safety.

807. The type 0 or" rockflU of

welr.-This type of weir is oommon
throughout South India and r sts
on all kinds of founda.tions, rook,
olayand sand, eto., and is formed
aoross rivers and str ams of all
magnitudes. Many of these works
are of great antiquity and the
type, being merely a barrier or
bund of rough stone with a flat
down-stream slope, is one whioh
would naturally be evolved in the
ear;iest stages of weir oonstruotion.
The width of the works va.ry with
the nature of the river b d, the
more easily the bed is eroded or
undermined by peroolation the
wider the work.
On a hard rook foundation
such a dam would generally not
be as economica.l as a masonry weir
wall. while on a olay or soft rook
foundation weirs of type A would
generally in these da.ys be oheaper
both to oonstruot and maintain; the
same remark is applicable even to
sand founds tions j type B or type
A weirs are genera.lly oheaper to
oonstruct and almost a.lways cheaper
to maintain.
In the past, many and important
type C weirs have been oonstruoted
and irrigation engineers, in South
India, have to dea.l with this type
of ani out in existing works more
often than with any other type.
In its inoeption it is a rough stone
..• .._I bund with the surfaoe of heavy
stones carefully pa.oked and wedged
o up to prevent displaoement. In
Ii
~ many old works the orest stones have
• been tied together by iron olamps.

In most but not by any means in all of the ol~ works there is a body
or faoe wail of rubble or briok in mortar WhIch serves to prevent
percolation.
IS! m:B.IGATIO

If the work is on n impermeabl foundation, such a wall will

altogether stop lea.kage, but on permeable foundations as in the case of
type A or B weirs it Will only be checked.
In modern works of type
o a body wall is always
built and generally also one
01' more ourtain walls ar
provided parallel to, and
down-stream, of, the body
wall, and dividing the width
of the apron into compart-
ments. These walls serve to
check percolation and to
localibe damage by·checking
the extension of injury
oaused by displacement of
any of the surfaC'e stones
of the apron.
808. Body wall of a
type C weJr.- The practice
in respect to the founda-
tionR of the body and curtain
walls varies; in some cases,
DB in Okhla. weir (figure 49) ,
no exca.vated foundations
ha. V be n given a.nd the
walls a.re built up from the
Jevf'l of the deep bed of the
riv r; in others, as in Bez o

wada and Sangam weirs

(figur f:I 50 and 51), either
the body wall or ourtain
walls, or both, have well
foundations carried to
1\ considerable depth below
the rivE'l' bed.
While the suooess of
OkhIa w ir whioh is built
on fin sand (0 = 15)
shows that foundations
ar not n oessary, the
xistenoe of well founda.-
tions for the body wall
reduoes p roolation and
also, in oases in whioh the
ma.in a. pron has been dis-
placed and seriously
scoured, suoh foundations
have saved weirs from
breaohina·
 RIVER WElRS 1 I)

A notable instano of this ooourr d in the 00. of B zwnda ani ut

in 1894.
Well foundations to the tail ourtaiu wall, uoh as ha been provided
in Sangam aniout, afford 8. proteotion to the main apron, in th of
deep scours being formed down- tream of th apron, but th r does not
a.ppear to be uffioient rea on to justify the 00 t of w 11 foundation for
intermediate ourtain wall. In om case hallow binding w lIs, only
or 4 feet iu depth and founded on th(' rough tone filling , are buH in t ad
ofint rmediate ourtain wall. These s tv to r strict x nsion of damllg('
to the apron but will not b muoh llS in oheoking p roolation.

" 'G.S'I.

SANGAM ANICUT ACROSS THE PtNNE.~I · ,

~ ... :iIlfIJtc.fjiil
AI'4'CUT ··:....,ECOOMU SVaME~GtO WH£H 5,71':'; t'AGSt.S OVl~ C~UT

309. Dry stone aprons ot type C weirs.-Tbp most S8 11tial feature

in which typ C differs f" m type B wei,' is that therp is no imp rvious
apron in the former, and the percola.tion und('l' th, body wall is fr to
escape through the intersticeR betw en th Eltones of the apron , Th
flow through these is no doubt somewhat ob trllctt':'d, sp oially if th 8f'
interstices have been filled as they should b during oonstruction with
nhips of ston and quarry rubbish, but at the beRt this lin of flow will
offer I 88 t sistanoe than that through the Rand. Thus thel' mutlt b
an upward percola.tion through the spa.ces betw{'en tit stones which
raises sand off the b d and generally deposits it in th<' interstic s of the ·
stones. Th foundation sa.nd is thus moved up into th stant' and tht'
stone settles into the sand. The surface of the apron mURt b mad 11p
as it settles by adding more stone and this makes the .rnaintenan ,(. of
this type of apron expensive 80 long as settlement oontinues.
Gradually, a.s this settlement progreflses, the intert':'stices of the low]'
la.yers of stone beoome filled with sand, and th mass of ton thoug])
;till permeable comes to a state giving as great or gr ater resistanoe to
peroolation than the foundation sand. When this happ ns if tb apron
is of sufficient width, settlement of the sand movement will 0 as and
th oonditions of the weir wil1 not dUt r materially from that of 9 B typ
weir.
Th re is obviously a danger espeoia,lIy during th initial stag 8 of
settlement to failur of the body wall by oavities being form d und f-
neath it; experienoe, however, shows that 8 rious failures do not ooour
and the conclusion to be drawn is that the ' runs' in the sand ar local
and oonstantly forming and filling in under the body waH assisted in
ibis by the weight of the 100s stoJ!6 in the up and down-stream a proDi.
8tO. Remarks on the .ettlement of aprons of type 0 welrs.- In
pra.ctice it is found economical to grout with concrete th intentices
between tile surface stODl"S of the sloping downstream apron of weir.
186 mBIGATION

of this type as this saves muoh oost in maintenanoe by reducing dis"

pla.oement. Suoh grouting should not be ca.rried out until the work has
stopped settling, but in an old weir of this type it is almost always desira-
ble. Grouting makes the surfaoe impermeable and the stones of the
surface layer liable to uplift as in the oase of a B type weir.
The amount of uplift would muoh depend on the slope of the apron
surface and on the nature and density of the silt acoumulated between
the stones lwlow.
10 some type C weirs as in Sangam ani cut (figure 51) a platform
of broken stone or quarry rubbish is laid over tho foundation sand and
the stone filled in over this, suoh construC'tion proba.bly reduces the
settlement of the apron, by forming an inverted filter through which
but little sand can be uplifted. On the other ha.nd it would deJay if
not altoget!lf'lr prevent the gradual staunching of the apron and with it
tho p rcolation past the weir. The ('ost of maintenance of Sanga.m aDient
has as a faot not been heavy. "
From thf' abov(~ oonsiderations it would appear desirable in plaoing
the rock filling t,O fi.l in the interstioes between lower layers of stone
with olay into whioh chips of stone might be thrust thus forming an
impervious 01' nearly impervious mass. In plaoes where olay or plastio
silt is not at hand this would be costly but even sand filling, whioh would
oost little, would stop moat of the settlement of the apron and by so much
reduce the ~cost of maitenanoo which is one of the most serious objections
to this type of weir when built on sand.
811. Widths and slopes of aprons of type C welr.-The great
quantity of stone required for tbis type of weir not on]y for original
construction but for filling up sinkage, makes it an undesirable one- except
where stone and unskilled labour are cheap and abundant and skilled
If' b ::mr and morta.r expAnsive as it requires more- stone, but less skilled
labour a.nd less oAmf'nting material, than any other type.
. The latter oonditions obtained in the case of the Okhla·, Bezwada,
And Sangam weirs.
It is however not so likely that tbese oonditioDs will reour so fre_
quent.ly in thfl fnt.ure alil in the paHt and type A and' B weirs win generally
be found preferable to type C. ..
The apron slopes of type C weirs may be similar to type B and generally
may be about t. where C is the class of the river bAd sand; on less
pervious foundation the slope may be l'mited to 1. The slope is some·
times given in thAform of steps and it is oommon to have a drop of from
1 to 3 feet immediately below the body wall. This is generally the result
of raising the orest sub equent to original oonstruotion.
It is generally desirable to form the apron of solid masonry immediately
below So step exceeding Ii foot in depth.
The tota.l width of down-stream apron of a type C weir may be the
same as for type B; this inoludes the horizontal loose apron intended
to settle to the slope of the scours below the work.
The upstream apron width will depend on the oonditions of site
and the lio.bility to oross ourrents. It would generaUy be desirable
to ma.lt! this apron on a. bed of puddle as in the oase of type A and B
weirs. This adds but little to the oost and greatly reduces peroolation.
If settlements of the main apron are excessive these may be reduced
by making (or extending) an im~rvious up-stream apron whioh will
1 7
 1 mRIG.A.TION

reduce veloaity of percola.tion and therefore a.lso reduce ettlemen~

unle s the la.tter is due to excessively deep scours below the toe in which
oaae tlle down-stream apron must be extended.
812. Advantages of weirs of types A and B contras~ed.-In con·
trasting types A and B the form r entails on the main apron greater
stresBOS from the impact of falling water than the latter the apron of
which is not subjected to any overCall. On th other hand the sloping
a.pron type does not offer any check on the velocity of the water flowing
down it and this entails greater velocities and greater depth of scour
down-Itr am of the toe of the weir and generally heavi r maintenane
oharaes .
If the river bed is moderately hard kunkur, soft rook, gravel, or
clay, and th overCall modera.te, say not xceeding 5 or 6 £ t, type
A is probably the bost. It i also probably the best v n on very
fria.ble Boil for a. small overfall say, up to 3 feet .
If the differenoe of level (Hb) botween the bodywaU crest and L.W.L.
ie considerable, and the foundation is of sand, type B is generally
preferable.
When type A is adopted over a sandy bed it is generally desirable
to k ep the underside of the main apron at about L.W.L. 0 as to diminish
cost of works and height of overfall , as well as uplift on the apron.
818. Water oushlon aprons.- This form a modifioation of [~ typo
A w ir, the main apron being a istol'n, or water cushion into whioh the
vra.ter po. sing ov r the cre t falls, the foroe of the impaot on the ma omy
b ina reduoed by the depth of th water standing over its surface.
A water oushion is seldom a suitable type of apron for a river weu-
where the bed soil is sand as the features of design generally necessitate
laying the floor of the oushion at a oonsiderable depth below L.W.L. which
in freely permeabl river b d entails great expens in dealing with water
during oonstruotion . When river bed soil is but slightly pervious this
type of apron may occ.asionally be suitable. The effective weight of tho
floor of the cushion reinforced by th weight of th~ water in the cllshion
must be suffioient to 1'e ist uplift.
When river weir is built on a. bed of rock insufficiently hard to resist
the impa.ct of the falling wa.ter a.n apum may be dispons d with by building
0. low sub idia.ry weir aoros the river below the majn work thus forming
a. protectiv water ou hion immediately below the mfl.in weir.
814. Orest shutters a.nd open welrs.- The tendency of m dern design
of diversion weirs is to obstruot the flood wa.ter-way as little as possible
and to hold up a muoh of the total head a. is economioally feasible by
some form of orest shutter which in flood do not obstruot flow. Thus
the height of the olid obstruction required i reduced by the height
of the shutter with corr ponding reduction during floods in the
a.fflux and in the velooity of flow over the apron and a.t the toe of the work.
The depth of aoc.umulation of ilt on th river bed above the weir
is a.lso oorr pondingly reduced and with it th trouble in the form of
bed silt oarried into th oanal.
The Khanki weir (figur 48) above is • good example of this, the
orest shutters b ing 6 £ t high and th bodywall cr t only 7 feet above
L.W.L.
Crest shuttel' have b en in taIled on ODle of the larg st aniouts
in So uth India; on Bezw80da aDieut 3 feet shutter and on that at Dow-
laidlwaram 2 feet shutters have beo? fitted as an alternative to raising
the so weir in solid roa. oury; as a. re ult t,he inoreased depth required
 ltlVER EIR

in the oana.ls havtI boen <ibtainod without putting aJl oxtJ'l\ flood aLl
on 1;116 struotures,
When bridg s exilit at th site of w'Cir.. , 'r(' t ~hutLt'l" ma . M\utabl y
be lift hutt ra moving in gt' OV('S in the up- trMm (' ntil'! of th lliN th I

lifting g ar being workod from tho bddg. Th wholt h adillg til' f

water -nece sary for a river divon;ion work milo, btl oft.' t,ed by m(l8.l1 ·
of suoh lift shutter. and in such ca.lIe tho work j to( J1lll1d an • 0PO" , oil' '
or 'rivor regula.tor " which type of, ork ill d a.lt with in th next apter,
or the heading up may be effoctod pA,l'tly by a solid wEir a.nd partly b '
lift.shutt rs forming a combined woir and reguIa.l,m·. OY( 1'1.1,1 f th 1M
anicut of Madras hav beon improvod in rocoJ)t yoal'l-I by JOWl'l'iJl , t,ho
body wall and in taUing lift shutt 1'1' on th 10wl1rt,U Ufe lltR of t.h work!! .
For instance th Upp rand th l"ow r Ooloroon anioui wer~ arnod U
about the year 1900 by cutting down t.h masonry bod~' I'I~Jl R 4 Ilo11d 6 f t
respeotively and installing on them 6 foot lift ",hutttll·S.
314-A. In regard t,o design of w('iI'S on Pcrm('uulc fOllUdlttioll , durillg
recent years, the Punjab has givelL u lead in formllh~ting mort' corre t
principlE s of design!:! by 'arrying out cxtt'nsivt· fe 'carch(' Over (I, pt'J'iod
of over ten years in the fieJd and four :rt~ ai . in the 11.1, borAotory . /I detailed
treatment of these is given in the book" D sign of Weirs on J)OI'))1 n,b] ,
Foundations" . Th general outlin S of t,h main principl(,R govcrnillg
such designs according to this pu blication il:! given blow.
A w ir has to witlu:ltand two s ,t s of extn'mo conditions .
One is in a low river whe)1 t·ht, 'ntil'c supply IH~S to bo diverlt'd into
the canals and no escapage pprmitted downstream . 111 t.his Oflo tho
pond upstream js filled to its highest It>vel and tJhe downstr am bed of
the river is practically dry. The difi'el'enc bt,tw en the upstr am and
downstream water level,. is at its mil. imum . This difF ronce is known
o.s th "head ' for which a woir is designed. The '\'I'ater from up tr aID
trios to find itR way through the p01'118 s llb·soil on which th w iJ.: is
resting .
The other is in n maximum flood. In this case tIll' wawl' 1 v J up·
stream of the weir is raised abov th normal JJUl,ximum lov 1, duo to th,
obstruction of the weu,. The amount of rise ofthis l v ]abov th normal
maximum is known ai afflux. This afflux d pends on the disoh.a.rg
over the weir C1' st ill otlseo ' pel' foot run , t.hat is the maximum flood
discharg divided by the 1 ugth of waterway . The disoharg p r foot
run will depend upon t,he a.mount of a.fflux tiO bt? allowed whi h is generally
three feet on the iPllnjab weirs .
Thus tIi 1'e 0.1' two major factors ill design, mun ly "h ad " und
"afflux I f . . •

In the years immediately following the oonstruotion o~' a w ir r tro·

gres ion of levels occurs in the downstr am bed of tho riv l' which
ml:'<Y lower the down tr am lowest water 1 vel!:! by 5 to 7 r. t (Punja.b
oonditions) and themaximumlloodl vels by 1 to 2 foot . Thisr trogressioll
oflevels disappears in the course of a few years and is not a permanent
featur. But it adds another factor in design.
Retrogression of levels is, thus a. third factor in design.
Water from the pond upstream, in its flow through th subsoil und I-
neath a weir, 1080s h ad gradually alo11g its passage till fl.t the tail nd
of the work, where it emerges through the dowustr am bed sand, it i
reduced to zero, At eaoh point und r the weir floor it has a. certain
residual pr ssuro (uplift pressure) and a certain rate at 'Which the head
is being lost-the pressure gradient, At the exit end this pressure
gradient is called the exit ,radient. It can easily pro~ d that th
 190 lBRIGATION

pressure gradient at any point under the weir floor represents the force
which the sub-soil water exerts in its direotion of flow. H this force
is at any point, in xcess of the restraining force of the soH in front,
the wa.ter will break loose and carry the soll with it, thus undermining
the foundation of the weir which may ultimately result in the collapse
of the latter.
A weir has thus to provide aga.inst two forccs with regard to llow
of wa.ter through su b·soH ;
Firstly, uplift pressure.
Secondly, pressure gradient a.t the end or exit gradient.
At each point of the weir fioor, it must have sufficie'nt weight to
oounterbalance the uplift pressure at that point. The loss of weight of
masonry due to submergence in water should be cons'dered in calculating
the thickn ss of floor n quir d. If the weight of floor is less than the
uplift pr ssure at any point, the floor will blow up in that section and
ma.y lead to failure. Provision against uplift can be made by gimg
a. thiokness of floor exactly equal to the uplift pressure at each point
known as a gra.vity design-or by a reinforctd concrete raft des;gn held
down by the wight of piers. The choice between the gravity and the
ra.ft design is mainly d termin d by cost and the fea.sibility of execution
if it has to be laid very deep below spring level.
UNDERMINING STARTS FROM THE EXIT END.
To saffguII.rd aga.inst this, the exit gradient must not exceed a
oertain safe limit, gen rally 1/ a to II ~ At a gradient of 1 in 1
theoretioally, the upward fore of water will just bala.nce the weight of
the superimpoS<'d soil. With a gradient steeper than this the- latter
soil will float, lift up and be carried away 1 Bding to disruption of the
Boil below and ultimate failure. This is called the critical gradient.
The value of 1/5 to 1/7 affords a factor of safety of 5 to 7 against
undermining.
Safety against undermining by exit gradients or earth pressure is
seour d by boxing the entire foundation sub-soil by lines of suitable
depth of int rlock(.d steel sheet pile lines downstream, upstream and on
the flanks. Interm diate lines of piles are generally given to afford
seoondary lines of d fenoe in case ..damage occurs to the primary ones.
As Will be explain d later on the uplift pr SSllreS and exit gradients
depend on the U head"-the length of weir floor and the depths of pile
lines.
The-boxed-in seotion of the weir fioor is further protected upstream
and downstr a.m by concreate blocks and loose stone aprODB, the length
and depth of which is governed by the discharge per foot run passing
over that section and the lik ly depth of scour.
The worst conditions of uplift and undermining due to sub-soil water
flow will ocour under pond conditions where the head is maximum-the
first faotor in d sign. -
With the afflux are assooiated a number of other factors, viz.
(a) the d pth of scour of the river bed, and
(b) the loca.tion and depth of standing wave.
The depth of scour is & funotion of the discharge per foot run and i.
given by the formula- -
R ,= 0'9 (1')1
Where R = depth of scour.
: q'= Discharge per foot run.
f -= Laoey's silt faotor.
 RIVER WE.IaS 191

If soour ooours at the upstream or downstream ends of the ir

40or, the sub-soil below the weir will tend to slip into the scour hoI and
thus cause failure. At the upstream end this tendenoy to slip in will be
somewhat oounterbalanced by tho force of s pag flow which act in
the opposite direotion, namely, downstream as th flow is towards down-
stream. At the downstream end it will be accentuated as the forc du
to seepage flow will act in the dir otion of slipping in. Ea,rth pr ssur
and exit gradients, in this case, combine in undermining th w ir founda-
tion.
The location and depth of standing wave is a very important fact r.
The phenomenon of the standing wave is well known. There is on
essential condition in respect of the standing wave, nam ly that it must
not fOfm lower down than the toe of the glacis, for, if it forms on the
level floor, it becomes unstable and the region of disturbance may
travel down to the loose bed and cause damage. To ensur its formation
at the toe of the glacis or further up, the downstr am floor must be
placed low enough so that the necessray depth of water is availabl at
the downstream end to, as it were, hold the h:gh v locity j t coming
from upstream. The intensity of this jet d pends on the disoharge
per foot run and therefore, the affiux.
At the formation of the standing wave, a deep trough is formed
where the floor can blow up by uplift pressure if adequate thiokn 88
is not provided. The a.bsolute uphft pressure under the trough of the
sta.nding wave may be small but relatively it becomes very great as
a large triangle of water is, so to say, removed from top, thus greatly
reduoing the downward load whioh would otherwise help to k.e p the
floor weighed in position.
The depth of the trough of the standing wave further controls the
length of .the floor horizontal which should be five tim 8 this depth in
order to still the turbulenoe of the standing wave before it travtls to the
loose aprons.
The three known faotors in design, viz., head, affiux and f trogression
oflevels have been disoussed above. They lead to the unknowns-
(a) uplift pressures;
(b) exit gradients i
(c) depth of scour; and
(d) depth and location of standing wave.
All thelle unknowns are interconnected and finally reduce to the
two fundamental unknowns-uplift pressure and exit gradients. The
oorreot determination of these for all weir profiles, however complex, is
the most notable of the contributions of the Punjab, embodied in the
Central Board -of Irrigation Publication No. 12 referred to above.
To determine uplift pressures and exit gradients, mathematical
solutj~ns have been worked out for some simple types of floors, comprisiDg
a hOrizontal floor with a pile line anywhere- under it; a stepped horizontal
floor with a pile line at the step j a pile line without floor and with equal
and llJlequal fills of subsoils on either side; a horizontal floor with no.
pile line or a horizontal floor depressed some depth into the- sub-eoil.
Experiments were made in the llri>oratory on these standard forms on
the electrio and hydraulio scale models' In the former the electrolyte
formed the medium through which electricity flowed under a given
potential difference. In the latter case the medium consisted of ordina.ry
III.nd through which water was allowd to flow under a certain cc bead" ~.e.,
 i92 lltRIGATIO

difference betw n th upstream and down tream water 1 vels. By

very oareful experimenting and analysis it wa.s found tha.t th distribution
of uplift pressures und r any w ir profil w s identica.l in the 1 tric a.nd
hydraulio 8 11.1 models and agreed very olosely with that obtained from
mathematics. This ' stablished that th l' suIts obtained from models
agre d with those work d out mathematica.lly. Th next thing to do
was to find out wheth r these r suIt ha. any application to field stru -
tUl'6S.
Field struotures as a rul do not conform to the simple standard forms
onum rated above. so that tb mathematical treatm nt of th m wa. out
of qu stion, but ha.ving stablished that mathematios nd models gave
a.lmost identioal r suits. it wOllld be quite suffioient if the m dire ults
could be made to reproduce the results on field structures.
Th Panja.na.d weir , whioh was completed in 1932, had a compre-
h n iVi set of pr ssur pipes put in under 11 scientifio schem and observa-
tions on these had b n r corded for a number of years. A hydraulic
oa.l model of this weir wa.s constructed in the laboratory and the river
condition at Panjanad were reproduced on the mod 1. It was found
that the model and th field struoture gave id ntical results pl'ovided
th faotors gov rning field oonditions were exactly duplicated in the labo-
ratory. 1'h se governing factors are the variation in temperatUl'e
betw en the inflowing water and the subsoil and tho depth of silt or
scour along the upstr am and downstream pervious floOJs. These
exp rim nts established tha.t the rcsults obtaiLJeti from mathemstic<;
or m(. dels would exsotly rep" sent those obtained in thfl prototype.,
nnder field oonditions. Therefor", for purpo~es of design it will be
quite Rate to take the medel or lllatberratios as a oorrCl:t guide. It has
b en stated. ab,,.vl' that ma.tb ~ matic81 trflu,t,menL ",'ouM bl!CflJl'1e too
it:. vOlved or in1possible in all O'l,Bcl'l ey{;ept ' ·h e pimple f(}rms stated abovo ;
0.180 model faoilities would not be available at all places. In order to
simplify designs and bring them within grasp of the ave1'age designe1' it
would be necessary and de irablc to formulatE' somo simple, but
rational and OOrreot formula.e f{)r ready use.
A new method- Khosla's' method of independent val'iables-bas
now b n evolved which. with th h Jp of but two diagrams· enables
uplift pr sur and exit gradiellts- under any complicat d weir seotions
to b de rmin d with almost mathematical accul'acy and thus mak 8 the
d igner iud p ndont ofall ma.th maticBalld model work . As is indioated
by its nam this 1 tg on the a. umptiQn that the foundation profile of a
structure ca.n ana.ly d into t~ nUlll r of component st ndard forms
for whioh math matical solution al'(~ available a.nd that the pressur
distribution und r th oompoaite foundation can b obta.in d by super-
po ing th pI' sur distribution of the oompon nta. om correotions
&'re, how v r, n 0 seary for mutual influences of the oomponent patte.
Thu th pressure distribution Ulldel' a floor provided with two piles is
not th ex t res\.\ltant of the distributions obtained by conaidering
cb pit 8 paratel. This m thod i ft'ankly mpirical but it is rational.
Ma.thematioal a.nalysi ha been po i bi ill the oa e of on or two oomposite
forms and it ho. heell found that fOI' all O&86S ocourl'ing in actual
pra.otioe th I ult obtained from mathema.tios d not ditfer from tho.
o.btained by this m thod by more than 0'2 per cent although the va.riatioJ).
of the form r from th 1'0 ults of eleotrio models ~s a. high as 2 to 3 r
cent. The results from this method and {tom the electrical model
• PI tel Vll-5 and VII-6 of Oentral13oard. of rrrigfttion Publioation No. 12.
 RIVER WEIRS 193
were oompar d for some of the mo t complicated otions and w
found to agree within 2 to 3 per cent. This m thod has therefo
been rightly aocepted as a d finite substitut for mathematic; r-..J --~-;
work and it is felt that the r sult!l obt"in d from it will
accurate than those possible from any mod 1.
The elementary standard forms into whioh a compl x w
is resolved oomprise the entire length of th floor with any (
pile lines. Eaoh such elementary form is th n tr atcd as in(
of the others. The pressures at th key points ar th n r ad 0
curves mentioned above. These key points ar the junctL_
of the floor and the pile line of that particular elem ntary form- th
r-----
bottom point of that pile and the bottom corn rs in the oas of tho
depressed floor.
It has been stated above that a. c rtain COlT otiOll has to appUed
to the resutls from the components or the el m ntary forms in ord r to
get the true values for a composite weir section. Th floor length is the
oommon faotor in these forms and piles form th variables.
The mutualinte1'ference of piles is given by a simple formula.-
0 = 19 I -E. x dxD
I\j b, b
Where 0 = the corr otion to b applicd as pero ntag of h ad ;
b l = distance between tho two piles.
D = the depth of pile whoso influ nc has to b d termin d
on the neighbouring pile of depth (d)
d = depth of pile on which tho ffi ot of pile (D) is sought
to be determined, and
b = total floor length.
This oorreotion (0) is additive for points in th l'car or baok-water
a.nd substracti ve for points forward in th dir ction of flow. This quation
gives results within about 2t per cent of those obtain d by experim nts
and almost exaotly those obtained from theory for the oase of two equal .
piles at either end.
The influence of piles is local. It maiuly extends to a distance equal to
the depth of the pile; beyond this it gradually falls off till th residual
effeot at twice that distancels negligi ble in most cases. Wh 1'e tho spaoing
is oloso and the depth of piles great, the residual effeot may be ~Wlidera..
able.
The above is an attempt to explain the general prinoipl s of d sign
and to furnish a. general guid as to fundam ntals. For details of actual
designs, the reader is referred to tho 0 ntl'al Board of Irrigation Publie&.
tion No. 12, referred to above.
 CHAPTER I X.
~EAD WORK S.
Rever Regu.lators, Scouring and Head Sluices.
RIVER REGULATORS.

315. Regulators or shUces.- A regulator or sluice is essentially a

bridge spanning the waterway to be regulated, in the openings of which
shutters are installed capable of adjustment so as to regula.te the amount
of waterway left free for the pa.ssage of water.
The bridge platform may either be ada.pted for purposes of public
traffic, or merely a platform from which the gear for regulating the
shutters can be operated as in Poondi.
316. Regulator shutters.- Regulator shutters are usually made of
wood or steel, and fitted to move in vertical grooves in the piers and
abutments of the regulator superstructure; they are raised or lowered
by means of winohes, or sorew gearing, oporated from the bridgeway
above.
817. River regulators, scourIng and head slu,lces.-Regulators are
oooasionally made aoross rivers or streams so as to serve the purpose
of weirs without oausing the obstruction which is inseparable from So
solid weir. These are termed 'river regulators' or 'open weirs.'
It is usual to oonstruot a regulator on one or both flanks of a solid
weir for the purpose of scouring the river channel feeding the canal
head and keeping the deep river channel in regim'e, such regulators a 'e
termed 'so.ouring sluices.'
Regulators across the heads of canals through which the irrigation
water is passed to the systems are termed 'head regulators ' or in
South India more frequently 'head sluioes.'
818. Roadway over regulators.-;;-The roadway of regulators or sluioes
is, as in ordinary road bridges, generally carried by masonry arohes
or by beams of steel, wood, or ferro ooncrete. The relative cheapness
of masonry in India, and the stability resulting from t he extra weight
of masonry arches makes this form of oonstruction generally the most
suitable.
319. Span of regulator openlngs.- The spa.n of the bridge openings
of a regulatol' are limited by the width of shutter to be installed; t he
general introduotion in reoent years of shutters moving on rollers have
resulted in very great inorea s in the width of shutters, and in corre-
spondingly gr ater spans for regulators, and also in the more el.'iiensive use
of regula.tors in pla.oe of weirs for river diversion works. Before the
introduotion of rollers the width of regulator shutters was generally
restrioted to 10 or 12 feet, and as bridge with such small spans must cause
great obstruotion in the waterway of rivers, with or without crest shutters,
were almost universally used for river diversion works.
The spans of shutters for river regulators and for large scouring
sluices are now generally from 16 to 40 foot and bridges with such spans
will seldom oauso undue obstruction to river discha.rge.
 lIiU.D WOlUtS 195
320. Design of regulators.- When the shutters of 0. regulator are
not ra.ised clear of the ventway any pressure of the water on the shutters
is trans~en:ed to the piers (or abutments) which must be d signed, as
in the slmilar case of a buttress dam, to resist suoh pressure without
sliding, or the development of tension or unduo intensity of p.res8Ul'e
in any joint, or on the foundation soil.
Unless the work is founded on hard rock a floor Will bo neoessary
and this must be designed of weight and strength sufficient to r si t
displacement by impaot, and the impervious portion of it must be of
length suffioient to prevent 'piping' and of thiokness suffioient to
withstand uplift.
Bligh has, as in the oase of river weirs, propounded empirioal rul s
of design for regulators ba.sed on sucoessful practice as aso rtainod
from existing works, and these rules form a convenient basis of design
subjeot to the proviso, that each such design must be veriti d for stability
of piers and weight and length of floor, eto., by the methods already
described and applied to the piers and foundations of buttress dams,
the floors of weirs, eto.
821. Formulm for deSign of ragulators.-The formulm rooommended
for preliminary design of regulators are stated below :-
(1) ThicJcness of piers for spans of'S' feet. - It should generally
not bo less than Y-S and vary from 1/5 to 1/3 of S . . . . . (41)
Thiokness should incline towards tho largor proportion in great depths
of water especially for small spans, and tends to decrease for lower
depths of water, or for large spans.
Thus for a depth of 15 feet with a span of 10 feet Bligh suggests
a proportion of 0·25 but with a span of 25 foet, a proportion of 0·21.
Again for a depth of 30 feet and a span of ten feot he proposes 0'31 and
for a span of 25 feet 0'28.
Where, as in the co. so of a head regulator, the work is subjeot to a.
grea.t difference of head of water up and down-stream the proportion
may be raised to 0·4.
(2) The thickness (t) of segmental masonry arches at crown-
Formula is t = '45 y-R . . . . . . . . . • (42)
where R is the radius of the intrados of the arch. For spans of ovor 20 foot
increased thiakness towards the abutments will be necessary.
(3) Abutments.-Trautwine's empirical rule may be followed :-
.. = 2
Thiekn ess at spnngmg + 'IT R +rise of10 aroh (43)

t t - Span of arch (horizontal) (44)

B 300k 8Iope 0 f ab u men - 25 X Rise of aroh (vertioal) •

Tho a.bove are suitable for tentative dimonsions for arohes of road
bridgos.
(4) Height oj piers.-The springing of arohes should not genera.lly
be below the M.F.L. upstream so that as little obatn:ction to flow as
possible may be oaused, and also 80 that the weIght of the aroh,
13A.
196 tBJUGA'l'IoN

spandrel filling, and roadway may not be reduced by flotation. Subject

to this a public roadway should be at the most convenient level to suit
the approaches, etc.
The points of suspension of the shutters whether on a level of the
bridge roadway or not, must be at such a height that the shutters when
fully raised shall have their lower edges above maximum flood level.
When the regulator is not used for traffic this consideration alone
will determine the height of the piers and platform.
(5) The length ojthe piera.-Thisis fixed by the necessa.ry width of
roadway and by consideration of the requirements of stability. Where
a public road is combined with the regulator and is carried by a masonry
arch, tho length of pier required to give adequate width of roadway is
generally suffic~ent to give requisite stability under all conditions of flow,
or of regulation. This however must be tested by stability computations
or diagrams.
When the structure is l'estrictod to use as a regulator or when tho
road way is alight one carried on beams, the lengths of piers ha va frequently
to be increased above ~hat would suffice to carry the bridge in order to
fulfil the requirements of the regulator as regards stability.
(6) Flooring and aprons.- The design of these generally follows tho
rules given for solid anicuts.
S22~ Example of working ou.t of the design of a regulator.-An
example is now worked out of the design of the pier of a river regulator.
A regulator of ten spans of 20 feet clear is to be built across a river
the following being the oonditions ;-
Mean bed level of the river and level of sill of regulator + 50.
Maximum flood level before construction + 61'5 .
Computed l\I.F.L. above the regulator after oonstruction + 62.
Height oftop of shutter when resting on sill + 58.
Foundation soil, coarse sand of clas C = 12.
The roadway is to be carried on rolled steel beams with wood decking
a.nd to be 6 feet wide. The top of the piors requires a length of 6 feet
down strea.m of the groove to give room for working the shutters.
The masonry of the pio:r: is briok of sp. gr. = 2 and one oubic foot of
ma. onry is the unit of weight.
Make the thiokness of pier .~ of span = 4 foet. The weight of tho
girders and roadway, etc., is computed at 2 tons per span, that is 2 X 18
= 36 units of weight.
The weight and support given by the semicircular cutwaters up and
down-stream, and by the masonry up-stream of the back of the shutter
groove~, a.re negleoted. This is the usual practico but it is quite legiti-
mate to consl.del'the masonry for a real:!onable dista.nce (say 1 its beight)
up-stream of the down-stroam fa.co of the grQoves as oontributing t<>
sta.bility.
The level of the top of the pier must be at least the height of tho
shutter (8 feet) above M.W.L. and to give a. working margin it may be
made 9 feet above this, viz. + 71.
 HEAD WORKS 197
.As the length of the pier top down-stream of the gr ove i 6 feet
the minimum cubic content of the pier is 21 X 4 X 6 = 504 units of
weight.
Adding weight of roadwa.y. the total weight per spa.n i 540 uni .
The wawr pressure with shutter} I 2
rost~ on the sill and water at the = ( _ X - X 24.) ..384 (unita) ,
levol of the top of the shutter. P 2
~nd thia aata at 1/3 of 8 = 2 foot above tho floor .
Theso forcos plotted in figures 52 and 52-a give a TO ultant (R2,
cutting the base ab'out 1-2 feet from the extremity and thus outsid the
centre third of the base .

..._:: ....... \

.. 6. - -

F1G.S2.(C)

It is therefore necessary to add to the longth of tho pier by giving

either increased length to the whole pier or by giving Q. batter to the
down-stream face of the pier, or both.
198 IRBIGATION

The batter is most economical and a slope of 1 in 7 may be tried and

is drawn in figure 52.
This will give extra masonry of weight 1/2 (21 X 3 X 4) = 126
units and a total weight of masonry and platform of 666 units with the
oentre of gravity 3'75 feet from the up-stream face.
Completing the force diagram (figures 52 and 52-a) the resultant
(R,) outs the ba.se well inside the middle third j it thus may be possible
to eoonomise by making a steeper batter to the down-stream part of the
pier j it is however first necessa.ry to consider the possible variations in
working conditions of the regulator and the stresses these involve.
828. Different conditions of stress on a regulator.-When the
regulator shutters are partially raised, if the water on the up-stream
side is kept to the top of the shutter, and the down-stream water does
not back up so as to partly or wholly submerge the down-stream face
• 82
of the shutter, the pressure on the shutter is i ( 20 X 2")
320 units that
that is the same as under the condition already el:amined but the centre
of pressure is raised by the height to which the shutter is lifted off the
sill and thus exercises a greater overturning moment on the pier.
Further when water down-stream rises over the floor level and sub-
merges the pier the effective weight of the part Bubmerged is reduoed
to (p-l) per oubic foot.
_It is thus olear that while the oondition already examined is that
under which the greatest head is developed, this docs not necessarily
oonnote the condition of greatest stress and in tho caso of open regulators
of this nature it seldom is so. This has boen already demonstrated
in the somewhat similar case of weirs.
The maximum stress under working oonditions must in eaoh case be
asoertained,by trial as follows :-
After prepa.ring a oalibration table or ourve showing the discharges
whioh correspond to suooessive levels of river water at the site of the
proposed work, the suooessive openings of shutters whioh with the water
level at the tops of the shutters will give corresponding disoharges must be
worked out.
From the above the oondition of greatest stress under working condi-
tions oan be asoertained.
824. For instanoe in this example there a.re 10 vents of the same
width (20 feet) a.nd the same sill level (+ 50). The maximum disoharge
is ascertained to be 12,000 ousecs j the down-strea.m disaharges from
under noted water levels are computed (or observed) to be as below:-
Corresponding
Discharge of river. Corresponding disoharge of
level of river. regulator per foot
run of sill.
12,000 ousecs + 61'5 (M.F.L.) 60 OUS6CS.
8,000 ., + 58'75 « "
',000 + 54'5 20
1,000 " + 50-0 I)
"
" "
 HEAD WORKS 199
From the above the following relations b tw en water 1 v Is up
and dOWllBtream of the work are caloulated, the water being exoept
in case (1) level with the top of the shutters:-
Head In 8butte.ra Tot.al
0 .... W.L. above. W.L. below. feet. ralJed ofhlll
In feet. c_.
dJlIOllU Ia

1 +62'0 +6H; 0'5 Clear. 12,000

2 + 62'0 + 59'0 3'0 4'0 8,000
,
3 + 59'5
+5&'0
+ 54'5
+ 50'0
5'0
&'0
1'5
Cloled.
',000
Nil.

The condition of stress under case (1) does not call for investigation
a.nd that under case (4) has been already xamined. It remains to
examine those under (2) and (3).
Oas. 2.-(a) The water pressure on each shutter is 320 - baok
}Jressure [! (iX 20) ] = 32() - 121\ = 195 units,
+
applied at level (4 3·3) = 7·3 fe t abov floor.
(12)1
(b) Water pressure on pier face = t X 4 X T = 144
units applied at level 4 feet above floor.
(0) The pressure (0) +(b) in the downstrea.m direotion
= 339 units applied at 5·9 fe t above floor level.
(d) Baok pressure on pier =! X ~ X 4 = 81 units.
This acts at 3 feet above floor level.
(.) Weight of pier and platform allowing for flotation
7'7 + 9
below + 59 = 666 - ! ( - 2- X 4 X 9
)
- 6O~
acting 3·61 feet from the up-stream end of the base.
Plotting the above in figures 52 (b) and (0) the resultant
(Ra) falls about 1 foot outside the middle third.
Oase 3.-W.L. above 59·5. Shutters raised It feet.
H below 54·5. Head = 5 feet.
Velocity through vents = 14·3 f.R.
Pressure on shutter = units 320.
+
This acts a.t (It 1 x8) feet = 4·17 £, et above the floor.
As the velooity of the water passing under the shutter
would be suffioient to form a standing wave there would
be no back pressure on the shutter in this oase.
(9'5 2 )
Pressure on pier. = I X 4 X -2- = 90.
This acts at 3·17 feet above the floor.
The resultant pressure is 410 units and aots at 3·95 feet
above the floor.
(4'5)'
The baok pressure on the pier is I X 4 X - i - = 2()'U
units and it aots at 1·5 feet above the floor.
The weight of the pier and pla.tform reduced by flota.tion
+
below level 54·5 is {666 - t ( 8'31S2+ 9 X ' ·5 X , ) }
= 627 units.
Plotting the above in figures 52 (b) and (c) the resultantR.(dotted)
i. obt&ined ; this outs the base just a.t the extremity of the middle third.
 200 IImIGATION

325. Limitation of working conditIons of regulators.-There is

generally no gain to irrigation obtainable by permitting water to rise
to any great height above the level of tbe ' crest level' of shutters of
river regulators and the rules of regt.lation sbou1d generally enjoin that
water level should, so far as is possible, not be allowed to rise to more
than 1 foot above the shutter crest level or to fall to more than! foot
below this level. When taking out stability diagrams the proposed
limits of regulation must be considered and the design made acc(mlingJy.
In this example the design is stable with the ahutters raised It feet
+
and the water up to level 59·5 and tj ,e rules of regulation shollId limit
+
the water level to 59 a.s maximum, unless the shutters are raised clear.
The stability of the pier is therefore suffioient and the downstream
slope of 1 in 7 is suitable and will be adopted.
326. Water not allowed to spill over shutters.- ln Madras it is usual
to enjoin that under no circumstances lS water to be allowed to over top
regulator shutters, but in some works the praotice of passing water over
shutters is under oeJ'tain oircumstanoes ailowed ; when this is permitted,
stability diagrams for these oonditions must be drawn, and designs
both of masonry and shutters made to suit.
327. Pressure on foundations.- The pressure on the foundation
of the regulator piers must also bo examined.
The fioor is proposed to be of ooncrete 3t feet i-hiok. The maximum
inalined pressure on the pier base is shown by the length of the line N.
in the foroe diagram (figure 52-c) and equals 87fi units, or 875 = 48·5
18
tons. This is 48'5 = 1·34 tons per square foot on an average and the
4X 9
maximum intf'nsity of prrssure is twice this, viz " 2·68 tons which is
a. moderate stress.
For pressure on the foundation soil, the effective width of base of
the piers ma.y be taken to spread at a slope of t to 1 through the platform
dab on whioh it rosts and is equal to 7t feet (figure 52-d).
Similarly the effeotive length of base of the pier exoluding outwa.ters,
eta " as shown in dotted lines in figurf 52-I} is 12t feet. The total
vertioal pressure on eaoh pitr is 666 units a.nd to this must be a.dded
thE: effective weight of the conorete foundation slab. If lowest water
level is, as here assumed, at Boor levd, the weight of the slab is reduoed
by rlotation and equals (3t X 1)4) t, that is, 164 units. The total weight
is thus, 831) units or 46 tom. and the mea.n pressure on the founda.tion
soil ~ = say, ! ton. This is well within the limits of safety.
If, however, the pressure was found to be excessive the part of the
foundation slab under eaoh pier, should be made thioker, the extra
thiokness being oa.rried out at each side and at each end of the pier for
a width of one-half the tota.l thiokness of the founda.tion slab. In alter-
native, wells can be sunk as foundations of the piers.
828. Oross thrust on piers of regu1ators.-It is further necessary
in regulators to consider if the piers are stable laterally supp08inll $he
' adjlloent vents to be under different conditions of regulation.
The conditions of maximum overturning in such cases must be
considered supposing ;-
(a) Water up to top of shutters and one shutter fully opened the
romaining shutters olosoo.
(b) Flood conditions with one shutter olosOO; as for instance if
the gear were broken, and all the others lifted olear.
 BEAD WORKS 201
The p~ssur.o may be oonsidered. as oonfined to a length of pier of
6 foot, whioh WIth superstruotur weIghs 540 units. In this oxampl :_
Oondition (a).- The mea.n level of water over the Boor of the open
spa.n will be assumed as + 57 and thore would be no appreciable d pth
of water on the floor of the olosed spans.
The water pressure = ! X ~ = 12·25 units.
This would act at 21 feet a.bove the floor. It is obvious tlll~t under
these oonditions there is no danger to the l)ior and it i llnnooassa.rv to
plot this.
Condition (b).-This is generally the condition whioh brings most
oross pressure on the piers. The water-level und~r the olosed span
cannot be aoourately determined and must be assumed; the diffi renoe
of head will be oonsiderably less than under oondition (a) , but it will
be more than that due to the up-stream and down-stream maximum
llood levels. In this oase the difference of head may be taken to b 2
feet or 4 times the computed difference of head in n. maximum flood '
+
and the levels in the adjacent vents may be takon as 61 and 59. • +
+ +
The weight of the pier will be 36 12 X 4 X 6 ! (0 X 4 X 6)
=432 units.
121 9'
The water pressures are! X ""2 X 6 = 181·5and! X "2 X 6 = 121 ·5
acting at heights 3i and 3 feet a.bove the floor. This is plotted in figure
52-b.
The resultant falls just outside the middle third; as the oonditions
assumed are extrem.e ones and the head of the pier gets some support
from the platform girders the design does not requiro altering by thioken-
ing the piers.
If masonry arohes were used to carry the go.ngway the thrust of these
would give great support to the piers against overturning.
829. Toludur regulator across the Vellar.- Thero are a number of
regulators aoross rivers in the Madras Presidency espeoially the Cauvery
and the Vellar, but nearly all are lift shutters on the orest of a solid
anicut forming oombined weirs and regulators. A river regula.tor with
its floor at mean river bed level is now being built aoross the VeIJar
at Toludur and this is oited as a fair example of suoh a work and is .
shown in figures 54 and 55.
The regulator is 16 spans of 30 feet with brick arches carrying a main
road aoross the river.
The flood discharge of the 'river is 80,000 ouseos.
The main offtake sluice whioh is to feed a reservoir is a.t the left Bank
and the three end vents of the regulator on this flank have their sills 2i
feet below the sills of the remaining vents. These will serve a.s soouring
vents wit4 a view of keeping silt in front of the head sluice at a low I vel.
These three spans are founded on soft rock, but the ordinary spans to
the right of t hese are founded on ooarse sand.
The seotion of an ordinary span is given in figure 54.
aso. Design computations, Toludur regulator.- The following data.
are noted regarding Toludur Regulator :-
The superst ruature is of brickwork of sp. gr. 2. Span 30 feet
olear-Piers 6 feet wide a~d arohes 2 feet thick with riso ! spa.n.
202 mRIGATION

Levels-
Sill of shutters + 269'75, floor + 269·5.
+
Sill of soouring vents 267·25, floor +
~66·0.
+
M.F.L. up-stream 285·85.
M.F.L. down-stream +284'00.
Down-stream W.L. when shutters closed 267.+
Springing of aroh + 286·5.
Shutter platform level + 299.
Shutter platform soouring vents 300·5. +
Level of metalled roadway +
295·0.
Height of shutters 8t feet.
Height of scouring vents 11 feet.
It is assumed that the concrete filling over the spandrels and road
metal up to roadway have the sp. gr. of brickwork, viz., 2. In taking
out stability, the weights of the cutwaters and of the portions of the
piers up-stream of the down-stream and of the shutter groove will be
omitted. The assumption is made that the rules of regulation will be
suah that water will not be allowed to rise above level +
279·25 without
raising all shutters olear of the water.
Stability 01 piers.-Back pressure on the shutter is not allowed for
as the velocity would produoe a standing wave downs-tream of the
shutter and therefore there would be no baok pressure developed on
it. The left end span of the regulator has its sill 2! feet lower than
that of the ordinary vents and has a shutter 11 feet high and the floor
at + 266 but with the sa.me seotion of pier and arch as in the ordinar;y
spans.
The stability diagram will be plotted for this span with W.L. at
+ 279·5 and water up to the top of the shutter. The lovel of water
below the vent is taken at + 270 and th~ shutter is raised Ii feet off the
sill.
The area. of the open segment of circle between the springing
level and the intrados of arab is 101 sq. ft.
Weight over eaoh span = (30 X 8·5 - 101) X 19
= 154 X 19 2,926 units.
Weight of pier and masonry oftobove from floor at
(+ 266) to roa.dway level (+ 295) = 6 X 29
X19 3,306 "
Total weight 6,232 "
Dulua for flotation of pier (6 X 4 X 19) I 228 "
Effeotive weight 6,004 "

The water pressure on th~ shutter iStX30X I!. = 907 units and
aots at levol { + 279·5 - ( f X II)} = + 272·17.
The water pressure on the pier iSt X 6 X la~61 = 273 units and a.ots
at level + 270·5.
The total water pressure is 1,180 units with oentre of pressure
at level + 271·8.
 HEAJ) WORKS 203
The diagram (figure 53) shows that the resultant pressure (RI) falls
far within the middle third of the base.

FIG . 58.

....
Th4t soouring vent piers in this oase are founded on soft rook while
the ordinary spa.ns are on ooarse sand (0 = 12).
331. Formulm for width of aprons of rIver regulators.-The width
(WI) and thickness of the main apron and the width (LI ) of tho main
apron and talus, in the oase of an open regulator are computed on simJar
lines to those for an amout of type A, the empirica.l formula for theao
expressions being altered by substituting (~;) for (~) in tho formula
for main apron and (r;) for (~ ) in that for the apron and talus (vide
Cha.pter VIII, paragraph 283, formulre 39 and 40) .
Henoe for river regulators '(open weirs) we got the empirioal for.
mulre ;-
WI = 40 J~ (45)
LI = 10 0 I HI X I q ('6)
tV 13 tV 75
832. Aprons of Tolu.dur River Regu.lator.- The dimensions of the
apron of the ordinary spans of Toludur regulator will now be examin d
with reference to the formulae applicable to suoh So oase.
From the section of the regulator -
(a) Length of line of peroolation
It = 3 + 70 + 6 + 47'5 + 6 = 132'5
He = 278'25-268'00 = 10'25'; 0 = 12
Ha = Height of shutter orest on weir above main apron 278'25 -
269'50 = 8'75'
(b) Main apron floor width oomputed from formula
45 --;- 40 (Ha)I/2
J3 48 -- (8'75)1/2
13
- 39'5
-
The length a.s designed is 47'5'
(c) Uplift head just below the shutter is
( I 8 + 70 + 6) X 10'25
132'6 .
= 0'404 X 10'25 = 4'14
The apron is 11' of oonorete of sp. gr. 2 whioh when submerged
will balanoe Ii' head of water a.nd 2!' of rubble masonry of sp. gr. 21'.
The low water·level is 268'0 and the lowest foot of rubble
masonry is submerged and will balanoe It' of uplift while the upper
Ii' is not submerged and will balanoe 3-3/8 ft. of uplift.
The total uplift whio"h the a.pron oan resist is thus 11/11/31-
61 ft.
 mRlGATION

This will balance the computed uplift of 4-14 feet and there is 4~
per cent to spa.re as factor of safety_
(a) width (L!) of talus and apron, q = the maximum discharge
per foot run being 166 ouseos, is from formula (46),
Ll = 100,Jr;: X ~ 7~ = 10 X 12 ~ 1~;52 X ~ ;~6
= 106-50 X 1-0 = 159-75 feet or 160 feet.
The aetua.! width as designed is 47' 6"/50' 0"/10' 0" = 107t feet.
and it may be fonnd necessary in the future to prolong the talus by
further pitohing.
 lI:iDAD WOB.KS 205
REMODELLING AN EXISTING OANAL OR DISTRIBUTARY TO PA
AN INOREASED DISdnARGE.
(Bombay Technical Paper No. 42.)
Where a new canal is being designed, it is n cessary to a um a
mean value of rugosity co.efficient 'm' by ignoring th effi cts of ourva.ture
and small differences of soil, but where an existing ohannel whi h
is already in tolerable regime is to be onlarg d, this method would be
uneconomical. In these ca.ses, the existing chann 1 shows us th correot
shape at every point and by following nature, the eha.nn 1 will hav
to be enlarged suffici ntly, reproducing the same general sha.pe.
These are illustrated by the figure below ;-
Fig. 53 (a).

~
~CjJ
rLAT .6£0 WJ~
)t:1 ORRECT SECTION
~LOP£ CHANNEL. 6r CHAHN£1.
The full line indicates the present section, the chain dotted line,
the proposed new section and the dashed line the section based on Em
assumed value of "M ", a flat bed and t to 1 side slopos.
The portion of Excess Section shown hatched by horizontal li])(,11
would silt and become useless for increasing t.he discharge, wllilo th por·
tion hatched by slanting lines would be unavailabl for flow.
Hence the simplest method of increasing the area proportionate to
the discharge is to increase tho lateral dimensions, the existing orOSH·
section being merely replotted to a new lateral scale.
The other point to be oonsidered is whether any deep ning is necessary.
Laoey has shown that for the same silt,
va
Q ex fi
where Q = Disoharge
V=Velooity
f = Lacey's silt factor '
f boing a constant,
Q ex V6 for the S8me silt,
i.e., Vex Q 1/6
The slopes of regime ohannels, therefore, vary as ~ Q 1/6 for the same
silt, i.e., varies as discharge.
Hence the widening suggested above will not be in regime, as tho slopo
will be slightly more to suit the increased discharge. Th simpl st
In thad of achieving this will be to allow nature to establish r gim by
scouring action.
Oampbell aqueduct acrOS8 Puligedda arm oj Ki8tna.-This is a.
submersible R.O. a.queduct d signed to irrigate about 42,000 aol'('S in
Divi Island. The aqueduct is 1,332 fe t long, consisting of 36 spans of
30 feot each, with 35 piers, each 4' 6" wide.
206 mRiGATION

The aqueduct is in two segments with a central R.C. wall 1711 width
aoting as a beam. The two compartments are 12 :t et wid and 5' 6'
deep. The aqueduct oan carry a. discharge of 615 cusecs with a. d pth
of 4' 9". The downstream compartment is cover d by a slab carrying
a road 16 feet wide betw n ourbs. The upstream compartm nt is op n
with tie beams at 5 fe t centres connecting at top the upstream side wall
of the trough with the central wall. Spanning thfs tie beams js a foot-
path slab 4 feet wide adjoining the road slab, but separated from it by
R.C. wheel curb.
The whole aqueduct is designed for a submersion of 5' 0" during high
floods.
For details of designs and construotion of the aqueduct, the reader
is referred to the book "A. Note on the Campbell A.queduct across the
Puligedda arm of the Kistna " published in C.E. 's Circular Memorandum
No. lUl/3s..0.E.P., dated 30th April 1938.
The actual widtb as designed is 140 feet and it may be found neoessary
in the future to prolong the talus by further pitching.
SOOURING SLUIOES.

383. Scouring slu.ices In weirs.- These are placed on the flank

of the weir on the side
P1.AN LEFT F'LANK of the river from which
TOLUOUR REGULATO R. the canal offta.kes. They
FIG.55.
are works subsidiary
to solid weirs and
their functions are-

(a) To keep open

during low water
season a channel
through the river bed
past the head sluice.

(b) To keep the bed

. I of the above channel at
! '2,oouII'''. ,"NTe
a low level with refer-
I ~-.i ence to the sill of the
I S~ .U7 ... . head sluice and thus as
;~ far as possible prevent
'!t1rnFmiiirJi;ffr ~ ~ bed silt entering the

~1
/)
.J canal.
UI

.'"~ 384. SUI level of

scouring slulces.-The
a: sill of scouring sluices
0:: should be at as low a
ex: level as can conveni-
oJ
..J
iii
ently be arranged and
> generally at about the
deep bed level of the
river. A deep sill
greatly facilitates their
suocess in operation.
 nlllAl> WORKS

885. Size of scou.ring sluice vents.-The ma.in obi ot of th slui s

being scour it is clear that large spans and unobstructed d ptb of flo
are an advantage, and the praotioe of building th m of small spans and
orifices of very restrioted vertical h ight is d trim ntal to th ir dIi j-
ency. Jt is desirable that the spans should be large and th sp8.o b tw en
the piers unobstruQted from floor to M.F.L. ; any arch or platform 0 r
the piers should, when practicable, be wholly above flood 1 e1 and
the working platform should be accessible unde-r all onditions of flo d.
These conditions are frequently not attainable, but it is appare-nt that
in many existing works their desirability was not 01 arly re gnized.
It is desirable to keep the head-sluie 8 clos d when ver th ouring
sluices are open, but it is generally impossibl to olose th h ad slui s
unless there has been heavy rain in the irrigated area, and thuR, e n
when there is a flood in the river it is not infrequ ntly d suable to k ep
the scouring sluices closed. In order to make this praeticabl ,th r
must either be a face wall betwe n the piers of the scouring sluices from
the crest level of the scouring sluice shutters to M.F.L. or water must
be allowed to pass over the crest of the shutters. It is not usual in
Madras to allow water to spill ov r the tops of lift shutters but th re
are considerable advantages to be derived from allowing this in th cas
of scouring sluice shutters.
Where there is no face wall to the scouring sluioes, it is clearly · s n-
tial that the crest level of the sluice shutters should be at least as high
as the crest of the weir or weir shutters.
336. Formulre for the widths of aprons of scouring sluices.-Th
conditions under which scorning sluices are operated connote pasaing
great volumes of water at high velocities and the kinetic aotion on the
floor and apron below the shutters is likely to b gr at r than on th
floor and apron of the weir of whioh they form a part.
The widths of the downstream floor aJ?d of the talus is omput d
by Bligh from formulm similar to thoso he appJi s to the weir apron
but allowing proportionately greater widths.
The width (W.) of the main floor of the scouring slni 8 is afl) cted
by the orest level of the weir shutters, or wh re ther are no shutters of
the weir crest because the sluices will frequ ntly be worked when th
water is being maintained at this level. Bligh's formula for th width
of the floor of scouring sluioes may be adopted and is as follows :-
W. = 7 C I H. (47)
' " 13
where He. is the differenoe between the crest level of the weir shutters
and the level of the soouring sluioe floor.
For the width (L2) of the whole apron below the shutters, Bligh
gives a formula which depends on the height (Hb) of the solid w ir crest
above the floor and not on the height (Hs) of the weir cr st shutters
aboye L. W .L. ; this appears illogical in respect to scouring sluices although
quite logical in respect to a solid anicut, and a formula on th same
lines as Bligh's but using HI for Hb - is substituted:-
13 10
La"':'15C IHs X T!L.. (48)
The width of the ' "impervious
13 ' " apron
75 required upstream of the sluices
d pends, as in weir design, on the width requir d to make the 1 ngth
of the line of percolation not less than CHs.
The thickness of the downstr am main apron should not be 1 88
than 3 or 4 fe t and should also be safe with 20 p.c. to spare against
uplift due to a head Hs.
208 IRRIGATION

887. Conditions of working of scouring slulces.-It will be noted

that tho empirical equations for scouring sluice aprons while following
the same lines as those for solid and open weirs have larger constants as
multipliers. The reason for this is that the scouring sluices are frequently
worked at their maximum disoharging capacity when there is little or
no water being passed by the weir and th se conditions entail a muoh
lower level of tail water and greater heads and velocities and consequent
stresses on the apron than when large quantities of water are beiD,
passed over the weir.
It is on this aocount that, other things being equal, the aprons of
scouring luie s require greater protection than those of solid weirs or
river regulators.
It frequently happens however that the scouring sluices are founded
on more compact soil than the main length of weir and suitable allowance
for this results in reduction in the length of apron.
888. Scouring vents of Toludur regulator.-In tho case of the
Toludur regulator the apron of the scouring vents is no longer than
that of the central vents because the former are built on soft rock and
the latter on sand. The relative positions of the scouring vents, the
open weir and tho head sluices shown in figure 55 are fairly represen.
tative of what these conditions should be, but in this case no divide
groyne has been provided because the natural deep channel of the river
lies on the head sluice side and the conditions ot regulation require that
during low stag s all the flow will be passed through the scouring vents
to the lower ani outs on this river, which have·prior rights to such water.
Under thes special conditions, a dlvjde groyne may not be nccessary
but if one is found desirable, it can be construct d at any future time.
389. Scouring sluices of Bupar welr.-Figure 56 shows the part
plan and section of the scouring sluices of Rupar weir, Sirhind Canal
ystem of the head works of which a site plan has already been given
in figw' 14, Chapter VI. This work may be ta.k en as fairly r presen·
tative of a modern tYFe of scouring sluices applicable to large works.
Tn this case, the work is founded on hard clay and boulders and the
foundation soil may be consid r d of a class in whioh C = 9. Thl'
superstructuro consists of piers 51 [, et wide and 20 feet apart spanned
by masonry arches with springing clear of flood level.
f'1 Gi. sa. AUP"R SG'CUII'NG 1lL~G£S.

FJG .56(<<)
 HEAD WORKS 209

The ' shutters are in two ti rs ea.ch mOYing in separate groOVf.> on

fixed rollers.
The level of the tops of the shutters when fully low r d are at + 870
the crest level of the weir £hutters being + 872. This is a. peculia.r
condition from which it would a.ppear that water is permitttd to pass
over the tops of the shuttus as failmg thie, it must be n c s ary frequently
to open the scouring sluices when t~e h ad sluices are op n.
840. Face walls of scouring sluices.-As already stated it is desira.ble
to have the crest level of the scouring sluice shutt.' rs as high or higher
than that of the weir shutters and If conditions do not p unit 61th r
C'f this, or of passing water over tops of the shutters thtn a face wall
permanently closing the space bttWl n the pierI.' hcm thtl ltv 1 of the
crest of the scouring sluice shutt rs bheuld l c plOvidtd in bpit f the
diminution of scouring capacity thereby entailed.
Such a face wall forms a feature of design, of nearly a]] the scouring
I:lluices in the Madras works, but it should be cl arly r cogniZEd that
it is an undesirable one u.nd should only be adopted where economic
or special conditions make it deanable. This, however, is not infrequently
the case more especjally in connexion with small works.

HEAD SLUICES.

841. Requirements of a head sluJce.-A head sluice should b

designed with a view to passing into the canal h€ad at med rate vel citi 8
all the water requir d for irrigation, while as far as plactilable lxcluwng
bed silt; it must 801<>0 be capable of eXCluding fIeID the ca,n al any water
which may no~ be required.
'l'he fulfilment of these requiremtuts calla for a work built across
the canal head to a level above that of the maximum Boed and of suffi.
cient stability to support water standing at M.F.L. against its up-stream
fa.ce when there is 110 water in the canal b low it.
While the object in view in scouring sluices if:! passing of water at
high velocity, that in head alUlcea is Pll:ssing the water at a ruod rate
velocity !\nd while excluding bed silt to take into the canal the normal
proportion of silt carried in susy.,en"ion by tb dver.
841.A. Bell·mouthed e~traDces for head slulees.-By having
bell.mouthed entrance at the up· stream side of a sluice and an expansion
constructed with one in ten divergence on the bed, sides. and top
ii was found that the co· efficient of discharge 0 in the equation.

On = -_Q-=---
V 2 gh
increased from 0'81 to 1'93.
21 mnIGATIO

A sketch of the model adopted in the Nira Head Regulator is given

below.

Fig. 66 (b).

Figure of showing plan and L- ection of the model of the Nira

II ad Regulator (both Rl~ort an.d long). Seale, 6" = 1 foot.

Total loss of head (H) = bg + ~fl + b(. 1- he

Wher ,
kg = lOBS of head at entrance to hell mouth to be,}!'ond the gatA
slot with gate fully open.
hfl = lOBS of head in th balTel.
hf = loss of head in the expanding flume.
boo= loss of head at exit-uown st-ream of expanding ,flume.
Rewriting the a,hov formula in terms of velocity, th forlllula
becom s-
H _ 0'0 5 Vg + N~ ( VJ "L, + V o "].. " ) + (VII - V3)"
- 2!!; 2'21 R I ·1'11 It" 413 2g
Wh l ,
VI!> = is mean v locity through gate opening.
Ve = is mean 10city at the end of the expanding flullle-with
the expanding flume Bubmerg d and natural expanding
flow and no jet flow.
Vo = mean velocity in the down.stream channel at a section
where full recovery of head has been effected.
H = hydraulio mean depth.
L -= length of balTel and expanding fhun .
342. Arrangements for drawing surface water through head siuloe.-
Th pa ing of I'lupply with low veloeit:r and th xclusion of bed silt are
best attained by drawing the supply from the film of water nearest
th surface and ill ree nt year ev ral of the h ad regulators of the
s t m in North rn India whioh suffered badly from silt rouble have
b e remod~U d with thi obj ot vi w. in .
 READ WORK' 1

In the original de igns of such work ,in ol'th I'n Indi a.a aJ 0
in Madra. the abov points were not lost ight of, but x}:mien ha~
shown that .where , ilt .troubl R arc a; entuat d, the R 'Iolt('m f dH\ml1g
water at a hIgh le\rel wIth a low velocIty of clltry shonJd 00 c l'l'iod lJIuch
further than was originally propo ed.
In Madra ' the trouble from silt ttl" fu,r IObli than l,ho~<: e -peril'u d
in Northern India and it has not been fouud lleccsKary to remodel th ,
head sluice of ~wy of th Ia.rger irrigation 8~r.temR in outhern Indio.
011 this aOCOllllt.
The drawing of surface wat l' at low veloeity iJlvolv('~ gl'('at width of
ventage and ne()essitate~ arrangements which permit of \ ' UI' ,jllg t.ho
I vel of the sill of the orifi e, 01' notoh, over \vhich th Wilt r i tak('n
(into th~ canal) to suit th varying levels of the surIac(' of watcl' in the
parent river. Th above implies extra CORt, und it iH 0. matt l' for
consideration in each co. c, to \ hat extent su h extra, 'xp nditUl' on
original construction is jus tifi l~ bk in vi w of tIle' J'tduotioll of Rilt
troubles and probable savingRin futurc ('>;polditu)'c foJ' Hilt cka] 011 t·,
343. Head sluices in Madras.-Ill the .Mudras Presidenc' it 1mli
b 'c.n th l)raeticc foJ' mn,D yean'! to J11ak(' the ;;i J1 f tl'e hend ~Iui '01 1 ~
to 3 feet higher than the sills of tllE' :scouring ;; Iuicl N and to d f,i '11 h( ad
!Sluice shuttCI'S in 2 01' 3 tiers working in S( po rate gr OWA 1i0 all to be
oapable of admitting water at diff I'ent J 'vell:l ; it has bf n u unl to k t p
the lower shutters clo d aR long flH it iH pOHsible to l)alil; the rmppli I:;
required for irrigation through the upper oms. ThlH' is no gn at advan-
tage in having large span shutterlS for hcud l'!:gulatol's unJ SfoI, 0.1:; iH fl '-
quelltly the case, the required 1 ngth of vent,age ran he mOI'(' l' onomi 'ally
given with large spans of 16 to 20 fe('t than with comparutivrly ,.,ho1't
ones of, !:lay, 5 to 10 feet and in Madras the head slui(:(' ~ g 'lll'lully haw
vents of widths not exceeding 10 f<: et,
344. Sites of head sluices.-The position 01 thc hcad sluices f;houJd
be with face in line with the river margin so that the s 'ouring slui cl'H
i'ihould draw directly acrO!:lS the front of the 8luice, A mista,kc has b 11 '
frequently made in plaoing the hend !:lluice a short distance down the
canal cut away trom the ma,r gin of th river, thus leaving a rcc ss out
of the draw of the scouring sluic s from which silt dll) sit f'anl'lot b
scoured, and which moreover is likely to eng ndel' those lddies and
!,;wirls which lift the 13ilt off the river bed whence it is carriEd into the
oanal.
If it is neOeStiM'y to oon~truct head 81uicet> lSome di8tanc down tIll!
canal the scouring sluices should be built in the leading channcl just
above the head sluices and at right angles to them,
345. Head regulator of the Sirhind Canal at Rupar.-]!'igul' -57
shows the e1 vation of part of the head regulator at Rupar of th Sllhind
Ca.nal as orig~nally construct d, _ _
ThiFj onsisted of 39 spans of 5 feet, ·Th wOl'k c Haist d of 13 main
lipans of 21 feet with main piers 4i 1) .1, wid canying a r adway nnd
eaoh of the main spans was divided by jack pi IF! 3 £ tt wid jnto 3 spans
of 5 fe t in the cl ar. The sill lev ] of th vents was 2 [, t ahov that
of the sooul'ing sluioes.
The head sluioes of several of the Jalge 'Ybttms of Madras ar of th
!:lame type, and no aggravated trouble8 fr m Rilt d( 1) ;sit in the (' (8na]l:l
14,A,
212 tRB.tG.ATION

have been suffered. In the case O'f Sirh;nd Canal, however, great silt
trO'ubles were experiencE.d which have b~tn almO'&t cO'mplE.ttly O'vercome
by-
(a) Installing 6 fe t crest shutters O'n the weir crest thcnby raising
ordinary supply level in the river at the head rE.gWatO'r flem + 866 to
+872.
(b) RemO'vingthejackpiers and 5 feet span shutters and installing
in the head regulatO'r 21 feet shutters in twO' tiers mQving O'n rO'llers.
(0) Building a breast wall 7 fe thigh O'n the flO'O'r Qf the regulators
aorQSS the arohes thus raising the sill by nO' less than 7 fi ct.
Figures 57·a and b shQW in elevatiO'n and section the revisfd arrang -
ments frO'm which it appzars that the IO'wer shutter can be bQth raised
0'1' IO'wered behind the breast wall but the upper shutter can O'nly be
raised.

ftIG.5'.SIRlUIiID CAtlAL elE.AD ASCruL.ATOR. F'G.57{cA)

346. Head sluices of the Godavari Eastern and Kistna Western

main canals.- In figul' s 58 and 5B-a are shQwn part plan and seotiQn
Qf the sluioe at the head Qf the Godavari East rn Delta main canal.
The arrangement Qf main and jaok arches fQllQWS generally that Qf the
O'riginal Rupar regulator. The shutt rs 0.1' in three tiers but the upper
Qnes on.nnQt bo lower d and modification allO'wing of thi WQuid hav
be n an improvement.
20WLfilSHWARAM HiM SLU$
t'IG 54 flG.sa A
 mU.D WORKA 213
In figures 59, 59·a and 59.b is shown th hend luic ofth 10 tn
Western Delta main canal on the right flank of B zwada anicut. Th
shutters of this are in three tiers as in the previous case. Both th
works are the original sluices built about th middl of th la t c ntury
and are still in operation .
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214 IRR1GATIOS

It will b e notioed on comparing them that in the Godavari sluice,

v_ents are merely a panelling opening out into the wider waterway of the
main arohes while in the Kistna sluice th narrow archway arc carriE:d
as main arches under the whol width of the work, and a grE:at d al of
filling between the face walJs above th arch Bolid to .road 1 v J is neces-
sary. While this assists stability by adding weight to the work the
type has two gl'eat disadvantages and generally th(' Godavari type
appears preferable.
The disadvantages al'e-
(1) That th restriction of waterway and ' the conscqu nt high
velocity is carried right through th width of the arch work with the
resulting increas in turmoil b low the work. .
(2) That the typr does not lend itself to alterations of ize of vents
which is , as has be n proved in the 'as of Rupar r gulator, a marked
I1dvantag whic]) is POl:lAcssed by the panel typt'.
Gen rally "l}8aking for Rluices cal'rying a roadway it is advi.sable
to adopt th pan I type where much ·xtra xpense is not th n by in-
curred ; ov n with single' vent it is fl' qUtntly d situ,bIe to k fP the spring-
ing of tho main archeH at a higher Icvel than the top of the V€llt and
claRO th fa co of the arch wjth a bl'cnRt wall and subsidiluy !\l'ch ruther
than to carry a low nafrow archw!1.y throughout.
This iiS flo point f1' quontly ovrl'1ookEd f\.l1d has n(' '{,bsituitd f( buDding,
which would not othel'wil:lc have bet 11 n (it sflry, of ntn.ny sluic(" wl1( II
tho afef\,1; und r them havc been incI't'fl.sccl.
Wh re th l'e iRno roadway 01' embankment pasfsjng over a head sluice
the superstructure may be restd ctcd to sloping pi l'S and a breast wa]].
Figur 60 gives th(' design of Tolnd11l' hrad "luio(> whieh is a work of
this type.
Note.-A ne',v hend tliuioo for the R.W. main canal had b en c 1r st1'uoted iu
1811 • d/s ' ftll ' olrL s uice, form ing a. basin b t Wl en th t " 0 works This steps down
also tho difforence in 1 vel b, t .tOflO frunt and r( ar' \\ ster levols during maximum
floods.
 READ WORXR 21~

trIG.GO. T'OL.tJb.UR HEAo -SLUICE.

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Jl6 mRIGATION

847. Foundations and floorIng of head sluices.-Better foundation

soil is usually available for head sluices than for the connectt'd anicut
and scouring sluioes and thus the foundation work is frequently less
costly j it is however to be realized that head sluices are subjectEd to
; greater statioal heads than the connectEd weirs or scouring sluices and
that, where the foundation soil is similar uplift and percolation are
likely to be greater under the head sluioe floor which must be designEd
accordingly. It must also be specially notEd that the draw of scouring
sluices will operate aoross the faoe of the head sluioes and undue scour
must be guarded against by a curtain wall or suitable apron up-stream
of the faoe of the head sluice.
As water is not passed with undue velocity on the down-str am side
of the vents the protective aprons of head sluices other than those
required to resist piping or uplift, need not be nearly so xtensive 01'
heavy as in the oase of river regulators, or scouring sluices which are
subjected to high velociti s and uncontrolled magnitude of flow.
848. Bead sluices of minor canals.-Many irrigation channels have
their h ads in rivers and str ams at places where there is no ani cut to
prevent the river water falling below a convenient level. In sucb a
case. the head sluice only constitutes the permanent hea.d work of the
ohannel.
The sill of such a sluice is generally made to suit the level of the bed
of the irrigation channel at the head whioh in turn is at the lowest level
from which the irrigated land can be commanded. Where the off-tak
is from a river with a sandy bed, the sill is gen rally above the level
of the deep bed of the stream both as a pr caution against excess of
silting, and in order to get command of higher land. In such channels
the irrigation supplies are generally very fluctuating and the channels
and h "ad sluic s must be designed for supply at a low duty to makp, up
for the intermittent oharaoter of the supplies.
In the case of many suoh channels it is oustomary during the low
water season to oonstruct temporary diversion works in the stream
bed to raise the level of the flOwing water and divert it into the ohannel
head. Suoh temporary diversion works are termed 'korambu8 ' in
South India. They are generally made of sand and earth with brush
wood and naneZ grass. Sometimes they are carri d right aoross the
stream bed and sometimes they merely proj ct into it sufficiently for
diversion purposes, leaving a by-pass round the end for excess flow . .
Where the oonstruction of such works is customary, the local workmen
are as a rule skilful in their construction and in making the best use of
the looally available material. Whenever a fresh comes down the river
the korambus are washed away, and an unseasonable fresh, so far from
improving irrigation supplies of korambu channels, is frequently the
means of depriving them of neoessary supplies.
The head sluices of such river ohannels should have vents larg
enough to allow full supply to be passed with a head of i of a foot or less.
Wherever regulating establishment is to be maintain d the head sluioea
should have the regulation shutters in tiers 80 as to allow of supply in
Ioocl time heirS dra.wn from surface water,
 HEAD WORKS 217
Figure 61 shows & design for river hf'8.d slme with hu r in
2 tiers moving in s parate grooves. Th upper a;,huttcr is capabl of b ing
either lower<d or raised so that water can be drawn itll r ov r it 0)"
between it and the lower shutter. Th le\('} of the sill and the ordinary
bed level of the channel at the head is + 6 being about 1 foot abov the
wean bed level ofth river. The floor of the slmo wou d undtr OJ din8J y
oircumstances be at the same I v 1 but, for the r as n gi (n in th n xt
pa.ragraph it is designed 2 £, t low r. Th(' 10lgth f impcrvi us apr JI
gives a p rcolation gl'ndient~ in .. maxi;muJTI f10cd of 1 in 5 with th(·

fl'IG.61 .

FIG.61 (b)
HAl.F P'RONT El.EVATION &HALF 'SECTION
OF SLUICE SA AEL.
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FIG.GI(C)

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~s.cT\O". P .Q.

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S;CTION.R.8.
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 21 IRRJGATI N

head Iuice closed. The maximum flood lev I submel'ge th river margillB
and as there are no river flood banks the flood wate}· i k pt out of t he
channel by the banks of the channel it elf.
849. Spring channels.- It is a common practice in South India to
draw supplementary water-supplies for minor channels having their
heads in rivel'S with sandy bed after surface flow in the river has ceased
by xcavating a ohannel in the sand of the river bed running up-stream
from the anal h ad and with a bed slope cOllBiderably flatter than that
of the riv r. Th levE> I of the bed of suoh a ohann. 1 gets deeper below
th riv r b d th higher up the river it is taken. Suoh a channel draw8
sub-soil water by peroolation from the river bed throughout any part of
its oOUl'se, which iA excavated below the xisting riVEr b d water lev 1.
Th s chann Is ate called ( spring channels.' In some cases the bed level
of a spring chanD(, I at the canal head will be the same as the normal bed
I v lofth channel and in such case spring water will flow over th head
sluic Bill without ny special arrangements; f1' quelltly however the
pring channel wh l' it nters th oanal head has a b d level lower than
that of th oanal, a.nd the spring channel is excavated in the canal bed
and carri d down it at a flattE'l' bed slopf' than that of the canal till th
b d levels of tho two coincide.
p cial provision t r th spring Ohl11111('1 bas to be mad in designing
h ad sluices for such a canal and thi can be done' by cutting a notoh
through the sill wall of tho sluice oh ction and d pth to suit the dimen-
sions and level of the spring channel. Such a notch is kept clo ed during
the flow seaRon by a plank inserted in grooves whi h is remOVEd during
the low water season whil the l:! pring channel is in operation. The
a.rrang m nt is shown in figure (jl the plan ofnotoh ill thf' sill wall being
shown in figur 61 -c.
Either the floor of th Bluic must be at the bed level of the SPling chan-
11 I as is shown in the design, or a small chttnnel to carry th spring water
must be mad through th fioor.
Th main sill of the sluice might be made lower than the nOl'ma.1
channel bed 1 vel in order to provide for the spring channel but this woRld
inorease the passaie of bed silt into the canal head.
 CHAPTER X.
HEAD WOR
3TOItAGE WORXS WITH EARTHEN DAM.
350. Tanks.-Storage works are generally oall d . TankA ' in outh
India, but a few of exceptionally large ize are r -£ rrcd t OR ' r s n roir .'
Ther is no teohnical diff'erenc b tw('en a reservoir and a ton], ond th
application oflatter term is confined to Indian works .
Earthen reservoir dams are generally r fUl'cd to a" tank bank
or bunds and this olass of works is probably morC' nUDlUOll S thr ughout
outh India than anywhere eIRE' in th world. The gr('at Ill. jori .v of
thes works are of small depth comparati ly with the workAdeRt) ilxd
in tandard engineering treatisps dealing with the Rubj( t f arthOl
dams. The general run of tanks in outh India hs,s a maxinmtn d pth of
less than 15 feet, while 'orne 8,r e a de€p as 25 to 30 fe t and in a f( w quite
xoeptiono.l cas s the maximum depth of water exc cdR 36 £, et. The>
publications describing arthen,dam s and the pr(:cautiOlls to b tlik( n in
their construction generally contemp'late dfpths of 40 f eet nnd upwards
and presClibe a standard of work which would b ecoll omically imprn.oti-
ca hIe of realization in ref, rence to most of th tank-bunds of outh India .
It is not propos d in this work to describe in d tail th rrquir m nts of
design in the case of earthen dams of great magnitude for wlli h r ferl'nct'
may be made to trange's ' Indian torage R eservoirs" n.nd othel' , orks
b11t to d scribe t.he practice of design of small earthen dam!! whi oh ar
dealt with in the common daily practice of irrigation in outh India.
The gen&ral principles of constmotiol1 of earthen bundA foJ' Rlllal1 'vorkR
are, however, the same as for large ones although in I practic tht, Rn.lUC
precautions oannot always b e appli d to th COll truction of small {l.S of
Inrgeworks.
31S1.•!l'ypes of earth bunds_- E arthcn dams mo,y hI' formed of lllllLfTial
disp~ed. in several way in the proflJc of the work thll l-l (,oll~Li tut,in~
>1rparate types : -
Type A.-Of homogeneous Dlaterial througbout tll (, HcttiOll .
Thi is the most usual method of form ation and ill it tIl(' Ho i I
Ils('d for the bund is the, ame throughout th(' c ·tion.
TY1J B .-A' hearting , of plalStic mn.tt'l'i al HUPPOI'tcd by H • (·fl.Hing , .
of more st able mat rial ontaining a largc], quantity of g!'it.
Type C.-A bund with ~ll impervious core wall which iH gl'1l rally
of Puddl , bltt in exc ptional co. es may b of masolll'y.
352. Causes of failure of earthen dams.-Th d ign of arthen dams
cannot, It . in th case of mn.sonry dam , be bas d on a math matical
examination of th ir stability, and while the pres t1r ('ntaijed on th
foundation Roil by the wight of the uperinoumbE'llt arth must not b
left out of oonsideration the design of th profile is b " d on practical
coneid rations and on the exp I'ienoe d rived from Au e SR and faihll'c
'limilar works and of their working conditions.
Th oaus s of failure of eM h E'll dam s arr-
(1) Peroolation.
(2) Slipping,
(3) w, or topping of the bund.
(4) Erosion by wav ,
 220 IRRIGATION

853. Fallure by peroolation.-Failure by percolation is due to wat l'

which percolates either through the bund or under its foundations carryil'lg
with it particles of soil thus forming tunnels or runs whic,h whm one
form d rapidly enlarge forming cavities into whilh the bund sinks thu
nabling the water to top it and carry it away by erosion.
The oause of failure by percolation may be due to ' piping' and this is
due to the insufficient I ngth of the path of p rcola.ticn and a. r€Bulting
peroolation velocity higher than the soIl can sa£ Jy BU tain. Suoh failur£'
would be attributabl to inadequate prom or want of an effeotiv stop
wall to obstruct the "path of percolation.
More frequently failure by p rcolation is attributable to the opening
through the burtd, or under its base, of a passage for water either by
cracking of the soil, or by the burrowing of animals, or by the roots oftreee
whioh have decayed leaving a free passage for wat r. While a large
profile will tend to l' nder failure from these oauses less likely, inoreased
ize of profile within reasonable limitE! cannot secure against it and the
precautions to be taken are-
(1) to OOllstruct the bund of mat rial not liable to oraok und('lr the
conditionFl to which it will be subjeoted ;
(2) to oover the up stream Alope of the bund (01' preferably both
slop s) with a layer of material through which burrowing animals will not
penetrate i and
(3) to k ep tho up stream, if possibl both slopes and also the top
of the bund, clear of trees; or in alternative, when vel' a tree dies or is
out down, to open the bund and cut out the roots carefully filling in the
nxoavations so made with good earth well oonsolidat d.
854. Slipping of earthen banks.-A slip in arth is due to the earth
standi 19 at a slope teeper than that at whioh it can be retained by th
oombined friction a~d oohesion betwe n the particles composing it.
855. Qualities of plastic and grit soil.-Both fri tion and cohesion are
gl' atly affected in plastic soil by the amount of moisture it has abF'orbed
in its por s; in dry plastio soil both are coruiderable and a small quantity
of ab.3ol'ption if anything increases coh sion but excessive absorrtion
greatly reduoes both friotion and coh sion ar:d a saturated pure plastic
soil is lik ly to become slush. lllastio soils are also liable to orack when
dry and this is speoially so in tho oase of soils dried after admixture with
such an xcess of water so as to form slush.
Grit soils, 011 the contrary, are little affected by moistUl'e; they
have generally little oohesion but friction is oonsiderable and increases
with the size of the pn.rtioles of grit; these SOlIs are not liable to orack
when dry. P .lre grit is freely p rmeabl and the larger the particles th
greater the permeability.
The reoital of these properties at one suggests a mixture of plastic
~d gr{t soils a giving a. suitabl materia! for an earth dam and as a faot
both soils are used in the oonstruction of bunds of type 13, the plastic soil
forming the' h arting' a.nd a. grit soil generally mix d with some adbering
plastio sio! is us d for the' casing' that is th oovering material.
Natural mixtur s ofplaRtic and grit soils ar fr quently u ed for arth
bunds of all olass s.
856. Faoe slopes of earthen bunds.-To guard against slipping the fa.c
slope of a bund should be fixed after oonsideration of angle of repose of the
soil forming the bund under the oonditions to whioh it will be subjected.
It is neae 8601'y to design the bank 130 that the outer (down-stream) slope
 .I:r.1MD , oRR. 221

will not beoome saturated with water and this {aoo of the bank should be
given a. slope not steeper than the angle of repos of the ma.terial composing
it when in a dry state.
On the up·stream face it is impossille to exolude moisture but the slope
reoeives much support from the water pressure on it, and from any
revetment and backing with whch it may be fao d and this should be
oonsidered in settling the slope of this face.
857. Fallure by overflow or topping of the bund.-If the water-level in
the tank raises to such a height that it flows over the top of the bund
fa.ilure will speedily occur by erosion. This must be guarded against
by surplus works of such capacity as to prevent the water·l vel ever
ra.ising to such a heigLt as can lead to failur from this cause. This
8AAumos the top level of the bund will be kept up to sta.n dald, by occasional
rApairs.
358. Fallure by eroslon.-This may take plaoe by the water fac of the
bund being cut into a.nd eaten away by the aotion of waves or erosion by
ra.in and wind so that the slope becomes so st ep that slipping of the upper
layers occurs and the width of top of the dam is gradually eaten through
when topping and failure ensue. This is gem'rally pr V(Dkd by r v t
ment or pitching on the water face of the bund; in small works turfing
or growth of shrubs sometimes affords ad quate protection. In th
absence of such protection constant petty repairs must be resorted to.
Failure from wave action may occur through waves washing over th
top of the bund and gradually erodillg the top and dowru;tream slope thus
outting a channel through the bank to a d pth below the tank water-
level which speedily results in a breach. To guard against. thi , the top
of the bunJ is made up to a certain height, called the 'freeboard,' abovCl
the maximum water-level. This height dEpends on th ' fetch' 01 th
water spread of the tank and the strength and dir ction of pI'cvailing
winds. The' freeboard' varies betwecn about 4 to 10 fe t in tanks of
different magnitudes.
859. Type of bunds of tanks In South Indla.-Tbe tank·bunds of South
India are with few exceptions constructed of type A, and of soil dug from
pits in the immediate vicinity of the section and oarried by head.loads
to the bund. Under such conditions there are throughout th Madras
Presidency great varieties of soil used for tank-bunda, and breaches due to
each alld all the causes above enumerated are by no means infr quent.
360. Common dimensions of tank-bunds for restoration work.-The
follOwing are the dimensions commonly taken as standard for r pairing
and restoring the bunds of small and medium size tanks in Sou th India. :-
Depth of de!lP Height of top of Width of top
bed below full' lJund above lIIlUimUill of
t&Dk level. water·level. bund.
lIT. 1''1'. n.
IS to 10 ;~ 4
10 to 15 4, lj
16 to 20 6 6
Over 20 8 9
The a.bove dimensions are suita.ble under norma.l conditions of wind
and' fetch' but in special eases larger ones are given.
In favourable soil. suoh as rea and white gravel, l' d and blaek loame,
eto., the slopes of the bunds vary from I ! to 1 for the smaller tanks
with water depths not exoeeding 8 feet, to 2 to 1 in larger ones up to about
16 feet.
222 .tRRWA'rION

In light sandy 01' black cotton OJ' lay soils slop s vary fl:om 2 to ]
to 2!to 1.
Wher , < is usun.Uy tIt case, th water face i, I' v('tted thlli lop ii:;
generally 1 ~ to 1 up to 20 feet d pth. For inferior soils r gr atel'd pths
the rovett d lop may b as flat 8,B 2 to l.
It is usual in many oountri (1 in pite of the r vetm llt to make th
water fae flatter thall the d Wllf.ltr am facc beeau 'e the soil is saturated. ;
thore a.1' , howev r, thousands of tank in Madras with water slop s of
Ii to 1, and failure by slipping of this slop ' i rare; the local practice ill
thi' r cspect hould, therefor ,b followed . In very small tanks or where
there are p oially heavy rev truent8 water slopes of on to on and ven
steeper slopes aJ'e frequently met with; suoh steep slopes, however , arp.
not 'i'ocomm nded. .
Th ffect of rainfall in the unprotected downstr am lopes of it tank-
bWld it; to erode soil from the I:jlopes which is oepo 'ited at the dowllstream
to of the slope which l:lecom s ,\id lled and flatten d , th upper part of
the slope being steeper thu,n as originally formed . When repairs are
nan-ied out th upper f'lopes a,r made up to their proper standard and sO
by d ~rees thc downstr aru slopes of tank-bunds will g n rally be found
to be flatter than th , slopes above ·t ated indicatc.
Th abov slop('s are stctted with g(;,llI~ral reff'l'e]) ce to what is found
to give reasonable se urity agaill f03t slipping, having l'ef rence to the natur~
of the soil as r egards angle of l' pose, but in addition it if:! necessary t see
that the downstream slope is flat enough to pr vent dangerous l,er coia tion
ha.ving regard to the qualities of the soil in r(,,'pC'ct -to permea bility.
Thi, is tr ated of in paragraph 370 b lvw.
Figuf(,s 62 and 62 (a) show tallk-bunds of th general dimensions above
indicated, the dott<>d lines show th flattening Otlt of th toe of the down-
stream (ou 1') "lope a.nd the rounding and low ring of the top by erosion
and this is the usual condition of tank-bunds unless covered by prot ctive
coating of brok n stone, gnwf' l, etc. In such a 'es repair estimat s
would pl'ovid for bringing the upper part of th section up to standard
profil ' depicted.
~
~-'---'~G"
~ ~. _ • •. . v ••

lI::'~~
PIG. 62(0)

361. Earthen bunds, type B.-Bunds with differ nt class s of material

in the pronl dispo ed as hearting and casing have been a good deal used
in large ea.rthen dams in India especially in th Bombay PI' sidenoy, and
tae praciio of 0 di po ing of material is coming mol' into use ia
l!adras.
 llXAD' RK 2

']'111' advanta.g R t,) b d riv d from 'uch a COllstt 11 tion will b inw.
('atflQ with refer nr(' tI_, a profU (figul'e 63), Wl1ich i , imilar in dim n JOIl
to th' t in figure 62 (a).
fI"Q . 63.

A profil of type B may be advantageously E'mpJoyed foJ' formillg an

arthen bund wh re, as frequently occurs , the !-Ioi] avail II hie- for 'ow~tmct·
ing th bank is on th urface 3 to 4 feet of bJn ·k cottOll Roi I oYE'J'lying
deoomposed rook forming soil ohiefly grit with a flmuJl qunntit~· of
plastic material mixed with it.
The surfa e ofa bund made all ofblaok c tton soil will ra 'k w]U\)) it
becomes dry and when the tank is empty thel:lc orack" f1.J'e lik Iy to (" tond
into the heart of the bund and brcomo ft soure of danger in th() OVt'nt f
the rapid filling of the tallk ; al 0 the water fM'o i!-l oxpmmd to tho dangor
of slipping in when satUI'atcd. A bund composed t,hroughout of t,hn grit
sub-soil would leak fr ely and muoh wat~r would b lost by ptlJ'(!olo,t,iun,
which also might attain a velocity endangering tho safoty of tho ballk.
If, however, the plastio soil is u ad for' hoarting , and grit soil for' casing
tho fOl'mer will stop percolation, wherea.s tllt' lattcr wi ll prot,('('t tho hlll\l't·
ing from cracking and givo it support aglliulit slipping, wLil< being itt-loll'
to only 0. slight degroe liable to the so dangers; in a.ddition th down·
litream casing will, owing to it!; pormoability, uoriv(· tho I1dvantagf' of
being safe against satul·ation. Thus each material iH di8J!oHcu ill a
position where its peouliar qualities aro most l'oquired .
It is true that permeability in tho upstr am casiub; is a uofo(Jt, and
un this ground it is desirablo to ha.ve a larger proportion of plastio ooil in .
this than in the downstroam casing and if the ou,sing matuial varil's ill
qua.lit y that with most pla.stic soil should be placed up.str am, 0,1Iel for tho
rest of the section tho more impervious casing should be clos to the
hearting a.nd the most permeablo on the downstr am face composillg
the toe of the dam.
362. Earthen bunds with core walls, type C.- The COrO wall of a butut
of type Cis genera.lly clay puddle as shown in figure 64.

p , 64..

.....
u.ch & tYlle only differs in d egr e £rom. tYll B the om.p.a.ra.ti ly
thin puddle wall taking the place of tho 'hea.rting', Th bulk of th
material of the bank on either ide of the puddlo wall, especially on tho
wa.ter side, should be of the most imporm aM mat rial conv ni ntly
 nmIGATIOl(

obtainable. and the wa.ll u80d as a w80t~r.tight bulk.head to intercept any

peroolation whioh posses through the ur stream thickriPBs of the dam.
High class puddle clay is rarely obtainable in South India and the use of
puddle in dams is generally l'estricted to filling trenches excavated bel0.w
the level of tho seating of the dam down to an impervious stratum, or to a
depth suffioient to length n to a safe degree the line of percolation below
the foundaticn.
The dotted lin~ figure 64 show the position of a clay hearting of a
type B bund and this with the puddle trenC'h is a combination whioh is
generally more suitable in South India than tho puddle wall.
In some earthen dams, especially in Amolioa, concrete or rubble
masonry oore walls have been used. In India the cost of such a m~hod
generally preoludes the use of masonry but oocasionally it may be adopted
to form a. stop wall below the foundation level of a da.m especiaily at the
stream Ol·ossing. Where this is done the top of the wall must be carried
to a suffioient height with the bund to give security against dangerous
oreep.
868. 'Saturation gradient' In banks.- All earthen ba.nks against which
,vater stands gra.dua.lly beoome saturated up to a surface sloping down-
ward through t}lo bank starting at the water line on the up-stream face of
the bank. The actual plane of saturation through a profile is generally
somewhat irregular a.nd it changes with the changes in the level of water
standing againt:lt the bank. The plane of saturation also varies with the
nature of the soil oomposing the bank and in a perfeotly homogeneous
blonk standing on a simila.r foundation soil the saturation gradient due
to a. stea.dily mainta.ined water level, would be a straight line and the
steeper the inolina.tion to the horizontal the greater the reSisting power to
peroolation of the ba.nk material and vioe versa (vide figures 65 and 65-a).
1--_ Ii -+j
, ,. ,
~
F IG . 6 6

'F IG. SS(Cl)

The slope of the line (01' plane) of satul'ation is called the' saturation
gl'adit1nt • or sometimes the' hydraulio gradi nt' of the bank .
.A number of observations of the level of the line of saturation in
eBorthen banks hBove been ma.de in many places and particularly in the
Bombay Presidenoy by observing the level at which water stands in
perforated pipes sunk in various pla.ces across profiles of the banks Bub-
leoted to observation. The line of saturation is taken a.s the level of the
water surfa.oe in such pipes. .
From the Bombay observations it was found that the slope of the line
(or plane) of saturation measured. from the water surfaoe in the tank to
the sub·soil water level a.t the down·stream toe of the bund for seven tanks
with type .A embankments was 0'32 vertical to one horizontal j the slopes
va.ried gr aUy for individual banks and in one case was as flat as 0'12. In
earthen dams of type B the slope through the "casing J 80il averaged about
0'16 while that through the hearting was about 0'33.
 HEAD ~ ORRS 22tS
It is usual in Madras to design a bank of fair a.v rag materia.l'o th80t a.
saturation gradient of 0'25, that is a slope of one in four, will £8011 ,vithin
the profile a.nd in most cas s it is desirable to ha.ve a. margin of not 1 than
1t to 3 feet, in aocordance with the importance of th work, b tw n tIl
gradient and the surface of the bund. The soil will n v l' be a.turated
and will reduce the tendency to slip.
364. Drains under the outer slope of a tank bund.-When the soil at tho
site of a. bund, or of the outer slope is of 80 no.tur which b om~s Ii. ft wh n
sa.turated involving danger of settlement or slip th cas i fr qu ntly
dealt with by construoting rough stone drairiS under the outer slope of th
bund thus providing a path through whioh peroolation water can find
rcady exit and preventing dangerous saturation of the slop and of th
ground on whioh it stands.
These drains are merely trenches fill d with rough ston and proteoted
from being choked with soil wash d into them from th bund, by bing
enclosed in oasings of broken stone and pebbles or gravel or hips from th
qUlll'ries so as to form a strainer which prevents the soil b ing carri d with
tho water into the drains. The wa.terfrom drains must be 1 d right away
from the toe of the bund; whether there ar drains in th bund or not
it is objectionable to have water 01' sloppy saturated soil at the ou l'
toe of a bund and this ground should, whenever practioable, be drained
and kept free from stagnant water.
Figures 66-a and 66 show a plan and section of a system of drains
inserted in a bund foundation where crossing a marshy soft pJac. Th
drain a a parallel to th length of the bund is given a b d fall towards the
outfalls g nerally following the fall of the ground drains, c c at right
SE.CTION OF eVNO.
FiG.66 .

G~OUHTmt~
ROVGH aTOll.
OFlAl t4.

FIG. 66(ci)
PLAN

15
226 mRIGATloit

angles to the line of bund also have a suitabl bed fall; these drains when
clear of the toe of the bund are led away in open channels graded so as to
keep the ground in rear of the bund well drained and to have a free run·
off. When the sub-soil is permeable and a puddle trench is resorted
to, a drain e, figure 66-b, along the down-stream lower edge of the trench
is desirable is tho sub-soil is of a natw.'e whioh gets soft wh n saturated.
Suoh a drain is connected at intervals with the outfall drains c c by dra.in
shafts e c (figure 66.b).
865. Top width and free board of tank bunds.-The top width and free
board of bunds of small and medium sized tanks are usually kept the
same throughout, but this practice may fr -quently, with advantag , be
departed from. The free board and top width require to be greatest
opposite those plaoos where either the fetch is greatest, or on which the
pI' vailing winds act with most force. Towards the flanks the fr e board
may frequently be reduocd, with advantage, both to economy and safety
and the same remark is applicable to the top widths also. While it is
n OeBsary tho.t banks should be sufficiently high and wide as to give reason·
able seourity against breaohing it is desirable that if a br ach by overflow
should oocur, it should occur at a plaoe whioh will do the least damage
a.nd allowing a lower fr board at such plaoes conduces to such a result.
On the other hand it is desirable to give small local increases in top level
at plaoes where a breach would be specially disastrous, such as at and
near sluioes, and at stream crossings, to.
366. Breaching sections.-In many tanks economic considerations
do not allow construction of surplus works on a scale which will dispose of
all possible floods, such as perhaps oCC1U' once in thirty years, and in such
oases 'breaching sections' should be provided in the flanks or other
parts of the bund where a breach will do the minimum damage.
A 'breaohing section ' is a length kept lower and w aker than the
remainder of the bund so as to localize a breach in that length.
867. Revetment to tank bunds.-The water faoes of tank bunds are
usually proteoted from erosion by rough stone revetment which is
fr quently carried from end to end of the bund. In many cases, however,
revetm nt is only provided in 1he length of faoe where the waterspread
is widest or the bund most exposed to wave aotion.
Revetment not only forms a most effeotive protection against erosion
but acts to some extent as a retaining wall so that a revetted slope will
stand at a steeper slope than unrevetted on .
The thiokness and length of revetment must be deoided in each case
on its merits.
It is oommon to revet with It fe t thickness of rough stone which is
paoked over a packing 6 inch s thiok of broken stone, quarry rubbish or
gravel. In the case of small tanks and low revetments not exposed to
heavy wave action one foot thiokness is frequently sufficient, on the
other hand on slopes xpo ed Mheavy waVe action or the lower layers of
high r vetted slopes the thiokness may bo inor ased to 2 [, et or oooa.·
sionally mol' .
The baoking must be of material whioh does not get soft when
saturated with water and which burrowing animals will not bore through;
the partioles should be of oonsiderable size and weight so that they will
 HEAD WORKS 227
not be drawn out from behind the rev tm nt ston s by th a.otion of
rec ding waves. tone m tal or pebble, 01 an quarry sps.lls, brok n
laterite or olean gravel all make good baoking.
Itis oommon to provide for grav 1 baoking, but the materia.l
frequently supplied as gravel oontain but a small proportion of ston
pebbles to a ~arge one of plastio red soil; suoh ma,terial d ' not mak
suitable baoking and should not be used for th purpo e. Gritty oil
suitable for casing such as disintegrated rock, shale kunkur, t " is 0.1 0
suitable for baoking and when the water lope of th bund is faced with
such oil no special backing is nec ssary.
Generally the top of th r v tment is oarried to on' foot a.bov
M.W.L. of a tank but in important tanks 01' in very expos d situations
revetment flhould be carried up to th top of the slope.
The foot of a revetment should generally be carried 2 to 3 £ t
below the protected slope in order to give it a footing b ·low saturated
and soft top soil ofthe tank bed. It should be widened out at th so
as to distribute .the pressure over a wider area (vide figure 67).

FIG . 67.

Tho revetment should be built with as largo a proportion of through

stones as possible and all the work should be carefully built with due
regard to bond and the interstices betweon stones should be filled with
stones and spalls and wedged up tight with spalls driven in with a hammer
smaller between the larger stones.

D ESIGN OF EARTlIEN BuN'Ds.

868. Cross section of bund to suit the earth available.-The design of So
suitable profile for an arthen dam to l' tain a kno~ dep~h of ~ater
requir s a detail d consideration ofth natmc of the SOlI or soils a.vai..labl
in the immediate vicinity for the construction of th bund. ';£'he a.ngl of
repose of these soils dry, damp and saturated must , :>e consldcr d a.nd the
na.tur and p rroeability of th foundation soil on which th bund must b
founded must a.lso be taken into account. If the head of water to be
15A
 mItIGATION

retained is not great (say not exceeding 30 ti et) it is generally necessary

on the soore of economy to make us of soil, for each length of bund, which
is not too far removed to be carried by head-load direct from the pits to
the bund. Thus generally it is neoessary to design the bund to suit
'Whatever soil is available at site and where the soil or foundation is
unsuitable for an earthen bund the alternatives are, to abandon the site,
or to make a safe bund by designing to suit the speoia.l oircumstancee of th
.Ite and soils available.
In the oas of a new tank an oth rwise suitable sitE. may have to bo
aoa.ndoned on account of the unfavourable nature of the earth and founda-
tions availabl , but in the case of earthen bunda, required for river and
channel banks, and for closing breaches in existing tanks the site is £Xed
and the work is frequently imperatively necessary, and ther it is necessary
to make use of whatever soil is available. In extreme cases it may be
necessary, while using for th bulk of the work the soil excavat d from
adjacent pits, to oonvey superior matel-ial from a distance by cart or
ram line to form a oore wall.
869. Foundation of the bund.-If the site of the bund is on th surfaoe
of impervious soil of sufficient thickness to stop percolation under the
work and capable of carrying the weight of 'arth to be placed on it, the
bund should be built on the surface which however should be dug up or
uloughed along the length of the bund so as to form a good j oint with the
newearth to be laid over it. When the depth of water exceeds 16 feet,
trenohes as in figure 65 should be dug. Surfaoe vegetation and roots
should be remov d. Where the foundation is soft rock this should be
trenohed as in figure 68 and if of hard rock which cannot be so treated,
a serrated joint...may be made between it and the earth by a series of dwarf
wa.lls built on it of similar dimensions and spacing to the trenohes shown
in figure 68.

FIG 66 ..

Wh l~the surface is perm able soil overlying an impermeable stratum

the former may either be altogether r moved and the bund seated on the
latter, or one or more trenches dug downlto a foot or two into the imper-
mea.ble strata. and filled with puddle, of the best proourable material, to
form stop walls. In exoeptional cases a lllasonry wall may be used as a
stop wall. Wh n the permeable soil goes do"Wll to a great d pth the stop
wall (whether of pud Ie or mason ly) must be of suoh a depth as-
(1) to prevent peroolation attaining suoh velooity as to endanger the
solidity of the foundation soil by pipmg, and
(2) to prevent exccl:lSive loss of impounded water.
In oonnexion with the seating of the bund it should a.lso be considered
if it is necessary to seoure the foundation or outer slope of the bund from
lettlement or slipping by introduc_tion of drains under the outer slope.
 HEAD WORKS 229
370. Profile of the bund.-The best type of bund must be deoided
with reference to the nature and distribution of material available and th
bund designed with referenoe to the probable slop of th saturation
gradient in the material to be us d and the probabl anO'l of r po und r
the oonditions of the oase. A plastio olay such as bla~k ootton or blaok
silt (ta.nk-~ed silt) is so liab~e to cra?ks :when dry and to lip wh n satu.
rated that It should be used ill oomblDatlOn with 080 ing of om oth r soil
whenever this is economioally praotioable.
When a little ~s~ material only oan be obtain d it may be used on
the water slope thlS bemg the part of the profile in whioh craoks & tho
grea~st ~ource.of da,?ger. If gr?,vel or o~her gritt~ material with larg
pa.rtl01es 18 ava.ila.ble It only reqUIres suffiCIent plastlC material to fill th
interstices to make an exoellent material for a bund and if naturally
deficient in plastic material this may be rectified by mixing with th grit
a suitable quantity of plastio soil and using this for the upstream
two·thirds of the bund, or in alternative only for a hen.rting.
Suoh a mixture of materials is however costly and it may be eoonomi.
oally more suitable to use the material available without going to the oost
of mixing and to make a wider bund allowing for a flat saturation
gradient. Light sandy loams of d ficient power of resisting peroolation
may be used as type A bunds by allowing for a flat saturation gradient. A
puddle wall is useful in combination with suoh soils.
Very light loamy soils only are generally available for flood banks and
banks of canals, eto., in the Punjab and it is there a common experi noe
that banks of irrigation works are only safe when a sa.tnration gradient of
t falls within the toe of the bank. In Madras it is seldom ncceRBary to
make banks of suoh light soil and a saturation gra.dient of 1 in 4 is the
ordinary basis of design.
In settling suitable up-str am slope for a bund the nature and thiokness
of the revetment or other slope protective work must be considered as w II
as the nature of the earth and the slope whioh it can stand at when
saturated with water.
871. Important points In regard to actual execution of embankments.-
(1) The majority of canal and flood banks ale of type A. ond when
supervising the constmction of an earthen dam of any type, the dangers
to whioh suoh a bank is liable should at all times be borne in mind and the
soil available disposed of in the way beAt calculated to promote safety and
this will generally be secured by throwing the most clayey soil in the oentre
of the bund the tendency bern@. rJtther towards the wate..: fare.
(~, The position and limits of depth of pits with resp ot to the bank
must be deoided before commenoing work and the position" of all pits
required for oompleting the work roughly located. It is generally desi·
rable to make most of the pits in the tank bed as these will silt up muoh
more rapidly than pits on the outer side. If, however, the surface soil is
an impervious layer and excavation of pits will expose a pervious and
otherwise open a path for percolation, excavation of pits in the tank bcd
should be avoided. In any case no pits should be excavated ne&~er to
the tee of either slope than thirty feet or four to six times the ultImate
height of the bund whichever is greatE..r, and an additional four to su
feet in ao;:)ordance with the nature of the soil should be add d to this for
every foot the depth of the pit exceeds three feet.
230 IRRIGATION

(3) Wh n commenoing work it is desirable to take earth first from

the mor distant pits gradually I s ning the lead as the work rises.
(4) The positions of pits from which earth requir d for the final
closing of th bund will be taken should b tho most convenient for the
rapid xecution of this work, and thes po. jtions should be reserved
f, r this purpo e. Failing this ther is likely to b a long lead for th earth
for a. work the suocess of whioh greatly d pends on rapidity of execution.
(5) Arrangements should b made to prevent interruption of work
by the pits being fill d with surfaoe drainag after rain.
(6) The seat of the bund should be prepared to reoeive new earth
by removal of all v getation and roots and roughening the surface by
ploughing or digging all over. Any special work, such as trenohing,
whioh is n ceSBal'y to mak a good joint b tween the earth and the base
of the bund should be shown on the design.
(7) The bund should be form d in layers of earth stret ching right
aoro s th whole section; such la.y r should be of thickness from four
inohes to t n inohes. The surface of the lay rs should be formed so as to
slope inwards at about on in twelv towards the oentr of the bund.
(8) All olods shouJd be brok n IIp small befor bing brought on to
th bund.
(9) Consolidation of arthwork is most important in the formation
of a wat r-tight bund and must b dono in aooordanc with specification.
It may b eft ct d by ramming, by driving animals such as buffalos and
oattl over th layers, or by rollors cith r mov d by power or drawn by
animal or m n . A power roller is th best means of consolidation but is
s Idom availa.bl exo pt on speoially important works. In very. small
bunds r taining only thr e or four fe t of water thcse m thods may som _
tim s b di pens d with and in 'Such cascs the lay ·1'S of earthwork should
not b mor than four inohes thi ok.
(10) On no aooount must a bund be originally made of I ss than the
full width with a view to widening subsequ ntly ; this I ads to the
formation of a joint whioh is lik ly to start a slip.
(11) It is an advantag to apply plastio soil in a slightly damp
oondition to a bund; in suoh oondition th oil under consolidation flattens
into a homog neous ma.ss devoid of visible interstic('s. If the surfaoe of a
layeris quite dry it should b lightly wat r d before adding the next lay r,
this oauS s th two lay rs to adh rand th l' is 1 ss da~er of forming
a joint plane. As suoh soil beoomes sloppy and expands when mix d with
muoh wa r th least quantity of wat r whioh makes the soil plastio
should b us d. Wh n pits 801' dry, it is a good plan to water th m in the
ev ning as this faoilitates exoavation and r suIt if the watering is judi-
oiously don ,in the Boil being brought to bank with suffioi nt but not too
muoh moistur .
(12) Wh n puddle is used it must be thoroughly worked up into a
pla tio m with as little water as 81tJftCt8 to bring it to this 8late and when
pIa.oed in th work it must be w II inoorporated with the la.yer below.
Speoial pr oaution must b tak n to pr vent th puddle in a tr noh (or
wall) v r booming dry, a thi will cau ora.oks, any craok whioh is
formed mu t b out out a.nd fr h materialla.id in pla.ce of that r moved.
(13) Wh r pra.otioabl the bank should b giv n tim to settle
b for th rev tment is built; the ttl m nt of a new bank ometime
GaUS s the revetm nt to buIg .
 BEAD WORKS 231
872. Junctions in embankments.-Junctions in earthwork should be
a.s few 8.S possible and should be I veIl din ection and jogg! d in. plan
Bhown in figures 69 andJ69-a.

It • . 68(4) .. LAN.

OLD

When a.voidabJe. jun otjoD8 to a. depth of more tha.n 20 £ t should not

be made in. one season. D p junctions of this kind will norm.ally only
be necessary where closing the gap left for passing the flow when oonstruct-
ing a new bund or closing a br ach in an old one.
Wh re an old bund has to b widt"ned by the addition of arth the old
slop should be out

~
.!. .
"Ica . 70.

~~~~~!~ ~e~AII~.~'b~~
into st ps with tho

treads the 0 slightly

towardssloping ntr of
tho bund and when
throwing on the new
Boil the surfaoe of tho
old work f:lhould be wetted so that tho now earth may a.dh r to the old
(vide figUl'e 70).

878. Draining o(fllllng ot scour holes.-Th importanc of draining

the site on whioh a bund stands has aIr ady b en alluded to and this also
a.pplies to the ground immediately down-str am of a bund. If water
sta.gna.tes her it will prevent the drainage of th rear slop and s t of the
bund.
A deep scour hole is frequently formed at the site of a breaoh and
water lies in tl:Us a.nd may form a d p pool at tb foot of tIl outer slop
of the mha.nkment alo ing the breach.
If, 88 frequently ha.ppens, th fall of th country does not p rmit
of natUl'al drai.nage of 8Uah a pool, it must b flll d up, if possibl , with
80il which will not slush, or if too Ia.rg to fill altog ther it must be fill d
for sorn d,istanoo, say twic , tbe h ight of tb bllnd, from itt':l rea.r toe.
232 mRIGATION

874. Testing soil for embankmenfs.-In the case of important works

the qualities of any soil or mixtures of soil may be tested by making
with it a test tank, say 10 feet squaro at the foot of the water faoes
and of d pth 3 or 3i fcet. Tho water face may be Ii to 1 and a. similar
outer slope with top width 3 feet and free boa.rd Ii feet. The tank
should be kept for about a w ek fill d to within It feet of the top an;,
peroolation los8 8 being mad good at intervals. The aotual slope of tli
percolation plane in th banks should then bobs rv d and will b a guide
to tho qua.1iti 8 of the soil . By gradua.lly cutting ba.ok the outer slope
the qualiti 8 of the Boil s r gards lipping wh n sc1.tura.ted may be
observed.
The quality of a plastic soil, or of a mixture of plastic and grit soile
to resist satura.tion by wa r may be sted by making up ba.lls of the
soil 4 or 5 inoh s in diamoter; the soil should be damp d and knead d
up in the ha.nds until it b oomes a stiff plastio mass before making into
balls. The b&lls may then be immersed in still water It to 2 feet de p
and 1 ft th reo A good olay soil will resist saturation for days, and even
for wo ks, while a.n inferior soil will broome saturated and fall to pieces in
a few hours.
It is us 1 ss tosting a dry lump of plastic soil by immersion in water aEl
it willsp dilyabsorb xc ss of water in its interstie s a.nd fall to piee s;
this would not however happen if th soil is pulverized so as to ha.ve but
littl interstitial oontent a.nd oonsolidat d and confined in an enclosed
spaoe wh re it oannot expand when wat r reach s it; under thes
oonditions it oan only absorb water gradually and in doing so attains the
sta.te of pla.stioity in whioh its properties of resisting sa.turation a.nd
peroolation are fully developed. Clay soil in such a condition is not only
highly imp rmeabl but is also v ry retentiv of the water absorbed
a.nd pur clay soil in the h art of a big bund when once in a suitabl('
plastio oondition will r tain moisture and r main plastio in Ilo V ry dry
climate for on or two years, even if no wat r hOos b en standing against
the bank for suoh a p riod.
875. Testing the permeability of a tank bed.-If the surfaoe soil in
th b d of th propos d tank js not more p rvious than the subsoil ,
pit should b dug in various places in the bed to a depth of about 3 feet
but not mor than half the thickn ss of the retentive surface soil; if
this surfa.o lay r is not mor than 4 feet thick sma.ll tanks on the surfao
may b ma.d in pla.ce of pits. The pits, or tanks, should be 6Iled with
water and th rate per hour at which the water surface in each pit
(or tank) falls should bobs rv d and from this the IOS8 from oombin d
p roolation and evaporation per unit of area oa.n be oomputed. If the
surfao soil is pervious and the subsoil is r lied on to retain the water in the
t nk, th pits should b xoavated down to the subsoil level and their
aid s lin d with ola.y or oth r imp rvious soil so that a.ll percolation
108s will tak pla.ce through the bottom of the pits. The rate of per cola.
tion hould th n be ob rv d as above.
In 11 0 th pits should b k pt full of water for not I ss than 24
hour b ·for oomm noing to ob erv th rate of loss; this is nt'o ssary
to giv th surrounding oil a suitabl amount of moisture.
 HEAD WORKS 233

RESERVOIlr SUPPLY Ll1IOE

376. Tank slulces.-A sluioe oonsi ts of & culv rt or pip rllllning

througb or under the bund to oonv y wa r from th tank to tb

FIG. 71 .
TANK 8L:U'C£.. ARCHED TUN,.£L WITH PlU~.
,.LAN AT TOP .

tlCTION 0 .. t . P'.

LONGITUDINAL S£CT I Ott . Slt.CTION OM ·A •• • C."

FIG. 72..
TANK eL.UfCE.. STONl::. SLA8& .

... e1'lo" 0 .. A•• ~C . ,

... ,,,. "T 'OUN_"T'ON ••

.aCTloN THRO : TUMNe&".

234 m:aTQATION

distribution cana.l or ohannel with a wall, or tower bead, at or near

the 1 p.str am end on which arc installed th regulating arrangomevts
and from whioh these caD b op rated. Suits ble wing walls 01' other
bank oonnexions are r quired at the bead and tail·end of the culvert
(vide 6.gur 8 71 to 74).

'IG .7 3 .
EARTHE~WARE. PIPE SLUICE.

~.
;.~:
, " ott

... ow.\..

LON6ITUDINAL. 5ECTION.

NOTE-
•~ !~Y.rn;;;';~:":; If the soil is ho.r d the oonorete 'under the
pipos roay he omitted and the pipes IBid
in 9 in hoe puddle ns per seotion.
J
I
)I

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 HEAD WORKS 2 5

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236 mBIGATION

377. The cuJvert or barrel of the sluice.-The size of this culvert

will, of course, be proportioned to the maximum quantity of water
it is requir d to convey but in no case should be less than 2 feet wide
and 2t feet high so as to allow a man to enter it for examination and
repairs or removal of obstl·uctions. The size should also be such ~s to limit
the velocity through the sluice barrel to 15. fa t per sec. under the
condition of the plug hoI being fully op n with the water at full tank
I vel (F.T.L.). For very small sluioell, pip s either of earth nware,
c ment, or cast iron may b used to take th place of masonry culv rta.
Sluic s in which pipes ar thus used ar termed' pip sluices' (figUl'
73) . It is not d sirable to use arthenware or cement pipes in pluta
of bunds at depths exc eding 8 feet below full tank level as the fractw'e
of a pip or 1 akage of the joints may result in a breach while the exami·
nation of the oondition of the pipes or r pairs cannot be carri d out
without cutting open the bund. It is rarely conomical to use cast
iron pip s in plaoe of masonry for t nk sluiccs.
378. Foundations of sluice culverts.-The foundations of masonry
oulv rts are almost invariably a slab of concrete, to be of suitable width
and thickness having in vi w the nature of the foundation soil, and th
weight and na.tur of earth abovo the culvert. It is important to s oure
as far a.s practicable a uniform foundation soil throughout th length
of the culvert so that the settlement may be uniform. If ther is a
puddlo trench th crossing of this is a point of weakness and if pra ctiOB ble
the sluic should be placed in a site wher no such crossing is necessary.
Wh r a crossing is unavoidabl the puddle wall may be stopped on
ith r side of th site of the sluic and a masonry stop wall substituted.
As an alternativ th part of the barrel which passes over the puddle
may b construoted as a separate pi co of work jointing into the lengths
on either sid with a plain butt joint fill d with mortar without bund;
this is term d a 'slip joint'. Th form r method is g n rally to he
preferred.
379. The superstructure of a sluice cuJvert.-The sluice culvert
is g n rally oov r d with masonry arohwork ither of stone, brick, or
oonor to. Wh n the bank abov is not very high and when eoonomy
is served, stone or ferro oonorete slabs may be substitutDd for arohwork.
Wh n this is don a lay r of conorete 6 inohes to 1 foot thick should be
1 id ov r th sla.bs to prevent leakage b tween th m. The two types
lU'e shown in figures 71 and 72.
Th length of the barrel should b designed to suit the cross-s otion
of the tank bund. In th oase of a ne bund it is gen rally desirable
to prolong the barr ] und r th outer slop to suit th lIa.tter slope which
this will ventually assum and th earthwork over a sluic ma.y b
mad lightly high r than th normal s otion of th bund; in the case
of o.n old tank the 1 ngth of th barr 1 should oonform to th slop s
of th bund on ith l' sid of th sluic site. This is a point fr qu ntly
ov rlook d in d ign and in cons qu nc th I ngthening of barrel of
tank sluic s i fr qu ntly found n sary in carrying out restoration
works; it i 801 0 v l'y oommon to find th narrow st profile of th
bunds of ta.nks at sluic s whioh thus a1' below 8ov; rag a.t th s works
in.tead of being giv n, a th y should be, xtro. strength at such places.
Th cost of adding to th length of a. sluioe barr I at th tim of con·
struotion is always fa.r 1 ss tho.n tha.t of sub qu ntly building an qua]
additional I ngth.
 BEAD WORKS 237
Figure 71 gives an ordinary type of tank sluice to suit au outer slope
of two to one. If this is th normal outer slope of th tank bund af r
settl ment on either side of the worK th length of barrel i uitabl but
otherwis it would be d suable to extend tb bar 1 from 4: to 6:£ tin
the original d sign. An alternativ to thi would be raising th tail
oistern walls to take a Hatter outer slope; this altlJ.ough not 0 ffiai nt
is much chea.per than extending tho barr I after OQnstruotion and may
oonsequently be frequently found suitable.
380. Stop walls across the barrel ot a slulce.--A sluice i alway
regarded as a danger point in an earth 11 dam chi fly on aooount of tb
liability of water under pressure to ore p along tb joint b tw n tb
masonry of tho barr I and the arth. It is th refor desirabh' to k<' P
the surfaoe of the masonry along this joint a rough as possible so as to
offer every fa oility for making a tight joint. 'This is a point OnNl ov r-
look d and the joints and surfaces ar flushed smooth so a. to pr s nt a
good appearance. It is of the utmost importance to s t.lmt tb b st
kind of soil procurable is used for filling in rOWld tho sluie b rrel and
behind the wings and that this is put in, in thin lnycrs, and thorougl1ly
consolidated by ramming. Such pre 01\ utiOJlS aru suffioient for ordinary
beads of 18 to 2.{) teet hut with ncaas of 2'{) feet ana upwards it i aavisahlo
to build two or more stop walls along the Up-sLrt'nm two-thirds f tll.
barrel length to form a furth r obstruction to or cp. Two such wall ar
shown in figure 77 below.
881. Head wall and wings ot tank sluices.-Heads should be built
up to a suffioient lev I to carry a platform at or ahov maximum wa. r
level (M.W.L.) so as to allow oonv ni nco for rcgulating th sluic at all
times. Where a head wall is provided it must b conneoted with win B
of 8uitable 1 ngth and slop to r taiu the ca.rth sloI>'S of tho bund; th
type shown in figurcs 71 to 74 show a. common and t,uitabl arrang mont.
382. Sluice with a tower head.-Figure 75 gives a drawing of a tank
sluiee with a tower (or well) h ad. This form is S()metimes mor COllO-
mical than the type previously referred to, owing to the saving by avoiding
the heavy wing walls of the previous type; thero is also less dang r of
failure by cracking and bulging which not infrequently oocurs in the
wings of the oth r type; on th other hand with th tow r 1) ad a.n
additional length of barrel is required. Tower heads are gen rally plac d
in the wa.ter slope of the bund as th reby the c:xp enae of a bridg or
causeway leading from th bank to the regulation platform is sav d.
This has the disadvantag of making it impoSBible. While the tank has
wa.ter to have acoess to the portion of the barrel up,stream of the well.
 IRRIGATION

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888. Method of regulation of tank sluices.-The v nta generally us d

for sluic s of mod ra.te siz consist of one or mor oiroular orifioes of
iluitabl size in a horizontal ston and the area. of opening is regulated by
a. long ooned plug th wid r nd of which i of the ame diameter (allow-
ing for 01 aranoe) as the vent whioh is termed the' plug-hole' (vide
figures 71, 72, etc,), As the plug is raised the orifice is opened more and
 trEAD won ~39

more a.nd when the plug is raised altogether 01 ar of th plug h 1 by an

an;tOlm~ not le?s than the diam tel' of ~h hoI th full disoha.rg of th
onfioe IS obtamed. Th arrang mentIs both simpl and conomi a.l a.nd
affor~. an eo. ily adjust d m~ns of r. gulation to nit th v ry &rying
oondltlOns of water-level which are lllSeparabl fr m 1'£' rvoirs and .
more suitable for tank sluioes than the fiat shutters which ar in g n ra.l
use for ohannel sluioes.
Where plug holes would exceed 8 to 10 inch s in diam tel' it i
generally advisable to provide two or mol' holes and plug in th' plug
platform stone, while for deep sluices, say ov r 25 £ t d pth, two or
more plug stones at diffi rent lev Is each with separat plug hole gi
grea.t fa.cilities for easy regulation, th upp r platform b ing u d wh n
the eater is high and the low r one wh n it falls to such a level that all
the water required cannot be passed through til holes in the upp r plug
stone. The size of the orifices in tho plug ston 0.1' g n raUy calculated
so as to enable full supply to be pass d with vents fuUy op n and with
one foot of water standing over the plug tone platform. For l' guo
lation below this level a rectangular v rtical nt is provid d whioh is
closed by a shutter, whioh may be wood but is g nerally a slab of ston ;
this vent is made of sufficiont size to pass full supply with t foot head.
This shutter is brought into use only wh 'n wat l' in th tank is 1 ss
than 4 foet over the floor of the sluioe and at oth l' tim B th hutter
is kept oompletely covering the orifioo and leakage pa t it should b
stopped by a filling of silt agamst it up- troam face. R gulation
of this bent will be dono by men standing on th plug ston. In tho
case of large tanks where the quantity of wat r to be issucd is gr at and
where adequate establishment is maintain d, flat f:! huttcrf:! working in
grooves and regl1lat d by sorew spears may be install d. Thif:! type of
shutter and regulating gear iH shown in figur 77 and it! mol' fully d s-
oribed in Chapter XV. Flat shutters should n vcr bo u!:Icd, for tank
sluioes exoept in the low water vonts unl ss th y a1' fitted with SOl' w
gear, and even when so fitted they are und 'sirabl wlleBf:! large quantiti s
of water have to be passed. For heads of over 30 fe ,t sp oial balanc d
valves or shutters moving on rollers 0.1' usually pl'ovid 'd.
384. Detail 01 ~ugs for tank sluices.-Det~1ils of plugf:! for tank
sluioes are shown in ~ure 76 and the standard f:!iz'l; 0.1' 4.., 6.., 8", 10"
and 12" diameter, this being the size of th hoI in th plug ston , th
largest diameter of the oone part of the plug bing about ! inoh less;
the width of the seating should be from 1 to Ii inches. Th oon s should
have a taper of one to four, and be made of hard wood; th small l'
cnd of the oone and the gr at st diam tel' of the plug should b cut
cylindrical to take oountersunk iron straps which should b shrunk on
to prevent t·he plug from splitting. The lifting rod should be round
iron and ooured by a split cottar pin at 'ach nd of th plug. When
the rod is long it should be passed through hoI s in guid b aros fix d
at intervals. The top end of the rod passes through a hoI in the regu-
lation platform; it should bc flat iron with holes at about 3 inches interval
through which an iron pin is pa sed to kc p the plug suspend d at
whatever height it gives suitable elevation.
885. Cistern or wings at taU end of sluice barrel.-In the case of a
sluice of normal eapacity, up to about 400 acres, the tail nd of the
oulvert usually delivers into a cistern of the form shown in figur s 71 to
74. This serves to retain the slope of the banks and of the irrigation
~40 taBIGA'l'ION

ohannel. Where several mall channels take off from the tail of the
oulvert at different lev ls the oistern form of tail is very convenient as
notohes or vents in the cistern can be built to dimensions and at levels
whioh will effect delivery of water in Buitable proportions and a.t suitable
1 vola. 'the r at wings a.nd returns of sluices supplying larger cha.nnels

PLUS. "OR TANK 8LUICES.

@Je 8 8
 HEAD .. J
.hould be similar to tho. e of sluices of 'imila.r 'iz din 'Ill
ditrihution; such~asluicei showninfigur 77.

TANK SLUICE
tlEGUL.ATE.O ... SLIDING S~UTT"1l
L... .. ..,

•
I~
t:
~D
i~·. --.- - ':
'· 0
o : I
t... "r, ,
' , 't
on

.OIUW GEAR 'OR SHUTTER.

IIHIJTTf.R 2.k·'T HI GK
. ·'Ali lALt InOIl rClR DC:~IIII1••
,.OR r.IIUTT c:.R ,
.... UTTf.R ~TRAP:S "ClR
AT'" "Ctu,& tcT TO LI'T'"G
110027," .'1' ~,5T""'P~ AT
,Hoa 0' IIHUTT1." f. .y
,I: ALL-IRO" WOA~ ON
RI"'~ tl IO& TO 111.' .. ur."
."TH 'Act 0 1' 3UU TTL".

386. Selection of site and slll level of a slu,tce.-None of th water

impound d in a tank below the level of the sill of a sluice ca.n be pass d
16
 242 lRR1GATJON

by gravitation through it, and in fixing the level of a sluice sill it hould
be remembered that it is useless to draw off water below a level which
secures command of tho lands to be irrigated and also that the deepest
part of a tank b d impounds a relatively small oontent and material
part of this oontent will be gradually filled with silt .
The sill should thus be at suoh a level as will only draw water which
oommands the ar a. to bo irrigated and subject to this should be so de p
as to b ablo to draw from th major portion of the impoundable content.
If an irrigation chann I already exists the bed level of this channel
fi es tho lowest effective level of sluice sill, but otnerwise.in order to fix
the most suitable 'level of the sill of a tank sluice it is necessary to know
th 1 vel of the highest and lowest fields and the general mean level of the
lands to irrigated and the level of the sill should generally be between
the m an and highest field levels but may be lower when much extra
oapaoity is thereby made available; tho approximate capacity of the
tank within the range of levels between the highest and lowest fields
·should thor fore be asoertained.
If the foundation soil is favourable at the place where natural
ground is at sill I v I this would generally b the most suitable site. Where
the soil is unfavourable the sluice site should be shifted to the nearest
suitable site and generally this would be towards the nearest flank of the
bund so that the sluice barrel would be somewhat in outting. In such
oase approaoh and run-off outting to and from the sluice would have to
be mad ; where the head of water is great it is by no means unusual to
g t greater seourity by shifting the site of a sluice to a flank, but in shallow
tanks, say up to 20 feet depth, this is unusual on account of the oost and
inoonvenience of making and maintaining the approach cutting.
387. Information which shou.ld be recorded on the design of a shllco.-
The heading of information which is generally reoorded on the design
of a. tank sluico is shown on the designs figures 73 and 74. .

:
"
.
TANK SURl'LUS WORKS •

388. Su.rplu.s works of tanks.-The surplus works of tanks are usually

either weirs or flUBh scapes. In ordinary cases the lengths must be
suoh that the quantity of water estimated as the maximum flood dis-
oha.rg lik ly to enter tho ros rvou: oan be dispos~ of with a d pth over
the work qual to tho diff: r noe b tw n the full tank level {F.T.L.}
and the maximum water I vel (M.W.L.).
The effeotive storage oapaoity of th tank is limited by the F.T.L. but
the area submerged by the tank water- pread and the height of the bund
a.nd rev tm nt are poll d pendent on the M.W.L. It follows that in order
to r striot the dimension of th se it is desirable that the diffi r nee be-
tw on F.T .L. and M. W.L. should b mall. On the other hand the mailer
this differ no the long r must be th surplus escap in order to nable
it to pass a. given disoharg. Th differ no is fixed in aoh partioular
0& with ref, reno to th estimated cost of the items mentioned, the
m t effioient arrangement which is also economical being adopted.
In small and medium ized tank the usual difference b tween M.W.L.
Alld F.T.L. is from 1 to 2 £ t a.nd it is ra.re for the difference to exoeed
a feet.
 HEA.D ORKS 243
389. Types of tank weirs.-Tank weirs may b ola.ssified in th me
types as river weirs (anicuts) as below :-
Type A.-In whioh the water is dropped on to a horizont&l ma om
a.pron, or· on to rock, immediat Iy below the 01' t wall.
Type B .-In whioh the water is deliv red from the orest on to a.
sloping masonry apron.
Type C.-Similar to typ B, but with a sloping apron mad up of
a mass of rough stones.
Type D.-Weir with st pped apron.
To the types A to C whioh have b en alroady desoribed in r lation
to aniouts must be added type D whioh is a oombination of types A a.nd B
and ma.y be oalled a. weir with stepped apl'On. In this type the water
is dropped in a series of vertical faUs or steps on to suooessi e horizont&l
or almost horizontal aprons.
Type A weir is of this type, but with ono step only, wher as if
the number of steps is large, and tho height of ach small, th weir
approximates to type B.
390. Principles applicable to anicuts also applicable to tank weln.-
The general oonsiderations and principles which guide the de ign of riv r
weirs whe,t her on rook or on loose pervious or impervious soils also a.pply
to t&nk surplus weirs, but in tho case of tho ta.nks the oonditions as regards
the nature of foundation soil and the working conditions are more varied
than in the case of river weirs.
891. Working conditions of anicuts and tank weirs contrasted.-
As regards foundation soil for tank weirs almost ev ry class of soil has
oooa.sionally to be built on, but only rarely is the foundation sand.
This last is the most common foundation soil for anieuts and the
details of anieut design on soft soils have been worked out with speoial
referenoe to this class of soil.
The conditions generally applicable to aniout as regards t&il water
ba.cking up during floods and affording some extent of proteotion to the
talus and to the soil at the down-stream toe of the apron, are absent in
the majorit y of tank surplus weirs and therefore the weirs of tanks built
on soft soil would, other things being equal, be more exposed to damage
by scour at the toe of the apron and retrogression of levels than river
weirs.
On the other hand the depth of water passing over the Qr sts of
tank weirs is generally far less than over ani cut and in the oase of very
many tanks it is only on an average for a few days eaoh year that any
flow at all passes the weir, and while the duration of oontinous heavy flow
is frequently limited to a maximum of two or three days.
Tank weirs are thus usually worked far less heavily and far le88
continuously than river weirs and this should be oonsidered in designing.
244 lRlU OA'rIO~

892. Positions suitable for weirs of types B and C.-Every type

of weir mention d abov is to be met with in the existing tanh of uth
India. Types B or 0, figur 78 a.nd 79, although common ar not
genera.lly to b reoommend d for ta.nk weirs on aocount of the sp oia.}
tendenoy to scour at thc toe of the apron to whioh th 'se types are liable.

WE1RTVPE B. fIG.78.
aA • •TO ..... /tT t.~'''"'''V4L

..

Wh r th oil is hard enough to ro ist soour, for insta.no soils of

oft rook, or la.t rite, or kunkur, one of th s typ may uita.bly be
employ d. In a.n xoeptiona.l a wh r rough stone is 80 oh ap tha.t
an xtra heavy down- tream talus can b economioally provided, th Be
type lllOoY be found suite.ble eveu in friabl soil.
Gen rally how v r the weinl most l:iuitabl for tank 0.1' of type
AorD.
398. Positions suitable for type A weir.-Wh r th soil i rock, or
wh r a wat r cu hion i brought into US , or where the v crtioal drop
does not exe d 2 to 2i fi et, type A is mo t suitable; where the quam,
 READ WORKS

of the masonry is really good the vertical dr p may be in r

ma.ximum. Figur 80 howl:! a. w ir of thi . typ. Th abo
um that th apron i not protected from impa.ct a in th
e.nicuts by the backing up of tail wa.ter. Wh re thiB 0 ours
vertical drop may be given.

WE IR TYP E A . FIG. 80 .

~_ _'.T4. . " '•• 00

~"""'~hI;~;:§~~~~~;c:::c:c:a::::r:x;0:3~_ _-+IO. OO

PLAN.

LONG~ ·SE.CTlOM .

.. 1i0·00

~lU=~;;;.;.....I .41-00

When the fall is gr at, say 9 feet or upwards, and the 80il 80ft but
only slightly perviou , typ A w ir with wat r cushion may, in c rtain
C , prov more economical than type D and should in 8uch circum-
.ta.nces be built.
246 IRRIGATION

Figure 81 giv s a. design of a. type A w IT with water oushion. In

oertain plaoes water oushion may be made in 80ft rock by building only
a. oushion wall leaving the soft rook as the floor of the cushion. This
'n e of water cushion weir is very economical

WEI R TV PE A .WITH WATE.R C;U6ijtOtt.

CROS S SE C TION'.

-
:~'.~: ~r.+-t~-m'~~',;~~'r,
,.. • • 0 0 L ___ ___ ....
.
• • • • OL. -. _ _ _ _ """.,.....~o..:..:..o.:-:.~

PLAN.
 ,
HEAD WORKS 247 .
894. Weirs (type D) with stepped aprons.-This typ ofw ir is u ually
roo t suitable for sites on oft s j I wh n th ' drop 0 3 fi at. Figure 82
is a. weir of this type.

FIG. 82.
-WEIR ' TYP E'D.

395. MaterIa] for aprons of tank weirs .-It is advisable to make

any apron on to which the drop exc eds I t fe t , of not less than I t :£ et
thiokness of solid masonry (rough stone or oonorete in roomr). Aprons
receiving overfalls up to and not exe ding I t feet with a depth of water
not exceeding 2 feet over the crest may be of 1t to 2 fe t rough stone
grouted with conorete; the individual stones should be 1t fi et in length
and packed with the length vertical. For overfalls of one foot, grouting
i8 generally unnecessary.
Rough stone aprons should be laid on a layer of coa.rse grit or qua.rry
rubbish of about 6 inohes thickness.
All masonry aprons should be heavy enough to be s cure aga.inat
uplift. This proviso, however, ra.rely a.ffects the d sign of tank w irs of
this type. .
396. WIdth of floors or tank welrs.-Th widths of the horizonta]
ftoors of type A or D weirs, from the foot of the drop wall to the <lown-
atrea.m edge of the floor should never be lcss than 2 (H+ d) where H i.e the
248 IRRlO ATIO:;r

depth of the drop a.nd d the maximum depth of water to pas ov r the
weir crest. In important works the width Dlay be mcreas d to 3 (H+d) .
The rough stone apron forming a talu . b low the last curtain wa.ll should
be of varying width accOl'ding to the nature of the f;oil and the velo('ity
and annual probable quantity and int nsity of run·off; it would gem·rally
vary from 2~ (H+ d) to 5 (H+ d) according to the conditiom .
Width of floor = 2 (R+ d) (49)

397. Bank connexlons of welrs.-Bank connexion,q nre de. ign d to

seoure 0. good joint between the masonry weir and th ba.nk of the tank
and the I ngth of the line of creep must be sufficient to guard against
dangerous percolation round the flanks of the work.
There are two general typ s of bank connexions :-
(a) abutments and wing (figures 81 and 82),
(b) core walls (figures 80 and 84.a).
(a) is g nerally the mor expensive type but it seourely protects
the end of the bank from the rush of water while the wings serve as guide
walls to the curl' nt on approach and run·off from the weir. In high
weirs this type of bank connexion would generally be adopted and in Jow
weirs the oore wall type where cheaper will b found generally suitable.
The nature of the soil and th safe percolation gradi nt is of importance
in designing bank conn xions whi ch should gen rally b made so as to
give a percolation gradient of 1 in 5 round the joint between the masonry
and th eal'th.
When surplus escapes ar on the extreme flank of a tank it is often
unnecessary to have any bank or bank connexion on the outer nd, the
w ir wa.ll or flush esoape floor being stopp d where the natural ground.
level is at F.T .L. and the continuation protected from scour by a littl
flush pitohing.
This is shown in figure 83 on th outer flank of a flu sh escape. Even
where th oonditions do not obtain there is no reason why the bank
oonnexions should b similar at both ends of a weir which connect s at
one end with a h avy bank wh re a br ach would be disastrous and at
the other with a light one where a breach would cause little injury.
It' usual to se two wings of similar de ign but these frequ ntly
compri e oas s wher uniformity is only secur d by making th outer
flank wing of an unnecessarily xpensive type.
898. Flush escapes.- A flu heap ma.y be con truoted wh re, for
& Buffioi nt width a.t ither Bank of the tank or elsewhere along the
p rim t r of th waterspr ad contour, the natural ground surfaoe is at
F.T.L. and the ground falls awlJoy from thi giving a suitabl urplus
esoa.p ohann 1. If the ground at th site is suffioiently hard not to be
erod d by the surplus water pa sing over it and down the scape channel
no con truction work is n c ary oth r tha.n clearing the sit and the
approach and run·off cha.nnel of any oh tructions. The tank bund
houid b carri d up to on (or both) nd of th I ngth of the escape,
th re stopped a.nd th nd r v tt d a prot ction a.gain.~t ero ion by the
wa.ter pas ing ov r th flush cap.
A 6.u8h e cape is thu m r ly th _ open h ad of a. surplus cha.nnel.
 HEAD WORK"

Wher the soil is not uffici ntly hard to with tand the er , iv
of the water it is protected by dry ton pit bing. Figur 3 0" th
Il8UAl form of flush escapo. If any cutting back acti n from b loy .
a.pprehended a stop wall should b built in a trenoh along th lin of
urplus, the flu h apTon b ing packed on its down- tr am id a.nd th
foundation of th wall being eith r on hard soil or carri d to u h d pth
as will give the nee ssary security against cutting ba k. Flu h o pe
very commonly serve as surlpus work fOT the mal1('r tanks in outh
India. Wher theR escapes require no paV('llI nt 01' th r prote tiv
works they are term d 'na,tUl'al e. apes'.

FIG .sa . FLUSH ESCAPE.

t+- .. . .;-+1 • I.''''
CROSS SE.CTION, "
..0

LONG~ SECTION.

I.'" &0"1: 001 ....."'.

899. Dam stones on tank surplus escapes.-A common pra.oti which

has been r rt d to for 0 nturi in South India is to fix dam ston 8 in
the cr st wall of w irs or along the floors of flush soap 8. Tb 8 ston (I
ar gen rally about six inch s squar in seotion and 21 to 3 it t long and
a.re built into the masonry wall (or floor) a.t about It to 2 fi t in rval
in the 01 ar and project a.bove the weir cr at to a. h ight of on to two fi t,
their tops being generally at M.W.L. Figur 78 shows dam ston
fix d in the orest of 0. typ B w ir,
250 IRRIGATION

The space betwe n these stones are block d up with olay and turf
by the oultivators with th r sult that water can be held up in the tank
to M.W.L. before any surplusing takes place and in effi ct so long a.s these
turfs remain intact the F.T.L. and M.W.L. are the same. When the
tank reoeives additional water which causes the level to rise above M.W.L.
the water overtops the turf bund which is rapidly wa.shed away and the
surplus weir comes into operation without the M.W.L. being exo eded
to any appreoiabl degree. When ver this occurs all the water stor d
in th tank abov the w ir crest level must be pass d off before th turf
dam can b rebuilt. The dam stones cause obstruction to the discharge
and when these are installed the length of weir must be correspondingly
increased.
Sometimes iron uprights are fixed in place of dam stones as these
offer less obstruction to dow but the object is the same. Weirs or flush
escap s fitted with dam stones are termed 'calingulabs' a term derived
from the Tamil word for such works. Planks or brushwood, etc., should
never be us d in blocking calingula.hs as such obstructions would not be
rapidly cleared by a flood and th tank would be liable to be breached.
Crest shutters, suoh as are used on anicuts, are sometimes used on
surplus weirs of tanks: the object aimed at bing the same as with the
dam stones. Wher there is a speoial resident establishment for working
such shutt rs they may be satisfactory, but failing this, their use is to be
deprecated as they will sometimes not be lowered when necessity arises.
Automatio falling crest shutters, unless carefully looked after, ar likely
to jam when us d on tank weirs owing to obstructions us d with a view
of dimini hing leakag past the shutters and for this reason th y should
only be used where in charge of adequate establishment. .

400. Sluices as surplus works of tanks.-It is dangerous to depend

on sluioes for disposing of the surplus of reservoirs unless an effioient
and trustworthy establishment living at the work site is maintained for
working them. This is not practioabl for any but large works. Tank
surplus luic s do not materially differ from the regulators and sluices
desorib d elsewh r . This system of disposing of surplus is in force in
& few large res rvoirs in Madras .i.e.g., Periyar and Kanigiri reservoirs,
V eranam tank, t o. ). A gr at advantage derivabl from fully oontrolled
sluio s or w it shutters is that F .T.L . and M.W.L. ar the same and
retain water t M.'\Y.L: all th tim urplusing is going on, while when ver
w ir with dam stones oomm no s to surplus , th impounding bank is
W' h d away and oannot be r oonstruot d till water falls to w ir or st,
a.nd all water impound d betwe n weir or st level and th I vel of the
top of th dlUll ston s is 10 t.

401. Surplus vents or notches In weir walls.-Oocasiona]Iy sluic

v nts or notch s fit d with shutters form a part of weirs. Such works
hav b nus d-
(a) or irrigA.tion in place of separate irrigation sluic s.
Th r is no obj ation to suoh a sluia being us din pla.o or one of
th ordinary typ wh r economy or oonv ni no iB th r by &ttained.
(b) To control wa. r I vel on w ira fitted with dam ston so. d thus
wh n th quantity of urplus wa1;(lr is mod rate to pr vt'nt the br aahing
of the turf bund. .
 HEAD WORKS 251
When the conditions of site allow such lui(l{' 1\ lik ly to prov
most useful and surplus slni for thi obj t wh the}' in U\ w it l'
elsewhere might with advant g bt> oonstrue d mol' frequ ntJy th i
now usual.
(c) To suppl ment the othcrwi e inadequate di oharging pow r f
the surplus works.
This is a dang rous prnotic(', and unles lmdC'r th<' oondition 1\
regards tablishment stated in IMt, paragraph surplll ~ wt'iJ' 8h uldal a ' R
be provided with adequate capacity for disoharging th<' full qllant.ity f
surplus without any d p ndano being placed on weir lniOl'S,
402. Approaoh to surplus works.-It is most important to provid
and maintain a free and unobstruoted approaoh to all surplus works.
The width of the approach should not b k B than the wid h of th W 'ir
or flush esoape a.nd the bed level in no pIMa higher, a.nd preferably h If
a. foot or mol' lower, than the crest of th weir. Wh re a weir is e ral
feet in height access to it is generaUy adequate without the ll<'o<'ssity
for oa.rrying out any work to provid for this, but in the oase of low w irs
or flush escap s on the extr m fla.nk of a. ta.nk bund, or on an isola.ted
saddle, it is frequently n cessa.ry to enlarge the natural apIJroaoh by
exoavation so that the wat l' may have fr e aooess to very part of the
work. If this is negleoted th re will b a loss of h<,ad on t,h approo.oh
~o the surplus work and the full depth of water will only pass ov rit
when the level of op n water in th ta.nk is higher tbn tho M.W.L. pro-
posed. Figure 84 gives an xample of cutting out access to a surplus
weir the area of the cutting being cross-lined in plan. Th Mea within
whioh all obstruotions must bo out down is th qua.dra.nt of !\ oirclo
struak with the inner flank of the weir as o<'ntre and the length of th
weir a.s radius.
403. Surplus channe1.-The disposal of the surplus wat<'r a.fter it
passes the weir requir soar ful considera.tion. Th naturallino ofrun-ofl'
is a line at right angles to th existing oontours of the natural surfac of
the ground below the weir and if these give a suitable surplus cour
without damage to existing or prosp ctiv cultivation and without
running in olose proximity to the down-stream to of th tank bund all
that would be noo ssary would be to remove any looal obstruotions and
possibly in some oases to erect small guide banks so as to prevent th
water spreading out to an undue width b for it l' ached a vall yin whioh
the na.tural oontours of the ground would retain it. As soon as a surplus
work on soft soil com s into use the water itself will quiokly form a surplus
water course an(l if the water is at first guid d into a suitabl lin
muoh subsequent trouble may be avoided. With this objeot in vi w
it is necessary where the line of weir is at right angJ s to tb ground
contours as in figure 84, to make guide banks and outtings whioh bav
for their objeot the lea.ding of the surplus wa.ter aoross sid -long grounda
in a direotion at right angles to the weir for some distance away from th
weir and tank bund before allowing it to take a course at right angl s
to the oontours of the natural ground surfaoe. This involv s a bank on
the lower side of the oross-slope and also a outting to level th or -slope,
from the spoil of which outting th stop bank and possibly 801 0 som of
the tank bund may be made. Suoh outting should be grad d into a
ohannel with a snitable fall and its alignm nt laid out with a vi w to its
gradual widening by ero ion of surplus water to form a suitabJ a.nd safi
channel clear of the toe of the bund (vide figur 84).
25:. mRIGATION

404. Disposal of surplus water from tanks.-Most of the surplus

workS built in outh India Ilt' in oonn xion with 'xi tiT,.g tanks and
from th surplus water oha.nnols ah I'.dy xist which would in 'mo t
011 S be utiliz d, but wbet' th r is no xisting ohannel th disp sal of
surplus 1I0w r quir s careful consid ration a.nd suitabl provision.
In the case of a. new wl'ir for an existing tank it is ven mor necessary
to fu ll y consid r this quoF!tion than in th caR of a new tank I',S more
nnm ,rOUB w.·ll-<,stablished local inter('sts nr(' jik('Jy to b {loffpctcd Il.nd aU
th B hflov to be considt'rrd in r.ddition to tho cngin 'ring 8.SpC'cts of
the 030 .
Wh r vcr th construction of a new work has th effeot of diverting
tho yi Id of a. catchm"nt from an existing into a new Iinc of run-off the
frect on th irrigation supply a.nd on the 1I00d discharge of existing
works Jow r down must b CM fully consid r d and provid d for.
If the surplus channel from a tank has tl.)O rapid a fall, having in
oonsid ra.tion the natul' of the soil and the frequency of surpltlsing, the
erosion callS·d may cut so deep IlS to affect thc stabWty of th weir by
r trogreRsion of I v Is. The dsk of this, if it exists, must b provided
for, as in the case of an anicut, by adequo.t depth of foundation of thr
ourtain walls of the weir and by flo suitable talus of loose stone or by
proteotive works suoh as grade walls or ston flooring plac d at intervals
in th b d of the surplus chann 1 or by div rting th surplus watrr to
a oourse with a. more gentle gradient. In ev ry cas the surplus water
must b prev nted from 1I0wing clos along the outer toe of the tank
bund a.s a. decp wa.t r course in such a situa.tion would be a sta.nding
m naoe to th safety of the bund.
Wh r works hav to be ('arried out to guid the Burplus 1I0\v into
u. suitable chann I, thr width of surplus cha.nnel which immediately
blow th w ir would be very wid and sha.llow, should b brought to
suitabl dim nsions by gradua.lly converging banks or cuttings 80 808 to
stab1ish a suitable l' lation b tween depth ~md bed width.
4105. DetaUed plans of sites of surplus escapes. -For the fixing of the
xaot sito of a surplus weir or flllsh escap in the best place and for the
detail d d sign of the work and or its a.pproach and surplus channel
it is n oessa.ry to hav very detail d information regarding the levtls
and slop s of the ground on the lIa.nk of the tank, or other site, s I ~ted
for suoh a work. A hU'g -soale d tail d pla.n must be mad of th ground
along th lin oftr.nk bund wher it is proposed to place th weir xtending
from twioe to -:,hro tim th pl'obabl~ length of w ir; the plan should
ct.end in a dil' ction p rpendicula.r to th I ngth of tb w ir for a.bout
the length of th w ir on the tank side and from 2 ~ t to 500 feet or
more on th down- tr am side of the w n.
 HE U \ RK 2 .
AU ovor tbi ar a levels of th ground urfaoo at uitabl di tAn
hould 00 plotted ao l\ to giv fully d "ilcd informati 11 L\ J'(gl\l'd th
ground l1rfaoo alol? ·a. Trial pita alon~ tl~ 0 lltr JiIlC f w('ir and c.J
down-atl' am of thl ahould be dug to afford full iruormnti n a to tbe
MtUl" and depth s of aurfM._ '~lld sub oil, at th site of th· , ork and
on the lino of surplua channel.
I" 'G. e 40.
49
50
, ,
~ \
'{ ,'·5 S' . \ r.. ·a \sa .. .,.,'
\
.\
\

.
" \.
\
,
\
\
\
,
\
.
\
\ ". \ 4, • ....,
\\
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ I
.1'11.
\ I
"'.0
I
...
\
I
\'
t
If·,
.r.! T , L , • • SO
l z·,
opj ~ " ~~~~~~~~~f~~~!~~!;'
, J.

!. /
·at·.

I
.'
/ /
I . '" I .,.•
/
-1 ~l-
I I
I I .I
, • ., / Ct·. I fl., ~" af '.,., I I .....
,I I / / I
I / /
/.... .1" ! .,.,
I /
Jo 4~ J
THE. FIG U R ES 0" PLA N SHf,W IIATURA'- GROUN D L. £\I£I.a •.-
TN £. " I GUR ES SVR"O U NO!.O BY L.OOPS 8Mt.W ~aVE l.. a
(1' 0 W III C H II!.IC. C AVA-rlON 15 CARRlt.O.

406. E xample of site plan and connected weir deslgn.-Figur 84-

giv an example of Do plan of the kind r £ IT'd to with I v('ls pJ tt d
at intervals of 50 fe t parallel to the weir and at lO £ t interval in a
2lS4 IRRIGATION

porpendioular diIection and oontours interpolated from the ground

levels; six trial pits are o.lso shown numbered in Roman numerals.
From the site survey a. design ha.s be n mad for e. suito.bl wit, l\pproe.ch
and surplUB ohannel for e. tank of a.bout 15 squo.re mil s catchment-
figures 84·a, band c. It is as umod tha.t the soil and sub-soil is red
loam.

~IG. e a. (e)
I J
eR O 66 SECTIO N. I...... S " ~"' i

(b)
t:\(; . e4
~RONT E~EVATIO.. ~
~~ ..... _ _ _ _ V.COfl"\ _

t' -- . .. -....
.~ -- -_- _- .... ------ ~t----
040._. __ • 'r ' U
'-
... __

---.,--------
_ _ _ .:.._....

-·-------_ ... -- ---- --- -

~
• _ ~

...\
 tiE b WOnKS 2
Study of th e plans will make it clear how n '8~l'y a d tail·d i
urv y howing levels is for th proper d ign of weir and OM d
works; in this oase suitable detailed d signs a uld not mad with llti .
407. Choice of site for surplus works.-Wh n a saddl eli 0 nn 0 d
with the tank-bund afford a. suitabl site for I} urplus work it hould
generally be us d in pI' £ l' noe to l\ work direotly oonneoted , ith th
bund but it is generally n eessary to place the surplus works a or n ar
ono 1hnk of the bank and oonn eted with it. If aU tit eulLivation ill Oll
one side of the stream whioh is drunm d by th bund it i d irabJ t
have the surplus on tho other flank; otherwia' it would be n' ary
in many cas s to oarry tb distributary ohannel aOl'OS tIl surplus hanllel
1

and there may also be danger of tb oultivation being injured b swpluB

water wh n th tank surplus s freely. Apart from thes a n id rations
the most favoura.bl sites for surplu weirs ar (1) when the natural
ground surfaoe a.long th lin ofw ir is at al v('i approAimately F.T .L. (2)
whon tbe soil or sub-soil clo!:! to th surfaoe i ha.rd both on the w iT si
l~D d along th run-off ohannel and wh '1'( contour of tho &"'oulld 'iVl'B
01 1.1.1' applOuch to the weir site t\ud a suitablo OOUTt; for til surplus
water.

FIG. 84 (d).
CR9W~

COWL OR
HOOD AIR VE NT
THROAi

Low£ R OR IN1.ET
1.. I P

\ DAM
'RE.~E. vorR

407-A. Siphon spillways.~Instcad of all wing water to spill over h

crest of a dam or weir, the surplus wat I' may b dealt with by a siphon
spill-wa.y, whioh may oompri'e on or more siphon units. A siphon
is a pipe or t ube bent to form two legs of unequal effi otiv; 1 ngth
by whioh a liquid oan be transferr d to a lower 1 v lov r an intermediate
elevation, by the pressure of the atmosphere in foroing the liquid up the
shorter leg of the pipe immersed in it, while the exo 88 weight of th water
in the longer leg {when onoe filled} oau es a oontinuous flow. Th siphon
i the only non-mecha.nical devio oapable of dealing with a. gr ater
intensity of flow than oall be dealt wjth by a plain spillway. It is auto-
matic in aotion; the disoharge per foot ron is limited only by th degr e
of the vao~um attainabl at th OJ' st s otion and th h ight of this 8 otion
whioh in turn is limited by the height a.bove the crest lev 1 at whioh
priming oa.n be relied upon to take pla.ce.
256 mitIGATION

In all siphons the inlet is b ll-mouthed or funn I shaped 0 1>0

reduc 10 1.'1 at entry and minimise surfae draw down abov the siphon
mouth. Usually th upp r lip of the mouth of the siphon is carri d
down b low the cr at I v I and in this case it is neo ssary to provid air
v nt in the hood of th siphon fir t below the level at which it is ci sired
that siphonic action shall c as . If these are not pl'ovided, a siphon will
continue to function until th reservoir level is r duced to the level of th
l:Iiphon lip and much storage would be 10 t.
veral methods arc adopted to ensure priming of siphons. The
following are some ;-
(i) If the lower limb of the siphon is l:Iubrnerged an obvious and
oertain method of priming il:l to vacua-te the cllclol:lcd air by mea-nl; of
all air pump or ejector formed by connecting the orown of the siphon
with a branch pipe.
(ii) In some l:I iphom; a l:imall auxiliary or " baby " siphon is formod
jUl:lt b ·l w the cr 'st. The sheet of water il:ilSuing from the baby siphon,
which will flow full by the time water reaches crest I vel, is arranged to
shoot obliquely across the low r limb so as to seal it and prevent air
ntering from blow. Th nclosed air is gradually carried away by the
surface of the falling water until priming takes place.
(iii) If the sloping lower limb is not too st p then by suddenly
turning it down near the lower and priming may be brought about
without auxiliary d vice. When overflow oorom 'n' s, the sheet of
running wat r owing to its momentuJU , il; unable to foHow the surface of
the lowcr limb and shootl:l forward across the siphon, thus forming a seal.
The priming depth of a siphon without auxiliaries varies from d/5
to d/ 3 as a maximum where d denot es th depth at the throat of the siphon.
A well-designed auxiliary siphon can induce priming with a head above
crest lev 1 of d/S.
It has b en found that a sharp erest of the siphon till'oat reduces
offioi ncy and therefore discharg and all;o causes oavitation and vibra·
tion to the struoture. Th maximum discharge iI:J obtained when the
rotio of the xternal radius to the internal radius at crest is equal \0
2·7.
If the lip of the inlet cowl is kept at the same level as the crest of the
&iphon, th r is a di adva.ntage that the surging of water due to waves
would prime and deprime th e siphon oausing intermittent working.
And v n when the siphon is primed, the shltllow screen of water over the
lip will tend towards the formation of a vortex, sometimes a hollow
vortex, I' sulting in air being sucked into the siphon and preventing its
priming. This i r medied by carrying the siphon lip well below the
or st level and by providing a.ir vents a.t a suitable level to deprime the
siphon. The u ual practice is to giv an area. for the wid st oro s-seotion
ofth inl t twice tha.t provid d for th throat ofth siphon.
Tho arCa of tho a.ir vont is generally xpl'ess d as a fraction of the
throat a1' 'a of the Hiphon. Thil:l f!'lloction varies from a maximum of
1/ 4'3 to a mimimum of 1/28.
Water eal a.t the lower limb l' duces th disoha.rg but u cd in con-
junction with 0. priming d vice it makes priming mo certain. A greater
low may b r quir d to ca.use priming.
 rth dis ·harge through a. iphon i. 'aJouJ ted fJ om thr f rrou!
Q = CA X . 2gh. C ma.y be tak n as 0'6 for t~ll proctica.l p W l l 0 ~.
A is the ar a. a.t the throat. h is the differ nee b tw Jl up- t ,rt'aJU and
down-Btl'eam water 1 v'Is whet the outl tis CL ly ubmerg d. Wher('
the outlet ~ke the form of a fr.e ly disohargin , rifi<:c thC' plulle f which
id perpendioular to the flow, h IS m a ur d to the cent,H' of the orm '.
'iphons 801' also built within gmvit lllMomy dams. Pro j!;j n tli
'iphons will r eduo as much as lJOs -ib](' t}l(' vl.'rticu.J inwrval l)(·t" (' Jl
fl d and r at 1 vIs.

408. Groups of tanks .- M(\Rt of Lht' t,I\.HkH in ' ut.ill'1'H Illrua tOl'ln
part of groups of tank a,11d ('ithel' rcc(;'i" Lh 'ul.'plul:I f UPP('J' IImks or
Kurplus into low(>r tanks OJ' do bot.n. A tmtk which n 'iLhn r iVC'1I
water from a.n upper nor eli churgC'A I:IUl'V1us into a. 10w<'1' lnnk is wrm d
au isolated tank.
Figure 85 shows a. typica.l group of 15 tankH numb red I 1,0 Hi and
an isolated ta.nk I. I t will be vident. that cOllsid rabk . onomy
of water is obta.iml.ble fr m th s stem of' groupin.g b ·ca.ml(' I h ' "1\r1)]\I"
water of aah ta.nk and a.lso the draina.ge of itRWf't oulti u.tiOl\ [\r(' oa.ught.
up by the noxt lower t a.nk. Each tank of thf' group tak('~ a shar · in th(·
yield of the whole ca.tchment above it whiah a.rea is classm d as follows ;-
(1) the' free oatohment ' whioh is tho nr a whioh only dra.ins int
the tank under oonsideration, and
(2) th e combin d catchm nt which if! th At)· 1.10 of t.h(' who) Ol\t h -
IUtlllt a.bove tlw t.n.nk.

17
 mRlGATIO

The difference betw en the oombin d and the free catchment thus
gives th area of oatchm nt intercepted by upper tanks; the who](.'
ca.tchment of the highest tank on ~aoh drainage is free. Each tank
receives all the run-off from its fr catchment but from th remaind r of
it·s catchment only the bala.nce which remains after th upper tan
have been f i l l e d . ' .
The grea.t objeotion to grouping tanks in this way is that a breach
in o.n upper tank xposes all the tanks in the series below it to risk of
similar fa.ilure. It is thus important in taking up repairs and restorations
to oousider groups of tanks oollectively as a whole and to oarry out
repairs from th upper end of each group. The danger to which lower
tanks are subjeoted by breaohing of upper ones is in proportion to th iJ
relative ca.paciti s; there is little danger to a tank of larg ca.paoity
from a very small one breaching into it although th breach may com,
pletely empty the small tank.
The provision of suita.ble brea.ching sectiuns in tanks forming pat t of
a group is a very d sirable precaution as a breach at a well sel akd place
does not empty a ta.nk and indeed frequ ntly does little more than
supplement its surplusing power to a reasonable degree to the gr ater
seourity both oftbc tnnkitself and of those b low it in the group.
409. Computation of capacity 'of sW'plus works of tanks.-Tbe
surplus esoape of Ho tank should be capablo of passing the estimated
ma.ximum run-off of the catuhment. The method of estimating maximum
ran-off has aJr ady be n dealt with in Chapter III.
In South India fo' small and moderate ca.tchmollts the maximum
run-off is genera.lly estimated by Ryves' formula, the oo-efficient suitable
being fix d as alrea.dy desoribed by refer noo to that suocessfully applied
to similar works and oatollments in the locality .
. In making such an stiruate it is II cessilry to ha.ve ill view the consc-
quenoes of rror and a. more liberal estimate should be made for application
to a larg work wher th failure would entail a serious disaster than to a
small one where a br o.oh would merely cause a measure of looal 1088
I.md inconvenienoe. The esti.J:rla.te of maximum flood disoharge to be
provid d for must thus be decided in each oase on its merits, the chief
oonsid rations bing the importance of the work a.nd tb nature and
extent of the damage whioh failure would entail.
410. Flood absorbing capacity of a tank.-In oases where the
F.T.L. a.nd M.W.L. of a tank are duf rent the impounding capacity
b tween th se two levels must be :filled up before the surplus escape 08n
disoharge at its full oa.paeity. Where the capacity of the tank between
F. T .L. a.nd M. W .L. is oonsiderable, as compar d with the flood discharge
of the oatonm nt, this absorbing capacity may be 80 great 80S to permit
of m terially r duoing the disoharging capacity of the surplus works.
It is unusual in 'Madras praotioe to make any allowa.noe for this in th
case of small or m dium sized ta.nks a.nd the absorbing oapaoity serves
as a faotor of safety in the case of suah works.
In the 0808 onarge tanks, say xoe ding 100 m.o.ft. capaoity, or where
the diff. renee of level between F.T.L. a.nd M.W.L. is consiJerable say
more than 2i feet, allowanoe should be mad for absorbing ca.paoity
when fixing the length of surplus w irs. A method of computing the
allowanoes whiah may be made' for th absorbing ca.!J80oity of tanks hal
 HEAD WORXB 259
tw(1fl worked out by Capt. arret, R.llI., twd is d scribed in hi p por
on the ct ~n~;al ~ ory ?f the Storag apaoit •.,llnd Flood gulation.
of ReservOIrs published In 1912 by th Government ofIndi80.
This method is not here d scribed as its application without th
tables published with th pa.per involv much labour; if it i required
to design weirs for new tanks such as sp cifi d l\bov Uw original p&pt'r
should be referred to.
411. Computation of 1l00d discharge from combined catchment--
Although it is unusual in Madras in the oase of isolated tank or fre
o tahments to make aUowanc for absorbing capt\City it is usual in th
e of combined ca.tchments to make a deduction from th maximum
rna-off of the combined oatchment oalculated by Ryv(>s' formula for tIl(
&rea of that catchment intercepted by upper tanks.
The maximum run-off (D) from Ryves' formula is D = c.Mf
The allowance for the [·uu-oft· of a aomhinEld m\tohment is oompu(.(ld
from the modified formula. :- -
D = c.Mi - c.m'! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (50)
where C is the oo-efficient in Ryves' formula.
M is the area of the oombined aatchmElnt in square milofl .
o is I), oo-effioient from I j5th to lf3rd of C and fr qu ntly fixed at
100.
m is the area in sqllare miles of the oatchment intercept d by
uppor tanks.
'rhe formula is purely ompil'ioal and should only b a.ppli d when
the upper tanks a.re provided with R.dequatp SUrphlS works and k pt ill
good state of repair.
412. Computation of the capacity of a taDk.-'l'ho gl'08 capaoity
of a tank is the oubio oontent of water impounded up to F.T.L. Th
effeotive capacity is the oubio oontent botw en the level of tho sill of th
lowest sluice and F.T.L. oapacity is oomputed from a. oontour plan
of the waterspread, the total oa.paoity b ing the sum of the capaoiti II
between suooossive contours; the smaller the vertical interva.l b twe n
the oontours the more accurate is the oomputation of capacity. Th
oubio content between two suoceBBive oontours which are at a. v rtioal
interval apart which is small with reference to the total eft otiv depth
of the ta.nk is generally taken as the mean of the 0.1' as of the oontour
multiplied by the vertical interval between them, tha.t iSt (A I +A,) X I .
where A I and A 3 are the a.reas of uooossiv oontours and I the v rtioal
interval between them.
'Whel'e a contour plan is not availa.ble a.nd only the area of the ta.nk
Bot F.T.L. is known the effeotive oontent of the ta.nk in oubic feet may be
roughly oomputed as this area multiplied by one-third of th depth
from this level to the deep bed of the tank, or to the level of the lIill of th
lowest sluice, whichever is higher of the two.
If the area. (A ) of the tank bed at the level of the sill of th lowellt
sluice and the a.:re~ (A 2) at F.T.L. are known even roughly the effeotive
oontent may be computed 80S t (A I + +
A ~ tV A I A f) X I, the assump-
tion being tha.t the content is tha.t of a frustum of a. oone.
17A
260 lRRlGA.l'lO

413. Co-delents of discharge of tank weirs and Busb escapes.-

oIfhe formula for the diAaharge (D) of a free weir, without any velocity of
a.pproach, per foot of I ngth is D = i C t.Lv'2gd 5·35 C at. Th
under-noted statement gives the co-efficients usually applied in uth
India. to diffi r nt forms of tank w irs and 1lush escap s.
Type ot escape.
e- ·626 e- ·662 C - ·5 o - .~i7'"'

L~~
Deptll of flow over
"cape In foot - d.

~
Woira with Weirs with CI'6IIts Rougb stouo
crests up to a ft. over 8 ft. wide or sloping eeca)lCll Flush fl8CIIj)efi.
wIde. with dam stones. .
--- d
l!.
D - l aQ d o D ... ~1s D _ ! d1r• D -1- d~
02 ~ 0417 0375 0333 0292
050 1178 1060 0943 0824
07~ 2157 1941 1725 1510
100 8333 3000 2666 2833
125 4658 4]92 3727 8260
150 6124 5512 4899 4288
176 7718 6946 6174 5402
200 9428 485 7542 6699
225 11250 10125 VOOO 7875
250 13176 J 1859 J0542 '9225
27G 15201 1368J J 2161 l0641
300 17320 15688 13866 12124

414. Capacity of supply channels for tanks .-Tanks are frequently

suppli d wholly 01' in part from rivers and streams by mans of div rsioH
works and supply channels. A supply ohannel is similar to a main
canal for direct 1low irrigation and its 1low capacity must be fixed from
aousicl ra.tion of the total quantity of water to b('l passed to the storag,'
work, and incid nco offrosh s in <the river. .
The 1low of rivers whiah supply tanks is gen rally very 1luotuating
and th ohann I must b mad of suffioient capacity to oarry the required
supply during the duration of the f1' sh s of an avera.ge bad year 01'
a on. For in tano if th oapaoity of H. tank w r lOO mills. c.ft. and
the supply was s01 1 d p nd~nt on a divel'sion ohann 1 from a river in
which fr shes in a bads a on oould be oountedonfor lO days .t he disaha.rg('
oapacity of th supply ohann 1 should b about 10 m.o.ft. per day or UO
ouseos .
415. Working tables.-The most suitabl area to be irrigated and
the mo t suitabl impounding oapaoity for a storage system are best
asoertain d by mans of working tabl s. Th se tables are based on
the availa.ble da.ta of periodio run-off of past y a.rs and Bhew what the
periodio r oeipt , issu s, balanoos, aud surpluses of water would hav
been if the propos d irrigation By tem had be n in operation throughout
the above years. The intervals of time for whiah the tabl s are drawn
may be m.onthly, weekly, cl.aily or other suitable intervals.
 HE D WORKS 261

tr the number of years or seasons dealt with i suffici nt and th data

of run-off and duties of wa.ter a.re aoourate suah tables ,vill giv a reli bI
basis for a forecast of the prospeots of the propos d system. From
considera.tion of the details of the suppli sand urplu as displa.. d
in the working tabl s the suitability or oth rwi of th propo d itTiga d
area and impounding oapaoity can be judg d and any Jl c s ary r -adjust-
ment of proposals mad . For instance if the tabl(' all w d hat tb T
was invariably, even ill bad seasons, a considcrabl · unu cd ba.lMlc
of water in the res rvoir, or if, in suah sea.sons, tbe reSN oir did not fill
the inference is that, for th proposed ar a of irrigation, th capaoity
is unnoc ssarily large; if on the other hand during th irrigation seasOIl
the reservoir i not infl' quently mpty although it oaaasiono.lly smpl s
the inferenoe is that the storage oaopaaity i inadcquo.t. ] nt rvo.ls of
time of from 1 to ! a. month are usually suitable for working tables
although in special oases ta.bles showing daily working are desiro.bl .
The following are suitabl h adings for the oolumnR of workinp
tables :-
(1) Intervals of tim
(2) Impounded balancf' fl'om pl'pviollR p<'riod
(m.c.ft.) R 0 iptfl .
(3) Run-off of period (m. o.ft..)
(4) Total (2) + (3)
(5) Aores irrigated
(6) Duty of th p dod m.o.ft. per 11.01'('\
(7) Issues to irrigation (5) x (6) 1!'IFlUf'lI.
(8) Evaporation and absorption m.o.ft.
(9) Total issues (7) + (8)
(10) Balanoe impounded (4) - (9) Bubjrot to rna ' jnmrn ( ) = 110
full storage oapacity.
(11) Qua.ntity surplused [(4) - (1))- ].
 CHAPTER XI.
DISTRmUTION WORKS--CANALS AND CHANNELS.
416. Distribution works.-The distribution works of a system ar
the oanals and channels by whioh the irrigation water is conv y d from
the hea.d works to the fields, with the subsidiary works pertaining to
th m. The oana1s, or ohannels, which tak their supply directly
from the h ad works are main canals, or ohannels, while oanals and
obannel8 taking off from main oanals a.re term d " branch oanalFl " or
I< distributlries."

417. Olassi1Jcatloll of distribution ohannels.-Tho oanals and ohannel,;;

of a large ca.nal system may be' olassin d as follows :-
(1) A ma.in oana.l (or oha.nn l)- Thi has b en defined above.
(2) A branch oanal- A oanal taking off from a main, or branch
ollonal a.nd having a head capaoity of not less than 300 cuseos.
(3) Distributa.ry ohannel-A ohannol taking off from a main, 01'
branoh oanal or from anoth(,T distributary having a head capacity as
below:-
(a) A major distributary under 300 and above 25 cuseCA.
(b) A mino), distributary 25 ouseos and und r.
'rho above channels constitute the Government distribution workB
of Aln irrigation system.
(4) Field channels (also t rmed e e water oours ")-These ar small
ohannpls construoted by cultivators and are not the property of Govern·
ment; th y run from outI ts in the Government channels through th('
oultivators' own lands and oon ey and distribute water to individual
ft Ids.
In mod rn systems th s ohannels s ldom carry more water at the
h a.d than 3 or 4 ous os and generally oonsiderably less . On an avera~('
ft Id ohanne]s would oarry J ss than one ouseo.
418. Dlftere nt methods of allg .... ment of Irrigation cbanoels.-Irriga.
ti n ohannel a.T g n rally align d with re£ r nce to th oontour of thr
oountry in on of the following diff r('nt wa.ys :-
(1) a8 contour ohannels,
(2) as watershed ahann('ls, a.nd
(3) o.s side.slope oha.nllP] .
(1) A oontottr channel is carried on an alignment whioh oonforms
g n rl\lly to tha.t of th contours of tb oountry traversed being giv n
how v r uab slope along its 1 ngth 8S is n oessary to produo the required
v looity of flow. As th line of flow of surfa draiuag is a.t right angl€s
to tho ground contours such 80 cha.nnel outs aoross the natural drainag
lines of the oountry travers d. Such an alignment does not imply an
xaot oonformation with the oontours of the natural ground, and it iJ
IISU I, h n traversing undulating oountry which displays any mark d
na.tural £ atur 8 to shorten the lin by oro sing spurs in deeper QuttiDg
• d th va.ll ss in higher bank £han the ~ noral a.ver8ie. Thus in such
 DISTRIBUTION WORKS-QA.NA.L AND OHAN BLS 263

oountry a oontour ohannel would b of shorter J >ngth than th oorr pond.

ing faJJ.insl oontour laid out along the ground surface without taking any
short outs.
(2) A watershed channel is one aligned along any natural wat rsb
There will olearly be no drainage orossing uoh a lin .
(3) A side-slope channel is one align d at right angles to th 0 ntours
of the oountry travers d and not on a watershed or valley lin. Such 1\
line would be parallel to natural run-off of draino.g<' I\nd tbl uoh n
lignment avoids interoepting oross drainag .
419. Points to be aimed at In the lay-out of a distribution system.-
The main aim of the arrangem nt of th lay-out of a distribution-s litem
is to S30ure in the most economical way em ctiV(l wa. r distribution
oombined with adequate oommand of the area to b irrigated with a
little interferenoe as possible with natural drainage. The a.bov stat m nt
of aims at onoe suggests an alignment along a.ny watershed within th
irrigabJe area. as securing oommand of all the ground up to the n xt
valleys on either side of the alignment without any interfer n (. with
drainage; and it may be taken as axiomfltio that the water ah dB laying
in any irriga.ted tra.ct sbould be oocupied by distribution ohannels unl{,H8
there are strong rea.sons agoinst sU(lh en arrangoment.
Side-elope ohannels have the a.dvantage of not interoepting orOSB
drainage but their course must follow the shortest route to the n arcst
valley and suoh ohannol wil1 lie along a line of steepest p 8sible slope i
exc pt in very fiat areas only the smaller of the distributary oh nn Is
should be so looated.
Contour channels a.re oarried on slopos, the main watRrsheds of whioh
are not Qommand d. Suoh channels with minor exceptions, only irrigate-
on one side and themselves form the uppf'r boundari 8 of tho irrigated
area.
Delimitation of ayacut.- Whenever a now oanal is exoavated for
irrigation, it is essential to prevent haphazard dov lopm('nt of ar a of
oultivation, which might ultimat ly l('ad to waste of water. This oan
best be done by oircumsoribing the actual irrigabl x nt by having it
regularly defined.
This was done in a very systematio manner in the Grand Aniout
Canal area of the Cauvery Dalta. Block maps showing the contour lov 18
for the whole ayacut w re first prepar d. This faoilita.tc-d th localizing
of the ayacut in the most suitable ar as and securing the b st alignm nts
for chann Is a.nd field bodhies in th inter sts of economy and ffioi ney.
Village sites, roads, cart-traoks, drainag cour s, grazing grounds,
oremation places, thrashing fioors, and lands for oth r communal purpos 8,
that might reasonably bo roquir d in years to como w r all xamincd
and speoifioally and permanently xolud d from project o.yaout. TIl
areas so reserved oam to about apr cent to 5 per c nt ofth whol(\ ar a
of the village.
419-A. Standlng wave or hydraulic jump.-Wh n a shallow str nrn
moving with a high v locity, strike wa. r of suffici nt d pth, tIll U' ill
oommo'1ly p"oduced a stliking phenomoJ1on which hp.8 beon approprint ly
called the hychaulio jUIllp (or the standing wav). It 000111 ts of an
a.brupt Ii in the surface in the r gion ot impaot b tw n tb rapidly
moving str am and the more lowly moving wat of wat r, accompani d y
a great tumbling of the commingling water, and the production of a
white foamy oondition throughout the moving mass. The surface at
2 mJlIGATlON

the beginning of the abrupt rise is constantly falling a.gainst th

onooming stream moving at higher velocit.y, and farther along in th
jump, masses of water are continuaUy boiling to the surface from greater
depths. So muoh foam is produced that some time must elapse befor
it oan all rise to the surfaoe and the water again becomes olear. Th iR
phanomenon is oonRtantly illustra.ted in the surf of t.h e s a-Rhore.
FIG. 85 (a).

Let a, b, f, e 1 pI' sent a mass of watt l' moving through a :3tanding

wa.ve. In a short interval of time it is suppos d to move to the position
0, el, h, g. The sta.nding wave b8s th e following ohara('terh.tios : -
(a) Th water entering at a, b has a nElarly uniform Rteady high
V(']ooity and is tra.nsparent.
(b) Tho water leaving at g, h has a. fairly uniform but. reJati.vely
low v lority and is tra.nsparent.
(c) Between tl and e the surfaoe rises rapidly and is muob disturbed
by spraying and spattering. Much ot the SUlface water appears to be
moving down the slop. The whole mass is so milky as to suggest the
pI' sence of much inttlrnal impaot. The milky oondition of t1>e water
reduoes its speoifio grf,l,vity and accordingly the surfaoe at the top of the
rise is above the normal level, but aB soon as all the air bubbles reach the
surface, so that the water is again transparent, the slUface b oomes
smooth and level.
419-B. Momentum tormula.- The moving mass of water loses muoh
momentum in passing from the position a, b, f, e to the position c, el, h, g.
Aooording to Newton's Seoond Law of motion, the rate of loss of
mom ntum must be equal to the unbalanoed foroe aoting on th moving
ma.ss to retard its motion.
Against the faoe a, b is the statio pressure of the water a.cting towards
tho right. Opposed to this force file the statio pr ssure aoting against th e
face e, f and the surface friation along the bottom b, f. Th latter is small
a.nd ma.y be neglooted.
Other assumptions made in the following analysis a1'(:>-
(a) The 'jump' is assum d to take plA.cl instantaneously .
(b) Strea m line flow immediately before Md aft;{>r the wavo.
(0) Friatiion is n gleoted.
(d) ParaH I side constraints.
(e) Horizontal bod.
If
q be tho disohal'g in OWl as p l' unit width of the stream.
D I be th d pth of stream ntering th standing wave.
V I be the v looity of the same stream.
P be th total pressur ov r th v rtioal seotion of unit width.
D . be th d pth of t1' am I a. ving th sta.nding wav .
V , be th(l V 1 cit· of the am Btl' am.
P, h: Lh 1pr SlU'(, ov r til V('l tiOl\J sect jon of 'Illl\t wid" I
 DISTRIBUTION WORK -OANALS AND OHANNIIL

FIG. 86 (b).

VI
cr-
DI
,.
Ii • I
V2 D2

Ot.D
Mass ppr ('cond = ~ q
g
Ohange of momentwn per 8 conrl =- :!!..g (V ,- V)
. q

Differenoe of pr(,FlRllr(, = t W I D:- D~ )

('hangl' of pressure = ohangp of lUn JnPlltlllU .

. '. D " - D " = _2 (V,-V) -< q

• , a.
By substituting ~ for V
We can get
D " = - D1 + / 2V, " DI L I) ~
- '\ g T 4"
The application of the above equations to a standing wave on a
sloping glacis involves not only the assumptions (a) to (d) above but
also neglect of the component of gravity parallel to the bed .
FIG. 85 (e).

l~ igur - Standing wave on inclinod glnnia.

In this case, we have to add to the forces contributing to the ohange
of momentum the gravity oomponent, W sin B where W is the
weight of the liquid body abc d. Nevertheless provided that the slope
?f the glaois is not too pronounced, negleot of the gravity component
18 justified on t~e grounds that the error so introduced is practically
cancelled by the errors involved in the other assumptions. The eimple
equations derived for the case of a standing wave on a horizontal bed
can, within the limits of acouraoy required by the praotical engineer,
be a.pplied to the case of the ~ntly sloping glaois. -
266 IBBIGA.T ION

Im8 0/ energy in the 8tanding waH.

Let H 2 be the 1088 of energy.
EllEnergy of flow above the wave.
Er, Energy of flow below the wave.
Then
HI! = Erl - Ef~
:
V2
= (Dl + T)II - (D4 + ~)
2g

FIG. 85 (d)
_ ___ .T:§:.L.J~~ _liVPER CRITICAL
~ --------1- --
_~tT!...Eb!.NE .sUB CRITICAL
- ,------------~--

________ f~: f_'________________ ~~:~~ i

I I Ef
I
!
VI D. : I n..E 0
. , . . . . . ,
I ~

T.E :. TOTAL ENERGY

420. Main canals as contour ohannels.-As a rule head works arA
situated in a valley and th upper parts of main oanals are aligned all
oontour oanaLs. In th oaS6 of direot.flow systems, the first reaoh of
main oanals is gen rally so de p in outting tha t no land oan be oommanded,
and th trao of this reaoh is located with a vi w to onrry the oanal along
tb most oonomioalline to the point whel'e it oommenoes to oommand
the land, and from which it oan be- oontinued as a oontour oanal proper .
A oontour oanal in its oours outs across all the spurs and valleys
inter eoting the slop s along which it is aligned, and a main oanal is
O&ITi d on a oontour a.lignment, until either it oommands thf:' full a.rea to be
irriga d, or until it attains to th top of the ridg ,tha.t is to the wa rshed
line, along th sid ofwhioh it has b en so far align din oontour. From
such a point it would be align d down to the watershed and cease to be
a oontour canal.
421. Offtakes from contour canals.-Bl'anoh oanals and distributa.ry
ohann ls should tak off from a oontour oa.nal from, or nea.r, the plao 8
wh r th oanaloro the watersh d of spurs; they should be aligned
watershed oh&nnels a.long these spurs anq will'iITigate the aroo. up ~
 l>ISTJUBUTION WO:B.XS-OANALS AND OBANNlDLH 261
the adjaoent drainages on either side of th spur or ts. From th
branohes, subsidiary channels will, in turn, offtakt> a. to oov r th
"hole area to be irrigated.
 26 IRRIGATION

It is frequently possibl to restriot oontour cha.nnels almost entirely

to main oa.nals, th ma.jor pa.rt of all the other distribution ca.nals of th
liIystem being o&rried at right angles to the oontours.
422. Typical dlstrlbutLon systern.-The typioal canal system may
thu be r pres nted as a main canal aligned as a contour cana l and
branches a.nd distributaries aligned as watershed or side.slope channels
so as to oarry water throughout the area to be irrigated at levels giving
adequate oommand without obstructing the drainage of th area.
428. Plan showing part of a typical distribution system.-Figure 86
shows 0. part of the lay. out of a. distribution sysu>m proposed for a project
prepar d a few yeo.rs ago in th Madras Presidenoy. The main canal is
shown from til. 31st to tho 39th mile and is a. contour canal. It will be
notioed that instead of following the oontours, as shown in dotted lines
l~long the alignment x 1 x " x ~ , the line has been taken in deep outting
through th saddle at x thus saving some 2 miles in length of can8ol.
424. Alternative alignments of oontour canals.-l'he oonsiderations
whioh would guid t,11C f\ If'otion of t,h(' b~st of the a.lrernativf' routf'R ill
thi oase would b -
(a) Cost of earthwork and land acquisition by each route.
(b) Cost of the No.2 major distributary from its he80d to the vioinity
of ax and also part of the cost of th minor distributary "a both of which
would be saved if the main oallal followed the contour line.
(c) Additional cost of cross du~inag(l works necessa.ry if the m80in
oanal followed th contour Jine.
(d) Th value of th head saved by taking the shorter route.
It would be neooss8ory in making alternative estimates of oost to
oarefully ascert80in by digging tri80I pits 01' making borings at intervals
the nature of soil to be exoavated on both alignments.
The h ad sav d, item (d), would be equal to the surface fall in 2
mil s; what the v80lue of additional head may b depends on the oiroum·
st8onoes of e80ch individual case. .suoh a saving might have the effeot of
bringing an additional a.rea under command and it might have the
effeot of the roducing th oost of other works especially depth of cutting
at a.ny saddl futther down the ca.nal. Command of additional area
might under some oonditions be valuable while uraer otht'rs it might
not be of any material advnntage, and th va.lue to be ascribt'd to gain
of head must b st'parately estlm80ted in each c8ose.
The qUflstioIlB of alternative a1ignments of oontour canals espeoially
in the upper r aches oa 11 for most oareful oonsk1 ration and frequt'ntly
involve muoh investiga.tion.
Apart from such queatiol's thf' ('xeet looa.tion of a. con to IU' oho.nm' i
oro s all vn.lleys and Spl118 lin R is a. matter r quiring oareful consid ra·
tion. Th alignm nt will not follow all th inuosities of th gt:ound
oontour , and will g nerally oross va.ll ys in higher bank 80nd spurs in
deeper outting than the normal. The c80rrying a canal in high bank
involv s dang I' of breaches from perool8otion and careful judgment
h&8 to be exeroised in fixing the point of oro sing of eaoh drainage
and in adjusting the alignment of oanal to suit the requirements of the
oross dr8oina.g work without involving exoessiv cost or risk in a.pproao~
 i>ISmIlJUTION WORKS- A ALS AND OHA.., .." ......ID

bl\llks. For inst&noe, between mile 31 ~md mil 34 in figu 6 a. all rt r

and more direot line for the maJ.n oanal i shown i ll dotted lin . Thi '
would involve much heavier bank aero s th v II y but would allow mOl
head-way for the syphon aqu duot carrying the draina.g uud r th aneJ .
Figlll' 86 shows that the whole of th land to th left of th main
canal, exoept the shaded plot Z l, :ct, is oommanded and wh' re such is tb .
case the distribution canals should be kept a far as possibl on wa rsh d~.
Wher > this results in distributaries being too far a.part, ub' diMY ama.ll(\)'
distributaries should be run at right angl s to th oontours.
The branch oanals and major distributari S LUt' shown in h a v
eontinuoul' lines, minor distribut&riea in heavy dott<>d lin , villa.gl'
boundaries in fine dotted lines and oontours in chain dotted lin . Fi Id
llhannels have not been shown on the plan as th cal is too mall,
but the distributaries are designed to so oov r th ground that th .('
Heed not exoeed Ii miles in length. Further, so far as eoonomioally
praoticable, different distributaries are propos d for differ nt villag
and all distributaries exoept No.2 major distributary lmd minor distri-
butary a 2 are aligned at right angles to the oontoul'tl. In no cs. docs
a.ny ohannel oross any drainage in the irrigated tl'aot whil suit&bl
cross drainage works are provided for pasFling drainag interc p d by
oontour distributaries.
425. Layout of field ·channels.-For paddy oultivation the fi Ids
Me terraoed and surrounded with low turf bunds, the slopeR of the ground
being terraoed. It is unnecessary and unusual to provide a separate fi ld
oh&nnel for eaoh field and all that iR ,'equired is to group tog th r fi Id
whioh drain from one to the other, the highest field of eaoh group
being supplied from the field channel and the otht> l't; by field to fi eld
flow. This is oalled 'field to field irrigation.'
The field ohannels are so small as to suffi c, but little from tho ffi cts
of oross drainage when laid out as contour ohannels, whil th hading
up oaused by the low banks of th s channels is insufficient to submerg
and damage the w t crops, and drainage oan b(l conv niently pas d
through temporary breaohes made in field (lhannem for this purpos .
There is thereforo no serious obje()iion to aligning these channels M
contour ohannels where by doing so they can be conveniently giv n a.
suitable slope with adequate oommand throughout their 1 ngth. It is
therefore not unusual to lay out field ohannels at; ontour ell nnols
without making special provi ion fol' CI' HI; dl'ainag .
The points to be ehiefly considered inlaying out field ohann ls a J'
-(Or) They should, if possibl , be laid along field boundaries .
(b) They should conveniently oommand all th ir ayaout.
(c) As fa.r as praotioable, separate ohannels should b mad for low
a.nd high lying lands.
(d) Separate outlets and fi ld channels should b mad for separa
villages.
(e} ..As a rule., outlets along distributaries spaced at about 1 to 2
furlongs apart are found to be adequate and suitable. A multiplioity
of outlets to field channels re uIts in great waste of water.
Although field channels are made by ryot through their own lands,
it is desira.ble to supervise their location so as to ensure suit&ble a.lignmeni
and proper command of all the irrigated land.
27 IBBIGA.'1'IO

Fi ld channels are worked on internal turns and the:iJ: capacity must

be fixed accordingly. Very large quantities of water are required for
individual fields for transplantation and it is necessary that ca.pa.city
to provid for this should be given to the taill' aches of these ohannels.
426. Standards of canals.- The following statements give widths
and heights of banks, widths of b rms and width of land whioh represent
the general standard at present accepted as suitable in Madras. It is to
be olearly und rstood that, while these standards are generally suitable,
they a.re not to b looked up as neoessarily always suitable j the na.ture
of the soil specially that forming banks must always be considered in
designing canal seotions and suitabl~ saturation gradients allowed for.

Standard /01' canal cross-8ections.

Main and branch Major MInor
canals. dlatrlbutarlee. dlatributaries.
Item. 6,000 1,000 300 160
,..--_........
25
---.._
Below
to to to to to 10
1,000 800 160 25 10 coaeee.
(lWIIlca. 0U8601. ClUJflO8. OU8008. CIlJ8(llJ.

&raxltn~ orest lli 6 6 6 3

width of wide8t
bank.

Free board 3 3 3 2 Ii 11
Q d d d d d d
Width of berm 4 +-+- 4. +- 4. +- 2 +- 2 +- 2+-
] .000 2 2 2 2 2 ~
Oooasion.
ally no
berms
are pro·
vided.
----------. --------------------------------~-------
Depth of earth over 4 3 1 1 1 1
8aturation gra-
dient.

Width of land to 15 Half the height of the bank above ground

be aoquired olear 8ubjeot to a minimum of I) feet .
of banks when
oanal i8 in out·
ting deeper than
balanoing depth.

Width ofland to be Full height Full height of bank above ground "lul lS feet.
aoquired olear of of bank
banks when canal plus 16
is in leu than feet.
balanoing d pth
ofoutting.

{Ill
8"-<1) Q - dlecbarge In ctII8CII.
d - depth of excavation In feet.
8 Lalld wldthe are to llal'ellt whole foot of width.
, The ,Ide slopes of banb are al8umed ILl 1 to 1 alld of cutt.l.Dillu H to 1 and tbe 'W14tU
of berms are computed on thII aMumpt!on.
(5) A ...turr.tlon IZI'IIdlent of 1 In • II ulually lultable.
(8) Where the toJII or banb are ueed ror wheeled ttr.1IIo, they mut no~ be . . tbaa 11 r.t
Wiele alld .WI~ be _t.t.Ued or araftUed.
 DISTiuBUTION WOUS-OA.NALB AND O1rA.!mKLB 71
427. Balancing depth of cuttlng.-Wh 1 th spoil from
excavation of a canal is equal to that l' qui1' -d to form thE banks of
minimum sanction d standard fr e board, top width and 'I p 8 th
canal is said to be in • balanoing depth' of cutting. '
Where the outting is de per than balanoing d pth the xtla poils
should be used in widening rath r than raising th banks. In aJl 8
even when the water level in the canal is blow growld urfuoe, th poil
from the ex~avation ~UBt be formed into regular bank otiollB, th top
should be gIven a slIght slope or hav a mall ridg form d along th
inner edge so that it should drain outwards (away from th canal).
The equation for balanoing depth of outting (D) for a. cha.nn I with
sides of outting sloped at 1 to 1 and with 2 banks of qual oross, seotions
and of Ii to 1 slopes is: .
D' - (3 h + +B +
i b) D = - h (B .h) . . . . . (61)
where h =vertioalheightoftopofbank.a.boveb dofth ohann I,
It b = bed width of ohannel,
" B = top width of bank.,
.. D = baIano~ depth of outting in feet.
428. Rule for width of berms.-The expression ~ forming part of the
width of berms is inserted to ensure that the oentres of banks shall be
parallel to the oentres of the canals. The standard slop s of outting
being 1 to I, and of bank being 1t to I, if the berms were made of equa.l
width irrespeotive of the depth of cutting the dista.nc of th entre of
the bank. from the centre of the channel would increas and diminish
in acoordance as d (the depth of cutting) became small r or grea.ter.
In a canal carrying silty water when the berm i below full supply level,
it is graduaJly raised to that level by silt deposit.
The widths of berms given in paragraph 426 a.l·e only a guide and
should not be oonsidered as fixed, except in so far as rE:gards th item t
which should always be a.llowed when setting out the toe of the bank
even in cases where it is decided tha.t no berms a.re required.
This is necessary in order that the centre lines of the banks a.nd th
ohannel shall be pa.rallel.
Berms are frequently omitted in small distributa.ry channels running
through valuable lands, and may also be omitted from lengths of cha.nnels
running wholly, or almost wholly, in bank. unless the irrigation wa.ter is
80 hoa.vily oharg d with silt as to give prospect of rapid formation of silt
berms.
Figures 87, 87 (a) and (b) show the seotion of a. distributary of 200
ouseCtI ca.pacity on the right side without berms and on the left with
standard dimension berms.
In figure 87. the oa.nal is wholly in bank .
., figure 87 (a), the canal is one.ha.lf in bank.
" figure 87 (h), the ca.naJ is wholly in outting.
The bed width h hi would be set out on the ground 6 feet on either side
of the centre line.
Then h e, h' e' would be set out equa.l to the depth of cutting (~).
 , III ATl "

For the g~l1dal'd berm, of =

left.hand sid of th figur·.
+: would b t out a. shown II the

If n "berm is to be 1 ft and the slope of banks and outtings are res·

peotively Ii to 1 and 1 to 1, a. spac 0' f' equal to -: between the outting
line and the inner toe of the bank mUtit nev rtheless be allowed in setting
out the work in ord l' that the ot'ntr ]ines of banks and of the canal bed
may be pareJl 1.
The dotted lin s a 8 a.nd a 1 6 1 'show slopes of t to 1 to whioh the dges
of th ca.ne.l will probably v ntually silt while the 1 vIto which the
berms in figur s 87 and 87·a should b form d up by silt d posit to th '
1 Vi I of F.S.L. it! shown ohain dott d. Th area.s on ith r sid ~of th '
figures betw n th bank and th sloping dott d lin s show the areas to
be silted up and from these it will b s n how gr at a quantity of,silting
is necessary for the ection "with berms" of standard dim nsiona
when the oo.nal is wholly or nearly altog th r in bank.
Once berms are up to full supply level (F.B.L.) th Y undoubtedly
Btr ngth n th banks and fOWl 1\ d sira.bl featur in h cction of a
ohannel but where berms &1' ,muoh below F.B.L., the extra. water seotion
interferes with the regime of flow, and may make the maintenanoe of
designed water levels impossible without r sorting to temporaryexpe-
dien1'.6. When space is left for berms to be formed by silting, the deposit
of silt in the right plac s must be induced by fenoes nd bushing of
thorns or brushwood, etc" and oareful supervision is necessary until the
ohaDnel attains i1'.6 proper Beotion~
 DISTRIBUTION WORKS-OANALS AND OHANNELS 27

The general formula. for the width of berms is stated below :-

Width ?fbe~ = 0 + (r2 -r, ) d . • . • . . . • • (62)
where 0 1S a oo~tant, d th actual depth of cutting at a.ch pI ,
'2
n.nd and r" the hOflzontal compon nt of th slopes of bank and utting
respeotively in 1 foot vertical.
Whe.J;"e S~. (Slope of bank) is equal to S, (Slop of outting), th 'dth
of the berm 1S 0 and where no b rms are to b provid d 0 i nil. In
small channels without b rms, it is de irable to mak r~ qual to rl"
429. Side slopes of canals.-Although sid slop a gen rally in
ordinary soil excavated at 1 to 1, the silt d posit on the dg a.nd
berms in most cases gradually cccv rts the slopes to about l ~ to 1
a.lthough the actual estimates for excavation and the d igns must
be mOOe for 1 to 1 slopes, it is usual to oompute disoharges if side
slopes had. be n out at ! to 1.
Figuro 88 shows a typical 00. e of a.lteration of side slope of a distri-
butary a~d_silting up of berms by silt deposit .

~~~~:e.~>~
. ~ .-._. ..
480. Curves in canals.- Bends in oanals and channels should b set;
out as circular ourves of as great radius as can convenic~tly be arrang d;
in general, the minimum allowable radius is 20 times the b d width of the
canal.
The minimum radius measured from the centre line of the canal
should usually be not less than-
For large canals, 15 times the bed width.
For small canals (under 25 cusecs), 10 times the bed width.
Better radii to adopt generally should be, for non-alluvial canals
about twice, and for alluvial canals about thrice, what has been stated
a.bove. '
481. Location of a contour canal.-The area commanded by a oontour
canal varies with its longitudinal slope, the flatter the slope the larger .
the area. The s10pe required to give a suitable velocity of flow is d pen-
dent on the capacity of the canal which is in turn d pendent on the a.rea.
to be irrigated; thus these factors are int rd p ndent. In laying out
the trace of such a canal the capacity, depth and slope of various reaches
from the head must be computed from a rough estimate of ar as com-
manded, and of the approximate positions of th offt&k 8. From tho
trial alignment laid out on the above data, corrected figures of ar as a.nd
quantities of water will be obtain d, from which the originally assumed
slopes of the canal must be r vised. and the location of the trial line
adjusted to 8uit.
482. Veloolties of flow and limit of depth of canals.-The velooities
of each oanal hould not be 1 88 than that given by K ennedy's formula
(~aragraph 164 a.bo~ ) modified as may b n C Bsary to .ui~ the condi.
tlOns of each case and the ma.ximum v locity must b lImIted to that
which the natur of the margins and b. d soil of the canal are capabl'
of withstanding without erosion. .
 274 tRBtGATl N

In the case of a large canal the latter will frequently be the considera-
tion which fixes the limit of depth. For instance, suppose the oritical
velocity of a system at the head was to be 1·1 tim s Kennedy's and "0
the maximum mean velocity allowable to ensure freedom from marginal
scour is 2'9 f.s.; then (vide paragraph 164 above) the greatest depth of
canal allowable is 6 feet, which requires a non-silting velooity of 1'1 X
2'64 = 2'9 f.s. Although a deeper and narrower oanal might be more
eoonomioal of excava.tion and in other respeots suitable, it would neverthe-
less in suoh a case be necessary to limit the depth to 6 feet.
488. Proportion of bed-wIdth to depth in the best discharging ohannel.-
The relative dimensions of the best discharging channel will now be
oonsidered. The best discharging channel, that is the channel which for
the same cross seotion area and slope, passes water with the greatest
velooity will be the channel of grea.test hydraulic mean depth. Practical
oonsid rations neoessitate making a channel of trapezoidal seotion, the
slope of the sides being dependent on the nature of the soil, but generally
about 1 to 1. This slope as alre~dy stated in paragraph 429 above, after
some period of use gradually becomes about I to 1 and it is usual to allow
this as the side slopes in oomputation of discharges. The problem thus
is what is the proportion of bed-width to depth whioh gives the greatest
hydraulio mean depths for ohannela~ Sir Thomas Higham examined
this question (Punjab Irrigation Paper No.7) and stated the result in the
following form :-
For any trapezoidal ohaunel of fixed seotional area (A) if r is the
ratio, horizontal to vertioal of the side slopes and 8 is the length of the
two sides slopes per unit of depth which equals (2,y'r2 + 1) and Mis
the ratio of bed-width to depth.

the Hydraulic mean depth (R) == M

,y' M + .vA
r --
and it is a maximum
+8
when M = (8 - 21').
From this, for a channel of side slopes! to 1 the best discharging
section works out with M = 1'236 or say M = Ii.
484. Cross section of least aobsorptlon.-It is necessary also ~o consider
the value of M whioh will entail least loss by absorpti~n. If absqrption
per unit of time is oonsider d as varying with the area of wetted surface
and depth overlying this surfaoe then the absorption on the bottom of &
ohannel = k d X Md = k M d M : and a.bsorption of side slopes = 14 X
fd X 8 d = i k 8 dt •
0·0 Total absorption (M +
i 8) k dS.
+
The area. of the seotion A = d (Md "d) = d!l(M + r) .
• 2 _ A
.. d - M+r. .
Substituting,
total absorption =
M+
M +:
Os
Ak.
Thus ~e absorption p r unit of time in any cha.nnel of uniform oros&
·
leO t lOna. M+
I area. van. s as M +ri8 and t his b eoomes sma.ller as M inoreases·
To get the proportionate absorption per unit oj flow it is neooss ry
to divide the abov proportion by the velooity of flow.
 mUTION WOBES-OANALS AND OHANNELS 276

~or or~ small oh~els having the sa.me surfa.oo fall and 01'OS8
eeotlOn a.rea., WIth the rugosIty ?o-etlio~ent N = 0·025 and d pt.hs va.rying
between, 1 an~ 5 ~eet, the veloolty va.nes approximately a.s Ro.t'-vid
Buokley s IrrigatIOn Pooket Book, seoond edition pag 161 From tho
columns (3) and (4) of the table below are obtained Ool~ (7) . . tb'
proportiona.te abso~ption per unit of flow, and shows that for ~:nn ~
of equa.! oros~ seotIOnal a~ea.s the oross seotion giving least absorption
ha.s a proportIOn of bed-WIdth to depth of four.
This table refers 1i? ohannels with side slopes t to 1 and of equo.ll.\re&
of wa.terwa.y. (In this case r = 0'5 a.nd 8 = 2·236.)
Proportlonato Propor·
Proportlonato mean abaorp Uan 10118C1 tlonato
Hydraullo velocity. per unit of ah80rptJolI
proportion mean time. per unIt
o bed· depth (R) qu nUty
wldtb to
depth (M). ¥M +' EquJva-
+ II
M Equlva· of water
-M +, R 0·8 S lent por-
oontallo ~
lent por- Oowlna.
centago 100 Pa.
(PII). (pa). P~.
(1) (2) (8) (') (5) (6) ( 7)
0'33 0.355 0'428 95 2.194 139 146
0'50 0.366 0.439 97 L991 126 130
1'00 . 0.378 0.450 99 1.660 106 107
1'236 0.379 0.451 100 • l.570 100 100
1'50 0.378 0.450 99 1.495 M 96
2'0 0.373 0.445 98 L396 89 91
2'5 0.366 0.438 97 L3BO 85 88
3'0 0.357 0.428 95 1.284 82 6
3'5 0.348 0.421 93 L248 80 86
4'0 O./NO 0.413 92 1.220 78 84.7t
5'0 0.324 0.397 88 LI80 75 85
6'0 0.306 0.379 84 1.153 78 87
8'0 0.285 0.357 79 LIl6 71 90
10'0 0.265 0.336 74 1.094 70 95
12'0 0.248 0.319 71 1.079 69 97
15'0 0.228 0.298 66 1.069 68 103
20'0 0.204 0.271 60 1.048 67 1 III
20'0 0.185 0.251 56 1.039 66 118

NOTB.-. Best dIIcbarglnll proportion M - 11.

t Smallest absorbing, proportion M - ,.

485. PrOpOrtioning bed-width to depth for canal of IIxed dlscharge.-

In praotioe it IS the quantity of discharge in eaoh length of ohann 1, and
not the ohannel slope and oross section, which is fix d and the variabt s
a.re the channel surface slope and the proportion (M) of bed-width to
depth, and the problem is to design a channel which will carry the fix d
discharge with a non-silting velooity and with the small st absorption
losses commensurate with economy of construotion.
436. Tables of dimensions of canals and dlstrlbutaries.-The following
table shows the proportion of bed-width to d pth a.nd the corr sponding
proPQrtionate absorption a.nd cross sectional areas of excavation, for a
number of K ennedy (non-silting) canals and major and minor distribu-
taries, a.nd reference to the table will facilitate selection of seotions of
channels to suit the various conditions which occur in praotical d sign.
These computations are for channels of side slopes I to 1, it being
assumed that the side slopes originally cut at 1 to 1 will silt up to this
slope.
ISA
276 IB.nIGATION

The bal~ncing depth of cutting and the corresponding quan~ity

of excavation, are also computed on the assumption that the bailks
are ot ,the standard dimensions given in paragraph 426, and the aide
slopes of the cb,a.nnel 1. to 1.

Table of main and branch canals.

.s ... To balancing depth Surface fall CrOIJl
:l
ii of cutting. K/ttter'8.!ormula .
wit values of N.
:s :;;
Po ....0 ---.
• 11= "'Ii<
g. 1>0

~ ~]
ii""
OS
g
II
i ~
.,
..
:§
Q
§ .,os
"g
... ,....
0-
... ~", +
..,..
0'.
'Ii '0'0 Q .,;
0
t;:I
...
;d Q
o .
.,"" :lIi< '"
'0'"
.. 0
~Hi
"' ......
-g~
0
~
eN
g
.,;
eN
'0 Ji. 1:..Cl ~:G 0

f1
fr
'8
<l
'"1t
.g &~
e'"
fil~
",co
!il0'
.:.
...'"os . ... ,.Q
Po
'i~
'El~
00 '"
tg,
~~
0
a
0 0
i
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f.>l ~ ~ ~
(1) (2) ( 8) (4) ( 5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 '-:'2)

II'EIIIT. 11'. 8. II'lIIJI!T. H.

PlIR
OENT. SQ. " . II'IIII11T. O. n. III1I11T. SLOPIII. o:n;. ."
500 CI18CC ronal-Da nk top width, 6 feet, froo board 3 foot.

4'0 2'0' !iO.O 14·7 110 2U'0 2'13 180 + 1-87 7,600 6,920
6·0 2·35 40.0 8·0 108 215"0 8·07 132 + 1·03 6,800 5,400
6·0 2'64 28.0 4-7 103 180 '0 4-00 13t + 1'91 6,000 4,760
7'0 2·92 21' 0 8·0 100 171·5 0·00 182 + 1-1)2 6,100 4,OSO
Ni 8·05 18 0 2·4, 100 1168'0 5'64 181 + 1-06 4.700 8,7SO
8'0 8-18 15" u 1'{) 101 156'0 6'08 131 + 1'02 4,300 8,400
0·0 8'4,S 11 ·5 1-3 108 144'0 7·08 ' 181 + 1·02 3,600 2.850

1,000 cusco canal-Dank top width, () foot. frnc: board 8 ftl'lt.

4·0 2'0!! 120 30·0 125 488'0

- 1-8(1 164 + 2·64 7.020 6,2to
!i'0 2·35 82 16·4 123 422'0 2·10 176 + 2·00 ' 7,600 6,OSO
6'0 2,(14 60 10·0 112 8'1810 2·{)2. 184 + 3·08 7,280 6.760
7·0 2'02 44 6·1 106 832'6 8'88 186 + 8·12 6,660 6,280
8 ·0 8'18 35 4·4 102 3]2'0 ~ H8 1 {) + 8·22 6,000 4,680
0'0· 8'4S 29 8·2 100 30105 !i'O? 100 + S·8.3 6,860 4,280 ·
+ 8·27
10·0
11·0
3·67
11 '80 . ~ 2·2
l-G
104
105
270'0'
268·6
6-78
7'67 '
108
106 + 3·8S
',620
4.100
8,700
8,260 , ...
. ,,::
2,000 CI18CO Cllnal-Dank top wIdth, 16 Ii t. fmc board 3 foot.

5·0 2·86 108 4 ·4 140 862·!i 1-70 808 + 8 ·21 8,240 6,4SO
6·0 2'64 124 2 '7 126 762'0 2'63 820 +N7 7.020 6.820
7'0 2·02 112 13·1 120 608·5 8'43 327 + a·5i 7,680 6.080
8·0 .8-18 U. 0·2 112 624'0 4·80 886 + S·70 7.120 5.680
{)·O 3-48 00 G·6 101 5 .1) ~·23 sn + 8'77 6,720 6,280'
10'0
12·0
8·67
H2
tiO
B4
5·0
2·8
104
'108
660'0
4SO'0
6·16
8·17
844
846
+ 8·84
+ B'83
6.240
5,120 ' ''.oso
.!IM
a·o '·64 24 2·0 .100 484'0 10·14 846 + 8'86 4,100 3,840
."
15·0 . H6 20 1-3 105 412·5 11-14 847 + 8·86 8.7~ 8.000

ti-(lUSCO channel-Dank top width 8Ii t, fmc board 1 i feet.

148 1)·28
~
0·75 0·64 12·0 16·00 0·07 12'6 - 0·22 7,000
1-0D O· 4 6'5 . 6'50 103 6·00 H2 0·8 -0'42 8.000
1-60 1·07 2·5 1-70 100 4'00 2·00 0·0 -0'50 2,600 2,160
~"f) 1'18 2·0 1·26 102 HQ 2·12 8·7 -0·52 2.460 • x,OOI1
;l'OO l 'UI) \.1) 0'60 118 "00 2-62 8'8 -0·62 8110 )t
 DISTRIBUTION WORKS - OANALS AND ORANNEL 277
Table of major and minar distributarie.s.
$.
..,~ ~.. To btJanO~illtb
of cutt •
.,co.
i ....0 "'II:
'"'I r-

i gaS ~.
1>0

:sto
raJ
~1
Ow - e,a ~
:s ..,
~
0 0l;!
Ii! .,Ii
~;a toO

.~
~ 'S'S ....,;. :!i '"
0'_
~~
.....0 .d
;;; '" j~
po';
as ...i tl:S'"
.. 0

..:
...~ 0
~ ~
~
~5
"CI.

i
II:
Iii
0
.. Ill '?
~.

e-
A ~
O>
i
~ !! Po<
~ ~
"
~
i
A
.ttl
g,&:
~
~~~
0
I
11;
0

11;
I
0

•
II;
(1) (2) (8) (4) (6) (6) (7) (8) (0) (10) (11) (12)
PIm
,alT. •• B. Jl'BBT. K.
OJIINT.
SQ. )'T. Jl'BJIIT_ O. )'T. II'IIJ11T. sLOpa. ONB. IN.

10 cwleO channol-Dank top width. foot, Ilco: bonrd 11 foot.

0"76 O·M 2"0 82·0 180 18'28 0·75 18·0 0 7.000 (l,O
1-00 0·8' 1H 1106 116 12·00 1-02 15·2 -0·20 4,100 8,600
1.60 ' 1·07 6 -6 8 ·7 108 O'SS l' 4 18·5 -0,84 3.500 2.000
1'80 1·22 '·0 2·2 100 S·82 2'83 10·0 -0'(;8 3.000 2,440
2·00 1'03 8 ·0 - H; lOS 8·00 ' 2'4.0 18'0 -0'40 2.500 2.000
i'50 1'06 1·6 0 ·6 III 7'00 2 '00 12'8 -0·30 1,100 1,400

25 OUllCO chnnnol-Dank top width' (oot, Ilco bonJ'd II ti t.

~~:~l
1'00 0·84 29-0 29·0 111"0 20·60 0 ·76 + 0 ·24 4,000 8.800
1'50 1-07 16'0 10'0 118'0 28·68 1 ·88 -0·17 ' -,000 8.700
2'00 1-80 8·6 4·2 103'0 10-0 0 '1-02 20·0 + 0 '1)8 8,600 8.160
:N'>U 1·60 6·6 2·2 100·0 10-00 2·40 10·6 + 0·04 8.200 2.600
2·76 1·60 401; 1·0 101-6 16·20 2·71 19-4 + 0 '04 2,800 2.2(;0
8· ·U j'70 8·5 1-2 10(j'0 16'00. 2' 111 10·2 + 0'03 2.400 1.000

60 00900 channel:":"Dank top width 6 foot, free bonrd 2 feet.

2'0 1·80 18 '0 0 ·0 118 8S·00 1-02 88 + 0'08 4,800 S.OOO

2·6 1-60 12,() "4 111 SS '12 2·60 30 0 ',400 8.600
8·0
B-II
1-70
1·87
8 ·1)
6'0
2-8
1-7
105
100 .~~:~g 8 ·04
8 ·00
86
84
84
-0'00
- 0·10
- 0-10
8.600
8,000
2,800
3,000
2.400
4'0 2·04 "0 1·0 112 2C«)() "10 1.000

100 CUllCC ch&nnel-~nk top width 6 foot, free boor_d 2 feet •

Z'O 1·80 88'g _H 'O .. 127 77-(l 1 ·25 - 63 + 0'66 7,000 5.200
2 '6 1'60 26' 10'0 112 65·6 _ 1-02 51 + 0 ·1i8 0,660 6.200
8'0 1-70 18·0 6 ·0 lOS 58·6 2'45 50 + 0·65 0.000 4,700-
"0 IN)4 10-0 2·6 100 48·0 8·64 48 + 0 ·40 4.050 8,500
H lH9 8·0 1·8 100 46·0 " 02 48 + 0·48 4,000 8,180
6'0 2-85 6'0 1-2 108 42'5 - Hoi. 48 + ' Q-i0 8,200 2.700

200 DUaeo channel-Dank top width 6 foot. Ilco board 3 (cot.

.0() 1-70 88.0 12·0 117 118·5 2·20 88 + 0 ·80 6,800 6,4(0
40() !'04 22-6 5·6 104 08·0 S·82 86 + 0 '0 6.000 4.700
5,0 2·86 14·6 2·9 100 86·0 ,·88 as + 0 '02 5,000 0.000
5'6 2'60 12'0 ~·2 -100 81·0 '·80 88 + 0 '01 4,600 8.600
6 '0 2·(14 9-6 1 '6 lOS 76'0 6042 81 + (l'58 3,000 3,060
6'~ .• ~-78 8 '0 1-2 104 78-1 6'89 8~ + 0·61 8,600 2.750

800 oolOC channel-Dank top wldth 6 feet, I'reo boIIrd 8 feet.

80() HO 680() 19'0 124.0 178·6 H.5 105 ++ 1·25

1-22
7,200
0.720
11.840
6.440
40() 2·78 104
~U
2'04 8·7 109-0 U8' 0
103 +1-15 6 0 4,600
3~ 2'86
2·(14 16.0
'2 '.7·0 102'0 127-1>
100'0 114-0
8·84
" 87 102 +1-18 4,040 a lID
W 2'78 18·0 2·0 101·0 105·5 5'40 09 +1-10 4,400 ' 8.400
7'0 2'112 110() loG 101'1 10].01; 6·00 100 +1-10 8,840 8,100
1-5 ao-6 0·6 1'8 102.0 99-4 6·87 101 +1-13 8,000 2,860
278 mBIGATION

487. Oharacterlstlcs of channels of non-sUtlng veloelfles With

v&rJ1ng proportions of bed width to depth.-Analysis to the above
table shows-
(a) That, in the oa.se of every size canal and channel in which
the relation of velocity to depth is that given by Kennedis equation,
the absorption is a mininl.Um for values of M (Bed width/depth) between
HS and 3'2, and for values of M varying from 1·2 and 5 the loss of absorp.
tion is never more than 5 per cent in excess of the minimum.
So far as absorption is concerned any value of M between 1 and 5
ma.y be given. To minimise evaporation losses a low value of M is
advantageous, but where absorption is considerable these 10B&e8 are
generally relatively small. .
(b) That when such canals or channels are carried in balanoing
depth of cutting the quantity of excavation varies but little for values
of M between the above limits. The area of land occupied would be
greater, the greater the 'Value of M.
(c) That the level of the full supply water surface above or below
ground level, when running in balancing depth of cutting, varies but
little for channels of the same capacity for any ordinary value of M.
For Kennedy channels in balancing depth and with banks of
standard dimensions, the level of full supply with reference to the ground
surface is approximately as below :-
5 cuseo channel about i foot in soil.
10 I .. 1 ..
25 and 50 .. flush with ground.
100 .. i foot out of soil.
200 .. f "
300 " Ii feet out of soil.
500 " 11\ "
1,000 .. 3 "
2,000 .. 31 ..
4.88. Balancing depth too shallow for large channels and WO
deep for very small ones.- It would frequently be undersira.ble to
carry water so much as 3 feet out of soil and for the larger canals deeper
excavation than balancing depth would generally be aimed at.
Similarly sacrifice of oommand would frequently be neoessary if
5 and 10 ou.seo channels were carried in outtings so deep as balancing
depth, and for these channels it will generaJly be necessary to carry the
water at a higher level Qnd dig side pits in order to get el'rth for the
banks.
4.89. Kutter's oo-emclents for channels of dlfterent alles.-
The co· efficient of disoharge of a ohannel varies with its condition,
a ohannel with flat regular ourves, smooth bed ana side slopes and free
from weeds would have 8 low co-effioient and a channel with rough
surfaoes or obstructed by weeds, a bigh one. The table demonstrates
how much tl-e aoouraoy of the caloulated discbarges is affeoted by the
seleotion of suitable 00- ftioients.
Small ohannels of 50 OUSElOS and under ma.y have a co·effioi nt
as low as N = 0'0225 but when d signing it is advisable to assume
a co-effioi nt N = 0·025 tor suoh ohannels. For larger ch&nnels in good
oondition N = 0'020 may be ' realized but it is advisable when designing
to aHow N = 0-0225. For canals above 1,000 OUBeOS capaoity, N = O-~
..., be .uowed. -
 DISTRIBUTION WORKS-CANALS AND ClUN ELS 279

440. The proporUon ot bed wIdth to depth to be flxed bavtq

In view the slope ot the country traversed.-It will 1 from
columns 10 to 12 of the above table that, with non- ilting tJeloc ·tiu
the shallower the channel the flatter th slope, and vice r880. Tb~
when aligning a. ohannel in very fiat country it may n ry to
lll.I)ke it wider and shallower than would, oth rwi ,be oonomi 1 or
desirable.
For instanoo to carry a 5-ouseo chann 1 through ground f lling at
1 foot II mile (1/5280) with a VA100ity qual to K on d 's Vo it i n oe ry
to make it 0·75 foot deep, and 12 £ t bed width. A channel of th
same capaoity ca.rried over ground falling 2l fi t a mile (1/21 2) might
suitablj' have bed width 21 feet, a.nd d pth Ii Ii t.
In carrying a ohannel at a. slope less than tb ground slope it ~
dosirable to have a small value ofM 80 6S to reduce th h ight of 'drop '.
Where reservoirs arc the source of supply th is no dang r of silting,
and canals and ohannels may be given velooiti s subj ot only to non-
soouring limits. In Buoh cas s it will seldom b desirabl to mak v ry
sha.llow wide ohannels a.nd in very fiat oountry it will be de irabl to
ma.ke ohannels deep in proportion.1to their width that is tho praoti is
the reverse of that neoessary in the case of a 'Kennedy (non-silting)
ohannel '.

441. Other considerations for flxlng the proportion ot bId

width to depth.-There are practioal consid rations in addition to
the above which must be considered in fixing the d pth of 90 ohann 1
a.nd depth of outting and thes have sp cia} refer nee to the oonditions
of the looality through which the channel is to be oarri d. It is desirable
as fa.r as praoticable to avoid cutting into very hard, or very porous
strata, and a shallow outting;may avoid the neoessity for this. Again
if the soil is unsuitable for making good banks th ohann I wateI' would
be carried as much within ground IJ Ii is pOBBib).e without sacrificing
command. If there are few bridgos it is desirable where praoticablo to
keep the smaller distributaries at depths not gr ater tha.n 2 to 2i fi t in
order to facilitate fording the ohannel. It is inconvenient to be oon-
stantly changing the depth, and for this reason channels are frequ ntly
designed with larger values of M at the head of 0. reach than would
otherwise be desirable.
The depths of large canals are generally limited by praotical eon·
sidera.tions, and in these the va,lues of M aro frequently muoh larger than
would be allowable or desirable for smaller ones.
Where there is no good reason to the oontrary tho valu s of M should
be kept within limits between 11 and 5.

~. Depth of cutting ot a channel.-When a oanal is running

a a oontour canal, or on any alignment where th~ fall o~ the ground
surface is approximateJy the same as the canal fall, It is d lIable, where
other oonsiderations do not interfere, to carry it in outting at, or a littL
deeper than, balancing depth.
It is generally impraoticable to do this for any. cOl)siderable oonti
DUOue length in the case of a. contour channel, runDlOg through a fr 1Y
undulating country suah a.s that shown in figure 86, 88 the frequent Iy
280 mBIGATION

with which spurs and valleys have to be crossed, makes it n oossary

to oorry the oonaJ through constantly varying depths of cutting. Wher
the OOUI"try traversed has oven slopes and little diversity of contour
this is not the oose, and suitable location will result in keeping th.e, cantil
in an even depth of exoavation. .
In very flat country the requirements of ' command' will frequently,
especiall?/ in the case of small distributary channels, make it deSirahle to
carry the channels at a higher level than the above would indicate, and
this must never be overlooked, as sufficient 'command' is of the first
importance and must override all other considerations; the above
instruction should only be followed when doing 80 does not entail loss
of effective command.
443. Depth ol a channel bed above.a 'drop '.-When ' a oonal
is running on an alignment where the fall of the ground surfaoe is gr ater
than the cana.l slope, the longitudina.l section will be divided up into
J'caches by a seri s of drops (falls), and the depth of the oanal bed below
.the na! ural surfaoe will where the ground slope is uniform vary from
a maximum just below the drops, to a minimum just above them.
In suoh cas s oommand mu t bc obtained immediately above e~ob
drop, and for some distanoe up.stream of this, and the outlets will ill
most OIlsef be located in the lower part of each reach Ol' length, ' betw~n
two drops.
The spaoing, and thereforc th heights, of the drops is generally
fixed by the requirem nts of. irrigation convenience in the mat 'r of
looation and spacing of outlets, and the r quirements of command,
and it is unneo seary to oompare the rela.tive cost of building· a. large
number of low drops with a smaller numb r of high ones.
, Given the h ight and spaoing of the drops, and the oapacity, bcd.full,
and sta.ndard section of a ohannel, it is desirable to ascertain what is
approximately the most eoon mical depth in each reach for ,t he bed of
the ohannel with refel'enc to thc ground levols. This ' depth will be
fixed by the deptl}, with reference to the natural ground level, of the bed
.
.of the channel just above eaoh drop .
For example in figures 89,89 (a) and (b) the ground surface is shown
'as g g the interseotion of the ground surface with the drop wall being
at g'. The cha.nnel b d in each reach is b b' the inter~ ction of the ' bed
.above the drop with the drop wall being at bl.
The positions and heights of the drops being fixed by other coneid ra-
tions it is olear that the positions and levels of the points g' are ''fixed
and what is required is to fix the level of b' ~th r ference to gl in each
case.
When bl and gl ooinoide [as in figure 89 (a)] the chann 1 bed is level
with th surfac and th chann 1 is just abo'V the fall wholly 'n bank
and it is wholly in cutting for a short distanoe below th fall. '
Figure 89 shows bl as abov gt that is the bed level out of soil to tbo
tlxtent g' b'.
Let rt b' be called oX and 1 t it be positive wh n the bed is out of oil,
th n th problem is to asc rtain for !loh section of canal the Pl08~
economioal value of ~.
 DISTRI BUTION WOBXS-OA'IQ'ALS AND OHA.)U.S 2 1

Figure S!):'b shows 6' below gt tb t is' ~ is in tbi OIl f n iv

value.
'. '
;' , FIG. 89.

." ._ I

FIG. 69(:t»

~ .... ,,"-. . . . _ ' - ' :

,. , ~r///7n»»77»;~4J\._ '-?:_.
,> , . ,' ' vmmnN)

Where the slope of the ground , surfac<l or th rates for xcavatioD,

or for the land to be acqaired va1'Y gt aMy in different parts of L\ ,} ngtb
of chaMel it would be h ee ssary to make trial computations to fix tJ\
ooonom,io value of x for each oa·s , '
: Caloulations·have . been made for ho~ogenoous s~il and for ground
uniformly, sloping and for lengths ,of chann I b twoon balanoing d pth
of cutting in the reach a boye the drop and balanoing d pth in th, roac
below and the results, whioh are based on land v~]ufltion at ighty
rupees per aore, and earthwork excavation at an .initial rate of.Rs, 3-12-0 .
per 1,000 oubio feet for faUs of 4', 6', S' and 10' vertioal arc sUlllJllluiBed
below. .
For ohannels of standard types with the proFortion of bed "'icth to
d pth from ·2 ·to 4!, tho following giv s approximately th oonomio
value of x ;~
, .
(I} Minors,of25 cuseos aJld undor For 4 foet drops x = - i foot
(Standard banks of 3 or 4 fe t top and add i of a foot for v ry foot
width), . . , ' inorease in height oHail.

.' Thus for a channel of 10 cuseOs and a fqll of 10 ftet~ x = (I~ X i - i)

= +.11 feet ' and the bed above ~he drop wall woUld bo 1-1 fo t put of
Boil. ' , , , " "
• • • • ;*

(2) M~jor 'aistribut~jc8 of 200 , For 4' fi ·t drop x = - Ii and

cmecs doWn to 25 ' CU8 cs (Stand- ' add i of a foot . for 'v ry foot +
ard hll.nks of'6 feet to}> width) uicr aBO in h ight of fall.
 282 I RRIGA.T ION

For larger canals tbe algebrai(' value of x ior a 4 feet <hop becomes
slightly sD\8.11er (IS the 08nal oapaoity inoreaB. s. It is, bowever, un~
rabl to 08rry ohannels whigh banks on acoount of the danger of breaching
and it will gener&lly be desirable to keep the ohanr.el bed above a fall
from one quarter to om. -balf a foot lower tban economir level.
Deviations up to half a foot on either side of the eoonomio level do
not in('rease the cost of a length of cha.nnel by more than 2 to 3 per
cent.
It is to be rcmembered that the economic value of x should be oonsi-
dered only where this do s not injuriously affect the command required
which should always be the first oonsideration.
444. Capacity or canaJs.-The duty of water, the allowanoos for
absorption, and the system of tUstribution are the data from which the
carrying capacity of canals and distributaries must be computed. These
must be fixed. before oommenoing detailed design and the data on which
these are arrived at, have been discussed in Chapters II and IV above.
For paddy cultivation, in new systems in Madras the oontinuous
llow system of distribution is prescribed for ordinary Use but there
are many existing systems in whioh regulation is effected by turns
and in such oases the carrying capacity of oanals or distributaries must
be increased with reference to the full supply duty to provide for the
non-supply during the periods of complete olosure, or of restricted supply
under the distribution system in force.
The above preliminaries having been fixed. the carrying oapacity of
each length of each distributary, branch and main canal must be com-
put d working Jrom the tail end oj each canal and channel upward8 to
the head. The lay-out of the whole proposed system and the position of,
and area. irrigated from ea.ch off-take, in each distributary should be
plotted on an irrigation map. From this, tables must be drawn up for
ach distribution channel oommenoing from the tail end showing the
discharge required after allowing for absorption in each length of distri-
butary and oanal to keep the system fully supplied at the time of greatest
demand.
From the above tables the carrying capacity required of each part of
&ch canal and channel throughout the system will be asoortained and
the canals must be designed to carry the maximum supply and distribute
the whole in the required proportion throughout the whole system.
446. Command.-Each canal and distributary must be designed not
only to oarry the qU&ntity required at times of maximum demand but
to carry the norma.] supplies at all times at such a. level that the water
C&n be run by gravitation on to the land to be irrigated. This applies
not only to periods when the cant\ls are running full but to times when
only very limited supplies are required for the orops.
It is generally d sirable to design aanals and channels 80 that full
command of all land is attained when half of full supplies are carried.
The matter should be oonsidered with reference to the special oiroum-
stano s of ea.ch system and such oonsideration is a preliminary to design
of oanals. To seoure fully effeotive oommand it is desirable, wherever
it is praoticable, to carry water in a distributary at such a level at the
outl t to the field channel as to be half a foot above the level of the
high st land to be irrigated and this condition should obtain during
periods of low supply; wh re such land is any considerable distanoe
 DISTRIBUTION WORXS-()ANA:r:S AND OHANNELS 2 S

from the outl t furth r allowance must be mad for 10 of I v I by Bow

through the 11 ld Channels. Th tabular tatement ref, rred to in •
graph 444 should give, in addition to the ar a under ach outt t th
level and distanoe from eaoh outlet of the high t land to be irr' ' .
From these the designer can oompute th I vol of water quircd
in the oh&llDel at the outlet in order to fully aomml\nd th land.
It will frequently happen as mention d in pa.ragraph 431 abo~
that the level at which a canal or distributary oan be oorried i th
faotor which fixes the ar a of land to be irriga d by uch olla.nn 1 .
in suoh 00 s it is most undesirable to inolude in the ayacut (a 'gn ,
irrigable area) of a channel any land which oan only be DlDllUld
with difficulty. Such aotion leads to many irr gulal'iti sand diffioulti
in distribution in times of soorcity.
446. ConsIderations Influencing the proportIons of cross--sectJon.
of cbaDnels.-It will be gatbered from what has boon said abov that
the seotions of channels of the same carrying oapaoiti s may properly
be designed to differ very greatly in the proportion of bed width t,o d pth
in aocordanoe with the speoial conditions which attaoh to aoh co. .
For instance-
(1) In most direot flow irrigation systems it is neo ssa.ry, wh rev r
praotioable, to design ohannels of velooity, not less than th non-silting
velocity oomputed from Kennedy's rule, and not greater than is safe
in view of the liability to soour of the side slopes, or tho bed of the channel.
In the oose of storage systems tho disposal of silt ntering at th
head need not be considered but the v locity mu t be limited so as to
be non-scouring.
In most soils marginal soour will not ocour with mean ~ looiti 8
of less than 2·5 f.s., and oonsiderably higher velooiti s up t.o 3t fi t
are generally safe in olay while in mooram, kunkur, soft rook, to.,
velooities even higher than these are safe.
(2) Where other oonsiderations permit, ohann Is should be d sign d
with a proportion of bed width t.o depth b tween 11 and 5.
(3) Where the soil consists of an impervious sUl'faoe with a pervious
subsoil the design should aim at a depth of channel whioo will as far ae
possible not uncover the pervious strata.
(4) Where the material excavated is bad for making banks the
channel should be kept more in soil than would be desirable with good
material.

the full supply depth of smaller channels should not exo d

order t.o give greater facilities for fording.
2,
(5) Where there are orossings for which bridg s are not provid d
£ tin

Bridges or other masonry works aoross ohannels are mor ch aply

construoted in deep narrow ohannels than in broad shallow on s and
where there are many suoh works a deep channel is an advantag .
(6) With a view t.o ma~ing fi w r changes .of depth of. a ohannel
necessary it is frequently deSIrable t.o have a hIgh r proportlOn of bed
width to depth at the head of a reach than would oth rwise be given.
447. Change of carrying capacity of a canal.-Ohange of oopMity
is effected-
(1) By reduotion of bed width.
(2) By reduotio(l of depth.
(3) By reduotion ofvelooity of flow.
284 IRRIGATION

:Grading of the surfa.ce fa.ll should generally be arranged to ! give

approximately the velocity of flow due to the depth nnder Kennedy's
theory and therefore (2) and (3) re-act on .each other,. and where depth
is altered grading. is also altered to Kive the oritical velooity due. to the
new depth. '
, The most oOlplllon method of reducing capacity ,is to change the bed
width, such ohange being made just below the ofi'tak,e to whioh the
required reduction of oapacity is due. '
, As the bed width of a canal becomes narrower the ·proportion (M)
bed width to deptli becomes smaller and after a time a. change of depth
is necessary to give a more suita~le value to (M).
448. ChangAs of depth of a channel.-Changes of full supply depth
must be made between the head and tail of a canal of any considerable
length or magnitude; a depth which is suitable for the upper end of
the canal b comes unsuitable as the full supply oapacity is reduced. ·In
the case of a canal with drops 'at intervals along its length ohange of
. depths may m,?st conveniently be made at such works. In other canals
changes may be made at regulators or at regulating notches which are
' built a.cross the oanal. Where there are no drops or regu18.tors near
a place where reduction of depth is called fo~, this must b~ effected by
allowing a bed fall of less steep slope than the surface fall of the cha~el.
In ext~eme cases the ch:annel bed may be kept leyel for the length,
necessary to effect a change. This method is not sp convenient as
ohanging depth at rcgulators or falls o~ notches nor does' it prove so
satisfaotory in operation. '
448-A. Canal1inings.-The lining of h~igation channels ' becomes Q,
necessity whet chann Is pass through soils of light texture and are of
great depth and in which scepage, losses would be considerable. ' .
In Punjab a number of experiments were c'o ndu,c ted during 1906-10,
for observing the porcolation in trenohes with tho following different
kinds of linings (Punjab Irrigation branch paper No. ll-C):- .
(1) Crude oil lining, 1/16". "
. (2) Crude oil lining, 1/32". ' -
(3) Portland cement slurry, 1/24" to 1/9" thick.
(4) Olay puddle, 6" thick.- '
'(5) Ooal tar, 6/100" ..
(6) Oil d paper, Ij36." ,
The rate of sinkage of water surface in feet per hoW: was , recOrded
for the above linings in diffi rent channels both in lined and unlined
o!umnels. The ratio of sinkag , in unlined trenches. to that in' lined
trenohes was arrivo d at and was called efficiency ratio. The effici~nuy
ratio of the diffi rent kinds of lining at the different sites of experiment,
in the first half of the year 1910, showed that at the age of 4 years, the
diffi r nt water-proof linings has the following ra.~io of ffici DCY, in the
d~ction of imp rviousn' 8S, as compar d - with o~dinary soil in
xoavation :-
1. Orude oil lining 1/16" thick _. 4-0
2. Portland cement slurry 1/6" thick .. 5-7
3. Clay puddl , - ." , -r 5-7
The r snIts 0.1 0 show d that th retentivoness of crude ojl "lining
may d teriorat at th rat of about 10 por 'c nt · per annum whilst
puddle and ""mont improve in water-proof qualities with a.go especially
puddle. '
 DISTRmUTIoN WORKS-<lANALS AND CllANNELS 25
The following canal linings used in Australia hav b <D found to b
"atisfaotory though they may not 1:e call d economica.l.
For large sized ohannels, a lining of 0 ment ooncreto (1 : 2: 4) 2 t.o •
thick, reinforced with steel, has been found to be satisfactOJ . Th
sla.bs w~re generally of 16 feet in width, with constru tiOD joint and
expansion joints alternatively.
The lining for smaller chann Is was oem nt mortar (I : 3) Ii' thick
without reinforcement. In pla.cos wh re th soil Wi r imp:rcgnat d
with hug quantities of salts, th mortar detcriorakd and l' quiT d ront 1 al
within 10 to I~ years. In sUQ.h plaoes, the lining consist( d of a. 1o, r
Ia.yer of bitumen mastio to a. thickness offrom 3/8 to!" and a top la.y r f
ccment morta.r of I" thickness. The bitum n milo tic is comp d of
natural bitumens which are first h a.tcd and fin sand th n addc'd in
speoified proportions. The mixtur is th n laid not by hand direot,
on to the prepare~ earth surface of th ohann I and tho top surfaoo
of the mastio is not smoothed, so as to give a fa.ir grip to tho oem nt
morta.r over it. .
This kind of lining whioh was triod to a thicknoss of i" to l' whiJ
found to be fairly satisfaotory from 'the point' of i ·w of rend ring t,h
chann I impervious for a period has th following disad antilog s. W d
growth for?es its wa:r through the bitum(Jn ma tio and the cost in olved
is high. ' ,. ."
The following classes of oanallinings w(·re used in t,h CI1('pad cho.nnl I
system in K,urnool district.
About 20 ouseCB of oanal disohargo woro found to b lost by s pag
in the portion 15/2 to 15/6. The linings adoptod WOTI' tho following : -
. (1) Ce:t;Dent mortar (1 : 6), 3" thiok :
(2) ,C uddapah slabs (6' 'X '3' X 0-3") laid in b d and on aid s
for a h ig;h~ of 6~ above the F.S.L. and tho joints point d with o.m. (1: ).
(3) Lime concrete 4" thick laid in 10' pan Is with plank mplato
at the sides.
At junctions of two strips, a ccmcnt mortar band IW thiok of 1 : 3
propor~ion w~~ laid. The finished surface was cement wash db fore tb
conorete ail /completely set.
After observation for a couple of years it was found that th linings
cowposed of lime mortar oonorete, and Cuddapah slabs, had stood w 11,
but the cem nt mortar lining 1 . 6 had fail d very badly as it oraoked
au i bulged out or sunk and got partly displac d.
The lQss due to seepa.ge, after the lining was carried out was found
to be 7'6 ous 0 as against 20 o~seos befor .
Prevention of seepage fro'm canals with the aid of Sodium Carbo-
nate. - For the Sl,lOoossful treatment of soda ash, the soil tr ated shou ld
consist of moro than 10 per cent of olay and that for a suffioient d pth.
Where, therefore, the excavated bed of a oanal is found to contain littl
or no clay, the oheapest way to s aUt is to oov r it with 4* lay r of soil
oontaining over 10 per cent of olay taken from tho n nor at ava.ilable
8oui'oe and then treat thislayer'with soda ash.
Staunching of canals adopted in lower Chenab canal by sodium
carbonate. -The bed was dug to a. depth of one foot blow th b d 1 v 1.
The silt removed was dumped on th berIDS <in both Rid s. A Jay r of
suitable oarth 2" thiok, obtain d from th neigh ouring la.;nd was laid
on the bod Th earth was finely powdor d with Ka sis a d markls,
dressed and thoroughly roll d with hand roll re. Til unit of tr a' Jr,( l .\
was.&10' length of th ohann 1.
 286 IlmIGATION

A solution of sodium carbonate containing 6'6 lb. of sodium

cMbonate in a oubio foot of water W88 prepared. One oubio foot of
solution was suffioient for the treatment of 33 o. ft, or 200 square
feet of the soil when spread in the channel bcd. The solution of sodium
carbonate was sprayed uniformly from watering cans on to the surfaoe
of the 2" layer of soil. After treating the 2 w layer of soil, a second layer
of earth, also 2" in thiakness, "88 laid on the treated soil surface. The
seoond layer was rolled and treated with the solution of sodium oarbonate
in a similar manner to the first layer. After treatment the earth layer
was oovered by an 8" layer of silt dug from the ohannel so as to restore
the channel to its original oondition. The silt was rolled with hand.rollers
and its surface lev 1determined. A reduction of 2'3 ouseos in the absorp-
tion losses has been effeoted by this treatm nt. The total area of the bed
treated was 565,870 sq. ft. The length of the channel treated was 66,100
feet. The total cost of the treatment was Rs. 8,000. From this it follows
that the cost per foot width per mile oflength isapproximately Rs. 71.
Some di1ficulty may be experienced in applying the treatment during
a closure if water is soaroe. In order to overoome this, Sodium oarbonato
treated unbaked brioks might be prepared while the ohannel is running
and used instead of layers of earth. Unbaked brioks retain the property
of unpermeability even after drying. It is probable that if bricks ar
prepared b foreha.nd the treatment may even be cheaper as it will avoid
the double handling of earth.
While sodium oarbonate is apparently cheap in first oost, it is in
reality very expensive and inefficient and we have no guara.ntee of its
p rmanency.
Prevention of leakage at sides.-Leakage from sides of canal oan
be prevented by lining the sides with Kutch olay bricks containing
0'2 per cent by weight of soda ash, and covering this with a thin lining
of cement slurry to pre't'ent t'rosion.
Justifiable expendit\lre on lining :-
C = S Q V d. S = 26'4 i P o.
26'4 i p. QVd
Where
C = Cost of lining per sq. ft, in cents, which will vary with
the thioknes8.
Q = flow in ca.nal in cubio feet per second.
= rate of loss by seepage in per cent of flow per mile.
V = Value of 1 acre foot of water in dollars.
d = number of 24 hour days during whioh cana.l is operated.
p = length of perimeter to be lined in feet.
i = rates of interest, repairs, depreciation.
449. Mile and bench-mark stones.-Mile and furlong stones set in
concrete foundations are planted along the length of all canals and
ohannels in MadrILB. The mileage is measured along the axis of the
canal.
In some systems all mileage is m asured from the headworks of the
system while in others the mileage of each canal and ohannel is measured
from th canal or oha.nnel head sluice. It appears generally to be desir-
abl to m asur mil ag of a main or branch canal from the headworks
of th system and that of a distributary from the sluice in the main or
branoh canal or tank through whioh the oha.nnel draws its supply,
 DlSTRInt1T10N WOnK8-0!NAUI AND OllAli:NELS 8'
Mile and furlong stones should g nerally be t up cl ar of tIl! ou
toe of the bank of a canal.
Bench mark stones should be s t up along th lin of a
cha.nnel, at intervals not exoeeding one mil , before th x oution
work is oommenoed and the 1 v ls of the b nch marks must oor.
tained by carefully checked.levelling. Th ston 8 must be pJa. d wh re
they will not be disturbed during the execution of th work.
It will frequently be found conveni nt to s t up mil ston 8 be£'
the commenoement of any work and use th as b n h marks during
execution. As deviations in sanctioned a,lignm nUl ar f1 qu ntly mad
during execution it will sometimes b n cessary to shift som of th
mile stones when the work is complete a.nd for this r ason furlong ton
should not be planted during the earliar stages of th work.
Mile or bench mark stones may be 3 feet long and about inch
square in section, the top foot should be dressed tru and squar and
have the mileage or number of the stone cut on on face. Th low r
two feet should be set in conorete foundation.
450. contour channels In single bank.- Wh n traversing oountry
with a steep oross slope, ohannels are sometimes mad throughout th
whole, or part of their length with a bank only on the low r sid of th
slope. When this is so, all drainage intercepted in th singl bank d
length is taken into the canal and must be disposed of by outl ts at suit·
a.ble sites. A single banked channel will have a ma.ximum water I v 1
(M.W.L.) higher than F.S.L. and the bank must be giv n a. suitabl
free· board above M.W.L. Where the channel crosl:l s a vall y in bank,
the water will ordinarily fill the depression up to F.S.L. forming a tank,
the extent of which depends on the height of banking and th g n ral
slope and contour of the depression, and full supply can be pass d to the
canal below only so long as this tank is filled up to th F.S.L. of th
channel issuing from it. If the united capacity of the tanks along the
length of channel is great in oomparison to the channel carrying capacity,
it may take a oonsiderable time at the commen ment of an irrigation ·
season before full supply can be passed down to the tail end of the
ohannel; ~his is one objection to crossing deptessions in singl bank.
Further objections are that the submerged area is not available for culti.
vation, losses by the percolation and evaporation a.re inor ased, and th
silt carrying regime of the ohannel is interfer d with, most of th silt in
suspension being deposited in the tanks, on the other hand the disposal
of the drainage entering the tank can frequently be effected by all ordi·
nary tank surplus work at much less cost than by other forms of cro
drainage works and the bed silt of the drainage will b d posi d dose
to the waterspread boundary and is unlikely to affeot the canal.
In South India a. number of channels of considerable size ar carri d
in single bank for a great part of their length. The larg st of thes is the
Kurnool.Cuddapah canal, and many other el. amples of this olass are
afforded by the channels taking off from the upper Cauvery and the
Tungabhadra. The regime of such ohannels is generally muoh interti red
with by the silt brought into the canal with surface draina.g and the
maintenanoe oharge3 are high.
On the whole the oarrying of a canal in single bank is only suitable to
speoial and somewhat exceptional oonditions a.nd is ordinarily not to be
recommended.
.28 mRtOAl'10N

451. Tanks formed at drainage cronlDgi u,sed as .torage works.--It

ma.y be here pointed out that tanks such as ,ha.ve been described may ..
serve a useful purpoac as storage works wherever a drop of F.S.L. ~e.
place just below the tank, Under ~ucb, circwnst,a.noes the yield of the
loca.l drainag and the capacity of the tank betwe n the F.TL. ,and .th I
F.S.L. of the channel become availa.bJ~ &flld. the tank will be a.I\ 8.11:xiliary
storage work and may be most useful ip sfie~yitlg the 1iqw in the portion
of the channel below it. , :' . .
452. Muonry works or , distrilnltioD .JStem: •.
-The masonry .works
of distribution systems cOJlSist of- , ,; .- . ' , , : . ','
(a) Works r quired to· tCO.ntrol velocity of flow, to ma.intain the
r quired water levels, a.nd effect distribution throughout a ~na.l sy'stem,
These works 'comprise drops, r gulators, regulating notc}les and
dividing dams, irriga.tion sluices and pipe outlets.
(b) Communication works: ,'
These comprise bri~es, road syphons, fords and cattle croasings. :
.. (0) Cross drainage, surplus, and scouring works. ' ," .
These comprise aqu ducts and syphon aqueduotS, super-passageS
and syphonB, level.orossings, jnlets and outlets, surplus and scolU'ing
sluices, and tail el;!capes. . '
f
. ' .
. . . t
Of the above, (a) and :{b)' are described in ChapteJ.: XIl .and .(c) iJl.r
Cha.pter XIII, '
 CHAPTER
, XII.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM-MASONRY WORKS.
OA.NAL 'DROPS' OR 'FA.LLS '.
453. Canal f drops '.-Where the natural slope of the ground oYer
whioh is a canal is oarried. is greater tha.n th slope of th oa.nal the
differ noo is adjusted by constructing v rtical 'drop , or ' falls ' a.t
suita.ble in~rvals. The te~s 'drol!' and' fall' . are inter-oha.ng &obI ,
the former IS generally used m Amenca and South India, a.nd th lat r
in Northern India.
454. Positions of 'drops' .-The best positions of offtak 8 from a
canal must be fixed with refer noo to the oontours of th ground to b
irrigated. and plotted on a longitudinal seotion of the oanal aJignment
showing the ground surface lev Is; from this s ction th appl'oximato
positions and the required heights of drops for th slope and full supply
d pth of the canal must be fixed so that the canal water 1 VI Is at th
points of offtake will be at levels giving suitabl command.
The approximate position of a drop being fix d as &boVl ,th ex&oot
positionl!hould be deoided with reference to local consid rations suoh as
tho suitability of soil a.nd subsoil, communications, te. Th oonomical
lev I of the canal bed just above a fall with ref< rence to th ground I v 1
has been dealt with in paragraph 44.3 above.
455. Essential featu,res of a drop.- A drop il:! mer >ly a vertical step
in a channel bed, the drop wall being a retaining wall forming the ril:! r,
a.nd the aprons and wings forming protective works to prcvent th drop
wall being under-scoured or outflanked, or the ohann 1 roded by the
turmoil or velooity due to the drop.
The conditions of a drop are similar to those of a. weir in cases wh re
the stream bed-lev I above the work has been filled to about the I v 1 of
the weir orest.
456. Control of the velocity and of the water level in the approach
to a drop.-The mean velooity of water passing over the or st of a w ir
is greater than that of the ohannel above; it is therefore desirable to
oontl'aot the waterway over the drop wall in suoh a way that the surface
slope, a.nd velooity of the canal water up-stream of the work, may not
be a.ffected by the fall. If the canal were always carrying the same
qua.ntity of water this could be effected by raising the sill (or or st) of
the drop wall above the bed level of the canal, and this devioe was,
generally used for many years and is still occasionally employed. It is
however fully effeotive for only one stage of flow and an inorease of
flow above this must result in abnormal surface fall and velooity in the
~a.ter for some distanoe above the drop, with liability to scour, while
diminished How oauses 'pooling' above the work with liability to silt
deposit. '
Another alternative is to contraot the width of the sill making a. single
rectangular notoh. This loca.J.i7,es and concentrates discharge in 8uoh
19
290 mRIGATIoN

80 way 80S to induce 100801 soours and erosions in the ca.na.l while, 80S in the
oa.se of the raised sill, it will only keep the appl'08.ch flow at the normal
oa.na.l surfa.oe slope a.nd level for one stage of discharge.
457. Control by 'Trapezoidal notches ' .-What is required is to so
restriot the ar a of flow that the approaoh water shall be maintained at
the normal velooiti Band surfaoe slope of the canal for the varying
disoharg s whioh may be passed down. This may be effected by raising
the drop wall to the full supply level of the ca.na.l above the work leaving
along the length of the raising one or more trapezoidal notohes with
sloping sides, the sills of the notohes being at the level of the oa.na.l bed.
This method of automatio regulation W80S originally introduced in the
Punjab and ha.s been most successful in attaining the object sought, a.nd
all drops should be designed with trapezoidal notches, exoept where the
orest of a drop wall is fitted with movable shutters forming a combined
regulator and drop. In suoh a oa.se the level a.nd velooity of the approach
to the drop is controlled by a regulator a.nd trapezoidal notches are
unneoe.ssa.ry.
458. Theoretical and practical form of trapezoIdal notch.-The
theoretical correct form of the notch, or Bet of notches, capable of p8.8Bing
every discha.rge of a canal with the norna.l depth in the canal due to that
disoharg is a. regular egg-sha.ped curve. Suoh a curve is difficult to set
out and build, a.nd a notoh with a horizontal sill and straight sides of
suitable slope gives the required conditions without suoh errors 80S to
oause praotical inconvenience. The seotion of flow through such a notch
is thus a. trapezium and 80S the side slopes arc straight instead of curved,
there will be two levels of disoharge a.nd only two which will ~11
me t the th oretical requirements and in order to find the slopo Tequired
for the sid s, the width of the notoh for two suitable water levels must be
oaloula.ted.
459. Water levels for whIch notches shou,ld be computed.-It is
important to sol ot suitable wa.ter levels for which to compute the widths
of notches, and thesc cannot b . fixed by any invaria.ble rule but must be
selectcd to suit the conditions of regulation a.nd variations of flow in the
canal. For ordinary purposes he ufP<lr level may be taken at, or a little
below, th ordinary fullsupplv ~ev (F.S.L.) of the canal, and the lower
on a little below th level ':-.. the lowest working supply, but not higher
than th I vel of half supply. .
460. Detalls ot plan of a trapezoidal notch.-The plan of notoh
originally used in the Punjab involved a. oompliaa.ted construotion of
ourV' s with a v ry wide splay on the up-stream side, which in turn
r quired a width of piers between notches which is inconveniently great
in ma.ny oa.ses; while suoh a shape gives a high co-effioient of diSchargo,
it is an unneoossary oomplication a.nd a simple and suitable construction
is shown in figure 90.
lf T b th thiokness of the notch wall, the plan of sides of the notoh
may be a s Ii of circular arcs struck with radius T and centres on a.
line i T from the down-stream faoe of the drop-wall. If the drop-wa.ll
is ourved in plan the radius may be somewhat reduoed. A spreader
ston , oalled the 'lip', supported if necessary by corbelling, projeots
beyond the down-stream fac of the drop the amount of projection being
limited to one foot or half the width of the notch sill at its down-stream
oo,e ....hiohever is the sma.ller, -a.nd the ciroular a.rc forming the edge of
 blSrlUBt1TrON S'YS'rE.M -MASONBY W lUrS 291
the lip outs th down-stream. extremiti s of th sill of th notch. Th lip
serves to spread out and distribute the ter falling from ch notch
over_the surface of the)pron.

"'8.90.
"EAR ELEVATION. SECTION .
:"-a- .

461. Formu.lm for discharge of a trapezoidal notcb.-Let D be the

discha.rge in cus cs, divided into two pa.rts, the disoharg (It) through
the reotangular portion of the notoh, and tho disoharge (S) of th sloping
triangula.r portions. .
Let E = tho submersion, that is the depth of tail wa.ter ov r th sill
of the notoh.
l = the width of the horizontal sill of the notch in fi et.
n = 2 tan a, where a is the angle made by eaoh of the sid s of
the notch with the vertical.
a = the co-efficient of discharge of the notch.
d = the depth in feet over th sill of the notch.
Thcn, excluding velocity of approach, the g ncrol equation for th
discha.rg of a submerg d notoh is-
D = O tV' 2:J (d -. fiJ)'/ u (l+l En) E + i OtV'2 9 (d- E) ~ X {l + En
+ 0'4 n (d-E) } (53)
[Vide equation (e) Punjab Irrigation Branoh Paper No.2] .
The first item of the expression is th discharg du to th subm rg d
(or drowned) portion of whole disoharge and th r maind r that du to
the fr portion. If th notch is wholly fre , without any submerg nc ,
E becomes zero and also the first item disappears and the equation
becomes.
a
D = 5'35 d t (l + 004 dn). . . . . • . . . • • . (64)
which is th g neral equation for the discharg of a trapezoidal notch
with free ov rfall.
Equation (53) above may be express d as follows:-
D = 5'35 0 ~ { (t E d) l+ +
[1 E ' +
(d-E) E
+ 0'4 (d-E)2]n} .. •• .. .. (55)
In equations (54) and (55) above the numerical valu 5'35 is substituted
for itV'2 g.
19,A
.292 IlmIGATIO:N

462. Nethersole's discharge tables of trapezoidal notehes.-The first

expression within the main bracket of equation (55) l' PI' ents (R) the
discharg through the rectangular portion of the notch, and the second
expression (8) the discharge through th two sloping portions.
Thus:
R = 5'35 0 tV d-E X (1 E + el) X l (a)
8 = 0'35 0 tV d-E [.i EI + (cl-E) E + '4 (d-E)]n Cb)
Nethersole's "Disoharge Tables for Trapezoidal Notohes for Distri-
butary Fa.lls" a.re derived from equations (a) and (b) and give-
(1) Values of R for eaoh 1/IOth foot width of sill, for values of' E'
from 0'1 up to 4'5 feet, and values of d from 1'0 to 5 feet.
(2) Values of 8 for values of E and d as above, and for notohes of
side slopes 1, i, i, t, t , i·
The value of 0 in the tables is 0'70.
The use of these tables is available greatly facilitates design of suitable
notohes.
The above formulm do not inolude separate oomputation for velooity
of approaoh and it has been found in praotioe that the error due to this
oan be eliminated within reasonabl limits by applying slightly higher
values to the co-effioient 0 than would otherwise be suitable. A co-
effioient of 0'7 has been found suitable for channels up to a depth of
() feet. For large canals of high r velooities th co-efficient may be
inoreased and 0'78 has b n generally found suitable. If tabl . ar not
availble the dimensions of notches should be work d out from equationa
(54) or (55) above.
463. Example of calculation for a trapezoidal notch.-'fhe following
exampl of computations for the notches of a <hop in whioh both the
quations (54) and (55) ar brought into use giv s an illustration of the
method of applying them ;-
A full supply of 200 ousecs is to be passed in a channel of bed width
20 fe t and d pth 41 feet above the <hop. The ohannel carri shalf
supply with a depth of 3 feet.
At full supply th tail wat l' submerges the sill by 1'2 feet, and at
half supply the sill is unsubmerged and the fall a. free one.
Th whole disoharge will be passed through 3 notches.
In this cas we hav therefore
DI = 2~O = 66'7, d = 41, EI =
l 1'2.

D, = l~O= 33·3,d.= 3,E.= O.

It is required to find value.s of l a.nd n of a suitable notch. The
oo-efiioi nt 0'70 is us d throughout.
From qua.tion (55) a.bove
a.gain for the half supply applying equation (54)
+
3'74 X 3t (I 1'2 n) = 33'3.
3'74 3'3 {5.1 1+ (1'08 + 3'00 + + 4'36)n} = 66.7
••• 0'11 + 9'4 n = 9'96 • . • • • • • • (.)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM-MASONRY WORKS 293
-
l +
1'2 n= 1-71
+
or 0'1 Z 6'12 n = 8'72 . _ . . _ .. • _ (6)
Combining equations (a) and (b) to elimina.t 'l' w g t
3'28 n= 1'24
1-24
n = 3'28=0 '38,
From thi tan a = 0'19 and the slop of thE' sides of thE' n tch
19
would be 100'
Substituting this in equation (b) above
... 1= 1'71 - 1'2 X '38 = 1'25 :£ et.
In praotioe a slope of "* would b taken and the notoh would havo
a sill I t feet wide.
Thus each notch would have a sill of 1'2:£ t and sid slopt's of on
in five.
The top width of the notch at F.S.L. would thus b
1'2 + 2 X ~= 3 feet.
This notoh is depicted in figure 90 above.
464. General features of design of drops.-A oanal drop is ess ntially
a weir over which flow is controlled and frcqucntly continuous for w ks
and months together. Th apron below is g n rally proteoted by a. d pth
of tail water overlying it not greatly less than th d pth of water passing
over it. As it is important to limit v lociti s blow th work 80 that
but little proteotive pitohing below th fall may b r quir d it is desirabl
to dissipate the turmoil due to the fall as quiokly as possible. Und r
these conditions drops are almost invariably d sign · d as type A w irs,
in whioh the water is dropped vertically immediately below the weir wall
on to a masonry apron or a water cushion.
465. Prome and length of drop wall and number of notcbes .. - Wh n
the soil is impervious th drop wall is of th nature of a r taiuing wall
surcharged with the weight due to the depth of th water up.stream of
tho wall, a.nd need not be design d as subj ot to the full hydrostatio
pressur due to the level of water above it; the xt nt to whioh it is so
subjeot is a matter for judgment having in vi w the p rmeability of th
Roil. Generally the base width of the drop wall may be, about that of
the clem ntary triangle that is about (~+:~ where H is th v rtioal
height from the sill to the apron, and d the maximum depth of water
pa.ssing over the drop; the formula is similar to that for th ba e width
of the elementary triangle for a dam subject to full hydrostatic pr ssure
without uplift (vide paragraph 203 above). Wher H is large and the
soil is but moderately pervious th formula gives a base width somewhat
in excess of requirements while for very pervious soils or for large valu s
of d a somewhat wider base may be required. In every case the filling
between the up-stream face of th drop wall and the face of th excava-
tion should be puddled clay as shown in figure 91. If th natural soil
is very pervious a. puddle apron (as in th cas of a. weir) may be laid in
the bed of the channel or some distance up- trea.m of th drop and this
apron should be carried well under the water faoo of the banks on either
side of the bed.
 mRIG~TlON

PM length oj tM drop waU between abutmmtB should not be less than

seven-eighths, or more than the full bed width of the ohann I up-stream
of the fall.
Number and Bill level oj notche8.-The sills of the notches should be
at the bed Jevel of the canal and the notches should be of suitable number
to distribute the disoharge fairly throughout the length of the drop
wall.
The width oJ the notch piers at F.S.L. should be not less than half the
full supply depth d of the ohannel above, and the length of the piers
should be subject to the same minimum unless in either case a lower
dimension can be proved by stability oomputations to be suitable.
The tops of the piers should be at F.S.L. unless they are utilized for
oarrying a foot bridge or other superstructure. Three-quarters width
piers should be provided oontiguous to eaoh abutment. The full supply
1 vel above referred to is the greatest depth at which the canal is to be
run Jor supply purPOSeB and not necessarily the ordinary full supply.
The top width of a notoh will generally not exce d 0'75 d where the
notoh is 'free', and d where it is submerged; the top widths generally
will be between 0'7 d and d.
Notohes which give greater depth on the sill for any discharge than
the normal d pth of the canal below ar termed 'tight' , and those
giving less depth are 'loose'. In oases of doubt it is preferable to build
a notoh a little 'loose', as this can more easily be reotiii d than a
, tight' notch.
The thiclcnt88 0/ the drop wall at sill level may be from I to 1 foot
wider than the length of the notoh piers, that is betw en (1 d X !) and
+
(1 d 1) foot.
466. Width of.the main apron of a drop.-The width (A) of the maiu
apron down-str am of the drop wall should be equal to the length (L)
of the drop wall plus half the depth (d) of the canal up-stream, subj ct
to a minimum of the bed width of canal b low the drop.
A = L + 1d • . . . . . . . . . . (56)
If the width is gr ater than the bed width down-stream this width
should be oontraoted gradually in the 'revetted slopes down-stream of
the wings the oontra.otion being not more rapid than one foot in bed
width to 5 fe t in the length of the canal.
467. Depth and limits on use of water oushions.-The nature of the
apron blow th drop wall, viz., wh ther a solid or a cushioned apron,
d pends on the depth of th drop (h) whioh is the diff, renoe between the
water levels up and down-stream of the fall, and on the depth (de) of
the water p&ssing ov r the cr st (or sill) of the drop wall and the depth
(d,) of the water in the ohannel below. With a notohed fall, (de) equals
the depth (d) in the oanal up- tream of the drop, but in cases where the
sill is rais d above the canal bed this is not the oa.se.
I.f a solid apron is built this will be cushioned to ad pth d1 by water
in th chann 1 below.
If a water au hion cistern is built of d pth (X) below th bed of th
cha.rm 1 downstr am of tho drop, th e/lective d pth of water actin8'"
a ()ushion is (~ + X). -
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTlIIM-MASONRY WORKS 2915

There is much differenoe- of opinion among expert a to th nt

to whioh it is del'li;able ~ build water oushion aprons, and alpo g rding
the depth and d~enslons to be ~ivcn to th oisterns of uob apron .
From reoent expenenoe ofsucoessful application of solid apron to d op
falIa it appears probabl that 8 mor xtendcd application ot lid apron
to oanal falls is desirable.
The following formula whioh was introduced by Dyas is froqll ntly
used to give the depth of a water cushion :-
(X + d l ) = d l + (dO\/8 l~I / J )
or X = dol 13 h'" • . • • • • (67)
This formula is in general us in th Punjab.
The following formula is oonsid rod moro suita ble to ordinary oondi-
tions in MadIas and in plao s whore th o soils giv~ b tter foundatioJ"S
t}lan is usual in the PWljab works:-
(X + dl) = t do ",- • . . . (IS~)
Where d1 = de this formula Siv s a. nil or a nega tivo valu to' X I
for 1\.11 values ot ' h ' up to 4:£ ct, whicb implios that, und r th Be oondi.
tiona, a solid a.pron would be built.
468. Lengths of main aprons of drops.-Th down-str am • it
of the oisterI' of a water oushion must b built witb 0. lope so that ton 8
and other d bris oarried into the oistern may be washed out. Th
oounter slope may b ither masonry dry pitohing a.t a slop of 1/5, or
sOIid masonry a t a slope of 1. As a IUle the form r is most suitabl
and eoonomioal.
The length of the horizontal floor of the cushion from th to of tho
drop wall should be suffioi nt to oontain the horizontal projt1otion of
the overfall (2,y'do h) due to the va.lues of do and h with som additional
margin of length, which margin should inorcase with Go.
A suitable length is given by the expression
2do + 2,y'do h • • • • • • • (59)
subjeC't to a minimum of 2 + 2,y'do h
For a solid apron the sarno oonsiderations apply but 0. g1' ator I ngth
is required as thero is no counter slope and a suitabl xpr 8sion is
2do + 2 do h • • • • . • • (60)
+
subjeot to a. minllnum of 4 2./ dc h
The thickness of the masonry apron d pends on the no ture fits founda.
tions. It must be suffioient to resist uplift and in ordinary soils should
[lot g nerally be less tha.n ,y'ao + h . • • . . • • . . • (61)
469. Lel'gtb of revetment and bed pltcbing.-Th I ngth of ide
revetment and pitohing in th bed of the chann I ab ve or below. drop
must vaj'Y with the natur of th soil. In ordinary loamy loila tho
following lengths of r vetm nt nrc suitabl , the lengths of bed pitching
being one-half the length of revetment.
Measured from the faoe of the drop wall-
the length of the up-stream rev tm nt = 3d (62)
(subj ot to a minimum of 10 fi t).
Mensu cd from the down-stream dge of the main apron or of the
oouuter slope of the water oushion-
the length of the down-stream r vetment = 4 I d + h) • (63)
(subjeot to a. minimum of 20 £ t).
298 IBRIGA'l'ION

'IQ.91(a)

.0"'\..& ·
Pllt~.~5e~.~.~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~1
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM-MASONRY WORKS 299

and therefore this aan be done without inoon~ nianoe by ofti ts a.t oh
.aurse of brickwork. The outer end of this wing is of reduoed otion
as it has little thrust to support and its ohief role is that of a stop wall.
The foundation of this part of the wing is stepped up to ] ~ 1 + 42'
from the point where the line of p rcolation un r such s pping will
be not less than 30.fe t. The abutment Md down- tream wing and
splay d returl\B are gIven a face batter of 1/12 whil additional back bat-
ters to eure stability are giv n to the high r lengths of the down-
stream falling wings. The splayed r turn has its top at 1 fo t abo
F.S.L. down-stream.

472. Testlng a design for percolation and upUft.- It is n sary

to test the design :-
(a) For safe length of peroola.tion undor the apron.
(b) For safe length of p roola.tion round a.nd und ,r th wings.
(e) For security of the floor against uplift.

(a) The shortest line measured on the s otion is Ii e f g and m I\sur s

about 35 feet.
(b) One peroolation line is that under the foundations of tho splay d
returns from a to b on plan, a distano of 27 feet. In addition th v rtical
lengths' of earth through whioh percolation must pass under th step d-
up wing gives about 8 feet more. The shortest lin of p rcolation might
be a' b' b under the wing, or a 11, b round the nd of it. The I ngths of
all the 3 lines named are about the same (35 f, t).
(c) The greatest net uplift head on the apron is at the down-stream
the of the drop wall and is (17/35 X 6), sny, 3 foot. As the apron i
aft cted by flotation, its effeotive downward pressur is (p-J) X 31
and jf p = 2 this is 3t feet whioh is suffioient to counterboJnnoo the uplift
with 8 per cent to spa.re. On the whole it might be better to make th
apron 3t feet thiok as 31 feet leaves 80 little mal·gin.
478. Splayed wfngs.-The up-stream wings bav to extend to th
toe of the slope of the bank and wings splay d at 45 degr s ar 40 por
oent longer than if ma.de parallel to the orest f the drop wall.
On the other hand the splay gives-
(1) a b tter approach to the work,
(2) a wider top of bank on each flank, and
(3) a long r length for the path of percolation.
The question whether to employ splayed or square wings is one on
whioh no definite instruotion oan be giv n the matter rath r is ono of
opinion, it being lCcognized that tho splayed wings ar slightly to be
preferred but are g nerally more expcnsiv. The roasons for and against
the splay of the down-stream wing returns are similar to tho about
the up-stream. wings, exoept that th splay does not inarea the 1 ngth
of peroolation, as the point of xit of peroolation for both splayed nd
square wing returns is at the angle b (figure 91).
The advantages of splay d wing returns on the down-st am ide
are small a.nd many engineers generally mploy square r turns. It is
best to deoide th qu stion by dra.wing earth slopes, and if th r is pI nty
of room for th se to provide th oh aper, that is squar returns.
 300 mRIGATION

474. Example of drop with solid apron and core wall bank
connexlons.- Another example figur 92 is now given of a drop of a

Bed width above 4,

distIibutary of discharge 25 ousecs.
foot.
Bed width below 5i feet.
D ptb above 2'75 fi et.
Depth below 2'5 foot.
I
Bed slo a.bove 2,800
Drop in F .S.L. of wa.ter surfaces 3 fo t = h.
Th re will b only a single notch in this case-
The d pth of water cushion X = i d,vh-d,.
= I ·375,y'-'S::=---;:-2·";;-
5.
= (2'3.3 - 2'5) .
= - 0'12 foot.
There will therefore be a solid apron.
Width of apron = 5!- feet.
LGngth of apron = 2d + 2..v;fh = 11'24 say 11 fi t.
Length of rev tm nt up-stream 10 feet.
Length of r v tm nt down-stream 4 (h + d) = 23- :£ et.
Bed pitching to b half of th above, viz. , 11!- foot .
Th normal free board of such a chann I is Ii teet but is rais d just
above th fall to 2 feet . Top width of bank is 4 fe t .
The b d of th oharm I just a.bove th drop will be about l foot below
natural ground lev I .
Notoh calculations will be made for-
FuUsupply, d, = 2'75, D, = 25 cnsec!;.
and for l depth, d a = 1'40, D . = 8 cus('ct!.
Co-effioient C = 0'70. .
Th n 3'745 X (2'75) t (l + 1'1 n) = 25.
3'745 X (1'4) t (l + 0'56 n) = 8
Reducing, l + 1'1 n = l ' 6
and l + 0'56 n = 1 29 .
.'. .54 n = 0'17 or n = i L
.' . tan a = 1~8= i n ady.
Mak the sid slopes i
th n n = '33
l = I'46 - '33 X 1·1 = 1'1
Mak l = 1 foot 1 inch.
Top width of not ch at J ~ I 2i £, et a.bo~ the 8il J
= 1,1.. +
tt = 2 fi €It.
Th J ngth of the drop wall will be 41 fOf't, 2 f; t for the top of th
notoh and J' I i " on ith r sid . Th I nuth of the Dot(1b piels may be
l ' lOt".
ill I v 1 th wall is given a down-stream batter to
giw tability to r ist th oombin dOWJl-stream thrust of arth and
wat,er . It is, b w v r, not II, 0 ry to wrry this batter tbroughout
th J ngtb ot th wall a8 th outer ends ot th walls ar 8ubj oted \()
t.ar_.
1, ttle or no
 l>rSTarntTTION SYSTEM-MASONRY W Bo'K SOl
TJ'e minimum length of th wall is fix d by tb top
etleam reV tted slop. The plM and longitudinal and
(figur .s 92, 92-a aDd b) sh w th general arr811gem nts.

CROSS SECTION,
..
FIG. 92.(b)..
",

~ ... "+440&

The design must now be tested for uplift and poraolution .

(a) As regards lnngth and uplift of apron :-
The minimum. line of peroolation undeI tho apron SOl'l d from
the seotion, figure 92-a, is 21 feet, giving a giadi nt of.~ or i. N t
uplift head on apron at the toe of the chop wall is 3 (1 - I~ ) = H f, t.
Tho ffeotivc resisting weight of the apron (sp. gr. 2) js · 2~ foot whioh
is ampl .

(b) As regards th o peroolation grlldi nt through th soij past the

oore wall:-
(1) Round the end olthe wa.ll-The length abc (figur 2.b) plw
the thickness (1' lOt") of the end (If th wa.ll is the 1 ngth of the lin of
percOlation a.nd is just over 12 feei; giving a. gradient of 1 in 4.
302 IRlUGA.TION

(2) Und r tho foundation of the wall-'fhe line of percolation runs

from g on the upper side to d on the lower side (figures 92 and 92-b)·
This dista.noe soaled from the section is 8 feet plU8 the width of foundation
(41 feet) and is also just over 12 feet giving a gradient of 1 in 4.
H the soil is of an impervious nature this gradient would suffic ;
if this is aooepted it will be practioable to step up the foundation of
the ends of the core wall, the limit of suoh stepping being that whioh
would give a percolation gradient of 1 in 4 under the step. The width
3t
of the foundation under the stepping being feet, the length under the
foundation stepped at k [figure 92-b] is (a k + +k c 3t) = 121 feet,
and it would thus be admissible to step up the foundation to this extent
from k to the end of th e wall, a length of 21 feet. This is too short a
stepping to make such a cours desirable in praotio and the founda-
tion of the wall would not be stepped up.
This matter is treated in detail to show to what extent the stepping-up
of a oore wall bank oonnexion is permissible having in view the
percolation gradient.
476. Modifioatlons necessary to get a percolation gradient of 1 In
5.- While a peroolation gradiont of 1 in 4 may be allowed for small
works in retentive soil it is generally desirable tp design for a gradient
to 1 in 6 and the modifications of the design necessary to secure suoh a
gradient will now be detailed.
Obviously the wall must be I ngthened to give a gradient of 1 in 6
round tho end. This prolongation is shown in dotted lines on the plan
(figure 92).
To g t a similar gradient und rneath th foundation a stop wall
might be made as shown dott d at zz (figure 92-a). In this case a wall
2 £ et d ep oarried for 3 feet under th toe of the slope on each side wvu1d'
suffic. An impervious apron up-stream of the drop wall about 5 feet
wide similarly carri d under the slopes of the chann. I would also serve.
Suoh an apron is shown in figure 92-a.
Figure 92-c is a r vised oross section to suit a p rcolation gradient
of 1 in 6, showing a prolonged wl11l; the flatter slopes thereby rendered
praoticable, allow of revetm nt of the upper part of the slopes being
omitted.
As b for , the length of permissible stepping-up of the foundations
of th nds of the wall is insuffioient to stepping.
Wh r a cor wall is employ d with a high drop the difficulty of
soouring a suita.ble percolation gradient is greater than with a low ono.
In figures 91 and 91-b ohain dott d lin s shown the position of the end
of a oore wall bank oonnexion applicd to such a case, and dotted lines
in the latter figur also show the seotions of ohannel up-stream and
down-atr am und r such conditions. H the width of th ooncr te
foundation of th wall is 8 feet the length of the lin of peroolation passing
und r the wall from d to 8 would be 21 £ t; with a 6-feet head a length
of 80 fi et is required and this would have to be soured either by-
(1) an up-stream impervious a.pron of length a.bout 18 feet, or
(2) a. stop wall about 6 £ et deep below the foundation level, or
(3) wid ning the main apron below th drop wall by oarryioa
it und r the side slo .
 DISTRIBUTION SYS'J.ID-JIA. ONRY wOnK 03
The alternative of wing bank connexions is a mo tisfactory
method of treating suoh a cas .

476. Types of bank connexions contrasted. -Th advantag {

the oore wall typo of bank connexion is cheapn of oonstruction, hiah
is speoially accentuated in the case where r v tment is cheap.
The wing type contains the banks in a mor solid sty} ,gives a tror
gnide to the water over the work and r quires few r r pairs. GOll rally
the wing type is preferable for high falls, or low fulls of considerabl
bed width, in whioh cases the cost of the bank oonn %.ions is small in
comparison to that of the drop wall and apron. High rev tted. slo
below a work are a d oided disadvantage as snoh slopes are apt to giv
trouble, but low revetted slopes requir but little mor pair than
retaining walls. Generally it appears desirabl to design wing conn DOns
for falls exceeding 3 to 4 feet height or exoeeding 100 CUB cs dis(.'harg .
Full reliance cannot be pla.ced on puddl to form a. wat r.tight apron
in ohann Is which run much above subsoil water lev } and whioh ar
closed for long periods, as the puddle will ora ok if it beoomos dry. The
condition is quite different from tha.t of puddlo laid in a. riv r b d at
about lowest water level.
 mRIGATION

477. Designs of existing drops.-Figure 93 shows Lolla weir in the

.Godavari Central Delta. This is a combin d bridge, and regulator,
and drop with water oU8hion in which the orest wall is raised above th
bed of the oa.nal. The flow I vels are r gulated by working the shutters ;
the deep vent in th celltral span is used for increasing disoharge when
the oa.na.l water is so low that neoos ary proportionate supply cannot

FIGo.93. t.OLLA LOCK WEIR.

&i""'' FIlON,. ELe.VATION. MAL' SECTION OM F.' ,

 t>lSTRIBUTION Y TEM- A NR WORK

be passed down with th weir shutters raised oleru.·: it i 0 qui

for draining the oanal at th time of the anuuaJ olOflw' .
It frequently happens that a w'op is looa.ted in th viowt of a r
or ing and that economy as well as greater fa.oility of ins ion i
I16cured by oonstructing & combined bridg and drop.
Figure 94 shows a. d sign for a combin d 1'0&<1. hridg Md 3 {; 1.
drop with a. solid floor~for a. foul'.cusoo di:;tributal'Y.

f:"IG.94 . 3 FEET DROP AND BRIDGE.

TO OI.CHARc;.a 4·0& GUSI.Cfo .
... ,
P1..AN. I

.. ,a·o'

"OM GI T~~I_N~~ .~~~~~~...~N C. B.

r ___ .... -I __ _

SE.CTION ON A.B. E.F.

20
· 06 llilllGA'l'lO~

Figw' 106 below I:IhoWt3 8. di.l:ltributa.l'y heau hue aud drop corublli d.
478. Syphon well-drop.-ln !lrnall ohanneld with deep drops t11 '
VOlStof bank connexions is great in comparison to the cost of the floor
and bed pitching. With a view to meetiug this diffieJUlty So tYl:>e of work
termed a ' syphon well drop , was designed in oounexion with the MAw'ali
Ca.uv ry Proj ct for use in minor diBtributalies for drops of 6 feet and
upwards, or fol' drops combin d with bridges of 4 fi t and upwQ.J.·dH.
 :blS'l'RlBU'l'lUN S S'l'EM- ASO'NBY ~ ORK

Figure 95 shows a de igu for a. 4:-fe<~t yphon drop a.nd bridg om.
bined for a. two-cusec distributary, and figur 96 a. simila.r w rk for &
oa.paeity of ten eu cs.

2004
30 lBBIGATlOlf

As the o0C&8ions for building high drops a.re of in.ii-equent ooourrence

but few works of this type have been construoted a.nd although the type
promises well, its success oa.nnot, without furth r experience, be oonsi-
dered a established.
-
f
,!
f
I

I
If

1,.2
. .
co
.
t
1

6 . _' ..~
.
ii
.
,
~-. i•
'. I
' .
•
2

. ",'
 DISTRIBUTION SY8TEM-MA ONRY W RKB 309
CANAL REGULATORS AND DlVmI G DAlIB.
479. Canal regu)ators.-A cana.l or ohannel r gu1ator oonsis of
.. ftoor at bed level, with piers at intervo.ls aol'089 the oa.n.&l proVid
with groO'ves in whioh are installed mO'vable shutteJ' or pla.w, by means
O'f whioh the level O'f water e.bO've th wO'rk can be r gula d and the
total disoharge distributed in varying proportiO'ns to th canal helo
the work and any canals O'r ohann Is O'ff.taking immediately abov it.
Regu1&tors are generally built just b low the off·ta.k of 0. branoh oanal.
distributaIy, or surplus sluice.
Canal regulators O'f large sn a.re somewhat simila.r to riv r r gula.tol
s.lrea.dy desoribed and, sO' far a.a r gards r istano to peroo1&tion
and uplift the designs should be on simila.r lin. th ve100iti
and water levels in aoanal are und r oontrO'I th pr teotiv aprons and
revetments neoessary for river regulators ma.y b much r duo d and
would be similar to th a.prons of head sluioes.
Small channel regulators frequently oonsist of a wa.Jl with on or
more reotangular nO'tches regulated by plo.nks insert d in groov in
the sides of the nO'tche.::l. Suoh regula.tora are in Madras frequ ntly
referred to' as I regulating dams.'
480. RegulatIng notohes.- Wher~ ohaugoB ill uepth of Clhannels
al' ma.de withO'ut any drO'P in the b d level trapezoidal notoh s built
on a flO'or aoross the cha.nnel are frequently cO'nstructed to r gulate supply.
Such nO'tches are not fitted with pJanks or shut rll but automa.tioally
regulo.t the discharge a.bove and below th work, Th y o,r termed
, regulating notches' Or shortly I notch s.'
481. Design of t'egulators.--Canal r gulators at' very frequently
combined with bridges or with drops. Figure 93 above shows a. oa.na.l
t'egulator combined with a bridge and a drop.
Figure 97 shows a cansl regula.tor~O'f the ordina.ry tyPe us don Jarg
canals.in Madras. In this case a. road bridg if! oombined with th
regulator,

'IG.97. CANAL REGULATOR .

£'LEVATION. CROSS SE.CTION.

 31 lRIUGATL

Figure 98 showd a. r gula.ting 11 tch.

8. ftEQ.UL"TIMG "OTCH .

SIiCTION ON A.e.

Figure 99 shows the section and elevation of a regulator of the Cauvery

d Ita. with two ti rs of shutter' working in separate grooves but workfld
only by a. sing rew, the ]owMr)hll ttclr as it rises picking up th upper
one.

S CTION.

Th obj ot of this is to v headwa.y a.nd diminish the resistanoe,

to motion of th shutter , a.nd not, 80S in th 0&8 of hea.d regula.tors
to draw surfac wat r. In the cas of this work there is 80 considerable
cWferenoe of lev 1 b tween F.S.L .. a.nd M.W.L. in the channel a.nd it ia
MQu., "Y that the shutters be capable of being ra.ised olear of JI.W.L.
 DISTRIBUTtIJ NRY WORKS 311

iB2. Dividing dams.- Wheu a. uhaUUel divid 8 Up iHW 1,\ or mo

parte a dividing da.m is frequently built "'<:1"088 the ohannel a.t. th point
Df bifuroa.tion. uoh works arc of the nature of reguJating notch ,
and are designed to Soutomatically subdivid tht' whol ' 0 of th .oh 1111 1
in th r qnir d proportion.

f:'IG . I-&O. DIVIDtNG DAM.

312 IGIGATION

When there are no off· take sluioes immedi&tely a.bove the bifuroa.tion
th best formS for dividing dams wh re the 11 oes8iJ.ry h a.ds ar a.vailable
re reotangular notches (weirs) with olea.r overfalls.
l3'igure 100 shows a. design of suoh a work.

FIG.IOl,
DIVIDING DAM WITH 'TRAPEZOIDAL.
PI..A N.

SECTION Eo . G .

l!IltCTION .A. e .
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM-MAS NBY WORKS 31

When the ovenal! is olear the discha.rg of ach notch· in proporti n

to its orest length. This simple m thod of division i silv UDlriA'.......Ivvi
by ryots and is thus to be reoomm nded. Wh r on or' both f b
notohes is submerged this simple proportion is de troy d, a point hi h
has in many oases been overlooked. In suoh 1\ oas , or wh Te th a
off-take sluioes immediatelya.bove the dividing drun, th division should
be ma.de by trapezoidal, in plaoo of reotangular notoh(>s and th should
be caloulated for the a.otual oonditions of l:Iubm rg<'ll(J(' of f'aoh noto) •.
Figure 101 shows a. dividing dam oftbis tYJX' .
Alteration by deepening or widening th channel beJo, any &Ub.
merged notoh will inorease its disoharge r lativ to th adja nt notch.
I

For this l' ason when a 8ubme1'g d dividing d~m is mado it i d sirabl
(unless this already exists) to oonstruot a grade or ction W(\IJ aaro the
cha.nnel 3 or 4; furlongs below each Bubm rged dam so 808 to minimize anI
alteration in proportionate 110w caus d by de p('ning the chann 1.

IRRIGATION SLUICES.

488. Irrigation sluices-Irrigation "luio s form the 0)888 of masonry

works most numerous in a distribution syl:ltcm. Th s sluic a differ
from the head sluices which control th(> passag of water from a river
in the fact that it is unnecessary to make special provision for drawing
surface water with a view to the f:>xclusion of bed silt and th 1'0 is thus
no objeot in arra,nging the regulating shutten; f distribution sluic s
in tiers unless this is conveni nt on account of the limited headway
available for lifting the shutters. So far from it bing obj otiona.ble
to draw bed silt through the sluice!; it is desirabl that (·s,ch sluio should
pass ita fa.ir share of the bed silt which enters tho canal in whioh the
work is situated and for this reason the sill s of irrigation I:Iluic s of a.ll
sizes should generally b built at the I v(~) of the bed of tllft par nt ohe.nn 1.
A sluice provides for carrying th water of thf' parent ohannel through
one or more cnlverts or pipes und r ont' of th canal bal1kt! into a branoh
oanal, distributary or field channel (watercouTl:>c). At ('ach nd of th
culvert suitable wings are provided to T' tain th earth slopes and so form
effective bank connexions and also to S(1rve as atop walla to porcolation.
At the upper end of ea.ch culvert is a head wall fitted with a. shutter
moving in grooves built in the masonry by m ana of whioh eaoh vent
oan be closed or opened or the amount of opening l' gulated.
The oonsiderations as regards percolation and uplift whioh operate
in dCt!igning the 11001'8, aprons, and wings of head !:Iluic s, drops, etc.,
are applicable to design of all kinds of irrigation distribution sluic .
'l'he lowest water level in the parent canal from whioh full supply
should be ca.pable of being passed into th distributary varies with the
oiroumstanoes and methods of supply and r gulation of aoh sy. tem
and this must be known before the size of sluio v nta can be 1l.xed.
The size of sluice vents must be sufficient when fully open to pa88 the
water required for th full supply of the channel of whioh it forms the
head under the ava.ilable head or difference of 1 vel betw n the water
surface in the parent oa.naJ and the lev I of the distri hution chann 1
when at F.S.L.
314: JRR GATlO

G nerally th pipe outl t slui<;(,!:1 whioh upply field ·hannels &~

designed so that full S'Ilpply can only be pass d into th field channel
when ther is fullsuppl~ in the parent ohannel. The sluic s at the head
of the larger distribution chann Is a.r if practicabl design d to b capable
of passing full supply illto the distributary with three-quartf'rs to ha.lf
aupply in the parent oal\al.

fiG. 102.. CHANNE.L HEAD &LUIC£.

pL.AII AT TOP.

I
I

-~

PLAN AT FOUNDATION.

1.0llGITUDlNAI. SECTION.

Th width of th lui oulv l ' hould b uffi oi nt to pass th full

.upply at a v looity not x ding () fe t p r condo Exc pt where the
h ad is small th width of th ul ert may with adva.ntag be grea~
ilwl the -width oftbe vent.
 DISTRmUTION SYSTEM-MASONRY WORK 31~

In pipe outl ta, the sectiona.l a.t a. of the pi . g neraJ.l &

tha.t of the v nts.
In no oase should a. ma.sonry oulvert be built of mall r otion than
2 feet wide and 2; feet high.

FIG.I03. CHANNEL HEAD &L.UICE.

, II1I
......,

...."

. ... ".
." .,

484. Shutters of canal slulces-Th heads on distribution lui

being oomparatively small and not subjeot to Vf'ry gr at variation th
plug type of shutters so'"convenient for l' gulating tank foIluic it! not
I

used and fiat shutters a;e""universally employ d. Th Be ar raja d and

lowered by a stem, frequently referred to a.a th shut r' p 0.1", which
is attached to the centre of the shutter and is long nough to proj ot
II. little above the regulating platform of th BIuic when the shut r j
resting on th sill. In the Madras Pr sid noy, th spt:ar it(usually an iron
bar a.nd the shutter is raised and lower d by or w gar. Th width
of shutter worked by a single scr w spear is limit d to ]0 fe t a.nd to
,feet spans are more suitable for this typ of g 801'.
316 IRRIGATION

For smallsluioes or for sluioes in places where regulating est&blishment

is not maint&ined, wood spears without gear may be fitted to shutters,
wmoh, in suoh cases, should generally not exoeed 3 to 4 feet span. It ia
unusual to provide any shutters for the pipe outlet sluices supplying
field ohannels where the size of pipe does not exceed 6 inohes diameter.
Regulation of pipe outlet sluioes is generally effected by raising or lowering
the water levels in the pa.rent ohannel but individual sluices may easily
be olosed by an improvised plug or a olod of earth. Sluioe shutter and
gear are dealt with in further det&il in Chapter XV below.
485. Types of irrigation sluices-Figures 102 to 106 give designs of
distribution sluioes of various types.
Figures 102 and 103 show faoe walls without and with splayed wings.
Where the extend d face wall is not required as a stop wall against per-
oolation, the latter type is generally more eoonomioal.

FJG.I04.
HEAO Sc..UICE DISTRIBUTARY.
 fnSTRIBUTION SY TEl\f- , f W RIC

Figures 104 and 105 are drawingA of xisting slui

western Delta.

FIG. 105.
HEAD SLUICE FORA SIDE CHANNEL..

PL."" .

...

.
r·-·----~

8EoCT'ON A.A.
:H JRR.l:GATIO

igU'l' 1 if'! an irrig tion f'!lui mbin d with drop f 2i f, t.

FIG .lOe.CHANNEL HEAD SLUICE AND DROP ceMBINEP.

FUI.I. SUPPLY 17 CU5ECS.
PLAN . .ROV"O .. £ .. L ..... ., ... · to

486. Pipe outlets.-The barrels of the small sluioes passing supplies

from distributary oha.nnels to field ohannels a1' g nerally made of oement
l' gla.zed earthenware pipes of suitable sizes, with ma.somy head and tail
walls of suffioient length to retain the earth slopes. These small sluices
are t l'med • pipe outlets' or frequently merely 'pipes,' they vary in Biz
from 4" to 12/1 diameter in aooordanoe with the area.s supplied. The pipes
Mol' frequently laid on a light conorete foundation to prevent uneven
B ttlement and oonsequent lea.ka.g . If the soil is good the pipes' may b
la.id through the bank without any speoial foundation, a.n.d on being
first plaoed they a.re gel\erally so laid, head and tail walls, and foundation
if required being subsequently built.
Figures 107 a.nd 108 are pipe outlets with head a.n.d tail wa.Ils. The
upper faoe of the head wall should be pla.oed at a distance equal to half
the full supply depth from the inter- otion of the ohannel bed a.n.d side
slope, a.n.d the top of the head wall should be at F.S.L. Two types of
head wall are shown, viz., with and without wings; in the first type the
+
length of the wall is (t 2d) feet a.n.d in the seoond a olear spa.ce of 1t feet
between the inner faoes of the wings is allowed. The tops of the wings
are stepped to suit a oanal side slope of i to I, the steppings faoilitate
examina.tion of regulation of flow; on the whole, the latter type of hNd
...u,although slightly more ~ive, is considered the better.
 1n l'RIBUTl N Y81'EM-MA NR 'ORIV 319
Th tail walb of pip out} t fihould b buil
cha.nn I and th 1 ngth sh uid oonform to th

LOll'" '" 6£.CTION .

PLAN.
I •

:, :, IL ,
l •..__ _ _ ...... ___ ... _ _ J . . ..
. . . -.1 . . . .

.,
I
L ...... _ ~ __ , ... _
.
I
-I •• .•
~ -!O-o-"'"
 ~20 IimtGAT.tO

of that ohannel. In one of th types a conel' te foundation for th pipel'i

one foot thick is shown, but thus is fr quently unnecessa.ry, and entails
considerable 8«iditiona.1 cost.
Although eaoh individual outlet is a very small wOl'k it ha.s to be built
in slloh numbers that ery oareful consid ration of the details of d sign
i desirable so as t seoure effioienoy with the lea.st possible cost .
487. Fixing size of pipes in outlets.-'l'he sizes of the pipes of outlet!;
are proportioned to suit the area to be irrigated under the conditions of
maximum supply and the head available under the oonditions.
The water level in the field ohannel at the outfall of a pipe is likely
to vary oonsiderably for th same disoharge owing to alterations in the
bed levels oaused by silt olearanoe and by th oross-bunding of thes
ohannels to suit th differ nt internal turns und r whioh they distribute
th ir supply.
For the abovo reason the 'head available' under oonditions of full
supply at pipe outl t s oonstantly varies, a.nd some reasonable a.ssumption
as r gards head ha.s to be made in oomputing the size of a pipe, The
usual assumption ill, that the water level in rear of the pipe is 1 foot
above the mean level of the highest field irrigated by the sluioe; where
the ground to be irrigated is at a. oonsiderable distanoe from the outlet,
it is neoessary to make a further allowanoe for surfaoe fall in the field
channel. Where a small fraotion of the whole area is at a high level
and the rest at a low one, the average level of the area irrigated by the
pipe should be taken in plaoe of the highest.
The smallest size of pipe outlet usually used in Madras is 4" diameter.
On aooount of this limitation many of the plots irrigBtted by 4" pipes
neoessarily reoeive disproportionately large quantities of water, and in
laying out a new distribution system every effort should be made to group
the :fields together so as to form area.s requiring pipes of 6· diameter and
upwards. Multiplioity of outl t s lead to extra expense, extra diffioulties
in distribution, a.nd to waste of water, and the smaller the proportion of
the whole area of a system irrigated through pipe outlets of the mini·
mum size the better. '
488. Caloulation of disoharge of pipe outlets.- Pipe outlets a.r short
pipes with oylin~ioa.l entry. -
L t h = the whole head requir d to force water through the pipe
at a velooity (tJ).
.. h, = the head required to produoe th velooity (1») in the pipe
and to overoome the resistanoe at ntry.
.. hr = th head expended in overooming t fluid friotion in the
length (L) of pipe of diameter (d) .
•, /A = the ooeffioient of fluid friotion of th pipe.
+
then"" = h, l~r'
J. ", S
&n d , .. = 1'0 X - , hr = 4JI.L
- X _
f)Z

2g II 2g
(Vide Love's Hydraulics, Chapter VI.)
Let 11 be the length of pipe whioh giv a friotional resistanoe equal
tolle.
,~ 1'6d
Th en T = 1'5 and II = 4P
41'(
and,. = -ct- L + h
",.
2,
-
 titSTRIBUTION sY'ST.EM-MASONRY W RXS 3 1

l'he va.lue of p is '005 and '01 for olean &nd slightly nOl'tlBted iron pi
Pipe outlets, of glazed earthenware pipes do not be ome enoru d ut
as they a.re ill short lengths of 2 £ et, th normal friotion will be greater
than a clean iron pipe but less than an' enorusted one.
Taking }J-= '0075 for earthen ware pipo outlet'
1'5d
l, = 4 x '0076 = 50d
'0076 X 4 x (L+ GOd) tJ ~
Thus h = cl X 2g
'03
From this h = T X (L + 50 d) X 2g
tJ '

and v = V !
,03 (L 50 d) X 2U
h
~
If d be expressed in inches instead of foot, this formula bocom

v =V J 2 gh '36 (4d~ d + L)
a.nd the discharge D in cus os through a pipe outI t of diam tor d inoh
and length L and head h in fe t bocom 8

vh X [8'025 X
"d ~
4 X 144
. /
V
----:-d--J
+
'36 (4'17 d L)

D = [0'0438 d" X V 0':\6 (4'1~ d + L)J X Vh . (64)

489. Table of discharge of pipe outlets, - -Thn following tllob/o Ie oom-
pured from equa.tion (64) a.nd givos, for pip 8 {va.rious izes and I ngth.,
the discharg s in ousecs for a head of 1 foot, TL discharg s for any
other head can readily be computed by multiplying tIl 11gur in th
table by It/''h
DlnmoLcr In III hC8,
Length of pipe r- --A
-.
In foot, 4 0 8 10 12
8 '470 1'12 2'06 3'27 4'78
12 '436 l 'OO I'VO 3'15 4'62
16 '408 1'00 1'88 3'09 4.'48
0 '385 . G8 I' 1 2'91 "35
24 '366 '918 1'74 2'85 4,'23
'342 '867 1'66 2' 72 4'07
40 '310 ' i98 1'54 2'55 3'84
50 '286 -743 1'45 2'41 3'64
60 '267 '699 1'3 7 2'29 3'47
v h for values of h from '1 to 1 foot,
h= '1 -2 '25 -3 -4 '0 '6 '7 '75 '8 '9 1'0
11"- '316 '447 '453 '548 '652 '707 '775 '837 • 49 '894 41)'0 1'0

490. Defects in dlstrlbutlon by pipe outlets.-If tho discha.rge of aJl

the pipe outI ts of So distributary channel varied in xact accordance
with tho discharge of th channol th quantity of water ava.ilabl in the
distributary would be deliver d into heads of th 1i Id ohannel in propor-
tion to the area.s under each and distribution would attain the id al
aimed a.t. This however is far from bing the o&s .
Even when a. steady wa.ter level is maintained throughout th 1 ngth
of the distributary the supplies pas d through th pip out] ta, except
those with free outfaJ1s, vary with th varia.tions in the water lev 18 in the
field channeJs, and these levels a.re likely to constantly vary in accorda.nce
21
322 lRRlGATlON

with whether any fiold channel is irriga.ting the higher or lower lands
supplied by it, a.nd also in aocordanoe with the oondition of ·its 'bed as
rega.rds silting. .
If the outlet is of proper size an unduly large discharge cannot be
tak n when the high r fi Ids are reo iving supply, but by lowering the
bed of the field channel excessive supply can be drawn when the lower
fields are being irrigated, and on the whole only 80 rough approximation
~o the distribution aimed at can be realized. The inaccuracies are
reduced in the case of pipes with free outfa.lls 80S in these the discharge
is independent of the level of th water in the field channel.
491. Tbe 'Kennedy gauge outlet '-Sevoral forms of outlet have been
devised to givo a discharge unaffected by the level of the tail water with
a view to gotting automatic dioharge through outlets proportionate to
the disoharg in the par nt channel. The most widely used device is the
'Kewedy gaug outlet' which is doscribed below, and through
whioh as in the case of a pipe with a free outfall, the discharge varies
£loS ..y'hO wher as ho is the difference of levol of the centre of the orifioo
a.nd the wator surface of the parent ohannel; it is independent of the
water level in the tail channel.
Figur 109 shows the latest form of this outlet. It consists of a cast
iron boll mouth (a) for entry from the distributary from which at its
narrowost diamet r a jet shoots aoross the air in the base of a vertical
pip (b) (termed the' vent pipe '), whioh pipe reaches above the water
level Ilond is cov red with a cowl (c) piorc.ed with air holes. The base
of the vent pipo is conical and a.llows a free oiroulation of air round the
j t so that the latter is in exactly the same condition as if it were discharging
into open air. After crossing the vent pipe the jet enters the small
end of along expanding cono (a) made of sheet steel. The water passes
through tho oone and fo1'oOS its wa.y into tho channel against the bllof)k
F'G~09.K£NNEOY GAUGE OUTLET .
,. ••".-.. •..,1'"". SECTION.

prossur of any wa.ter a.t th outfall. The disoharge of the jet . being the
sam as tha.t of fr 0 disoharge into air, varies as ho th differ ~ce of level
of the entre of th . j t and the surface of the water immediately abov tho
b 11 mou~h-ho IS r ferr d to as 'tho depreBBion head'. It is found
by 'p runeut that the losses of head by friction, eddies, eto., are about
0·21 ho and that the availabl working head (hi), that is differ nce of water
lev 1 betw en th p~ent and offtake channel, must not be less than
o th of ho. th? depreSSion. To allow a working margin the rule limiting
the applicatlOn of K nnedy ga.uge outL ts is that the aepression must
not exceea four and a l.alf times the working heaa. So long as this condition
is oompH d with, the discharg of the outl t vari s /lij- h o whether the
outfall nd is submerged or not and it is indep nden. of the level of water
at th outfall.
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTE r-M SONRY WORKS 323
492. Limitations on usefulness of Kennedy gauge outle .-The
Kennedy gauge outlet seeur s a supply va.rying as bo- wWI th upp]y
in the ~a.r?nt cha.nn I do s not va.ry at t~s ra.te, In spite of thi , wh
the Vlm80tlOns of level of ohann 1 supply IS sma.1} in oompari on to ho tIl
results to be a~tained ~y ~h ~se of K~1Ul('dY'8 outlets ar 010 nough
to the proportiOnate distnbutIOn to SUIt practical l'€quiremel1t, Tb
outlets a.re thereforo v ry suitable for us in distributrie "Woh ar
worked on a. system provi~ing tha.t th y sha.lI b ith r run full or wholly
alos d Suoh a. system IS tha.t genora.lly a.dopted in orth rn India
here the bulk of irrigation is for dry OlOPS, In th Madra ysums
in whioh distribution is ca.rried ~>ut by continuous flow, th K nn d' ga.uge
outlot is b) no means so effeotive as th difii reno s in 1 v I of flow of th
distributaries will vary as much as srd th full supply depth of th hann I,
Tn a 3 £ ot channel tho flow of the ml!loflnol at 2 fc t dt'pth would b T duo d
to about one half, that is, by 50 per oont but the disoharg s of K nn dy
outlets with the oentres of the outlets fixed t foot abov b d I J,
would be in propOl tions of \/21 to tV Ii, that is, 1'41 to 1,22, a. r duation
of only 14 per cent; thus the upp r reach outl ts would in suoh a. oas
pass an a.ltogother disproportionate quantity of th whole suppJ , This
outlet is thus not suited for applioation to chal1lwls worked by oontinuou
flow, and what is required is a.n outlet tho dischA.rg s of whioh In pro·
portionate to the discharge of the parent chann I a.nd whioh aJ not
affocted by the wa.ter lovds in tho field ohnnncls, Such out.1 ts hav
not yot b en stablish('d anywhere, but 0. promi ing d vice aimillg a.t
this result is now undor trial in Northern Indh\,
492·A. Modules,--Anoth l' type of outl t to pass a supply of water
independent of the water surface lev(,l in the chMUlol into whioh tho
!!llpply is delivered is called' modul "
Modules fall into 2 main classes (1) H,igid modul s pasl:ling a fix d
supply and (2) Flexible modules passing u supply which varieR, in som
aharacteristic mann r with the surfac lovel in th supply chann 1.
FI xible modules may be orifice type, weir or flume typ or both com bin d,
Tho flexibility of a module is XPl' ssed by tho oquation (fl xi·
bI Ity ) = dq
'l ' - -:- d(~ ,
Q'l'eprcscntmg , b Ct ween tb 0 f rae t'lOna1d VIa
the ratiO 't'lOnq
tlq

in the norinal supply q of tho module and the oorresponding fraotional

deviation ~ in the normal supply Q of tho parent ohann I passing
Q
below the module: for rigid modules r is z roo For ori,fio typ s of
modules, it is usually I ss than unity while for weir or flum types, it.
tends to be greater than unity, ' When r of a modul is just unity, thu
module is proportional, i, " it shar s proportionately with the par nt
ohannel in any small deviation in the normal supply of th par nt. 8U
that on a distributary fitted throughout with stloh modul s, fluotua.tions
of supply would affeet all parts of the distributary to tho sa.m non',
viz., by the same peroentage of increase or decr ase of supply,
.But chang s in th cha.nn I r gime coupl d with the usua.l r striotion
~f head supply to within a prescribcd maximum limit, introduce anoth r
difficulty with which the proportional module is poorly adapted to cope.
For this purpose, the flexibl modules which can b corr otcd from tim
to tim by the adjustm nt or res tting of the modul ,ar suitabl, By
adju tability is meant th provision of som suitabl m ana of atl ring
the siz of th orifice of a modul with a. minimum troubl to tho m·
powered to make readjustments but with a. degree of diffibulty suffioient
2u,
324 IRRIGATION

to prevent r adjustment being mad in an illegal or tmauthorized mann r

by the ryots. Suoh modul s are called adjustable proportional modul s.
All modules, whether rigid or flexibl , r quire a certainmininium
head to ensure modularity. In the case of rigid modules, there is also
an upper limit beyond whioh consistency of disoharge fails.
The modules a.re also used as a meter of supply by suitably ca.librating
them. More details r garding d sign and theory may be obtained from
Punjab Irrigation Branch papers Nos. 26 a.nd 26 (a) as also from Research
Publication No. 3 of Central Irriga.tion and Hydrodynamic Researc~
Station, Poona.
Of the different types of modulcs, adjustable proportional modul
(a flexible type) se ms to b the most suitable for. general servic. A
brief desoription of the same is given below :-
This type has a rectangular orifice with adjustable roof block and
ftexibility ranging from 1'0 to 0'6. The range of modularity varies
from 0'13 to 0'17 of x, x being the mean depth of channel. The co-
efficient of discharge in this type is constant and discharg is reliable.
Th modularity is sohwn by standing wave. The type oan be us d both
in head or tail r aohes.
The roof blook is capabl of vertical adjustment and is introduced at
the upstream and of the parallel throat. The orifice is built up from a.
pair of oheok plates between which are bolted bed and roof blooks of
various standard widths equal to the width of the ftume. The orifice
whioh forms a box of 1 foot standard length is inserted into a cleanly
finish d gap, I ft to reo ivo it in tho bed and side walls of th flume. It is
then set true to the seetion of the flume and looked in position and
proteoted from tampcring, b tween solid blooks, of masonry as shown in
plan.
The roof blook is pi roed by two or more pairs of bolt holes pitch ·d
4" apart from pair to pair. With corr sponding 4" slots in the oheck
plat 8, the roof block oan be bolted in any desired position by inserting
the bolts in the right pair of holes. .

COMMUliIOATION WORKS .

493. Brldges.- Cana.l bridgos arc only distinguish d from bridges

ov r tiv rs and stl' ams in til. fact th.at flow to b pas d, til. section
of th str a.m, and th volocity and levels of water are controlled and
defln d. Unl ss r quired for naviga.tion purposes, there is s Idom a.ny
adv~tag in making hug spa.n oanal bridges and the width of SplWB
IIhould b fix d by oonsiderations of cost. It is generally undesirabJ
110 h ad up wat r at a oanal bridgo and tho watenvay through the bridge
should th r for b approximately qua.l to tha.t of the oanal. De p
foundations are praotioally nev r r quir .d and where ther is no oontrac-
tion of waterways, flooring is unn 0 sary exc pt in the immediate
viainity of pi rand o.butm nta round whioh bed pitching for Ilo width
of ab ut 5 £< tis d' sira.bl. In sma.J.l pan bridg s this involves provi-
sion of a pitoh d floor throughout th spa.n. Cutwa.ters should always b
provid d both up and down-str a.m of pi rs and half autwators at abut-
ments. mi-ciroular autwaters ar practically as effioient as the usual
pointed shap a.nd ar in som CI\ s easier to build a.nd a.r better suited
for carrying sup rstruoture. Tb springing of arches will gen rally be not
below F.S.L. of.the oanal. Ma.son_ry bridg 8 with brick or ooncrete arohel
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM-l\1ASONRY WORKS 3JtS

are generally most suitable for irriga.tion works being littl mor
in origina.l oost and muoh oh aper in maintenance than bridg carri d
"n steol, or even ferro-concr te beams. pans i f, t and und r ma.y b
sometimes eoonomically ca.rri d by ferro-conorete la.b .
Roa.d and foot bridg s a.re frequently oombin d with truoturee
rrquir d for irriga.tion purposes suah as weirs, r gulators, fn11 , r gulnting
notches, and sluic s, and do signs showing suoh oombina.tions ha. b n
given when desoribing the various kinds of irrigation works mention d
(vide figures 93, 94, 97, 102 and 106).
494. Road syphons.-As the F.S.L. in irriga.tion chann Is is g n rally
above the g nera.l level of th country trav rs d, th 0 nstruotion of
arched bridges with springing at F.S.L . frequently entails compa.ra -
tively hea.vy a.pproa.ahes to a bridg which, whil involving coneid ra.bl
expense, entail inconveni nee to tro.ffic; this can h<- o.voidld by syphon-
ing the cho.nnel und r the road wa.y ; such t.lo struoture is 08011 d a. road
syphon '.
Road syphons have not hith rto b en gen raUy mpJoy d in Madras
but they are, it is undorstood, frequently constr nou-d in Northern Indin.
nnd their employment for bridging distributary channels in pJa of til
ordinary type of bridge app .ars desirable in many CilR{·S .
 lRBIGATION

• Figure 110 shows a type-design of a road syphon received from the

Central Provinces.

FrS.llO. OAD SYPHON .

PLAN_!

495. Cart and cattle crossings.-A ford suitable for wheeled or foot
traffio may construoted across cha.nn Is where the full supply depth
does not ex d 2! £; t; cattl oros ings a.r not restrioted in d pth
as cattle can oro s a. canal by swimming without inconveni noe if suitabJ
taking off and landing plac s ar provid d on each side of the canal.
Th approach to fords and cattl cro sing oonsist of ramps on each
sid of th oanal, the ramps oomm nc a.t bed 1 v I wher th side slopes
01 t'n oa.n&\ inte-r ot th 00d and hTh ooni d up &.t &. llnumm i'tope from
this to abov F.S.L. of the canal. _
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM-MASONRY WORK 91
In the case of a cart crossing, th slope of th ramp hould n t
steeper than 1/12 and may, wher con~ ni nt, tIat r. 'Oro sings fi r
cattle and foot traffio may have slopes from i to t.
Unless the soil is sand or grav 1, to., which docs not lu h, th oro sing
should be paved and gra elled, or metalled.
It is desirable where practioable to mak crossing a.t pla.c B wh r
the water up to F.S.L. is wholly in soil. In suoh pIne s th p iJ banks
of the canal a.re stopped on either side of the crOB ing giving an op n
a.pproach. Where the oanal runs partially in bank, th ba.nk mu t
be retired sufficiently to give the r quired slop for th<" ramps II. shown
in figure III. The top of the bank at the orOB ing ma. . b as low as
one foot above F.S.L. in the cana.l, but if out down to this x nt must
be proteoted from wear by stone or brick paving.

~IG. III. CHANNEL CROSSING.

HALF SS.CTION .

HALF PLAN.

SLOP.
I
4f. SL.OPIl lr

496. Cattle crossings in deep canals.-Whero th full supply depth

of a. cana.l exo eds four feet cattl have to swim and wh r th canal
is wide, say 50 feet or over, they g t carried down wi~h th curr n.t wbil
swimming across. A landing place is tberefor reqwr d som d18ta.nc
below the point of start from the oppo ite bank.. This is arrang d ~or
by provision of three ramps in place of two, the slllgle I'&mp on on sld
328 mRIGATION

being spaced opposite the middle distance between the two ramps on
the other. Figure 112 shows the arrangement, the arrows indicating
the route of cattle swimming the canal in either direction.

Crossings g t muah worn by traffic and require a good deal of repairs

while the banks of the canal in the vicinity are much trampled and worn
by cattle so that apart from the greater convenience to the publio, it is
generally desirable to make a. bridge in plae of a crossing when the cost
of the bridge would not xc ed tlfll.t ofthe crossing by more than 50 per
o nt.

RETAINING WALLS FOR IRRIGATION WORKS.

497. Remarks on retaining walIs.-Examination of the stability of

retaining walls und r various disposition of earth thrust is outside the
8COpe of this text-book, but, as retaining walla ar among the most import-
ant parts of irrigation works, a few words on the economical disposition of
materi I in such structures will not be out of place; thi is more especially
neoes ry as suah disposition of material is seldom shown in designs of
Indian irrigation works, and judging from works in South India it appears
to b becoming rarer than it us d to be 20 to 30 years ago.
In the osse of a retaining wall, as in th cas of a dam, the disposition
of material whioh giv 8 th gr atest stability i on in which the la.tter is
on the sid of the wall remote from th thrust, that is, in the co. e of a dam
on the down- tr am sid , and in th cas of a. retaining wall on th outer
sid , whiah is here term d ita ' faoo " whilo the Emrthside of the wall i,
terID6d ita • baok "
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM-MAS NRY WORKS 2

In spite ofthis faot it is customary to giv all th be ter required for h

retaining wa.lls of irriga.tion works on th backs k ping th fa. v rtioal.
It is to be recognized tha.t ther ar often praotical SOllS for this di -
position of ma.terial in works which are built of brick-work, the fsoos f
whioh are pointed, or of squared tone in COUTS S, beoause in uob 08S
jf the joints of the m980nry ar horizontal th batter must be giv by
offsets. It is generally objeotionabl to allo,Y offsets on th fa of a w 11
because the earth whioh is retained on them giv s lodging to of
shrubs which take root and if not promptly HmOY d will drunog th e
masonry, and furth er beoause the oxposed edgos are subj at to a iv
weathering. Where, 8S is often the cas in South India , J taining walls
are built of random rubble, or of brickwork whiob is r nd red with pIa ter,
the above praotical objection do s not operate, and in such 008 s retaining
walls with face batters are to b recommend d and should find pI oe in
designs very muoh morc frequently than is now th oos.
498. The importance of this matter has b en sp aially mphasiz d by
Bligh who has work9d out a numb r of xamplos and d('duoed tho
following proportions for th base width ofr taining wa.lIs fheight H with
2 foot top width and sp oillc gravity 2'1 to retain earth of sp oillo gravity
l'S and angle of repose It to 1 ;-
Sllfo limit of hchlht of
OuterfMP lPormllla for b ullO wall (BccordlnH to
batter. width In feet. formula polumn 2) with
til bank vertloal.
(1) (2) (8)
FlllF.T.

0'4H fj
Vertioal
1 in 12 0'4 H-~ 8&*
1 in 10 .. 0'4 B-1 13
1 in 8 . . 0 '4 H-1t .. 13
0'4 B -2:t for 20 ft.l
I in G and below. J' 18
.. { 0'4 H - 2i abovo 20
feet .
• This Item hoe boon added to thOllO glvon by DlIl(h.

The base widths of oolumn 2 are suitable guid s fOJ designing rubble
stone wa.lls in ordinary soils. For briok masonry t to i a foot ma.y be
added to these base widths. For walls of top width smaller or gr ater than
2 feet, add or subtraot from the bas one-half of this dofioi ney or xo 88.
The eoonomy to be attained wh ro fao · batters can oonveni ntly
and suitably be substituted for back batters is shown in the statem nt
below in the form of porcentago of the masonry in eaoh typ scction of
wall as oompar d with that in a wall of equa.l stability with a vertiool
faoe taken as 100.
Height of wall In foct.
Battc~ of front fuee.
10, I". 20. 26.
(1) (2) (8) <') (6)

Veritioal 100 100 100 100

1 in 12 95 91 92 0
1 in 10 91 86 110 92
1 in 8 81 82 86 7
1 in 6 73 72 76 79

Face slopes between 1 in 12 nnd in 81 r tho whioh wouJd orclinarily

be m.ost frequently suitable a.nd th designs of retaining walls with th
330 mRIGATION

faoo batters result in r duction of quantities of maaonry of from 10 to 15

per oent as compa.red with wa.lls of equal stability With vertioal faoes.
The table below indicates the empirical method of calculating base
width of surcharged retaining walls : - •
Total do~tb Due wldtb. Total dC~th Duo width.
of cart or eart
oomg:lod Wall ofcuL Wall of ~ompared Wall of cut Wall of
with eltt .tone 1n brlok-work. with lJe1{ht 8tone In brick-work.
ofwa • mortar. ofwaJ mortar.
(1) (2) (8) (1) (2) (8)
1 '35 h '4li2 h 2'0 '707 h '930 h
1'1 '393 h '498 h 2'4 '762 h 1.02 h
1'2 '4.39 h '548 h 3'0 '811 h 1'11 h
l'S '485 h '604 h 4,0 '852 h 1'18 h
1'4 '532 h '665 h 6'0 '883 h 1'25 h
l'5 '579 h '726 h H'O '909 h 1'28 h
l'6 '617 h '728 h 21 '0 '922 h 1'31 h
1'7 '645 h '824 h 31'0 '926 h 1'32 h
l'8 '66 h '847 h Infinite. '934 h 1'3411
1'9 '090 h '903 h

41J1J. Retalnlnc W&/l~ wJtlu/opJl1C topl.-Ta<J6(J WaUfI are v-ery common

in irrigation works for wing walls retaining oarth slopes and the tops aro
designed with uniform slopes of Ii to lor 2 to 1 or whatever may be the
slope of tho earth bank to be contained. If suah wails were made of equal
stability the batter would have to be constantly Chl\nged with the change
of height of the r taining wall, and the face or ba()k slop s oould not be
uniform but would gradually change from a flatter slope at tho highest pal't
of tho wall to a steeper ono at the lowest part. S\'Jch 8 slop is oalled a
, winding slop , Although th re is no great praotioa.l diffioulty in building
a. winding slope it is not usually done, and masons Il.ro not accustom d to
suoh work so that, exoept for important works wh~n good sup rvision i~
Jikely to b oonstantly available, it is not desirabl to design falling wings
with winding slopes. This oonsiderably restriots tb,e employm · nt of fao~
batters on falling wings, and where these are eml>loyed tends to keep
th m at steeper slop s than would otherwise be th most suitable.
In the abscnoe of 110 winding slop the alternativee for building a falling
wing are- 4<

(a) To provid a uniform slop on the faoo 0)' the baok of the wall
aUowing a. sufficient batter to s eure tho stability of the wall at its highest
part.
In a. wa.ll with much dim rene of level b tw en either nd this invol-
v un oonomical use of mdterial.
(b) To divid the wall into 1 ngths giving a dUrer nt batter to eaoh
separa.te length.
This will produoe unsightly offsets unsuitabl for the face of the
wing, and suoh varying slopes must generally be at the baok of the wall in
spite of the xtra quantity of material required.
(c) Wh re the wing is of suoh a. minimum height that some batter is
required throughout its whol length th n tho I ast (steepest) batter
required throughout th I ngth of th fa.lling wiI14 can be given a a.
uniform slop to th face, th ba.ok of th lowest PQrt of the wi..Qg being
vertioa.l; additiona.l thickn.e in th high r length., of wall will then be
given on the baok, offset in plan being given where the batter is ohanged.
Figure 61, Chapter I , and figure_91 above show this arrang mont.
 DISTRmUTION SYSTEM-MASONRY WORKS 331
500. Bu.Udlng a winding slope.-Although building a winding slope i
unusual there is no praotio&l diffioulty in doing thi. To tout uob a
work, mark on the conorete foundation th base thiokn of thE' sloping
wing throughout its length, and from eaob xtremity of tb winding 10
set up a batten of wood a.t the faoo slope of the wall at that plaoo. nd
divide the batten into vertical heights of, B&y, 1 foot interval. A tring
tightly stretched betw n corresponding h ights on th two b t n will
give the true faoe of the winding alop aU along that I v 1.
In building, the masons have only to koop a string st tob d at til
level of the top of the oourse b ing built nd bring tho rna ollry fi 00 up to
this.
 CHAPTER XIII.
eROS -DRAIN A E WORK AND DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED
TRACT .
501. Methods ot disposing ot cross.drainage .-Tho methods of disposal
of dra.inage interc pted by canals and channels are-
(a) To pass th irrigation cana.l over th drainage.
Thi s is done through (1) an aqu du ct or (2) .11 syphon aqueduct.
(b) To pass th drainage over the irrigation canal.
This is done through (1) a supcr-passag or (2) a syphon.
(c) To pass tlie draina.ge through the irrigation canal so that
th drainage and irrigation waters 0.1' intermixed.
This is eff< ct-ed by , a I v l-croBsing " or • an inlet and outlet',
or an inl t 'only. '
I

502. Aqueducts and syphon aqueducts.-Thes are th most common

typ of oross-drainag works, and in the cas of a contour oonal, thes
works fr qu ntly involve a larg proportion of the whole cost of the
rna onry works on th cana.l.
Wh n a canal is oarn d ov r a drainage without having to drop
th bed lev I of the low l' waterway, the work is termed an aqued uct
(s e figure 116). A similar work is call d a • Super-passag , if the
d raino.g is passp-d over the canal.
When th bed lovel of the drainag is dropped where it passes under
the oanal, so that the drainage passes through an inv rted syph(ln,
th work is termed a • syphon aqueduot " whioh distinguishos i t from a
similar d scription of work, termed a • syphon', in which the irrigation
water is passed through an inverted syphon under tho drainag .
Th re is a type of work intermediate between the aqueduot and
the syphon aqu duot where the ttrainage is dropped just above the
orossing, and its bed out out from this point at a g ntl slope, there
bing no ri in th b d on the down-strea.m sid of the work.
Th l' is no dist,i nctiv term for uoh a work , whioh is a combin d
aq u duct and drop, and is g n rally term d an aqueduot. (Figure
117 shows a work of this type.)
503. Types ot aqueducts a nd syphon aqueducts.-The e works may
bolas Hied in aocordance with the natur of the sides of th aqueduot,
in thre typ s as follows :-
Type 1- .Wher the sid s of the aqueduct are earthen banks
with oompl te et.rthen slopes.
I n a work of this description the length of th culverts through
which th drainag water is passed under the ca.nal must be suffici nt
not only to tak th wa.ter s otion but also to oarry th~ arth n ba.nks
of t h ca.nal with th ir slopes.
'l'ype II.- This is similar to typo I but a reta.ining wa.ll ta.kes
plao of t ho outer slop s of tbe earth_n banks t hrough the a.queduot
 CROSS-DRAINAGE WORKS .AND DIHI AGE
IRRIGATED TRA T

Type II1-Wher tIl art,hcll ba.nk ar d.i oontinu d hr ~h

~h aqu duot, th sides of which a.r mad g n rally of rna onry I .
but occasionally of wood or , 1 forming a trough through whi h th
ca.nal is carri d(figure 113).
504. Selection of a suitable type of aqueduct.-In all tyJX' th
cost of th abutm nts and bank connexions is ind pend nt of the J Ingth
oftha aqu duct. In type I the eost ofth bank conn _ 'on is a minimum
whil on the oth r hand th width of th work from fa to fa. of th
drainag cu]v rts is a maximum.
Type I is thus only suitable whcf(' th lcngth of t.hc {~qu duct is small
and the bank conncxionslargc in compari on to tho c st of the r DH~jnd r
of the work. .
In type III th conditions ar exactly re era d, the t of bank
oonnexions being a maximum and the width from fMC to fit> f th
drainage culv rts a minimum . '1'h(' type is thus BuitabI for nqll du ts
of considerable length between abut,m nts and wh r th ost of th
aqueduct propel' is large in propol tion to that of the arth conn 'ions.
Type II is a type intcrm din.t b('tw('cn types I and III, both a r gards
length from face to face of th drainag eulv('l'ts, and cost of th arth
connexions.
The se lection of typ< of aqucduc:t. thus depetldH ·hidl on th width
and magnitude of th drainage to be pas d. A V('1'y Rmall dmina.g
will obviously be t b paRS<'d by t,yp I work, whicll, in an (' tr m
case, is m r ly a pipe or a small elllv rt, passing under th· b 'd of th
canal.
Such works, although in essence aqu ducts or Ryphon aqu('duot
of type I are gon rally call d ' drainage pipes' or 'drainage eulv r s '
or' drainage syphons ' as th case may b ,or som tim('s' und r.tunn Is'.
Over a stream or river of considerable Hizc an aqll duct of ty III
i8 clearly more conomical than any oth r a.nd ty II is intermediate.
Tho limits in regard to width of drainag dividing th types will
va.ry somewhat with local conditions and rates ; th following 0.1' th
result!! of the investigations made in this matter with "ogard to aqu ducts
and syphon aqu ducts for the Madras Cauv ry iW8<'rvoir Proj ct and wi))
be found gen rallyapplicabl to the norma.l conditions of outh India .
Typo I , most suitable up to a linea.l width of culv rt wat rway i
8 feet (2 spans of 4 fi t).
Type II, for a lin al width of culv rt watoclway abov fi t and not
more than 54 fi ot (9 spans of Gfi t).
(4 fi at sp:m'3 woJre prop sed up to a. limit of 4 spans; 16 fi et lin aI,
and above this 6 £ t spans.)
Type III, for lineal waterways abov 54 fi t (12 ii t spans w r
universally propos d for this typo).
Th above may rvo to giv some id a of th magnitude f th
drainages suitable for th various types of wo!:'ks but should not
tl\ken a defining any hard and fast limits ith r &s r gards span or
types.
505. Headway required at the point of crossing of a drainage by an
aqueduci.- The level of th bed of a contour ca.na.l at the point where
334: :m.RIGATION

it paqsPs over a drainage is fixed within fairly narrow limits, depending

on the mil ag at th point of orossing, and the differ nee oflevel betw en
the Mtn.ral bed of the drainage and that of the canal oan be incr a d
by taking the canal across the drainage lower down, or diminish d by
crossing it higher up.
In the case of an aqu duct the bed of the canal must be at suffioi nt
height abov the bed of the drainage to allow of suffici nt watelway
being given in th culverts to carry the flood discharg of t.he drainag
ov r whioh the canal is carri d. If th riv r has cut out a bed deep
b low the lev 1 of the ground through whioh it tak s its course, and its
waters in flood are coniin d within th se margins with some freeboard
to 8pare, there will generally b littl difficulty as regards suffici ncy
of headway, and the point of crossing of th irrigation charm ] may t.hen
b sel cted from other consid rations than those of h dway, such as the
most conveni nt and economical aUgnm nt of canal or the most suitable
point of cro sing the riv r having in view natur of foundations, etc.
In the plains of South India the above conditions are not common,
and gen rally tho drainages are wide shallow streams which in floods
submerge th ir margins.
It is desirable on the ground of both ffi cicncy and economy to limit
the length of th aqueduct to the width of the stream and this fix s
approximately th maximum lineal width of waterway, it is usually
inadvisable to contract th width of the work as compar d with th
width of th drainag by more than 25 per cent, from this the most
8uita.bl I ngth of the work botwe n abutm nts is fixed.
Th total area of the waterway is fix d by the ma ~,nitude of discharge
of drainag to b provided for divid ·d by th maximum allowabl velocity
through the openings. Th m an oiE ctive height of the openings can bfl
oompu d from these and th approximate differ n of I vel between
th canal b·d and river bed at tho point of crossing will thus be known .
This is frequ ntly so gr at as to nec ssitate placing th work so low
down th drainage course that tho oanal brd fI t tho crossing mu t be
veral fi t above th level of the stream margins and it follows that thc
canal must be oarri d in h avy qa,nks for som distanc on ither sid
of th qu duct. 'I'his ontails both expens and dang r of br a.ching
and is obj otionabl . Th alternative is to low r tho b d of th draina.ge
wh r th canal oro s it forming a syphon aqU{du ct or to drop th b d
of th drainag just above th orossing so as to leave suffi imt headway.
Blow th drop th bed of the drainag would, in th latter case, hav
to b out out with a lop flattrr than t.hat of th drainag bed till it
int r cts th xisting bed b low the orossing.
506. Lowering bed of drainage belOW a syphon aqueduct.-
In the oas of a syphon aqueduct similar lowering of the drainag b d
is also oocasionally ne sary as it is d siraule if possibl t o leav some
01 801' h adway b tw nth d I veloft.h drainag downstr am of th
oro ing and th und I' id of the culv rt oov ring; this h ad way should,
if praoticabl , not Ie than 3 Ii t or half the h ight of the oulv rt,
whi ch," r i low r.
Th h ad way is d Birabl in order to minimis th risk ofth blooking
of the oulv rts by i1t rolled along th bed of th drainag ,whioh is a real
dang rand th greatest obj otion to the syphon aqueduct type of cr088
dra.inage works.
 CROSS-DRAINAGE WORKS AND DRAINAGE OJ' 330
IRBJGATED TRAOTS

Apart from considora.ti~ns of cost, tho mor n rly th syphon aqu •

duct approaches the combm d a.queduct and drop, tha. is th 1 th
rise in level of b d on the downstr am sid of th drainage cuI rt.
the better.
507. Considerations whIch determine the site ot aqueduct or syphon
aqueduct, and which type of work is most suitable.-Th relativ Biz
of th canal and of the drainage to be ero B d is a primary mi.
d ration in de rmining whether the work shall be and a.que duot or
syphon &queduot.
In the case of a larg ri r the low ring of t.h b d by a drop uld
hI' very costly, and wh r th amount of b d ilt is grcn.t, th risk of
serious failure by silting of the syphon incr a (s with th eiz of th
drainage; an aqu€duct is thus g nerally n c seary wh r a canal is
carri dover a large river in spite ofth cost of heavily banked approach B.
On the oth r hand when the drainag is small ompal'ld to the (lansl
the syphoning of tho drainage will b pref rabl to carrying th(' anal
in heavy bank and a syphon aqu duct is indicat<d.
Additional consideratiol1S ar th most convenient lines of l\llal
alignment, the nature ofthe foundations, the natur . oHhe Boil avo.ilo.bl
for making banks, the discharge of springs lik('ly to be md, with wh n
putting in foundations, and the uplift pr ssun s to u(' prov;d( d for;
all the above must b considered wh n dccidiJlg on 111(' site ofth(' cr sliing
and whether the work will be an nqu duct or syphon aqu< dll t..
508. Crossing a drainage by an irrigation syphon-An alternativ
to an aqueduct or syphon aqu<.duct is an irrigation syphon wh('re th
irrigation canal is syphoncd under the drainage. For such a work th
conditions of approach to the crossing arc th r v rae of thol:!O for an
aqu duct and the canal approach to the drainag should b ill cutting
rath~r than in bank. This m thod of crossing is fnqu(>ntly the b st
and especially in the caso when drainag<'t! arc laJge in comparison to th
size of the canal. Th syphoning of th{~ callal as a.n alwrna.tiv to Ryphpn.
ing the drainage has th ' gr(at. advantage that no t.roubl{· from 0. s\.dd n
accumulation of bid silt is to b fear d and the pI' cautioJl with n gal d
to headway ofparagl'aph 506 above is not in this case n ssary.
609. Example ot type III syphon aqueduet.- (Figur 113).- This is
the typ on whioh the larg st syphon aqu ducts 0.1' built and 1..h d tails
of design of a work of this type will now b describ<d. Th data ar a
follow. .
The drainage is to be syphon d under th canal through culv rts
12fe t clear span cover d bybriokarohes, with 2£ etri .
The canal F.S.L. is 4} £ et deep, but th side walls ar to b Ii f, t
above this, so that water can b carried as much as 6 fi t d p, t
weights on th struoture &1' ther fore calculat<d for a d pth of 6 fi t.
Thicknes8 oj culvert arches.-Formula. 42, paragraph 321 abo ,
gives the thickn S8 of the arch of an ordinary hridg and regulator as
'45 V Radius. In the case of an aqu duct this t.hickn 8 may incrcas d
336 IRRIGATION

as the load on th aroh is g n rally gr a.t r tha.n in the case of an ordinary

bridg a.nd the co.efficient may~be incr as d from.:45 to '.5.
TY"'. Ill.
SYPHON AQUEDUCT.

FIG. lIa. (d) . I.ON8 h .ceYION AI.ONG DA~INA6&

 onos -DRAINAGE WORKf AND DBAlNAGE 0 1
.IRRIGATED TRAOTS

The ra.dius of th intl'ados of t,ht' arch in thi s oa it! 1 fe t. nd ( )

the angle at the centr is 74 0 •
The thiokn ss of th arch from th above rule would b 1"0 fi t,
aud the a.roh may be made 21 brick (1' -] O!-) thick a.nd th horizonta.l
thrust a.nd pr ssure on this will now be oomputed.
The spandril filling over the arch will b conCI 1 card d up to 1h
floor of the aqu duot to a. lev I 2 {. et a.bov th und rsid of th ro
of the aroh. The specifio gra.vity of the masonry ill 2 a.nd th wat r loa.d
on the aroh i th r for qui 1.1.1 nt to a weight of solid rna nry to t\ I v 1
of 3 feet abov the ' aqueduct floor level. Th weight (W) of hA.lf h
I\rch plu8 the above load,"", (6 X 7) - = 34 unit.
The horizontal thrust at the cro~ n of t.h arch = W {'ot A/2 = 34
oot 370 = 45 units.
= (te X 45) Lons = 2!tOllS.
The mean load per square foot on tho oro s 8 otion of th aroh ill
(2t -:- Ii) = Ii tons and the maximum stress 2* \vhioh J(>8.¥ 8 a. 11\r
margin of safety .
The thickness of piers.-For trial the saUl width aL th springing
as for a regulator may be takon, viz., from i to t of (. ) the pan
(vide formula 41, paragraph 321 above). In t,rus oase is may b tak('n
3 ft. It is necessary to verify this for rushing str St:! a.nd to ascrrlaill
the limit of height of pier for whioh this width it:! safe without. l JlI.( (I ' !'mg
the sides of the pier,
The weight (due to 6 feet depth of water) resting on Nl.ohfoot 01'1 ngtll
of eaoh pier at the level of springing of arch it> (12 X 7 - ] 6 -/- 3 X 7) I ~
tons = 5 tons. The mean pressUl' is t of 5 = 1'7 tons pOl' aqua.r foot.
If the mean pressure be limited to 2' 2 tonH , the piers may be carried
to a depth of 18 (2'2 - 1 '7) = 9 f, et bl'low sprhlging L fon' any wid nillg
is necessary.
Number of culvert venls.-The limiting v looity through th oul rtR
has to be deoided in order to compute the amount of wakrwa J'rquircd.
This js fixed at 8 feet per second. The flood discha.rg to L diFlposed
of is 9,000 ouseos being that due to a oatchm nt ar a of 58 squar mil 1:1
with a coeffioient of 600 (Ryves'formula) . Th >drainag hasab dwidth
of 215 fe t. The oanal bed width is 49 £ et nnd b d-l v I is + 123 .
The thiokness of the mnsonry b ing 2 f, t at tho crown, th intrndoR
of the aroh cannot be higher than + 121, and if 3 fe t 01 arance, without
any excavation of the b d ofth draina,ge be allow€d the b d ofth latt r
a.t the site of orossing should be not higher than +lI8.
The drainage is a large one and this is unsuitable fOl' outting down
the level of the bed b low the orossing. The site of orol! ing is th refor
chosen where the bed level of the draina.ge is -/- lIS.
The limit of 8 feet per s oond placed on th velooity of flow through
the oulvc l·tsgives a flow area of 9,000/8 = 1,125 sq.ft. The width ofth
drainage between margins is 215 £ t. The width of 8.Oh span and
pier is 15 feet. The number of spans whioh would fit b t nih trcsm
margins is 215/15 = 141. It is howev l' CODomical to slightly contract
the wa.terway between abutment.e and 13 span will suitabl givi.n@
80n area of 1,125/13 = 86 sq. ft. for eaoh span. Th gm ntal ar a. over
e800h vent is 16 sq. ft. and th h ight of pi rs to springing should tIl fore
be a.bout 70/12 = 6 feet.
22
338

510. Profile of abutments of aqueduots.-Owing to the great weights

oarried by the arches of an aqueduot an addition to the width of abut-
ments at springing may be given to that derived from Trautwine's rule
which is-
Wid~h at springing}=
(Vlde formula 4:3)
2 + 2/10 X (Radius) + 1/10 X (Rise).
Bligh recommends an addition of 1/5 of the ciepth of water carried
in the canal and this may be adopted.
The approximate width of the abutment of an aqueduct at springing
will therefore be
2+ 2/10 (Radius of arch + depth of oanal) + l/10 (Rise ofaroh) (65).
611. In the exam pi under consideration the fOl'mula gives a thicknesf!
of about 5 feet.
The batter of the abutment by Trautwine's rule (formula 44, para-
graph 321) will be
span of arch
1/25 X = 12/50 = 1 (approxiruately).
Rfse of arch
It is desirable to test the stability of the abutments of so importa.nt
u. work by a diagram and this is done in figure lI3-c.
The thrust (t l ) of the arch at the orown = 45 units.
The weight (w) carritd on the half arch = 34 units.
From this the direction and magnitude (AI) of the thrust of the
arch at the abutment is found by diagram and equals 60 units = 3'3 tons.
The mean pressure on the skew baok at the Springing of aroh is thu f,
3'3 -:- 1t = 1'7 tons and the maximum pressure 3'i tons.
Looking at the diagram figure 1I3 ·c the ref;ultant cuts the bas('
on -fourth of its I ngth from the outer toe and. this is suitable. In
th diagram it is assumed that the r su ltant arcb thrust acts through
th centre of the skew back. The pressure of the earth at the baok
of th wall is not allowed for as this is set off against the thrust due to
pressure of th drainage water in the oulverts or of any arch aotion of the
floors in resisting uphft as explain d in paragraph 515 below.
The abutments under the side walls of the n.queduot have not so
heavy a load and the width at springing level may be the same as for an
ordinary bridge abutment on Trautwine's rule and thill would be 4 feet
,vith batter i.
A stability diagram figure 1I3-a oon:finns the suitability of this
profilA •
The aqueduct as designed is shown in figur E! 113, 113 (v) and (b)
and various conntlctedpointe of d~sign not hithrt() discus~od will now be
cC'mment~d on.
612. Bank connexlons.- These must retain thH eartb slopes and act
as atop walls to percolation so as to allow no line of percolation steeper
than the allowable percolation gradient, which in this case is 1 in 5.
A double set of wings are required in such a work, viz., the oonal
wings making a staunoh connexion b~tw en ":llaSOhry sides of t·he aqu -
dect and he canal ba.nks, and t~e dra.Ina.ge Wlngs. retaining and protect-
ing the a· th stopes, torming gutde waUIl to the water em.ering and leaving
the work, and also to some e~nt aoting as stop wa.lla to lengthen the
path of percolation of wa.ter from the canal above.
 kOSS-DRAI AGE WORKS AND DH IN!.GE 01<'
IRRIGATED TRAOT

In order to design wings properl it i absolut I 11(' {' al'Y 10

a Vlan showing the oanal banks, IStr a.m margins &lld ~rth slo}l(.'
done in figure 113.
518. In the example wld r consideration th 1 ngth of thll wing Ron'
cJ~ar1y seen from th? plan to be sufficient to l' tain the !'lIOl s. ThE' oa.na.l
wmgs have.no addltlO~a,llength but to the ~ w(;'r wing (l.n uditiond
lrngth X,Y IS added whlOh , but for th nece l:ilty of oh eking perool tion
would not be r quired. The ,percolation head i fr.()m the F ..L. in th
oa.nal to the drainage bed lev I and allowing an extra. half foot o,H working
margin quaIs 10 feet involving a minimum per olation 1 ngth f 5011 ('t.
The shortest line for pf']"oolation is under the foulldation of th wing
along the line x x, from x, wh 1'e this i pp€u up frOD! + 110 to + 11 ).
If a. section is drawn on this lin the length of p rcolation bet' en X Md
x, under the wall foundations will be found to bo about 42 f t. Thit'i
length is increased by a conorete iLpron cl1l'l'i('d out to x . not i{' than
10 feet wide in all directions from x ,, The width of th is apron is reduced
towards the end of the wings at y wher it beoomes nil; th >1 t\ ,t distance
to the oanal water from y along a lin of pOl:!siblc percolation is nowh('J'(
less than 50 feet.
The prolongation of the drainage wings frolll X to y and th illlp l'ViouH
conorete floor p! Y ar introduoed solly to lengthen th line of p reoll1tioJl.
The same purpose might be served by lengthening th ' canal wings ILfid
keepiug the depth of their foundatiom; tmffioient to sour th rt'quir d
[rngth of percolation round the nds of and under th WingH.
This would in this oas be more I:' pen. ivc thl\l1 the drsigll adopted
but the alternative should always be oonsidered.
If the oonditions ar such that fulll'cliane call I;I.t all tim 'H b pIao u
un the puddle in the oanal bed being k pt damp fl,nd fn.'(' from Ol'o.okti
thero could be no peroolation under the canal wing wa.lI if a good j iut
were made between the puddle and th fa.oe of the cu.nal wing!! and under
!:Iuoh oonditions the wing foundation might be Htepped up -throughout
the whole of its length. Wherever a canal is p riodioalJy oloscd for a
prolonged period and the puddl is laid at a lev 1 oOllsid mbly o.bov
that of subsoil water it is likely to b corne dry and oraok and fulll'oliano
oannot be pia oed on it; it is n vertheless usual to lay it in the oanal bed 0.6
is shown in this design.
In the drainago bed a puddl ' apron overlaid by proteotive pitching
might take the plaoe of impel'viotlHoonor te apron in [l,ny !:lit wh r th
dry season subsoil water is at or ncar tho lev I of th puddle,!!o that it is
proteoted against becoming dry.
514. Uplift pressures on syphon floorlng.-Tho floor of tho lJyphon
culverts are subjeoted to uplift-
(a) from the subsoil water in the drainage bed, tho lll&ximum
net uplift being when there is no drainage flow and wh n th r is no
Water from or silt standing on th syphon floor , but wh n th Bub oil
water is a.t the level of the bed of the draina.ge, and
(b) on the canal; it is a lll&xirnum when the oanal is full and no
water is flowing in the dra.in.
515. The maximum uplift head due to (a) whioh can b exerted
on the under side of the floor is when sub oil wa.ter is just at bed level
and is equal to the vertical distance from the subsoil watel' level to th
under side of the apron.
22.
 tlUUGATIO:N

The head is a statical one due to uplift acting from both up

and down-stream. In this case, figure 113, the uplift head would be
(118 -110)=8 feet.
The head due to (b) is more difficult to com!,ute. The differeno
oflevel between the canal F.S.L. and the bed of the drain is 10 ft. allowing
.. working margin of t foot, and the great< st uplift due to this on the
oulvert floor is develop ~d in the centre of the length of the flank oulverts.
Supposing the puddle in the canal bed to be ineffective, and only to be
E'lqual to the ordinary soil in resisting percolation the minimum line of
percolation under the middle of flank culvert is 'P PI p, 70 feet in length
(figure 113) of which P PI is of length about 21 £ t. The uplift at PI
will be (a) the statioal uplift due to subsoil water (8 f~et) as already stated
+ (b) whioh is (10 X70;O~ ) = 7 ft. The total is 15 feet and if the
specific gravity of the floor is 2 a thickness of floor of over 7 t f~et would
be required to resist this by dead weight whereas the design only provides
a floor of 3 fe t thiokness.
It may be here pointed out that 7! feet thiokness of floor below
lev I + 113 would still be quite insufficient to resist uplift by the dead
weight of the floor beoause the level of the underside of the floor would be
lowered by 4t feet whioh adds this head to the statical uplift
pr ssure, and a floor 12 feet thiok with an uplift head of 17 f~ct due to (a)
and about 7 feet due to (b) thus making a total of 24 f ... et would be
required to get equilibrium from the dead weight of flooring. This
would involve great extra cost and diffioulty in oonstruotion-
Thel'e are two ordinary methods of getting out of this diffioulty :-
(1) Providing a puddle apron in the oanal bed up and down-
stream of the aqueduot. In this oase a puddle apron has been provided
inoreasing the line of peroolation as far as PI to about 50 ft) t. This
reduoes (u) the uplift due to the canal water at this point to about half
of 10 or 5 fe t but leaves unaltered (a) the uplift due to the sobsoil water
(8 fdet) and therE:fore the total is still 13 feet, even under the supposition
that the apron in the oanal bed is quite water tight.
(2) Although the uplift due to oanal water may be reduoed it is
impossibl to I' duoe that due to subsoil water and in practice the difficulty
is frequently met by springing inverted arches between the footings
of the cuivert piers so that the uplift load is cani d by aroh aotion and
the whole weight of the superstructure carri d by the piers is thus employ~d
in r sil:;ting uplift. Inverted arohes or inverts also serve to distribute
the weight of the superstruoture over the whole of the flooring and thus
a1' doubly us ·ful. Where small spans are us d the normal concr te slab
floor can be oonsider d as aoting as inverted oonorete arohes of such
rise and thiokness as to be entir ly enclostd in the section of the slab.
In the present case an arch of 1; fe t thickness and It feet ver8ed
4ine is shown in dott d lin s in figure 113 insoribed within the 3 £, et
slab floor, the ra.dius of the intrados of suoh an aroh is 12'5 feet and the
oentre angle 56 ' . If u be the maximum uplift head such an arcl, oan
take with 1.\ limit of mean pressure at the orown of the arch at 2'5 tons
per square foot and if P be the horizontal pressure at the orown,
F = ; X 6 X cot 28°.
In this case with F a maximum
t X 2·5 =i-oot. 28°
u :a::: 12 feet.
 CROSS-DRAINA.GE WORKs AND DB. INAGB OF 3'1
IBB.IGATED TRAOTS

Thus the floor by arch action alone can resist an uplift head of 12 fi t
while by its dead weight it can resist a further 6 feet or a total of 18 f, t
and is thus secure against blowing up .
.T~ere wo~d .in this and sim~al' cases be no objection to actua.l1y
bwldmg a bnck Invert as shown In the dotted line on the flank oulv ,,'
(figure 113) and thereby increasing the waterway of th culverts, but in
the case of small spans the greater complexity and cost of onstruction
would not make this desirable. In spans above 12 to 14 f 'ct iuv rts
should be used for flooring unless (1) the foundation soils is imp rviou
or (2) the foundation so de p or th soil so compact that no flooring
is required or (3) a pitched flooring which is pervious i providtd. This
latLr is obviously not a desirable feature in th floor of a. syphon in
which there is any consid rable drop unless the soil i. safe against piping.
In the case of aqueducts where the drainage bed level is not dropped
there will b e no n ,:,t uplift on the floor due to (a) of paragraph 514 above
a.nd only (b) ne d b e provided for.
516. Uplift prassure, on oV3rh~ad covering of sypbon culverts.-
When the tail water level below a syphon is higher than the uuder sUlfaoe
of the coverings of the oulverts uplift is exerted on th s , and II> number
of cases of blowing up of syphons from this cause have aotually ooourr d.
If there is water in the aqueduct when the uplift is appli d, this
exerts a oounter pressure proportionate to its d('pth; it is, howcv'r,
gen rally desirable tv design a syphon aqu duct on th assumption
of a maximum flood when the aqueduct trough is empty. In addition
to the uplift due to the level of th tail water th ro is, at each point of the
barrel of a submerged culvert, an uplift due to the head n c{'stlary to fore
the water through the remaining length of culv rt, which must b . add('d
to the level of the tail water to arrive at the uplift at a.ny point; in short
the pressure on the roof of the culvert is defined by th hydra.uli o gradi nt
through the culvert barrel.
The internal surface of culvert barrels should invariably bp fini shed
off quito smooth so as to give them maximum fficiency of dis 'harg ,
and for f>mooth barrels the loss of hcad due to friction in th oulv rt
is always small; for any ordinary smooth culv rt with disoharging
velocity under 10 f<let per second, an allowanoe of half a foot may be
assumed as suffici nt to cover this which does not include loss of h ad
on entry. Thus we may take uplift head as due to a level of one half
foot higher than maximum tail water level.
517. In the case figure 113, tail water level is computed to be + 123·£Ii
a.nd uplift at the crown of the culvert arches is thus (123'5 +0'6
- 121'0) = 3'0 fdet.
. The minimum thickn ss of masonry over the oulverts i8 2 fi t whioh
is capable of resisting 4 feet uplift head and this is safe.
518. General remarkS on uplift on tbe coverings or sypboDs.-
When the b ed of the tail channel is 3 fe t or more below the underside
of the oulvert covering it is seldom neoessary to make speoial provision
for uplift of the culvert covering! but wh:re the ~!l chann I ~8 at a high
level oonsiderable cost ha.s to .b e mcurred m prondmg for uplift, and the
oovering of culverts has frequently to be inoreased in thickne88 80lely
for this cause.
342 IRRIGATIO

This is und sirabl ,as v ry inorease in thioknes O'f cO'vering entail!>

n IO'wer level O'f the und r surfac O'f bO'th the cO'vering and flO'or O'f thl'
syphO'n with cO'rresPO'nding incr as O'f uplift O'n both.
The uplift may be prO'vided fO'r Qy using a cO'vering fO'r the culverts
oapable of taking bending stresse!!, and anchoring this (;O'V ring through
the piers of the culv l'ts, thus emplO'ying the weight of the piers (and also
if n c sl,Jary th flO' or on whieh they stand) to withstand the uplift on th('
l' O'f O'f the culvertfi.

Fignr 114 shows the KaO' Nadi syphon aqueduot on the Son Canal
which is an example O'f this class O'f work, stO'ne slabs covered with
oonol' te, whioh' ar anohor d through the piers to' the flO'O'ring, being
lH~ed Ml oulyert coverings.

Fi r . 114, . KAO NAOI SYPHON AQUEDUCT , SOH CANAL •

.•• • , ,. eAlillL.

_" .",.,._1
e',<f
~,

LONCah_ SECTION. , > »'»)n>~"')r '»'tJ'~'", ·

GROSS SECT ION

III applying this llH'thod f d aling with such ItS s ferro·cononlk

ulv<'1't ooveringR ar!' CRP (lially Ruitabl as th y reqnir!' very litt.1e had-
way, and they hay Inttt'rly be n much uRod.
519. Formula for the discharge of an inverted syphon.-Unwin's
fonnnJIl fo[, th(' disoharge of a syphon is as follows :-

,. = (l + I, + i ,)IiLV"g
P • • • (66)
wlwr }L = diff, renc ofl v 1 of water up and down-stl' aID.
I.. = L ngth of barr 1 in feet. .
R = Hydraulic mean radius of barr I in feet.
V = V looity through the ba.rr 1 in f. .
 CRO S-DRAINAGE WORKS AND DRaINAGE OF 34
IRRIGATED TRACTS

I, is a. co.effi cient whioh provides for th los of h ad on entry;

it ma.y be taken as 0'505 for a.n unsha.ped mouth of th sa.me seotional
n.rea. as t he barrel and 0'08 for a bell mouth.
12 is a oo-effioient suoh t ha.t the 10 S of h ad by friction through the
R V'
barrel is I,l L X 2(1 .

I~ i equal t o a (I + ~) and the following table gives the va.lu€'s of

U R.nd b:-
Nature of surface of pipe or culvert. a b
( 1) mooth iron pipe .. 0 '00497 0 '0'14
(2) Enerusted .. .. .. .. .. 0'00996 0'084
(S) mooth ooment plast(~ r or pla.ned wood. 000316 0'10
(4) Ashla.r or briok work .. .. 0 ·,10401 0'23
(5) Rabbl ma,onry or stone pitching 0 '00507 0'83
If (Va,) thl' ~elocity of approa(.; h to the syphon is oonsid r d th n th
formula beoomes

h= ;;(I +IJ+IJ~) - (0'0155 Va' . . . . . . .. (66a)

Generally the velocity of approach is negl ct d.
As a rule the interior of culvcrts should b 0 ment r ndered a.nd
work d up quite smooth and in no oase should th interior be left rough.
520. Head on a syphon.-In mo t cases a certain limiting V( locity
(generally 8 to 10 f t a second for a drainage syphon) through th
barrels of a syphon is fix d and th water level at tho tail mURt b
asoertained from observation or oomputation, til head (h) r ·quired
to give the limiting velocity through the culverts is then oomputcu.
521. In the example figure 113, from th lev Is on tho plan it is
soen that h = (125'0 - 123'5) = 1'5 feet. It will b noted that. the
figur 113-a shows that there is a second ris up to + 126 abov th
work; this h to get the d pth r quired to giv the neoel.lsary disoha.rg
over the drop ,vall orest. With velooity of approaoh this would bC'com
vory small, but it is prudent to allow it, so that thero may be ample fe
hoard to the canal banks to prevent any danger of th 1000.1 dro.inag
breaching into the oanal.
522. General remarks on the design of a syphon aqueduot.- The
dosign figure 113, shows a rounded entry to the oulverts whioh much
reduces loss of head on entry but the co-efficiont for a squar ('ntry ha.s
heen t·aken in calculation.
Th drop at the up-stream end of the oulvert may b ith r a. slop
or 0. drop wall as most conveni nt but the lift at tho tail nd should
always be Aloped to giv faoilities for the water 0] aring out a.ll kinds of
rolled silt and debris from the oulvert barrem.
The slop hould be not steeper than t
The width of tho oistern betw en the drop wall and the fao of tho
oulverts should be about equal to the diff'ereno b tw en the culvert
floor level and the M.F.L.
a" IRBI(}ATION

The raising, as in this design, of the arohes outside the side wa.lla
of the aqueduot is desirable-
(1) to reduoe the pressure on the piers to the same limits 80S under
the floor of the aqueduct.
(2) to give e. clearer entry and exit, and
(3) to reduoe tho total amount of masonry.
The arra.ngement allows the thickness of the side walls of th aqueduot
&8 well as of the arches to be reduced.
The design provid s for a cart road on one side of the aqueduct and
8. traok for riding and oattle on the other. If this were not required,
single solid side walls would be suita.blE' f\.lld would considerably reduoc
the cost of th work.
528. A type III aquedu.ct su.ltable for a surplus work.-Examination
of th design, figure 113, will show how aslly and economic:ally surplus
sluioes oan be install d in one of the side walls of a type III aqueduct.
Vents through the side wa1ls clOB d by screw-geared shutters moving in
grooves and worked from the roadway a.bove would oonstitute an effeotive
sUI'plus sluice the outfall being into a water cushion formed by the
countE'rslope of the syphon while the drain oonstitutes a ready-made
surplus ohannel.
In this case no auoh sluicf,s have been provided but they oould be
oheaply inserted if required. It should be notioed that the tops of the
sid walls of the aqueduct trough are kept It feet lower than at the ends,
and thus form surplus weirs whioh would come into action for any depth
of water over 6 feet.
524. Contraction of waterway through an aqueduct.- It will be
noticed from the plan, fig. 113, that the oanal is considerably oon·
tract d on approaoh to th aqu du ot and that the mean width in the
Jatter is only 25 feet as oompared with 53! feet in the full seotion of
oa.nal at F.S.L.
The mea.n velooity through the aqueduot must ther fore be about
double that of th canal.
The general question is thus raised as to when a.nd to what extent
c ntraotion of seotion through all aqueduot is desirabl .
It is to be reoognized that oontraction involves alterations of
velooity whioh produoes extra eddies and disturbanoe of flow and is
therefore to be deprecated where it can be eoonomioally avoided.
Oontraotion of waterway is not desira.ble in short aqu ducts as in
suoh works the saving in oost will be oomparatively small while the dis·
turbanoe will be the same 8.S in long ones. Generally contraotion should
not be given in aqueducts of types I or II but in those of type HI the
question should in eaoh oase b considered on its merits. For every
new system of oanals a general polioy 80S regards contraction should be
formulated having in view (1) the eoonomio aspeot, and (2) the possibility
of future expansion.
For th Madras.Oauvery Projeot Main Oa.na.l (a contour cana.l)
oontraotion was given in designs for aqueduots wher~ the aggregate
floor width of th drainage oulVl rts ,vas not less than 60 lineal f~et. and
the amount of oontra.ction provided was such that the velooity of flow
through the aqueduot would be approxima.tely either twioe that in the
OQ.nal or 5 feet eo seoond, whioh ver was the sma.ller,
 ORO! -DRAINAGE WORKS AND DRAIN GE OF
IRRIGATED TR40TS

In the oa.ae of trough aqueducts of iron, wood, r ferro-oonorete, or

in the oase of smaller works, relatively greater ountraotion may 0000.-
sionally be desirable, but in no case hould contraction be given
unless substantial reduction in the oost is realized Wher contraction
is given the change of the canal cross-section abov and b low the work
should be gradual so as to give a good entry and exit, and th oa.na.l sid
and bed, where subjected to increased v looity, protected from erosion by
pitching.
525. Loss of head or heading up tn a canal at a contracted aqueduct.-
There must be a fall in the water I v I at th entry to a contraoted
aqueduct due to the head required to rais the flow from th normal
to the higher velocity, while some furth r h ad du to loss on ' ntry '
is neoessary . This latter varies with th nature of th ntry whioh,
a.s above stat d, should not entail abrupt chang . On th oth r hand
at the exit of the oanal ther is a reduction of velooity whioh is aooom-
panied by a. rise in wat er level reduced by losses in oxit .
In addition ther is the normal suface slope throughout the I ngth of
the work r quirf d to overoome ordinary friotional reRi ~tano(' to flow.
The co-effici nt of resist ance t o flow (' N' of Kutt('r's formula) is
mu oh smaller in a masonry trough with smooth sides than in an earth n
channel, and thu s th ' I) urfac slope would be redu ced, but for any
ordinary work th length of an aqu( du(;t iHso small that th valu of th{'
co-efficient has no p ractical ffect in the matter of head requir d.
This remark docs not apply to works of extraordinary I 'ngth l:Iuoh
as for inst ance the Qunnaram aquedu ct (figure ]] 6) whi ch is n (l.rly
half a mile in length.
Special stress is placed on this point at; very undue promineno if!
frequ ntly given to the low oo-£'ffi cimt of rugosity in trOllgh aqu du cts in
justifying proposals for contraction of wat l'way.
526. Formula and calculations lor bead requlred.-Th n t heading
up (h) of a canal at a oontraot d a quedu ct may be consider d to be
the differenoe of wat er 1 vela at points just above and below the S otions
where oontraotion oommences and oeases Ze88 tht' fall due to th normal
ca.nal surfaoe slope in this dist anc ; xo pt in very long aqu ducts
the latter is so small that it may be neglect ed.
In the case of an abrupt enlargement at the t ail of an aqueduct if V,
be the velocity in the canal 'a nd V~ that in the aqu du ct , th n h th
theoretic rise .in the 1 v ) of the water surface on (·x it ill approximately
givt>n by the equation : -
M= V J (V~- V ,) . (67)
g
(Bellasis hydraulics, Chapter I , para.graph ]8.)
In ordin&ry praotice th enlargement at th ta.il should not be abrupt,
on the ot her hand owing to ddi s, etc., theor tio T suIts cannot b
realized . Aotua.l m6asurement of the ris of wat r I nls at th tail
of oontraoted a queducts with gradual enlargement show ris of water
level at exits somewhat less than hI, and for purpose of oomputat ion
it is safe t o d duot t ht from the hea.d of entry (he) to g t h the n t
hea.d.
346

The general formula. for tlntry into a contraoted aqueduct of velocity

V ?t from a. canal of velocity V, is the 8am~ as for How through a notoh
of similar oro88-sectional area and is as follows :-
D=Cl~2;"[ i {(h.+ ~~)i_(~~)!} +a(he+~~2)!J .. (68)
Where D = discharg .
d = depth of water in the aqueduct.
he = the heading up above the aqueduot trough that is the
head of entry.
l = the mean width of the aqueduot (or notoh).
With a well shaped and gradual entry c would be from '95 to '9.
527. Example of type III syphon aqueduct.-In the oaso of aqueduot
(figure 113)-
D = 562 cuseOB.
V = 2·.f)f.s.
j

V., = 5'0 f.i .

l ' 25.
c = 0'95 .
then 562 = 190 [§(lbe -I- '097) t - '097§ + 4'5 (he + '097) I).
ThiHmay be solved by trial.
Try 11. - 0'3 ft.
thpll diRoharge = 190 ( i ('25 - '097) + 4'5 X '63) .
= 190x2'932=558 cusecs or nearly 562 ouseos.
T11(' ht>l1.d of ntry is thus 0'3 feet.
Th t' r\,pproximate heo,d of entry for a co-efficient unity may be
obtnint,d from the following simple equation :-
1. 0 = V 21_V) 1 . . • . • • . . • . . • (69)
2g
In .
Lhl,;
.
(:I\se thls becomes .(25-6'25)
64 = ' 29 7, or a b out I per cent b~low

the r rmlL given by the mor accurate formula with a 00- fficient of '95.
To find the recovery of 1 v 1 on exit--
ht = V) (Vr-V )) = 2'5 (5-2'5)
g 32
= 6'25_'194
32 -
~rh(lnet heading up at the aqueduot=h ~ he-- f h/.
= 0'3--0'145.
= 0'155 foot.
528. Normallllll'it of beading up due to contraction of an aqueduct.-
Generally wh n th velooity through an aqueduot does not eXoe d
about 5 £ et p er seoond or double the v looity ofth oanal it will be found
that the net heading up oooasioned do s not exoeed 0'2 feet if a gradual
entry and exit be giv n.
When an aqu duot is of oOl1siderabl 1 ngth a bed fall qual to th
urfao slopo of the water in th trough Dlay b given, but for aqueduots
of ordinary length this is unnecessary.
If the waterway of the oana.l is oontraoted at the aqueduot and
a. large head (I.) is requir d to give the neoe sary velooity at entry, the
"qu duot bed may be dropped to this amount and this would result
in ke ping th channel &bove at xGatly corr at normal depth at full
upply, &nd p-cev nt siny h! o.din.g up, hut, 8. in th.e t:l8oIi6 (.){(.)rdinaey
 OROSB-DRAINAGE WORKS A£ D l)R I 'AGE
mRIGATED TRAOTS

submerged droplS, unl til! the entry weI' t.hrough one or mor trapezoidal
notohes of suitabl dimensions, the corr ot depth would only be obtain
at full. upply. Ordinarily in any chInn} of oonsid rabl iz it is qui
unnecessary to give any drop at entry, and the oanal abov a. oontracted
IIoqueduot may be allowed to head up to the xtent l' quired whioh wonld
seldom exceed ±foot.
In a small channel if thc (Jontrnotioll i8 great It dl'op n,t tht' ('ntry
lUay oocasionally be d sir abll',

529. Example of aqu.educt of type n.-Au 'amp} iA "how11 in figur

115 of an aqueduct carrying a canal of nearly th samC' s ize a in th{'
labt example over a smaU{'r drainage of catchm nt at' 0. 5 t qual' mil B
having a maximum flood discharge of 1, 00 OllS os.
For crossing Buch a stream an aqueduot of type II is most suitablt>.
The most important points guiding design suoh as uplift on floors and
covering arches of culverts, percola.tion gradient, stress s in masonry,
(·tc., nrc similar to those fully dealt with in relation to 1,h(' eocnmple of (I,
1,ype III aqu duot and only the now points pertaining to this l' ,rti-
oular type of work will be now discus ed. The work provides room
for a oart road on one side and for riding path on the oth .J' ; if fI, ofl,rt
l'oo.d is not required the bankA on b'lth Hides would be similar to
that on the right side and comiderable redu tion in tho I ngth of thn
eulvert s and cost of th work could be (.Iffcct d. Both 'ntry and exit
arc given by slopes which arc carried under the bank~ thus oonsi.
rlerably reduoing the length of the culv<'l'ts; this devi e haA alRo the
(-'ffect of reduoing the hoight8 of tho ftwO walls, tho quantity, of oarth
work in banks, and the weight of f'arth to be oarried by th o.rch(,8
and piers.
-
The width of the piers must Le (Jomputed with f't·f(·reno(· t the
weight of earthwork to be carril'd thiR h(' jng nltlch grefJ.ter than th
weight of water, and similarly for thc arches under the hanks. The
:trch work under the bed of the (Janal may hao ve a lefls thickness than under
the banks if this results in any mat rial Aaving in COAt; /iA how V('t' the
uplift haA to be balano d suoh alt,:,ration may not ('ntA.il mat('rild Raving
:md in thiFi design no reduction has oeen made.
It is to b e not d th re are no canal wingl:l in thi" design but tIl
clt-ainag wings and floor fLl'lI d Aigned to flElOllt'{· A. per olation grn.dient
not Aweper than] in 5:
34 IRRIGATION

A.rJ in the last oase (figure 113) the design with minor alterations
is one from the Madras Cauvery Project. It will be notic d that the
foundations of the wing walls a.re stepp d up as also are the conor te
sloping floors, the stepping of the latter being at higher levels than

-
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 OROSS-DRAINAGE WORKS AND DRAINAGE OJ' 3
IRRIGATED TRACTS

that of the former. rfhe I ast length of the lin of per olati n to ur~
& gradient not steeper than 1 in 5 is 9 X 5 = 45.£ t. If & eotion b
drawn along a line of peroolation su h as XI XI ~ it will b found that
this length is eoured by the impervious 'oncr te apron, trapezoidal
in plan. On the upper side of th oulv rts no imp rvioue apron a.bo
the drop slope is called for.
The differenoe in bed level (4 feet) of th dra.inag up a.nd down
stream of the oulverts is to be notic d. This is a co. in which th
bed level of the drainage down stream of th oulv rts is to b c 'cavatcd
to keep it 3 feet below the undersid of th culv rt arch at it crown .
.As a oriticism of the design it may b r marked that it might P rhap
be improved by flatter culvert arohes. The ris is liard th spa.n;
with arches with 1/6th rise the floor might be raised by nearly a. foot.
This would entail heavier abutments and possibly thioker arohes
but the upstream slope would be shorter, the wings small J' and th
exoavation less. ..
The downstream slope would not be shortened as th width of bank
oalls for this length of slope.
530. Drainage culvert or syphon aqueduct of type I.-If th oulv rts
in figure 115 were prolonged (as shown in dotted lines) so as to take
the outer slopes of the banks and the wings oorrespondingly shortened
the work would be one of type I.
There would be saving in the wings and fao walls but the xtra
cost of the extension of the oulverts would olearly b gr ator in this 0& •
This would not however be so if the drainag was small r r quiring only
6 to 9 lineal feet of waterway. In suoh a oase type I with r duo d spans
of oulvert would be adopted.
A oonsiderable rise to the ar(;h of typ I works iii d sU'abl wh n
headway oan be spared in order to reduo the nec ssary thickn s of
abutments. -
It is not oonsidered neoessary to further discuss this type of WOT k.
631. Examples or existing aqueducts and syphon aqueducts.-
Drawings of existing aqueducts and syphon aqueducts are giv n in
figures 116 and 117 and noted on as follows :-
(}unnaram aqueduct (jig'Ure 116}.-This is th larg st aqu(duct.
in the Madras Presidency and carri sad Ita oanal over a ial'g branoh
of the Godavari River. The aqueduot consists of 49 spans of 39 fi t
a.nd is 2,247 fe t betw en abutments. .As the riverbed lev I has not
been interfer€d the work is eSB ntially a bridge carrying wat r in plac
of wheeled traffic and apart from the question of level of canal bed th
oonsiderations determining the size of the spans and d tails of founda-
tions and flooring are similar to thoa guiding design of an ordinary
bridge. There is no uplift tending to blow up th flooring and this
oonsideration does not, as in the case of a. syphon, affect th settl ment
of the best length of spa.n and make it desirable to use a oomparatively
short one. In a bridge oVer a large river such as this the use of small
spans would unduly block the water way inducing scours and would b
a.ltogether undesirable. The flooring and apron up and down-atr am
are those which would be requir€d for a bridge with the shallow pier
foundations provided in this work. If de p well foundations had beeD
put in as is so generally done in railwa.y bridges, it would have been
allowable to dispense with protective pitching except round the
piers and to allow the river bed to scour out extra waterway in floods.
The differenoe of level between th oanal F.B.L. and tb river ordin&l'1
350 IRR1GA'I'JQ .. ·
 OROSS-DRAINAGE WORKS AND DR 3 1
IRRIG TED TRAOTS

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352 mRl<iATION

level is 20 feet &nd the length of percolation round the wings appears
to be deoidedly short for so gr &t a. difference of level; the work
however ha stood for many years and one can conclude tha.t th
b",nk and oanal bed are highly impervious to percolation.
KesarapaUi 8'lJp'hon aq1teduct (fig~tre 117).-Ellor canal, Xi tna.
Eastern Delta.
FIG . 117 KESARAPALLI AQUEDUCT ELLORE CANAL.

This work is of type III and is specially oited by- Bligh as beiug
& sound and conomical design. The length of peroolation round tho
wings in this case does not exoe d a gradient of 1 in 3. Th soil is
however retentive blaok soil.
Oombined s'Ypkon aqueduct and surplus sluices (figure 118}.-This is
a. type II syphon aqu duot built on the Commamur Canal, Kistna
Westel'n D Ita; on the left side of the aqueduot surplus sluioes take
the plao of the oanal bank.
582. Superpassages and syphons.-rrhe only distinction between
thes works and aqu duots and syphon aqu ducts is tha.t in the latter
the oana.l is oarried over the oro s drainage, and vice versa in the former
The general f, atures and principles of designs of sup rpassages and
syphons 010 ely follow those of aqueduots and syphon aqueducts. In
both oases in order to make 80 satisfaotory design of wings and earth
oonnexions a. plan of th banks an_d other earth slopes must be plotted
 OROSS-DBAIN GE WORKS AND DRAIN GR OF • 3
IRRIGATED TRAOTS

a.nd the wings de ign d to suit them; this r mark ma.y ind d b true n
a.s a.pplicabl to a.ll irrigation works. The irrigati n ca.na.l will om tim
a.pproaoh the work in full outting, and it banks , ill b m reJy poil
ba.nks but frequently in the case of syphons thi will not 0 a.nd th
canal wUl approaoh th work with part of it water abov ground. Th
dra.inage on the contrary will generally b unbank d and in uoh
there is no advantage in oarrying an earthen bank over th yphon
oulverts a.nd thes works should be of typ III 'xoopt wh r th drainag
is embanked. The r speotive 1 v 1 of th cana'! and dro.inag b ds
on the most suitable alignment of canal will g n rally d rruin with
waterway will be passed underneath the bed of th other; wh r(' th r
is little differenoe of level it is generally advantag on to s phon th
irrigation ohannel rather than the drainage, becau €' as in an irrigation
syphon there is little likelihood of Ncrious obstru tion by roll ·d ilt and
further the canal water is controlled and can be shut off, if silt clearanoe

BIMED SYPHON AND ESCAPE,COMMAMUR CANAL .

IPL AN.

ul

is d sir d. If a driving or riding road along a canal bank is_I quir d

it will be n cessary to construct a bridge at any sup rpassag or
syphon across any drainage which cannot conveni ntly b fold d.
23
 limIGATloN

Figure 119 shows a part-plan and section of a canal syphon design d

in oonnexion with tho Madras Oattv ry R servoir Project to oarry the
main oaDl\1 of oapacity 3,572 ouseos under a dra.inage of 16·9 square
miles. The level of the bed of the oanal is 160'49 and that of the
draina.ge + 162'3. The oa.nal bank oarries a oa.rriage road on the left
side and a bridge aoross the drainage is therefore provided on that side.
The oanal is for oed through the oulverts at a velooity of 5'2 feet per
sooond and requires a .head of 2/3 of a foot to effeot this, It is desira.ble
to pa.ss water through a syphon with oonsiderable velooity to minimise

~IG . 1I9. SUPER PASSA GE.

! PLAN.
+'8.·1
4-'1.

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. ,.....
MlIlAL. ... .

LONGITUDfNAL SECTI ON.

CROS. 8£GTION .

.., 't ..
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 cnOSS-DRAINAGE WORKS AND DRAINAGE 1!'
IRRIGATED TRACTS

aUt troubles. The full supply level in the canal below th w r i

thu + 166'83 and uplift on tho oov ring of th oulverts is oonsid abl
being 9'5 fe t (allowing half a foot for friotion in tIl ba.rr I ) and a.
minimum thiokness of 4i feet masonry at tIl orown of th a.roh .
a.llowed; this app ears somewhat sma.ll and 5:f, t thiokn would b
better. An alternative would b to US Ii to 2 fe t ferro-oonore slab
oovering bolted through the piers to the foundation in a similar ma.nn r
to the Kao Nadi Syphon aqueduot (Fig. 114) abov ; this would allow
th depth of the oulvert floor to be reduc d by a.bout 4 fe t and s oure
the reduotion of the uplift pressur . s both on oulvert oovering and flooring
by the same amount. The uplift h ad on the culv rt floors is du to
(167'49-145'83)=21'66 feet. The design providcs for a. oonor to
flooring 4 feet thiok to resist this. Th d ad wight of suoh a floor
would balanoe 8 feet and th remainder of th pr ssur would b tak n
up by aroh thrust. If the floor were rais d 4 feet its thiokn ss might
safely be reduoed to 3 feet. The piers and abutments of tho work oould
a.lso be reduced in seotion if a. slab oovering anchored to th jloor were
used. It appears probable that the design revised on these lin s would
prove economioal ; at any rato it is worth coneid ration, and th working
out of an alternative design on theso lines would be an instruotiv
example.
LEVEL-ORO SSING S, INLETS AND OUTLETS.

688. Level-crossings.-When a oanal is taken across and through

a drainage at or about the natural level of the draing " b d this is oall d
a 'level-orossing'. The crossing may be regard d as the crossing of th
canal by the river or vice versa and is effected by the oonstruotion
of a regulator, or wcir, or floor with falling shutters aoross th drainage
just below the orossing place; a regulator is generally construoted aorOS8
the oanal immediately below the orossing.
The oondition of a level-crossing is thus very similar to that of h o.d.
works, viz., a diversion work aoross a river with a h ad regulator on on
flank; but in addition there is an infall in th shape of tho upp r s otion
of the canal entering the river on a lev 1 with its bed on tho rev rae
flank of the div rsion work. In the case of a level-crossing the oanal
generally oarries the greater part of the irl'igation water, which is
mcrely supplem nted by the flow of the drainag ,and it is thus important
that the flow at its wall should not be obstructed by undue deposition
of silt above the diverion wor,lt across the drainag. Wh n tho floods
in the drainage are liable to rise to a lev('l much higher than F ..L.
in the canal above the infall it is oooasionally n cessary to provid
a regulator aoross the wall to pr v nt th flood wa.ter and silt from the
river flood bcing oard d upstream into th oanal. The r gula.tor
aoross the canal below the orossing is similar to the h ad sluioe on ordina.ry
river headworks. The diversion work aero s the drainage may b an
open l' gulator, or a weir with or without orest shutters, or a masonry
floor with shutters, the orest in all oases being of the height r quired
to hold up water to the level neoessary for the full supply of th caMl
below.
Th re are in South India. ma.ny lev I.orossings ff, oted by means
of solid a.nicutB or anicuts with dam ston s but wh r this typ of work
is constructed silt troubles at th crossings are g nora.lly ilq)Elrienoed, and
a. river regulator, or shuttered floor, or low weir with relatively high
23A
 m,RIGATION

orest shutters, is much to be preferred to a solid weir. If a solid a.niout

is built it should be provided with effioi nt scouring sluices. preferably
on both flanks.
Level-crossings are fr quently u ed in all sizes of irrigation canals
but are sepcially common in crossing very large drainages where the
cost of syphon or syphon aqueduct would be prohibitive. In the cas
of small ohannels the only permanent work at a level-orossing is £re-
qu ntly a regulator across the channel below the crossing the barrier
aoross the drainage being an earth n bank washed a.way and replaoed
after every flood.
Th works comprising this type of cross-drainage work do not
in any way differ from the works already described under "headworks"
and no speoia.l typical designs are here given.
584. Inlets and outlets.-A oross drainago water • can be disposed
of by an inlet which admits the drainage water on one side of a canal
and an outlet whioh passes out~an equal quantity of water on thc
opposite sid. A level-orossing is a. form of an inl t and .outlet with
sills at the oanal bed level.
585. Inlets.-Inlets are merely openings in canal banks admitting
upland drainage water t o the canal. If tho drainage course is very
shallow (say not exceeding 2 feet deep) or if merely surface drainage is
to be admitted, the inl t may be a floor or low weir, similar to tank
surplus works already d soribed, ov r whioh water to a d pth of from 1
to 2 f, et may pass into the canal. Th floor or cr st of the low weir
would b at M.W.L. in the canal and the canal should be so aligned as
to b at the sitc of th inlot so that M.W.L. is juct about levE'l with th9
natural ground surface. Where other than shallow drainages ar admitted
into canals through opcning in the margins below F.S.L. the can,,"l
water will back up the drainago and, when drainage is not ntering
th oanal, wat r will stand stagnant in the drainage channel. Where
a. road or inspection path along the bank is neoessary. deep inlets must
be bridged ; if th r is any fall from th > bed of th inl t to the canal
b d, a drop wall with apron or a pitoh d I:llope must be provided to give
ad quat proteotion against soour but if the inlet joins the oanal at
bod level but little proteotion is neoessary.
Unless th drain ntering a oanal by an inlet is banked it is necessary
to oarry th canal at the site of an inl t in such depth of outting that tho
F. .L. i at or blow th I v I of the ground on the margills of the drain,
as failing this the oanal water would submerge the ground on the upper
sid of th oanal. As an alternative a drainage sluioe can be placed
aoross the infall the shutt rs of whioh are only open d when the water
in the drain is at 80 high r level than the oanal F.S.L.; the shutters
may be band ope rat d or be automatio flap shutters similar to those
shown in figures 123 a.nd 124 below. Very small drainag s are admitted
into oanals through pipes or oulverts passing through the banks.
In South India during the rainy sea '011 the canals are g n rally
running full and thus outfall from an in! t is n arly always w 11 cusl}ioned
and proteotiv flooring or pitohing r quir d below an inl t is far 1 S8
than in th oas of 0. imHar tank surplu work; a pitch d floor and
r 'v .tm nt of th canal slop a hown in figur 120-a is fr qu ntly all
tha.t is nc ary, nd in many cas s v n this can b omitted and the
inl t th noon i ts of only a rough stone floor at natural ground level
 OROSS-DRAINA.GE WORKS AND DRA.I AGE OF 357
IRRIGATED TRACTS

with the nd of ~ho can.n.l hank at either end of th in} t proteotod

by rev tment. FIgure 120 shows a low w ir and figure 12 .a a. fiu
inlet of the types referred to .

FIG. 12.0. ... ow wa,,, n"..tlT.

n.ueH JNL&T WIT H AE.VSi:TT It D CIfAH ....1.. & LOPll.

PI •• 120 (a) .

Surfaoe inlets a.re generally arranged so that th d~ r noe of 1 v 1

between the M.W.L . in the drain abov the work, and that in the cana.l
shall not be great, usually this is restricted to between 1 and Ii £ ct.
536. Canal outlets or escapes.-Thcse ar surplus works whioh may b
either flush escapes, weirs, or sluic s, and may built in onnexion
with an opposite to inlets, or as indep('ndent surplus works. Outlets may
be olassified as surface outIes, which are only capable of discharging
water from a level abov ordinary F.S.L. of the canal, and surplus or scape
sluices, which can discharge wator down to th I vels of their sills.
537. Surface outlets.-Surfac out) ts may be w irs, 01' flush scap s,
either with 01' without dam stones or orest shutters, and of d sign similar
to corre ponding surplus works of tanks. Tho sit s of suoh works ar
generally fixed by the faoiliti s which exist for the disp 1'801 of th surplus
water after leaving outlet, and th design must b suit d to th lev 1
and the fall of the bed of the surplus ohannel. In small irrigation
ohannels,weirs and floors with dam stones are economioal and eit otiv
forms of surfaoe outlets ; th y operate in pr oisely th sam way a
similar works on tanks, but ar not open to the objection, which appli 8
to tank weirs, that t heir coming into operation entails 10s8 of a consid .r ..
able quantity of impounded water. Crest shutters should only b us d
for such works where special r sid nt esta.blishm nt is maintain d to
work t hem.
Surface out l t s only p rmit of sU1'plusing wat r fl mI · JA a.bov
their orest, and wh re this is at F.S.L., th depth of fJurpluA is limited
to t he d ifference of level b twe n F.S.L. and M.W.L. in th canal.
It is generally desirabl to k p this low and in most cas 8 it is limi d
from 1 to 2 [, at .
358 mRIGATION

538. Outlet or surplus slulces.-8luic s, used as surplus escapes, must

be d signed to suit the lev 1, bed fall, a.nd nature of soil of the outfall
ohannel. and if this ohannel has to be specially construoted, its bed lev I
and fall must b fixed with r ti r nc to that of the drainage into which
HoutfaU~.

'1_:. IZi. RA~t.A"M]A SURPLUS SLUlce6.

'" bC1'T BANK OF CONMAMUR(;ANAL.

::;;;;;;::
~ .. -
,
..
•
.
d' -
~

_... _ .• _
•

...
.
. -
• • •~

'.\
I

.............

It is a great advantage to have the sill of a surplus sluice, and bed

of the outfall chann I, at (or b low) the oanal bed level, as this enables
the canal to be oompletelyemptied, a.nd also facilitates removal by soour
of any aooumulation of silt in the canal bed in the vioinity. Wh n
praotioa.bl , surplus sluioes should b construct d wher there i.s an
xisting draina.g with it bed level at or below th canal bed lev I into
whioh it can safely discharg either dir ot or through a short artificial
oha.nn 1. The conditions gov rning design of outfall sluices are similar
to those of oth r regulators or sluices, aprons being required to gi'Ve
b d and marginal proteotion to suit th e conditions of volume and velooity
of flow. whil protection against xcessiv p rcolation and uplift must
be provided on the usual lin s both in r p ct to impervious aprons
t&.nd bank connexions.
 OROSS-DRAINAGE worurs AND DRAINAGE OF 369
IRRIGATED TRAOTB

S~ao~ outlets and surplus sluioes .may be comb in d by making sluic

openmgs m the walls of surplus w lTS, or constructing urplu slui
without face walls, and with th I v 1of th top of th ir hutter at bout
F.S.L., so that surplus water can pass ov r their tops of th gates wh n
closed (vide figure 121). Surplus sluices can be installed ry conomi.
cally in the side walls of aqueduots, whil ,by keeping th top of th wa.ll
at F.S.L., these oan be made to s rve as surfac outl ts.
Figure 118 show a syphon aqueduct with surplus lui R und in
figure 117 th sid walls of th aqu duct form sttrfac outI t. '
The sluioe shown in figur 121 is typical of th mma1 £ rm of th
outlet sluioes and canal regulators in Madras. It will be s n that
in this sluice there i~ a sill rais d 2 £ t abov th canal bed although
the outfall ohannel IS at oa.nal bed lev L This featur of th d sign
is open to criticism and it would have probably n b tt<.>r to hav
the sill at the oanal bed leveL
539. Outlets bunt in connexlon with Inlets. -Unl s the dra.inag
likely to be received into a canal through an inlet is 80 small, in oom.
parison to the canal oapacity, that the water can b absorb din th canal,
it is necessary to construct an outlet to dispos of it. Th minimum
discharge capaoity of suoh an outl t will b fixed by that of th inl t,
but it may oocasionally be given greater capacity to (·nable it to dispos
of excess water brought down by the oanal. G n rally an outl t is built
in the canal bank directly opposik to the inlet, but oooasionally it is
more convenient to build it below tho site of th infall Md in th latter
case the carrying rapacity of the canal abov the levd of th sill of th
outlet must not b less than the maximum disoharg from th inl t.
Surface outlets are automatic in action, but surplus sluio 8 in oonn xion
with inlets should, as in the oas of tanks, only b r Ii d on wh r
operating establishment , r sid nt at th sluie site, is maintained.
540. Objection to disposal of cross· drainage by Inlets and outlets.-
The great objeotion to disposal of cross.drainag by inlets and outl ts
is the quantity of silt, specially bed-silt which is ther by carri d into th
irrigation ohannel; where this system of orossing drainage is adopted
the obstruotion by silt deposit is frequently very gr at, and ther ar
many isolated irrigation ohannels in South India from whioh, in ord r
to maintain supply, extensive silt clearanc at tho site of v ry inl t
has to be undertaken after very considerable fall of rain. Wh re an
outlet sluice with a deep sill is built in connexion with an inlet much of th
silt brought into the canal can be passed off through the outl t, but in
default of establishments the"se works cannot be relied. on, and surfaoe
outleis have frequently to be provided for small channels in spite of th
great COSti and inconvenience resulting from silt deposit.
541. Outlets not connected wIth fnlets.-E"I".a.pe slide s having no
connexio with oros'l drainag(' works are provided in long canals to
enable w... ter to be reduced befoTe this oould be effccted by r gulation
of the head sluices. If the sills are at, or below, canal bed. lev I theao
works are also useful for scouring purposes and for quiokly draining th
ca.n.al when closed for repairs. Escape sluices should be spa.oed at
suitable intervals throughout the lengths of long canals, sites being
ohosen for preference above reaohes in which lia.bility to breach s or
l.l ngerous leaks is greatest; the sites however must be located where
suitable outfall ohannels for the surplus wa.ter can be arranged for .~
360 mRIGATION
,
reasonable cost. No rule can be givcn for the discharge capacity of each
sluic but it should s ldom b gr ater than half that of the canal or less
than th full supply flow of the canal at the site of the work less its
full supply flow at th next lower outl t. Surplus sluices are chiefly
required after v ry heavy faUs of rain in the irrigated area wh n culti-
vators block the pipe outlets to th ir fi ld channels wh n breaches must
oocur unless th canal water lev Is Can b promptly lowered.
042. Outlets for canals carried in single bank.-Th unbanked
lengths of canals wher carried in single bank form practically continuous
surfac inl ts. To dispose of the water so rec ived, outlets of suitable
spacing and capacity must b provided.
548. Canal scouring slulces.-It is very d sirable that a scouring
aluice should be provid d in the vioinity of any inlet through whioh any
consid rable quantity of heavy silt is brought into a oanal. The sill
level of such a work should b~ at or below the b d of the canal, and the
b d of outfall channel should also b below th bed level of the oanal
and have such a slop as to enable it to carry away any silt scoured from
the oanal bed; if a drop can be giv n from th canal to the outfall
channel so much the b tt r. Wh 1'e the water entering a ohannel
through an inlet is dispos d of by a weir of flush outlet, scouring vents
in the weir or a special soouring sluice auxiliary to the surplus works
should be providod whercver practicabl to dispose of the silt carried
through the inlet into the ohann I.
544. Scouring sluice in the first reach of main canal.-A certain
quantity of heavy bed silt almost invariably finds its way through the
head sluio s into the first reach of a main canal and it is on this account
most desirable, where suitable facilities exist for disposal of the outfall
water at a suitabl 1 v 1, to have a scouring sluice between one and three
miles from the h ad of a canal; such a sluic if properly worked will be
of gr at assistance in keeping down the bed lev 1 of the first reach ot
canal. Deep sills, wide spans, and high velociti s of disoharge, are
d sirable in soouring sluices, and extensive pitching down-stream of
these works is generally nooessary.
5415. Diversion of natural slU'face drainage by contour irrigation
canals.-Fignr 122 shows th natUl'e of the local interferenoe with
surfao drainage which must r sult wher a canal, railway or road is
carri d a ross the lines of drainage . Th oanal line ABC crosses a
drainag at B, and th cross drainag work at B must provide for the
run-off of the oatohm nt area (a d f b) int rcepted, and the whol length
of outfall ohann I from B to It must be abl to carryall this run-off plu8
th run-off gradually Mcruing from th 901' a d h f below the line of canal.
Both b for and after th construction of th canal the requir d
capa.city of th drain at 11, would b that du to the 901' It a 11, b but before the
con ~ruotion of this canal th fUll-off frOID this ar a. into t)le natural
 OROSS-DRAINAGE WORKS AND DRAIN GE OF 361
IRRIGATED TR OT

drain k h is that indicated by th arrows and th drain would .

surface dr.a.inage. through it I ngth and would r quir pa. ~
gradually mcr~smg betwe n k and hand th capa ity at B th oint
of canal oro smg would be that due to th area 9 B b. P

Fr.G. 1~2. .

.......
........................ - . - .- .-.-.-.~",..,.

The construction of the canal would havo the eff, ot of divl'fting

~o. the point B the drainage of the cross lin d areas, whioh prl'viomlly
JOIned the drain in dribl ts at difF rent plaoes along its ours lwtw '(.'11
Band h, and the drain at B must in futul'a carry a run-off du to th
area a d J b in plac of that due to the area 9 B n, whioh wa.s all it had
previously to carry. Thus although previous to oonatnlction, th£' drain
may have been of suffioient cross seotion throughout its length, it may
be necessary to widen or d epen th drain bctwe n Band h , th onlarg-
ment being a maximum at B below the canal gradually diminisbjng
to nil at h.
The quantity of surface drainage diverted from its natUl'al cours
to the site of the oanal oross drainage work in th cas of large drainag
is generally small in oomparison to th whole run-off of the drainag
but in the case of small drainages, suoh as tbat illustrated in th figur.
the r verse may be the case and th matter r quires consideration in
connexion with oross-drainage works.
546. Catch drains.-Where a considerabl quantity of 8urfac
drainage is intercepted by a contour canal a catch drain graded to lead
the intercepted surface drainage to the nearest oross-dminage work
should be provided olear of the outer toe of the canal bank.
 362 IRRIGATION

64'7. T&ll scape. -It is desirable to have some form of automatic

surplus scape at the tail end of a canal or channel to enable exoess
water to be surplused without causing a breach. This end would not be
satisfa.otorily met by leaving an open end to the canal because the
required water level at the tail could not be maintained and the tail pipe
outl ts would not get th ir proper supply, and aL'Io beca.use the a.rrange.
ment would ontail waste of water.
The ordinary form of tail esoape is a weir aoross the oha.nnel with
sill at F.S.L. of the channel; such a work holds up water to th required
I vel and only allows surplus water to pass. Where no masonry tail
escape is provided the tail of the channel should be cross.bunded, the
top of the bund being lower than the ohannel bank so as to form a
breaching seotion.
DRAINAGE WOR'l[S.

648. Drainage of the irrigated area.-In South India the inridence

ofrainfall if! such that the irr'igation supply given to:any area i~a short
time, say a week or less, is small in comparison to what is frequently
preoipitated by heavy fallE! of rain; it follows, therefore, so far as it
conoerns the general drainage of any area, that if natural means of
drainage is adequate before th introduotion of irrigation and no inter.
ferenoe with the drains is caused by the works the natural drainages
will, after introducing irrigation, still be adequate.
It is ess<!lltial in laying out an irrigation system to see that natural
drainage oourseB aro rel.lOrveu for drainage purposes and are not obstruoted
by \vorks more than is absolutely neoessary, and that adequate oross
drainage works are provided whenover a channel has to be carried
across a line of natural drainage, Tn very flat localities generally, and
always in deltas, there exist considerable areas, the natural drainage of
whioh is bad and where water stagnates forming marshes. Much la.ud
of this kind, although unfit for dry cultivation, is even in its undrained
state fit for wet cultivation in a year of normal rainfall, while artificial
drainage will make such land oapable of oarrying wet orops even in
yea.rs of abnormal rainfall and will enable lower lying land to be cultivated
in normal years.
Th artifioial improvement of drainage by enlargement of existing
and oonstruotion of new drains muat thcr fore form a feature of irrigation
projeots whioh inolude in th it· soope the irrigation of suoh low lying
lands as are abovEfreferr d to.
649. Grading of dralos.-The difference between the level of the
water into whioh a drain disoharges and of the land to be drained may
be termed the drainage head, and where this is sufficient a. drain should
be graded to secure a non-silting velocity of flow; indeed this velooity
need only be limited by what would entail in convenient scour of the
bed or margins of the drain.
The maximum surface slope which can be given to a drain is the drain-
age head divided by the length of flow measured along the course of the
drain, and it is wll e-re the drainage head is small relatively to the length
of the drain that a rious difficulties in regard to drainage are met with.
Where a drainage system discharg a into a river it is possible to get
an increase of slope for a drain by moving the outfall to a site lower
down the river, 80 long as the slope of the former is less than that of
the la.tter.
 OROSS-DRAINAGE wons AND DRAINAGE OF 63
IRRIGATED TRACTS

Where t~e outfall is into the sea, or into a tidal estur.ry in hiob
the mean daily level of water at the outfal1 vari but little from m cO
sea. level, the only methods of increasing the slope of a drain eith
to shorte~ its c?urse, or. to raise. the surface lev I of the upper reach
of the dram, which entails excluding from the drainage scheme th 10 or
lying lands in the upper parts of tract to be drained.
The very fluctuating quantities of flow in drains and the restricted
fall in flat areas not only l~ ~ the de1?osit of silt but also to the growth
of weeds and grasses, which IS most difficult to effeotively control and
whioh greatly obstruots disoharge; it is on this account d irabl
wherever the drainage head is small to exclude from a drainage soheme
any specially low lying blocks, the inclusion of which would hav the
effect of restricting the slope of the drain.
The ebb and flow of tide in a stream is us ful in preven ing the
deposit of silt and growth of weeds, and it is therefore desirabl to k p
the tail reaches of drains falling into tidal water open to the run of the
tide wherever this doe' not entail submergence of cultivable lands by
salt water.
The level of water at the outfall of a drainage system in tidal water
may usually for purposes of design be assumed as the mean of the daily
water levels. Where the outfall is into a river great fluctuations in
level occur at irregular intervals and the level at the outfall may some-
times be taken as the mean level of the mouth of greatest river discharge j
it is however impossible to give a hard and fast rule for this, and the
special conditions of each case must be considered on their merits.
The bed fall of a drain will conform generally with its surfac slope
and the depth will be limited by practical considerations in r lation to
difficulties of excavation, especially subsoil water levels. Where a drain-
age is open to the run of the tide it is desirable to cut the tail r aoh as
deep as possible, as tidal action is much more powerful in a d p than
in a shallow channel of the same cross seotion.
The difficulty of keeping open an outlet from a drain or backwa.ter
to the sea owing to the tendency to the formation of a sand ridge or
bar aoross the outfall has already been referred to in Chapter IV and
it is, on this account, better to locate the outfall of a drain in a tidal
estuary whioh keeps permanently open, rather than attempt to open an
outfall direct to the sea, although the latter may be the oheapest and
shortest line.
550. Banks ot dratns.-The surface of the water in drains whioh
traverse the lands draining into them must be below the level of th
lands and although"the earth from the excavation may sometimes be
utilized by being spread out in low lying places, it will generally have
to be disposed of in spoil banks on one or both sides of the drain; it is
necessary to leave numerous openings in suoh spoil banks to serve as
inlets for the drainage of the fields.
The water surface in the tail reaches of drains are frequently carried
at levels higher than those of the lands through which they run, and
unless the lands are unoccupied waste the water must be prevented from
spreading out over the country by continuous banks, and the lands in
these limits must either be left undrained or dra.ined to some lower
outfall.
364 mRIGATION

Both continuous and discontinuous banks should be set well back

from the edges of the drainage cuts leaving very wide berms; this leaves
a. clear watCl'Way for the disposal of exceptional floods and gives
facilities for widening the drains should this be at any time found
desirable.
550 (a) I. Drains may be divided into two main divisions:-
(1) Drains which carry upland floods through other lands without
dra.ining the latter.
(2) Drains which drain lands adjacent to them all along their
course.
No. (2) may be divided into the following classes :-
(a) Drains draining purely wet lands;
(b) Drains draining wet lands similar to (a) but carrying also
irrigation water; and
(c) Drains which carry upland drainage and discharge into
drains of olass (a) or (b).
A drain may fall into more than one division or class in different
reaches; if it does, each reach may require independent and appropriate
treatment.
II. Fordrains (generally rivers), division (1), which carry extraneous
floods and which pass through without draining any land in the lower
reaches, banking is clearly indicated, e.g., reaches of the Godavari and
other rivers where there are no drainage sluices in the bank.
III. Dealing with drains in the second division-
01&8 (a) (drains draining purely wet Iands).-The peouliarities
of these drains are-
(1) flat surface falls and flat catchments usually of wet lands j
(2) smallness of the drain sections as they are designed
usually by the formula 27 M2' /s or 27 M.
(3) flooding, during high water, of the lands and drain mar-
gins with the following characteri tios :-
(a) submersion of lands for about a week;
(b) large volumes of flood stored on fields; this field storage
reduces the water-level in the drain and serves to moderate the floods;
(c) increased waterw~ during high floods as water flows
over the drain berms and fields in high floods.
Advantages of (2) and (3) will be lost if the drain is banked. H the
deep section of the banked drain is the same as that of the unbanked
drain, I.e., if it corresponds to 27 M or 27 M' /3 water levels in the drain
will rise and hold up local drainage. H larger drains are provided, the
cost will increase and the drains will tend to silt badly as for the greater
part of the year, only a small percentage of the full section will be active.
The disadvantages of banking depend on the slope of the drain
a.nd the country. In steep country and in land where field storage is
negligible, banking is not essential but a banked drain may do little
ha.rm if proper outfalls are provided.
01&8 (b)-Draina draining and 0180 irrigating wet land8.-If the
irrigation discharge is -more than the drainage discharge, the case ha-s
to be treated. as an irrigation channel. H the drainage discharge is
more than the irrigation discharge (and particularly if the difference is
very large), the case is diffioult. Irrigation channels require banks
while drainage may be easier and more effective without banks. The
best solution is to separate drainage and irrigation if possible. The
 OROSB-DRIA.NAGE WORKS AND DRAINAGE OF nUUGATED 365
TRAOTS

next best solution is to provide low banks and regulators of amp] water-
way so that the channel may have ampJe discharging cti n in high
water.
. Olas8 (c)-Drains which carry. upland drainage and di8charge into
dralns of Clas8 (a) or (b).-These drams are gen rally long. Th y drain
large areas in the uplands and flow through deltaic Jands. Th upland
floods-
(1) may arrive at a different time from the 10001 floods .
(2) may coincide with local floods; ,
(3) may be larger than local floods;
(4) may be equal to the 10001 floods;
(5) may be less than the local floods .
Oonditions (1) and (3).- Banks desirable, plu·ticularly when th
upland floods are very large.
Oonditions (1) and (4).-Banks desirable, particularly wh n the
upland floods are very large.
Oonditions (1) and (5).-Banks desirable, but not ntio.l.
Conditions (2) and (3).- Banks desirable if uplund flooos ar
large but the case should be studied in detail.
Oonditions (2) and (4).- Balanco of advantages indeterminate.
Each case must be studied in detail.
Oonditic>n8 (2) and (5).-Banks ordinarily unnecessary. In many
of these oases, it is best to adopt a triple section as shown in diagram I.
The main or the middle drain should be retained for upJand floods and
the side drains should be used e:s:clusively for the delta floods. Wher
this is not possible and the damage in the absonce of banks is proved
to be considerable, the drain may have to be banked and outfallsluic 8
of ample discharging capacity provided at suitable intervals and con·
nected by parallel side drains.
N. Where lands are subject to tidal influence they sbotJld 1; pro-
tected inflow of salt water either by erecting bunds all round the oultur·
able land or by banking the main dra.ins and constructing inlets at the
mouths of subsidiary drains.
V. Occasionally, there are cases in the delta of v ry long drains
which pass through undulating country with pronounced valleys and
ridges or local depressions. Though these valleys and depressions
may be low, local rain and irrigation water may not submerge them so
much as drain water. This 'is because irrigation and local drainage
water is oftentimes withheld or artificially excluded from these lands
and rains on the land will not be heavy enough to submerge them.
uch lands may be badly damaged if the drain is not banked. If th
affected interests are large und the damages (remissions) heavy, it IJlay
be desirable to bank the drains past these depressions to keep out the
368 llUUGATtON

drainage from the upper reaches flooding the low landa-vide diagrams
II and IT!. These cases should be also studied in detail individually
before banking is proposed. .
FIGS. 122 (a) and (b).
D,AGRAM J
~ ~o, To SS ~hf .

-
I
I
I
I
I
~ l
,,
I (
IoJ
7.
I .J

~:. ...
".ill
I:)
""< 0
I
I
"
Cl
Ir

f
__.;._ .. _ _ _. - _. ,
~
..:.~. - - _I-- B

,.~---

SeCTIO N ALON G A, B.
NOT To Se Al[.
l. I.. VAI.I.IU® WArE'. LIVlL 0,. THE LA"0511)[ ISJ.OW£R T~AHWAT£ALtvEl Ifj 1M! DR Alfj .
TN£ OllAl" ~AY Bt BANKED
:to , .. V~t.H1 ® WArE R l£Vt L0,. TII£ L""o 510£ Is HIGHUI TIIAII WATE It lrVH IN T~( O.l\IIf 5,01
THE DRA '" 5 "OVLO NOT a, 81',,1([0.

VI. In aJl oases where banking is proposed, it is necessary to consider

the interests involved and the expenditure on banking in relation
to the benefit'i tha.t it will confer large a.nd costly schemes for
banking should not be proposed xcept on unexceptional grounds.
 CROSS-DRAI,NAGE WORKS AND DRAt AGE 3 7
IRRIGATED TRACT

Vll. Where banks are formed, they should be set as far ap&rt
possible. The exact width between them will depend on th rel tion
between the normal discharge a.nd the flood dis barge a.nd this should
be determined carefully, the error, if a.ny, being on the liberal side.
FIGS. 122 (0) and (d).
n/JlGRAM ,n
_fhruL_ -
~Sc"L'
~--

Sl:tTmll 0" 'Ie X

't NOT To SSAL£

!lilT( C1f 'LDOO$ . AUGUST • !i ., " 9 10 M I. 13 'M

'1,000 U .. 'L ," toe:: .;....-----------------
"'AT£II LLV£l. 01(
DIIAIiI

I. To'
1lM~ .
~ '''l>T·IIr'-----------------
"'-'tIIUOPO"' O''''G "'_Y(S
A.. .. Ill ..
368 IRRlGAtION

ANNEXURE.
Bivers and drain8 in deltM.-A longitudinal 800ti n of the river or drain (existing
or pro}lQSed) should be drown, showing the high flood levels (i. ., omitting abnormal
high floods oocurring, say once in 15 years or 110) and the adjoining field levels. T
flood levels should bo d signed (as is now tho practice) Q8Suming that the drain
is continuously bank d and without any aUowance for the probable absorptive effeot
duo to the £Iood spreading out and filling the dopressions. Where tho80 flood levols
are not more than a foot above th fields at any plaoe, banking would not be neOO8·
sa.ry at that plaoe. Wh re the flood levols aro higher, each of tho depressions
orossed by the drains should be taken up and oxamined as noted below.
l!'rom th known floods and flood levels in th drain, or as approximately 88
possibl(', froro th availnble knowledge of the looality and the neighbourhood,
a flood stage diagram-please 800 diagram IV-should be drawn for a typicnlly high
flood condition, froro til date on whioh the water in the drnin rose higher than one
foot abovo the adjaoont levels in tho depression till the water again falls to the
sam level. The water I velR on the corresponding dates in the area bohind the
bank MSuming it to be oompletely land·locked, should be worked out on the basis
of aocumulo.tivo run-off from the aotual rainfall from day to day, and the capacities of
th waterspr ad f that ar a at 8UOOOS8ivo oontours. These levels shOUld be
plotted on th flood stage diagram. If the co.lculated water levels on the land are
(1) lower than the wat r levels in the drains or (2) higher for say only a couple of
dllys, with appreciably lower lovel on the preceding days, during the higher stages
of the drain und r oonsideration, thon tho particular dopreS8ion should be banked
across anti nOCOABnry outfall sluic s built in tho bank. If tho conditions (1) and (2)
aro not satisfied, the drain should not be bank d across the depression. A diagr6m
(IV) illustrating the different cases is appended.
(a) Drain water lovols-Line 1 in
diagram IV.
(b) Land side water levels-Lino 2 in Wator lovels on tho land side lower thWl on
diagram IV. tho drain side all the timo--Drain may
be banked.
(c) Land sid wawr leyels-Lin 3 in Wator lovels on th land side lower for
diagra.m IV_ part of the time and higher for a few doys
than the water levels in the drain.
Dr'ain may be banked.
(d) Land sid wator lev h!- Lino 4 in Water 1 vola on tho land side lower for
diagram IV. part of tho time and highor for Il long
period than tho water levels in the
drain. Drain should not be banked.
utfoll sltli es in the banks should be provided with waterways large enough
to drain tho land-Ioek d drainag in the quiekest possible time a.fter the floods in
the drain subsido Ilnd not d ign d lIUIroly on a run-off of two inehes in 24 hours.
In the ab neo of reliahl information about the floods in tho drain Of in case of
doubt, as for eX6IDpl , whon a new drain is to be dug, the drain may bo designed
without b!lnks and the qu etion examined in the light of actual experienoo.
Wh th r lands should drain directly into 11 banked drain Of their drainage
should b let into tho drain 01' sea at a lower point or into n different drain, d ponds
on local conditions. For oX6IDple, sid drains empbying into tho sea. or at a lower
point of t.h drain, or into another drllin mny be ben fi ial in some cnsea but ill
other oaIIOlI, they may bo oostly if th y havo to oross IIDndy ridgos.

551. Drainage outfall slulces.-Where the level of ordinary floods

or of high tid s, is sufficient to submerge cultivated lands by backing
up of water through the drainage outfall it is sometimes necessary to
build a sluic across the outfall with shutters, either automatio or hand-
operated, which are closed 80 as to prevent the river water backing up
the drain whenever the water level at the outfall is higher than that in
the dra.in and opened when these conditions are reversed. The general
design of such sluices is similar to outl t sluices from a ca.nal and when
fitted with hand-worked shutters th sa 801 0 ar similar to outlet sluices
or regulators. Automatio working is secured by shutters hung on
 (jROBS-DRAINAGE WORKS .AND DRAIN.AGE 0
mRIGATED 'IRAOT

horizontal axes along their upper edges i such shutters are termed flap
8hutters and are closed by water pressure whene r the wa.ter 10
the outfaJ.l is at a higher level than the water in the drain and th y 0
when the pressure acts in the reverse direction. The great obj tion
to automatio shutters is that drift is likely to g t between tb shutter
and the sill or sides of the vent and prevent the prop r closing of th
shutter and when there is much drift in the river this pre ents fli tiv
working. Tidal outfall sluices must open and clo e twice every day
and for these it is almost essential to have automatic shutters but for
outfall sluices which only require closing in time of high floods hand-
worked shutters are generally preferable.
Figure 123 shows an open drainage outfall in tho Coleroon river
Hood bank which has been converted into an outfall sluice with woodeu
Ha.p shutters.
Flap shutters of the type tha.t were provided originally do not usually
olose tight as the hinges are not fix d oa.r fully with th r ult tha.t th
shutters cannot olose at top or bottom . Further th 1'e Was no prOvision
for a displaced hinge or worn shut ter.
CROSS SB.CT'ON .

"'G. l2oa.

seCTION OF SH UTTEfl
 taBiOA..TION

An improved type has since been evolved. This type eliminates the
above d teots as the suspension in this oase is a. 100S6 link: Besides, the
shutter is partia.lly selt.balanced on th hinge bra.cket a.nd so, more
sensitive. Further, the opening is grea.test for the sa.me a.ngi of
displaoement of the suspension pin in this co. e which increases a.lso itli
sensitiveness.
The water way of outfallsluio s in the tidal reaohes should have extra.
disoharging capacity. The total discharge to be provided may be tak n
loB 9/7 of discharge arrived at as per calculation.
 OROSS-DRAINAGE WORKS D DRAINAGE 0 71
IRRIGATED TRACT

Figure 124 show a balanced iron flap shutter re ntI d . ad. by

Mr. W. P. Roberts of the Madras Publio Works Departmen and fitt
to a tidal outfall at Masulipatnam.

FI6.124. ::'LEVATIOti.

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.. - • - - - - - - - - - - __ - - - - _ ... - - __ - - _..I

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The latter design is very suitable for a tidal outfall as being counter-
balanced it opens and closes with a very small difference of water level
on either side of the shutter.
2"
372 mRIGArrON

In designing tidal outfall sluices they must be given extra dischar 10

capacity to allow for the proportion of each day during which the shutt r"
are closed.
662. Capacity of dralns.-It is unnecessary to cut a new, or enlarg
an existing drain to a capacity equal to the estimated maximum run-oft ;
a drainage channel which can carry within its margins the run-off of the
ordinary heavy rainfall meets the requirements of rice cultivation.
Rice is of the nature of swamp cultivation and normally grows in water
from 2 to 6 inches in depth and an increased depth of water does not
affect the plants unless wholly submerged, while even complete sub-
mergence for a few days does not cause material injury j also the fields in
which rice is cultivated are all levelled and surrounded by banks of ono
foot or more in height. Thus an area growing rice has the power of
impounding several inches of rain, and of spreading out the run-ofT
over a much larger period than that in which it falls. The natural
ground fall in deltas and tracts in which drainage stagnates is generally
very small and this still further increases the capacity of such areas for
impounding rainfall and extends the time of run-off. Although therefore
rainfall in the irrigated areas of the great delta systems of Madras some-
times amounts to 8 to 10 inches in 24 hours, corresponding to a coefficient
of about 450 in Ryves' formula, the delta drains are designed to give a
discharge due to a coeffioient of 92 in the Krislma, and 138 in the Oauvery
Deltas j this is equivalent to 2 and 3 inches, respectively, in 24 hours for
a standard area of 5 square miles. Although the maximum intensitiet:!
of rainfall in the above deltas do not differ greatly, the Krishna area is
flatter than the Oauvery and thus having greater absorbing capaoity a
lower coefficient is applicable to it.
It is not from motives of economy alone that the capacities of drains
in flat alluvial or deltaic tracts are restricted as abovo described. If
such drains were originally dug out to discharge the run-off of the heaviest
rainfall as quickly as it is received th ey would normally carry water at
80 shallow a depth and so Iow a velocity that it would be impossible to
keep them olear of weeds and aquatic growths and they would quickly
become choked and ineffective.
653. Combined irrigation and drainage channels.-Tho primary
funotions of irrigation and drainage ohann Is arc antl1goni tic, the formcr
requiring water to be carri d at a higher levol than th lands inigated
a.nd the latter requiring the water level to be below that of lands drain d,
yet there ar a number of old channels in South India Which act in both
oa.paoities, sometimes for the same lands, but fr qu ntly for lands dift"tlring
in level in so slight a. degree that when tho channel carries water at
irrigating level it cannot effeotively dra.in. In suoh ca.ses both irriga.-
tion and drainage must be oa.rried on by turns, the hannel acting
as 8. drain when olosed for irrigation and vice vorsa. It is not onsidercd
desirable in modern systems to permit a drain to be used for irrigation
8.8 it is likely to lead to disputes and irregulariti s j while undoubted
inconvenience is oa.used by the praotice it enables drainage wo.ter to be
utilized for irriga.tion which would ·otherwise flow in~o the sea.
The primitive method of using one cha.nn 1 for both drainage a.nd
irriga.tion is to or08s ..bund the ohann I for irrigation purpos sand br 800h
the bund when the turn comes for using the channel- as a. drain. This
method is still used in many small chann Is but it involves exoe ive
labour a.nd constant and reourring injury to the regime of the channel
 OR03S-D'B..UNAGE WORKS A.ND DIUllU.GliI OJ' 873
mRIGATlilD 'l'BA.OTS

and is moreover open to ma.ny abuses. In small ohannels effeotive regula-

tion may be seoured by masonry regulating notches, the regulation
being efi'oo d by planks inserted in grooves in th sides of the noteh .
In SotIth India regulating notches are generally called 'regulating
dams.'
In larger drainage ohannels weirs with dam ston s, or with notch
or sluices in their body walls are us d £ r the sam purp08 ; th' a.re
however op n to the objection that after heavy ra.in th y g1 a.tly obstruot
rapid flow-off and drainage suffers accordingly. There a.re a. great
rua.ny such works in the older irrigation systems of South India. specially
in tho Cauvory Delta. but of late years-most of the old dams 0.01' the
<.Ira-inag>s havo been converted into open regulators and th drainag
of the d Ita. theroby greatly improved.
The regulator in figure 99, paragraph 481 abo-q'e, is a. work of thia
nature, and the great difi'ol'cnoo between M.W.L. and F.S.L. shows what
large quantitites of water have to be passed aft r heavy rain.
 CHAPTER XIV.
NAVIGATION COMBINED WITH IRRIGATION WORKS.
554. Navigation canal.-It is not proposed in this text-book to
dea.l with canals intended solely for navigation but only with irrigation
canals adapted for navigation purposes. The requirements for navigation
are waterways with suffioient oross-section and depth for the passage
of boats of th dimensions proposed to be used, supplies of water suffioient
to ke p the oanals sufficiently d Ii for th transit of boats, and a velocity
of flow whioh does not seriously imp"de navigation. These oonditions
to some extent confliot with irrigation requirements which are best
met by a oro sectional area of canal gradua.lly diminishing as the area
to be irrigated diminish s, and a velooity of flow which will be both
non-silting and non-soouring.
555. LImits of velocity of navigation canals.-The ideal navigation
oanal is a seri of lev I reaches with vertioal st eps in the form of locks
at intervals to suit the slope of the country traversed. A surfa.ce fall
and ourrent are essential to an irrigation canal, but as the difficulties
and cost of navigation are greatly increased as the current increases
in a oombin d irrigation and navigation canal, this should be k pt at the
low st non-silting v locity suitable for the required depth.
In the Godavari and Krishna Deltas, navigation is suocessfully oarried
on in v loci ties as high as 21 feet and sometimes even as muoh as 3 feet
a. second but oonsiderably extra cost in towing boats is experienced when
velooity exe eds 2 feet a s condo
556. Depths and widths of navigation canals-The oanal barges
in Madras wh n fully laden draw nearly 3 feet of water and the minimum
d pth whioh p9rmits fr e navigation is 3 feet, but as haulage is muoh
lighter with a foot of water under the boat a depth of 4 feet or upwards
is an advantage.
The minimum b d width of o,!\nal whioh can be navigated by ordin.ary
Madras canal barges may be taken as 20 feet and oonsiderable inoon·
veni no is experi nced in suoh narrow waterways. The necessity
for suoh minimum width and d pth for navigation entails cross-seotional
areas, b ing giv n to the tail reaohes of some canals muoh in exoess of
the r quir m nte of irrigation; in addition to extra capital cosl; suoh
xo . iv oross-seotion entails deposit of silt and oonsiderable additions
to maint nanG oharges owing to th reduotion of velooity of flow.
557. Extra works required for navlgatlon.-A oertain bed and
surfac lope has to b given to oana.ls to enable them to pass the wa.ter
r quired for irrigation during periods of maximum dema.nd, but the
oa.nals must be run at suffioient depth to ma.intain throughout their
lengths th minimum depths of water required for navigation a.nd when
th d manda for irrigationoe.re small this entails pas ing wa.ter for na.viga.-
tion in xoess of irrigation requir ments.
558. Special works requIred for navigation purposes.-Apart from
the inor a. ed seotions \vhioh may be required for certain reaches of
oanals the oombination of navigation with irriga.tion makes the following
works n oessary:- _
(a) a. look wherever there is a. drop in the oe.na.l;
 NAVIGATION COMBINED Wl'1'll IRBIGATION WORK 875

(b) oombination of regulators with drop aoros the line of

navigation;
• these oombined regulators a.nd drops are called I look weirs' .
. (o) the provision of f, nder piles at weirs, urplu and oth r la:g
81woe~ ;
(d) the maintenanoe of a 'tow path' throughout th na.vigabl
length of canals ;
(e) the provision of suffioiently large spans a.nd of uffioi nt had.
way in all bridges orossing the oanal to enable traffio to p without
inconvenience, and the provision of bridg s aoross lock oha.nnels whet\:lver
there are bridges aoross the lock w irs.
559. Oanal looks.-A canal lock is a short chamber cut off from
a. canal where there is a drop, the cha.mber is 010 d at 80ch nd by
movable wa.ter tight gates which oan be opened so as to p rmit b a
to enter or leave the look chamb r from eith r nd. On nd of th lock
chamber opens on to the cana.l a.bove the w ir a.nd th oth r lld op Il8
below it. Sluices at either end p ~rmit th lock oha.mb r bing filled
from the upper reaoh or emptie'd into the low r, both s ts of ga b ing
closed.
560. Lock floors and side walls -A look is usua.lly built on a. h e.vy
flooring or foundation of masonry which is laid all ov r th whol ar a
of the work forming the iloor of the lock and the foundation of th id
and drop walls.
This slab must bd of sufficient thiokness to carry th weight off the
side walls and to resist the uplift from earth and water pr s ur on th
under-side of the floor. The sides of lock cha.mb rR are u ua.J1y r mining
walls with their outer faces vertical; these walls are recessed at ither
end to form compartments into which the gates swing so that they do
not, when open, project beyond the faoes of the lock side walls.
There is a tendency for locks to orack longitudinally along the centre
of the floor and this is specially likely to happen during construotion
when there is no w"ilzht on the lock floor. This is due to th uneven
loading on the fOMdation and it is desirable as a preoaution during
construction to fill in the earth behind the side walls as they rise 0 as
to bring the thrust of the earth behind these into operation as this reduces
the inequality of loading. The side walls of looks should be given
heavier sections than ordinary retaining walls of corresponding height i
ordinarily the pressures may be taken as equal to those on a dam holding
up water to the top of the wall but oaaes have oocurred where these
have been found insuffioient. The tops of look side walls have to
withstand collision from laden barges and should not be 1 sa than 21
feet thick.
561. DImensions or lock cbamber.-The mmunum dimensions
of a lock chamber are fixed by the dimensions of the Jarg t sized v Is
required to pass through the lock. Where traffic is considerable th
dimensions are increased so as to enable the lock to take at one time
two or more of the ordinary size of barges using the canal. In the
Krishna and Godavari Deltas in Madras locks on the lines of navigation
are classified aocording to the size of the lock chamber as follows :-
First.class locks •• .. .. .. 150' X 20'
Bocond.olasa locks .• .• . 106' X 16'
876 mBIGA.TION

562. ChopeUa lock, Godavari Eastern Delta.-Figures 125 and 126

aw the details of Chopell& Look, Bank Canal, Godavari Eastern Delta..

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NAVIGATION 0014BINJI)D WITlI IBJUGATlON wo 77
378 IRRIGATION'

The floor, side walls, and wings are of the normal type, while a. .road
bridge is provided just below the lock chamber which is in line with the
bridge over the lock weir. The upper and lower lock sills are at the
bed levels of the canal above and below the weir and this is the ordinary
arrangement.

" <3. f Z6. OETAILED DRAWIIfC: OF GATES ' FOR LOCK AT

CH O P!!L~A ON T HE B ANK CANAL.
r. I AT:O II 0;: GAT II. • S I!GTIO" OJ' .IIT• •

TO,. VII.. OF .. ' .. T" .. .

• ICTION.

...
:t .,-,. 0" VIEW OJ: ,.IIIT I.E .

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,
._
0 \0' I'IIIC I10Pl .
 NAVIGATION OOMBINED WITH mRIGATION 'WORK 379

563. Lock slulces.-The inlets and outleta for water to fill or mpty
the look ohamber. are either openings in the sheeting of the look g
just above the sill beams, or oulverts pa.ssing through th m nry
side walls behind the look gates. Figure 127 shows th f, rmer t
a.nd figure 125 the latter. .
In both oases the operating gear of the sluice hut rs hi h i
usually of the rack and pinion type, is installed ith x on 'th up
part of the sluice gates, or on the ground ov r th cul ex hown
in figure 125. Raok and pinion gear is preferred to Cr w goar for 1 ok
sluices becau e it can be more quickly operated and 0 tim in
passing traffio through locks. The size of sluice wa hould pro-
portioned to the capacity of the lock chamber so that the filling and
emptying of the lock can be accomplished in a r nabl tim .
No hard and fast rule as to this time can be giv 11, th mount,
of traffic to be dealt with has to be con idered, but th limit f tim
for filling or emptying g. n rallyaocepted for the Madra anal) k i
about 3 minutes.
564. Lock gates.-The usual typ of look gates is mad
pivoted on a vertioal axis in a reCeBl in each abutm ni, tJl (' mbin
width of the pair of gates is greater than th width of the 1 ok ntranc
so that the outer vertical edges of the gates m t in an angl p inting
up-stream and the thrnst of the water again t tho gateR is trans~ rroo
along the horizontal beams of the gates to the rna nry abutm n .
Figure 126 shows a pair of lock gates with the sho s and pint) forming
the pivots on whioh the gates revolve and the oollars in which h
end of the heel post of each gate revolves; th se oollltrs nr s ('ured
to straps anchored in the masonry by wedges which afl'or'd means of
acourate adjustment. The sills of the lock at aeh end are ralslx! in a
low step against which the gates pre wh n cl08 d, th 8 p thus form
a stop for the gates. The riser of the step is fr quently fo.cOO with w od
in order to reduce shocks to the gates when olosing and to m ke a rJ r
joint between the sill and the gates.
The topmost beams of the gates projeot beyond th heel po ts and
form levers by which the gates are open d and cIo d. Th larg ction
of the projecting beam is to form a counterbalanoe to th weight of
the gate and for this reason the b am is called the 'balance b am ' of
the gate. The pivot posts are the ' heel po ts ' and the outer p eta the
, mitre posts'. Look gates are generally opened and 010 ed by mans
of balance beams but occasionally rack gear is provided for this purp
Large lock gates are generally made of steel but for the ordinary ize
of gates required in South India wood is the most suitabl material.
A gangway plank as shown in figure 126 is fixed to the top of ach ga
to enable the look staff to cross from sid to sid of the look wh n th
gates are olosed.
565. Tidallocks.-Where tail locks <lischarge into a river or a.n
estuary in which flood or tidal water rises above the canal . .L. it it
necessary, in order to exolude Buoh water from the canal to provide
at the upper end of the lock two pairs of lock gates facing in opp ite
directions and to raise the lock walls and bank oonnexions to a lev I
a.bove highest flood. Lock gates which are su bjeoted to the action of
salt water should be covered with sh et copper up to one foot a.bove
high tide level as a proteotion a.ga.inst ma.rine borers.
380 IBBIGATION

566. Locks with sloping IIldes.-The cost of locks is considerable

and the liability especially in clay soils, to dangerous cracks resulting
from unequal pressures, is considerable. Both the above are greatly

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 NA.VlGATION OOMBINED WITH 11m.IGATION ORK • :l 1

reduced by making the lock chamber with ea.rth sid sloping & 1
and revette<! while the floor of the lock i tone pitching. A 1
this economical desoription is shown in figure 127. Th only
masonry in such looks would be the drop wall, sills and the abutmen
the lock gates with the wings which must be of suffioi nt length to b an
effective defence against failure by percolation. A sufficient length of
impervious floor above and below the lock sills must giv prot ction
against failure. by. percolation und.er t~e sills. Thi type of look j
open to the obJectlOn that the slopmg sldes are inoon enient and BOrn _
what dangerous fo~ the boats in ~e lock when the water' falling,
and that the quantlty of water reqUITed for filling the lock is increased.
The fo~mer is. a ~eri~us objection, but the latter is eldom of any impor-
tanc:e ill an lITIgatlOn canal although frequ ntly of great importanoe
in a canal intended solely for navigation. Revetted ohamb r locks
woro generally built in the navigable canals of the Go adari d Ita when
they were first made but have now been almost universally r placed
by locks with side walls. It may be noted that the lock sluices in figure
127 are in the lock gates and this is the most eoonomical arrangement.
567. DoubJe locks.-When the fall at a lock exceeds about 10 to 12
feet a double lock is usually employed. This is a lock with 2 chambers
with a set of lock gates and sluices between the upper nnd lower chamber
so that there are altogether 3 pairs of lock gates. By this m ans the total
fall is diVided into two steps and the head on each set of gates reduced.
668. Mooring posts in locks.-All locks should be furnished with a
number of mooring posts, or ring bolts fixed in the masonry, to which
the vessels passing through the lock may make fn-st; hains at intervals
hanging down from the top of the side walls are also desirable both for the
convenience of boats and to afford a support to anyone who may acci-
dentally fall into a lock.
569. Site of locks and lock weirs-The ordinary canal drop extenda
from side to side of a canal and the approach and run-oft' a.re quite straight
and on the axis of the canal; where a lock is introduced it is nece ry
to have an approach for boats sepa.rated in some way from the approach
to the fall, that is to the lock weir. The general lay-out of the works
may be arranged in three ways:-
(a) The weir may be directly across the line of canal and the lock
on a diversion (figure 128-a) or
- (b) the lock may be on the direct line of canal and th w ir on. a
diversion (figure 128-b) or
(c) both lock and weir may be side hy side forming one work acro
the cana.l, the approach to the weir being separated from that to the lock
by a row of fender piles (figure 128-c).
As regards (a) and (b), the former is preferable on a canal when the
weir stream is of very large size in comparison to the lock chamber,
but generally (b) is preferable. Both the above arrangementa especially
(a ) are subject to trouble by the silting of the navigation channel between
the point where this leaves the weir channel to where it again rejoins it.
The reason of this is obviously the 'reduced flow in comparison to the
sectional area of this channel, whioh, while facilitating the handling
of the vessels entering the lock, results in silt deposition which, unleaa
relieved by occasional clearance, will obstruct navigation at low water
stages. The arrangement of figure 128-0 to a great extent geta over thia
difficulty at the expense of a more diffioult approach to the look. With
3 .2 IBRIGATrO

a. suitable disposition of fender piles and mooring posts all reasonable

security can be given and on the whole this arrangement will genera.lly
be found most suitable.

FIG. 128 .
(b) (c) (n)
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6'70. Lock wetrs.-The are oombined drops and regulators whiob

ana.ble the depths of water a.bove the look to be regulated in a.ooordance
with the requirements of na.viga.tion while at the same time pe.8siDg to
 litAVtGATION COMBINED WITH mruGATI N WOBJ[

the reach below, the quantitie of water requir d for irrigo.ti n.

the demands of irrigation are small, it is fr qu ntly n MY r'du
the surfaoe fall. in a reach of navigabl canal by holding up w tel'
tail above ordinary F.S.L., while maintaining water at th minimum
navigable depth at it h ad. This l' duces th quantit of water quir d
to maintain na..v~gation but int rferes with th regime f th canal.
Although trapezoidal notches may automatically carry out th n \ y
irrigation regulation at a drop 0. regulator is ab olutE>ly n ssar wh Jl
navigation is oombined with irrigation.
Figure 93, Chapter XII, shows the ordinary forID of 1 k weir built
in the Godavari canal system.
671. Fender plles.-In 0. navigabl canal fend l' pi! 801' n
aoross th £0.0 ' of surplus
"'G.I2.9.F'E.ND!'!:R PILIl6. or any offtak s from th canal
wher the draw is lik ly to cau
diffioulty to navigation. Suoh
pi! s may be ith I' of wood or
ferro-oonorete and should w 11
strutted and th h dEl may
oonveniently join d by a walina
pieo fix d at about F.S.L. It i
frequently oonv ni nt to oonstruot
a light tow-path bridg a.or
the approaoh (·hann I to an off.
take by using f~nder as pieri!. The pi! s should be pIal. d v bout.
to 12 feet apart on line whioh th dg of th wat r would oooupy
if there were no offtake. Figure 129 shows a seotion of £, nd r pilE
oo.rrying the tow-path in front of a surplus sluioe.
572. The tow-path.-All oanals large enough to oarry navigation
are provided with continuous insp otion paths and th xtra oost of
tow.paths is generally small. Wher th oanal b rms 801' abov F. .L.
the tow· path can most conveniently be along the edg of th berm;
in other places where the canal benDS are of normal width th tow·path
can run along the top of the bank; wh 1'e ther are wid b rms blow
F.S.L. a tow· path 2 feet wide and 1 foot above F.S.L. may b mad along
the inner edge of the berm. Wher there a1' bridg s across th canal
a tow.~ath 1 to 1 foot above F.S.L. and 4 to 5 feet wid hould be oarried
through the side span of the bridge. Light foot.bddges should
provided where neoessary to carry the tow-path aor088 outs leading from
inlets or to offto.kes.
678. Bridges on navigation canals.-Bridg s of navigation canals
must give sufficient width and headway above M.W.L. or high tide
level to allow of navigation without inconvenienc. The aotual width
and headway on eaoh canal must b decided with tefi r no to the nature
and dimensions of the vessels to b aocommodated. In Madr th
minimum span is 25 feet or 30 feet inolusive of the tow· path and a head·
way in the oentre of the span is allowed of not less than 11 feet for a width
of not less than 12 feet. On account of the r quir m nte of headway
girder bridges are generally more convenient than arched bridg
on navigation canals. The angles of the tow.path abutm nt of •
bridge should be rounded, rendered with neat 0 ment work d quite
smooth within the limite where the towing rope will rub gainst th
fdl8le. This prevents the fraying of the rope and also the damas to
 384 mRIGA.TlON

the masonry by the continual rubbing of rope. Figure 130 shows the
skeleton seotion of an arch with tow-path and minimum headway
from the above rules.

FIG . 130.

574. Desirablllty of combining navigatIon with lrrigatton.-The

question whether navigation should be provid d for in irrigation oanals
is one on whioh there is much difti renoe of opinion among experts. The
- oombination neo ssitates extra (lost both of oonstruction and maintenanoe
of works and entails oompromises both in regard to design of works and
regulation of flow whioh affect the effici ney of the canals for irrigation
purpos s. It is impossible to make an aocurate estimat of the extra
cost of construotion and maintenance of a oombined system whioh is
due to navigation, but the separation of the oharges and revenue due to
irrigation and navigation is made, on a somewhat arbitrary basis, in the
aooounts of the Government systems in Madras and these display navi-
gation as an unprofitable undertaking. There are, however~ many in.
dir ot profits from navigation which do not appear in such . accounts,
and th se speoially aOOrue in flat alluvial and deltaio traots in whioh
stone is not found and in which oart traffio in rainy weather is almost
impractioable except on metalled roads. In suoh traots the existenoe of
navigable oanals enable the produce to be moved at a. fraotion of the
oost of moving it by road, and also affords a oheap means of transport
for stone and building materia.l throughout the traot served by the
na.vigable waterways. Oonsidering the great quantity of stone required
for oonstruction, maintenano and ext nsion of irrigation works and for
the oonstruotion and upkeep of roads it is vident that very large reduc-
tions in original and maintena.noe oharg s of suoh works must be realized
where a good system of navigable oanals provides the oheap conveya.nce
of stone and other building materials. Suoh savings in construction of
publio works are not brought to aocount when considering the returns
rea.liz d on the navigation works, n ith r are the far greater aggregate
savingsl'eaJized by private persons from the faoilities for oheap transport
of produoe so afforded.
Where the surfao of the oountry traversed by canals is freely un·
dulating, and stone and other building materials are available throughout
the irrigated traot, the indireot oredits due to navigation would be muoh
less while the 00 t of works debitable' to na.vigation is likely to be more
than in a delta, or oth r fiat alluvia.l tract; on the whole it appears
probable that in a large delta system the oombination of na.vigation with
irrigation should generally be provided for, but in upland systems there
will be many oa.ses in which suo!t a oombination will be undesirable.
 CHAPTER V.
REGULATING SHUTTERS .AND GEAR.
575. General.-The varieties of shutters and gear used for regula.ting
the flow in irriga.tion works are very numerous a.nd, with on .ption,
only those types in ordinary use in Madra.s will be d soribed.
576. Weir crest sbutters.-Crest shutters ma.y b 01 is d into two
types ;-
(a) Falling shutters.-These when not in operation Ii flat upon th
weir orest.
(b) Lift shutters.-Thes a.re operated from Do platform a.bo the
weir orest and a.re preoisely similar to the shutters of open r gula.tors.
I<ISTNA AflIeUT t:ALUNG SHUTTERS.
EACH IOFEET t.OUG.
FIG. 131.
SECTION THROUGH
TIII.ISOLID CAST IROM
(LIII.. ARG .. D. )

til?' _ ,..,., ~ •• .,_,.. ... " .. . ",c;. •• " ... .

...",.", .... "u ••• o .'",,'t..~.'"" •. _ .... "'..,.,..
.......Oll."". 0' " ••• 0 ........ u.... ,"

TttfoCCMI""cn"."00I......."."'. 'k •.••,

_ ..
.. -0 _ . .

18
386 IRRIGA.TION

577. Fouracres' falling shu.tters.-This type of shu.tter was first

applied to th Son weir in Bengal and was subsequently utilized for the
Kistna. and Godavari aniouts; it is the only type of falling shutter
whioh has hitherto been applied to any of the large works of Madras.
Figures 131 and 131-a show the seotion and front elevation of the
Kistna. aniout shutters.
Eaoh shutter is 10 feet long and 3 feet high and is maintained in the
upright position by 3 tie bars, one end of eaoh bar is attached by a movable
pin joint to an eye bolt anohored in the weir orest up-stream of the
shutter and the other end is similarly attaohed to a point on the
shutter a little below the oentre of pressure of water when the shutter
is on the point of overturning.
When water rises to suoh a level that the moment of the water
pressure about the points of attaohment of the tie bars beoomes suffioient
to overturn the shutter it falls into the position shown in the dotted
lines in the seotion and lies fiat on the orest, offering no obstruotion to
flow. The shutters thus fall automatioally but they have to be raised
by hand, and it is found that this oan be done by men walking along
the aniout orest when not more than two feet depth of water is passing
over it.
One objeotion to the above type of shutter is that any obstruotion
or aooumulation of silt lying against the up-stream side of the shutter
is likely to prevent it from aoting and it is unsafe to staunoh leakage
under or between shutters of this kind by depositing silt up-stream.
As attempts to staunoh leakage are likely to be made by interested ryots
the shutters should never be installed exoept where under the supervision
of r sident establishment and thus the automatio working whioh is the
ohief advantage of this type of shutter is to a great extent nullified.
Another drawbaok to this type is that individual shutters are very
likely to be overturned by wind and wave aotion at times when the
general lev I of water is oonsiderably below the level at whioh it is desired
that the shutt rs should fall, muoh inoonvenienoe is experienoed from
this a.nd in praotioe a oonsiderable working margin of level must be
allowed. Shutters whioh on a s~ill day will only fall with water passing
! foot de p over them will sometimes on a stormy day be overturned
even when the general level of wa.ter is below the shutter crest.
578. Computation of pOSition of pivot of Fouracres' failing shutters.-
Let X be the required height (in feet) of the pivot a.bove the bottom
of the shutter.
" B the height of the shutter in feet.
" d the d pth in feet of water over the shutter whioh is to oauso
it to fall.
.. f foot-pounds = 62, F = the moment required per foot run
of its length to overturn the shutter.
Then referring to figure 132 the pressure on the shutter with a depth
(tI) of water pe.a ing over it is r pre ented by the area. of the figure AKDO
= MtEO -t- KDE .
 lUDGULATING SHtrTrlmS A.-n GEAR ,
These pressures PI and Pa are 1" pectivcly of magnitud dB ~plied
at a vertical height -: abovo the foot of the ·hutter. a.nd t B' ppli
a.t ~ abov the foot.
POI • •• at .

'rho total p1'Ol)8ure (P) h; thoroforo (dB + . B =) and th· 0 ut" of

prost)w'e is at a. height above tho sill of I B + .!. ( dB -)
6 (l8 + i IP
= a ( _!!"B ++ 82dIHi )
The shutter will fall wh n the c 'ntr(' of pl'eStiUI' it; at suoh u. }wi ht
(A) a.bove the pivot that A + P = F, the required oVl'rturning JU III 'nt,
+ F = { 1 ( B ~B ++ 32ddB ) - X } X (dB + tB -)
·
Reduomg,
x- B 3+ 3dB: -G!<' _ H~ + 3dB ~ - '09,iJ
- 3B~ + 6dB - 3B' + 6 dB • . • • • (7)
'!'he Kistna aniout shutteI'l:; a1'O dl':;ign d to fu.ll with froUl t to 1 foot
of water passing over the shuttcl'. The pivot i:; Ii foot u.bov til· bottom
of the shutter whioh il:l tho height of the oentro of pn'tlsul' . when wa. r iti
tltanding at ! foot above the shutter orest 1 vel.
Applying th formula to this cal'll' it will b found that with wa. r '
a.t i foot above shutter crest t vel, the ov rtuming mom nt (.f) qu Is
17'6 foot lb, per foot run, or 176 foot lb. pel' tlhutter, a.nd this is about.
the ordinary overturning moment of suoh lit !Shutter.
388 rRRIOA'I'ION

579. Ashford's patent drop shutter .-This shutter shown in figure 133
is an example of a falling shutter attached to the weir cr t by hingcl:I
along it lower edg. Each shutter is held up by a tie rod or by a strut
which can be released by the opvrating staff.

I. F'IG.13S .
ASHFORD'S PATENT WEIR"OROP" SHUTTER •

.. O......~WIlTU ..........

- - - - 11 - - - -11+ - - - 'b -

". -- o:~~~=.. "OT~~ --~

1~
-=7~
61 "" "',,0
) ~.MO I" ·t .
I
.

,u" •••
"acTIoN THROUGH SHUTT E.I"
AT ILX .
COUIlLIt 8cl\l.J>.

Ashford's drop Ahuttrr has been muoh used in North rn Indi and
it is olaim d that on the appr aoh of a fi od th s hutter oan b relea ed
with a and po d by a. singl man. _ So far th se have not been install d
on any weir in Madras.
 REGULATI G SHUTTERS AND GEAR 3 9

Ea.oh shutter is support d by a singl strut no nd of whioh is

conneoted by a pin joint to a plate fixed in th w il- masonry, a.nd the
other end slides in lit groove in the ba.ck of th shutter and cannot I av
the groove. When the shutter is rais d the end of the strut is retain d
in the corresponding position by the short end of th lev r bar shown
in the figur. The lever bar is locked in th horizontal position I' taining
the strut by making a jointed end on the longer limb of the lever and
slipping this end into a. notch in the shutt r fl'am ; the hing d end of
the lever projects b yond the fram so that the next hutter wh n falling
may push it out of the notch and thus unlock the lev l' and releas<' th
end of the strut. The shutters are installed in on or mol' ets working
from one end and all the shutters of ach set are released in succession
by the falling of the next adjaoent shutter, only the end shutter bri ng
released by hand.
The shutters are 3 to 4 feet wide and have been suoccsRfully operat "d
up to six feet in height.
They 0.1' raised, as in the case of the Fouraores' Rhutt r, ith l' by
men walking along the crest or by a travelling crane running on rails
lajd along the length of the w ir ; the force required to lift such shutters
is greater than for the Fouracres' shutt r8. The form er have the dis-
advantage that the . hort length of each Rhut~ r necessitatC's a gr at

5~[. TCrt .1 5KF'Tc tl gd

- •~ . !
~
.
It
S"'tT SH Or_
A UTOMlI 'C YAll:._
I) ... !
~ ~ ~
COU NT!: Wt.ISH~ RAp"" IYA-
~ ~ ~
.._ ~

~
on
Js ~
\i
~0
390 IRRIGATION

number of vertical joints with th consequent leakage, they are how ver
not likely to jam owing to the staunching of the joints and th system of
operation appears to be reliable and effective.
Automatic (cou.nter weighted Radial type gate.-Sketch (1)
shows a cross-section along the gate between two piers. The gate is
counter weighted to such an extent 81S to leave this minimum pressure
on the sill to give effective staunching. At point "A" on the gate
is attached a longitudinal beam which extends beyond the clear span
on either side, over the piers. This beam carries at either end a sus-
pension link which is fixed at the bottom end to a float-weight (see
sketch 2).
Sketch (2) is a longitudinal section along one pier. Beam" A"
takes the vertical link " B " which is attached to the float at " C ". When
the gate is closed, the float at "C" is just above the floor in the pier
chamber. This chamber in the pier is just big enough to accommodate
the float for the several positions of the gate. There is a vent "D" in
the pier, protected with a strainer, provided below the F.S.L. of the
canal or the reservoir. This vent allows the water to get into the
chamber "E" in the pier and keep the flame level here as in the lake
or the reservoir. There is a partition weir in the chamber" E ", the
top ~f which is kept at a very predetermined level with reference to
F.S.L. If the level in front goes aboveF.S.L. the right side of" E" gets
the water overflowing the weir. This water enters the chamber "F"
immediately through a connection pipe. This chamber " F" and the
sister chamber of the next pier are both connected by a big pipe" G "
below the floor of the sluice, so that the water collects in both the
chambers simultaneously, when the level in front rises above F.S.L.
When there is su.ffi";ent water colleoting in these chambers" F ", the
floats" 0" tend not only to counteract against the un-balanced weight
of the gate on the sill, but also to raise the gate very slowly.
Immediately the gate rises even very slightly, there is a heavy dis-
oharge through the bottom. Then the shape of the gate and the direc-
tion of flow of water help the further opening of the gate. With this
disoharge, the level falls down below F.S.L. and overflow in chamber
shops. At the same time th water in the chamber" F" drains out
through a small pipe "H" permanently left open. When the level
in chamber "F" goes down, the weight of the gate and float take the
gate down on the sill. The operation is very sensitive and a careful
design oould guarantee a reservoir or canal level to be maintained at
3' from a given F.S.L.
As the vent in the pier is k pt below F.S.L., the water in the chamber
U E " is always still and cannot be disturbed by any possible waves in
the lake.
The small discharge pipe "H " which is usually left open could be
provided with a sluice valve controlled from the platform. If this is
kept olosed and the oham ber " F " filled up, the gate could be left:perma-
nently open at any desired height.
There is also a speoial pipe" I " direotly conneoting the lake to ohamber
IeF" kept lower down in the pier and provided with a sluice valve con-
troll d from the platform. With this arrangement it is possible to
raise the gate even when the lake isoelow F.S.L.
 REGULATING SHUTTERS A. D GEAR 891 .

The height of 'weir in chamber" E" may be altered at will by adding

a et of planks if required. This will correspond to working th gate at
a different F.S.L.
579-A. Kistna anicut--Falltng shutters.-Du to incr ed d mand
for water in the expanding delta, the thr e f, t falling shutte of th type
shown in Fig. 131, wer r moved and 6 f, t falling shutter of zifta w it'
typ installed on th Kistna anicut at B ·zwa.da in 1925. They are mad
up of 29 sets of 11 hutters ea(·h. (l. sing1 Ahutter being 10 fe t long.
The totallep,gth oomes to 3193" 4 t" inoluding tb spa.c 8 betw n tb
shutters. These spaces are cl08 d up with canva8S staunohing frames
during seasons of scarcity. These shutters ar intended to maintain
water over the crest of the anieut up to 6 f, t. Th are tripp d et af l'
set as water rises above 6 feet until all the s ts ar down. The tripping
of these sets is effected by hydraulic pressure maintain d and work d
from Sitanagaram and Bczwada !:lid valve bous s, for ach of th two
va.lves of the anicut by means of separat pipe conn otions taken to th
first shutter (master shutter) of eaoh set. As soon as th master shutt r
is tripped by the applioation of pressure from the valve hous ,th other
ten shutters oonneot d to this with axl sand olutoh s will 0.1 0 fan down
one after the other.
When the water level begins to go down below 6 feet raising of th
shutters set after set is done by means of a trav lling ma.ohine oth nviso
called" plOllgh" which is worked by steam power.
In the off-position the shutters lie flat on th masomy rest ofth body
wall, the plough moving forward on its track on the anicnt oatches up
the roller in the middle of the free and of the shutters. This roller moves
along over an inolined track in the plough so that all the plough goes
forward, the shutter rises to its veItioal position. The strut arms in
rear are then pr 8sed down to their final position which is nearly 1inoh
below the dead centre lin. Thus shutter after shutter is lifted up and
until the required number of sets are up, depending upon th flow in
the river.
For trippin,! any partioular s t, oil from th valve hous s i pumped on
to any partioular master shutter plunger m ohanism whioh lifts the strut
arm out of its normal position belo,," th dead oentr lin and th water
pressure on th faot of the shutter trips it down. In falling, this drops
down the other shuttels of the set one by on "due to th connecting shaft
Itnd clutch arrangement."
579-B. The Godavari anicut was originally provid d with 2 fi et
falling hutters and these were replaoed by 3 fe t falling shutters in 1936,
to dra.w more suppli s for the deltas.
Figure. 134·D shows anoth r type of shutter (fre roller sluice
gates) adopted for the Ellis Saddle surplus gates at M ttur. Tho siz of
shutter is 60' X 20'.

580. Large span 11ft shutters.-Large splm lift shutters of op n weirs

regulators or sluices are usually hung on ohains from an overh ad plat:
form on whioh winches for lifting and lowering are installed. Occasionally
the winohes are mounted on travelling oarriag s so that one s t may
work everal vents in suooession but in Madras it is usual to install spa-
rate fixed gear for eaoh vent.
392 IRRIGATION

Such shutters vary from 15 to 40 fe t span and are constructed of

a fra.ming of built-up girders or of rolled st eel bea.ms with a. facing of
sheet ste 1. They are moved on rollers of about six to eight inches
diameter either running on axles which are fixed to the !jhutter, or
mounted in a frame or cage entirely separate from th shutter -which
nms on the surface of the rollers. The latter d vice was invented by
Ston y and is known as 'Stoney rollers' or 'free roll 1'8.'
Rollers running on fixed axles w re largely used in Madras when
large span shutters were fit'st introdu,ced, in the works in the Ca.uvery
d Ita. and el'3ewh re but la.tterly only ffee rollers hay been a.pplied to
~his purpose.
 REaULATLNQ SHU'l'TERS AND GEAR 393

Figure 134 and 134-a, b, c show the arra.ngement of a. t of hutters

rec ntly construct d in the Public Work Work hop, Madras, for riv r
regulator combined with a. road bridg. Th shutter ' a.r 181 {I et olear
spa.n and 6! feet high, th y ha.ve frame of roll d steel beam a.nd a.ngl
irons are suspended by plate link chains which pas over prock t \Vh Is,
the shutters a.re hung on one end of the chains and th other nds a.re
a.ttach d to counter-weights which run in grooves in the masonry pi r .
The movement of a. body tra.nsport d on rollers is ha.lf that of th roll 1'8
FlG.,34·

ri:!==~F=f=9

,
I
I

J
I
I
\
I
,I
I

I
~.,

. I
.
'"
~

t'

i: _____ ::::
!-l ... '- _ J ~
",G., :a 4(0.)
"

c .•. all... L. , • • t.DOh

'M ."eo"""

IlDADWAY .

PL"" AT TOP.
394 mnlGA'l'rON

thems lves and for this reason the roller cage is suspended from a pulley
block through which is passed a t" diameter wir rope one end of which
is fixed to beams of the lifting platform and the other end to the mova hie
oounterweightA'l; this ensures that the travel of the cage shall be half of

Pla.134(b).
 REGULATING SHUTTERS AND GEAR 3 6
the shutter. Th,e sprocket wheels are oonnected by spur gearing and
3' shafting with a winch fixed a.bove the eentr of the span by mea.ns of
which the shutter is ra.ised or lowered.
The ron~r p~th is loosely attached to th shutter and take it bearing,
on the proJectmg edge of the angle hons of the hutter fram. This
arra.ngement is introduced to ensure tha.t the load ha.ll bear truly on tho
roller surfa.ces and not be affected by any d fieotion of the shutter und r
the load.
Similar arrangements of free rollers and g a.r ar appli d to r s rv ir
shutters of comparatively small span worked lmd r great heads. Such-
sluices a.re generally of small spans not exceeding 6 to 7 f) t and th
necessary area of vent is obtained by incr asing the v rtioal height of
the sluice so far as may be necessa.ry.
Referenoe to figures 30 and 30 (a), Cha.pter VII, showti tho gllllOml
.~rn\I1gement of the ston y sluie s in the As uan dam.
Tho arrangements as regards lifting gear, oountcrweights, ote., for
I;hutters funning on fixed rollers may b similar to th above.
Wh.en both a.te in good ord r the ffort rcquir d to movo the shut,t ' r
under any pressure on fixed rollers is much greater than on fr e rollers
and in both oases is only a. small fraotion of the effort r quirod to mov
the shutter along plano surfaces against sliding friction, Mr. AsHord
t:! tates that the following proportiolls of effort to pressure hll.ve becH fowld
by xporimont:-
F roe rollers _1_
36U

Fixed rollers 2~()

Sl1·d.i ng f"nc t'IOn "5
1

The bearinga of fixed roll'rs arC', howowr, difficult to ket·p ill good
l'llt1.ning order when subj ated to imm I'sion ill silty wn.t r I1nd th axle
friction develops rapidly and after a time the rollers fail ven to rotate ;
free roll rs are not subj at to ax]e friction and arc hut little aft ct d by
silt or rust. A r movable' roller box for sluice gates' has be n inv ntod
by Mr. Ashford which can be easily I' moved for oJ 'aning and repairs
fmd which he claims on account of tho saving in oost to be more suita.ble
for modium sized gatos than Stoney roll I'S; for gateti of 20 fcot span
and upwards the free roller system should be adoptcd.
581, Screw geared sluice gates moving on plane bearing surfaces.-
Sluicos, shutters or ga.tes, of spans up to 10 feet working under moderate
heads of water are in South India. almost univ rsally operated by screw
gear, the forae being transmitted through a single sorew shaft or sp ar,
attached to the centre of the gate. On th upp r end of this shaft a
square screw threa.d is cut for the length necessary to a eure the required
tmvel of the shutters and a l:!orow nut to fit this thread is housed in a box
in which it can freely revolve, the box being fix d to the sluioe platform.
396 nmiGATION"

In order to lift or lower the shutter the nut is rovolved by means of a

spanner figure 135 or capstan head figure 136.
Sarew gear is extremely simple, it is not lia.ble to sudden failure or
injury by uni!1telligent operation, it is essentia.l how~ver that the threa.ded

. ..
Ii TO 7. SCREW GtAIUHG
WIT" HEXAGONAL. NUT.
F'IS.13 S .

.'~ ::::: ©%_,:-_.;~=;:;f

~1hI.,l\~"",::::."....:ol\" IIILI..L. b ._

14" - - - - - - II
•- - ---
C:. I. TOP P&.,AT •
 RlnGULATING SHUTTERS AND GEAR 307

length of spear should be kept lubrica.ted and free from rust. A heavy
oil should be used for lubrioa.ting the gear a.s this forms a. pl'oteoiiv skin
over the exposed metal and protects it from oorrosion.

FIG . 136. z-kTO;; SCR&W GEARING WITH CAPSTAN Nui.

CROIil. SEC'TlON SlOt. 1t1..E.VAT10N.

,,
, I
I,
10
I
,,
I I
I
cfr 4l:ir
roe.CTIONAL. "I.AN 0 •• A.e.

____rr::~"" .
~-L- Rnse.
o . ... DIAGOI'4AL.
iff THICk"
..... AM t:FIOM 8r. ... OVl C.I. A NCHQ '" PL.AT I. ,

27A
 mRIGATIO~

Figures 137 and 138 show the details of screw geared shutters, the first
being the usual type of single shutter with wooden platform beams
and the seoond in two tiers lifted by a single screw as in the regula tor
in figure 99, Cha.pter XII, above. In this ca.sc the shutters must be

EL EVATION 0

.'18

ELEVATION OP eCI.t..AR ""ATe..

 RE GULATING SHUTTERS AND GEAR 899
oapable of travel right up to th platform beam whioh arc teel beam
to whioh a.re bolted th angle iron groove linin on which til. hut r
slide; under thi a.rra.ngement th r i no n oe sit for a.nohor bol
to seoure the platform b am to til. sluioe pla.tform. Wh 11. th hutter
need not be lifted up to tho gear bea.m it i u ual only to oarr th
groove lining to the top of til. tra.vel of the shutt r, and to €lour th

F1G.13S. DOUBLE SHUTT ER !'"OR RF;:GULI\TOIl,

rr
6ECTION fl. O.

I
"",
.,;,
~_ ~ ,I
A

R . S. J.IO·.5~301bs.

I,

-
..
... - 4 - ." - - - __ -~-
I
I.
•
I
".CA ..W ROO. I
- -- - - --_._...~., -- --,--
M.W.\,. l'
I

'0.
,
I

"00
,
1
I

I
.' ' 0)
r: "
!.I: "1"I'."I'tD . C .SI\. I
~/~"/.,"1""j''''' I+_1I O."","IAoII :iTIIIAP&.
I
'01'
I
I ,,
1
I ,
400 mRIGATION

pla.tform beams to the body of the sluice by bolts passing through

a.nchor plates bedded in the masonry and passing through top plates
which overlie the beams (vide figure I36).
In figure 137 the travel of the shutter is 6 feet while the height from
the sill to the platform beams is 20 feet. The smooth part of the spear
passes through a aol~ pla.te which serves as a guide a.nd stiffens the spear
thus allowing it to be made of a. smaller.diameter than would otherwise
be neoessary. .
Similarly guides are provided at 4 feet interval for the spear of the
tank sluioe ga.te, Cha.pter X, figure 77, above.
In figure 138 the spear must be threaded throughout its length and
no effeotive guide oan be introduoed.
682. Dimensions of spears and screw threads.-The greatest stress
is placed on spears when the shutters of sluices are being forced down
under the pressure of tho ma.ximum head of water to which they aa.n be
subjected.
The following equa.tion for finding the diameter of solid mild steel
screw rod which is based on Gordon's formula for struts hing d at both
ends is in use in the Public Works Workshops, Madra.s :-
8200oa'
AX H (71)
350d 2 + 144L I
where A = the area of the shutter in squa.re feet,
H = Maximum head on the shutter in feet,
L = the maximum unsupported length of screw shaft in
feet,
d = Zeast diameter of a.bove in inches.
This allows a. faotor of safety of 6 and a. co-efficient c in Gordon's
I
formula o f -
350
The following table gives dimensions in inches of the size of spears
a.nd pitoh of sarews commonly out for sarew rods in th same work-
shops:-- -

Flnlilhed
Serial dla.meter Least dla.- Depth of Pitch of hJ
number. overall meter (el). thread (el, ). threa.d
D. P. ~
1 at 21 i 1 w
....
2 3t 2! i Ii !P
8 3t 2i t It rn
4
5
3
3
2,
2,
A-
11
-h
, I
i
D

6 21
2,
21-
2.
1\ 1 E
7
8 2t Ii
i~
l.t
1
1
;a
9 21 2, t 1
10 2, l~ i E
11
12
21
2*
If
It *
l..ti 1
1
t9
t:I
13
14:
2
2
Ii
It *t 1
t
IX>
a
to

~
i ....
16 Ii It t
16 Ii - Ii i* i
 REGULATING SHUTl'ERS AND GEAR 01

588. Hon-rising screw spears.-Where the height of the sluioe plat-

form above the sill is great and th
FIG 140 travel of the shutter is I ss than
•• half this height it is som time
iliAD SLU1CES OF GOD'WAR' convenient to instal scr w g ar
CENTRAL DELTA 80 that th spears do not ri abov
SEC.TION THRO:P'P£S. sluice pln.tform. This is fti cOOd
by fixing the revolving nut in th
lower end of 11 pipe of sufficient
I ngth to receive and nolo th
screw rod, th nut b ing r volv d
by turning the whol le:Qgth of pip .
Figure 140 is f\ part otion of th
3 tiers of shutters of the Godavari
Central Delta. head sluic showing
the screw gear which is of this type.
684. Needle shutters.-Regu-
~I-Mrli~~~~:s,s. lators and sluices aro som times
regulated by vertical rlanks g ne-
rally about six inOOes wid th lower
ends of which r t on th sill while
I
• th upper ends a.r supported by a
I
I
platform bam, som times on or
I mol' beams botw n the platform
)
and the sill give intorm ,diat sup-
I
port to the n (Idles; usually th re is
a stop in the floor of th sluic up to
the sill level forming 0. lcdge against
t_
.~
whiOO the lower cnds of the planks
rest.
Such planks ar term d
, needles' and this type of shutter
is t rmed needle shutt l".
Before the introduction of screw
gcaring, needles wer used for
. regulating all tho most important
l" gulators and sluices in South
India, and they are still ocoosion-
ally used for works of minor
importance. Th obj ctions to
needle shutters are tha.t th y take
muah time and labour to opora.te
and the leakage past them is con-
siderable. Nocdles oan bo
manipulated in depths of water up
to 10 or 12 feet, and under consider-
able heads, and they are still used
for regulators and weir crest shut-
wrs in many c.ountries.

585. Regulation by horizontal planks.-Horizontal planks sliding

in grooves are also used on weir crests and in r gulators and sluices and
are manipulated by the help of rings fixed a. t the ends of eaah plank.
 402 IRRIGATION

In Madras horizontal planks sliding in grooved standards or piers are

ocuasionally used on weir crests or in regulato~ and escape sluioes up to
limiting height of three to four feet. Exoept in sha.llow water hori-
zontaJ planks are more diffioult to ha.ndle than needles and except in the
ha.nds of experienoed and reli8.ble esta.blishment there is grea.t danger
of failure to work them effeotively, this type of shutter is Dot recom-
mended for works which a.re subject to floods submerging them to a.ny
oonsidomble depth.
586. stem or paddle shutter.-Figure 137 shows the type of stem
shutter used for pipe sluices in the Grand Anicut Canal ystem, Tanjore dis-
trict. This type is best suited for different sizes of pipes of diameter vary-
ing from 4 inohes to 1 foot. The shutter slides along the grooves in the
front head wall, lined by angle irons and can be easily lifted by hand. It
is held in its lifted position by a locking bar, which is made to pass
through the clamps fixed in the head wall and the slit in the central
strap of the shutter and locked. For pipes of greater diameter than
1 foot, whioh is invariably used for head sluices of minor branch channels,
the arrangement is identical, but the shutter is of a bigger size.
Another type of paddle shutter is shown in figure 140 (g).
This type is extensively used in Frenoh India-Pondicherry. It
can be substituted in place of S.G. shutters which gives unsatisfactory
servioe wh n left in the hands of village menials. It can be used for
shutters having an area of about 15 square feet only under a head of 10
feet. It oan be operated with two crow-bars. A brief description of the
type is giv n below :-
The shutter rod consists of light ohannel iron perforated with holes
a,t; even distanoes along its length. Between the flanges of the ohannel
is fixed T.W. paoking to give stiffness and body to the operating rod.
The operating rod rises through a small frame fitted with a roller and
bolted to a beam on the operating platform of the sluioe. Mounted on the
beam is a oonvenient fulcrum on which an ordinary orow-bar oan be
rested. Two men, eaoh furnished with a crow-bar, operate the sluice. The
orow-bars are rested on the fulcrum and inserted alternately in the slots
in the operating rod. When a man bears down his crow-bar he can easily
raise the shutter one notch at a ti~. While one man inserts the orow-
bar in the slot and lifts with his bar resting on one end of the fulcrum
the other man rests his crow-bar on the other end of the fulcrum and
inserts it in the next hole as it comes- up and so on until the shutter is
brought up to the d sired height. A spray combined with a locking
arrangement is then inserted and holds the shutter in this position
a.ga.inst either raising or lowering.
 ltEGULATING SlIU'l'TERS AND GlUAB

CHECK DAMS

PLAN

SECTION

54""'; L( 'PIlt Wlni BRU&IotWOCl) 011 CAALCI PtUtlll.. t ' IN Goff GOIL
INnR~L::' DLTWl(N JlII.1.6 &I~ IlkCO '0 :..un $OIl ~T :.n,

DiFfERENT TYPES or CHECK DAMS

NOU(. H bl o .. cl'TO H04. 0 nO ..I .....

..
""',....,.,...,~"""~L,{o.,.....;'.::~!'.:::b;~_ bU!"Clt.1 1I

ROUGH :;TONCS WITH ~" M [>OO c>vNl>l'3

ON HARD C~OVND
,[)OOOlt PIL e WIT~ n~v~~""OOO 011 STQN( r, "LlNC)\'IITIIIIl W, ~1
!JOll INrrpVhL. tI [·(Ty.fC ,.. f"llr!J r~(I~ TI .. CO 10 ~ulT' OCt'. AT 'jIll'

Fro. ) 40 (a).
 lRBIGATION

•II .
I

D
FIG. HO (b).
 REGULATING SHUTTERS AND G~AR

STEM SHUTTER
ELEV":r~I:£?N O_F .S.H!JT'T~~ SECilON OF SHUT'TE.R
i, f
SC 1\1.tE.-' 1 ,0 , F OO"l:

R .C .S L"B

Flo. 140 (c).

1

, 1
,!•
• I

., i
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1

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i
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FrG. ) 40 (d).
 RhGULATiNG S1lUfi'ERS AND GEAR

...c:
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c:
IJ
.(
ow :
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.5 ~ I
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II IN-'-
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1'10. 140 (e).
 lRIUGA.TION

F IG. 140 (J). -

 REGULA.TING SHU'ITERS AND GEAR 409

Design for a Paddle ahutter suitable for shutters up to 15 sq.ft.

Scale : 1w = 1'.
I'.ltl

I.

,.,., Il~",,,,, T", ". . ",.,.r..",

.... LI .~,.u ...

1
FlO. 140 (g).
 · ! U,' ,lLIIY (;F A 1,IL" . d JI. ,1. , .( ·" . £3 1
! U,." ~ h~" II L!Llh.,ft'i B"n. \~(J,.E
1386 Acc eSSlon No....\.~<3.h ... ...
Date ., ......................................
 INDEX
A Bench-mark stan 8, 44 .
Ab orption, 102,103 (s 0' Pel'colation' ) Benoh-mark in 0 nn xion with
" in canals, cross- otionR of
, lev 1,434.
Alluvial formations, 14S, 140.
Alluvium, 14S.
deposit of, in lakes, 150.
" the aea., 15t (BOt>
, Deltas.')
Anicut, 175 (also see ' Weirs ').
Aqueducts, 501, 502, 532.
bank connexions of, 012.
contraction of waterway in, Buncl t Rting soil for ft, 37 ..
524, 525, 528.
formula for heading up dlle to
contraction of, 520.
formula for discharge of
culvert s under, 519.
formula forthioknesB of abut-
" ments of, 510.
formula for thickness of
arches of, 609.
headway required for, 505.
Gunnaram, 531.
sites for, seleotion, 507, 508.
" syphon (see I Syphons ').
types of, 503.
t,ypee of selection of Imitable
" 504.
Area, catchment, 51.
.. curve,76.
" irrigated in l\{adroR, 10.
Austin overflow dam, 274.
Automatio water level recorder, 74.
Ayacut, 445.
B depth of ohange of, 448.
Balancing depth of cutting, 427,438.
Balancing depth of cutting, formula fM,
428.
Bank. canal and ohannel, dimensions of,
426.
causes of failure of, 352- 354,
357,358.
oounexions of drops, 47(}, 474,
" 476.
oonnexions of irrigation works,
302, 397, 470, 476, 1)12, 532.
.
"
conne ions of aqueduots. 612.
" drains in or under a, 364.
-execution of earthwork of a,
371.
foundations of a, 369.
.. flood, 175, 184.
.. hydraulio gradient of a, 112, 113.
363.
.. junotion or jOint in a, 372.
" saturation gradient of a, 112, Catchment area, 51.
113.
H soour holes in or below a, 373.
of syphon or aqueduot, 512
532.
Bell mouthed entrance for head aluices,
:WJ .A.
28
gauge, 72.
Bel'DlS, canal, width of, 42 •
" fomnlla for, 42
Branch canals, 417.
BreMhing section, 3 6 408.
Bridges oanal, 493. '
" on ' navig ti n C&Ilals, 573.
Bund tank, ,dimensions of, 360, 36
.. free board of, 365.
H top width of, 365.
.. . types of, 351, 3'59:Ml, 362.
r vetment of a, 36'7.
c
Calibration ourve or tabl , 87.
" of a gauge, 7.
Calingulah, 399.
Canals and ohann Is, 41 452.
" alignment of, 418, 419.
" balanoing depth of, 427, 438.
benoh-mark stone along, "9.
berms, Width of, 428.
bran h,417.
pocity of, 4'4, 447.
" oommand of, 445.
.,
classifioation of, 417.
" oontour, (20, 421, 431.
oross-seotion, s lection of, 446.
ourves in, 430.
depth of bed above a drop in,
448.
depth of excavation, 442.
Kutter's oo-effioient for, 489.
n'la8oll..r y works in, (52.
milo "ton s, 449.
Ot non-Flilt,ng,oharaoteristioll of, '87,
438.
" olitakes from, 421.
profiLe of 1 ast absorption 434,
proportion, bed width to depth of,
433, 435, 436, 437, 440, 441.
.. sid slopes of, 420.
" single banked, 450, 4lil.
standard dimensiOns of, 4215,
436.
" system of, typioal, (22.
" table dimensions of, 436.
" velocities of flow of, 432.
" watershed,41S.
Capaoity, torage oomputation of, 408,
412.
.. basin, 51.
Channels, 416 to 452 (alao 1168 • Can&Ia').
" berms of, 428.
" olassification of, 417.
" depth of, ohange in, "8.
" distributary, 417,
 hannels, d.im&rulions of, 426, 436. Dam, stahility of, by method ofmaments
" field. '17, 425. 220,2i6.

.. Kutter'. co·efficient for, 4ai.

major, 417 .
minor, 417.
"
.. masonry works of, 452.
side slope, 41S .
spring, 349.
" standard dimensions of, 426.
.. watershed, 41S.
Ohenab weir, 306.
Command, 175, 176, ~45.
Crest free board of dam, 216.
. free board of ta.nk bllnd, 366.
u level of weir, 176.
" . shl1tter of weir, 314.
" shutter orest level, 176.
width, of arohed dam, 240.
width of dam, 215.
" width of tank bund, 360.
" width of weir, 259.
rops dllfassil, 5.
" duty of water for, 23 to 35.
garden, 5.
" irrigated dry, 1,2,5.
" irrigated wet, 4, 5.
Crossings, cart, 495, 496.
" cattle, 495, 496.
Current moters, S1.
" . measuring
\lith, 81- 84.
" operating, 85.
" Price, S5.
Ourves of canals and channels, 430 .
" stabi lity of, gra.phical con.'1tr.uotion
22 to 231.
sliuing, eCllrity against. 204.
'
" st'NlSS in arched, 237, li3S, 241,251.
,f
'0
stl'OSS in hotizontal jOint of, 224 .
stress, ma.ximum in jOint. of, 207,
208,209.
.. stoM!!; 39!J.
Definit·jon of aqueduct, 501, 502.
,. base t)f duty, 18.
bed silt,. 136.
calingulah, 397.
catchment luea, 51.
carchmflnt. bf\!!in, 51.
contour canal, 418.
('rop petiod, 1 .
dam, masonry, 196.
dam, h ig} , 214.
da.m, low, 214.
" dam, overflow, 196.
drop, 453.
duty of water, 12.
et'cape, na.tural, 39S.
fall, 453.
field to field irrigation,
425.
free board, 35S.
velooitios ground water gradient,
" 111.
hydrauliC wat·er gradient
" 112.
inlets, 534, 035.

D
.. inverted filter, 295.
irrigation, 1.
irrigation, works, 1.
korambu, 34S.
Dam, arched, -23 . I:' G level.orol:!Bing, 533.
" arched, buttress~. I~ ') - ~ L natural escape, 398.
arched, crest width of, ~4O-. \ / f ~ outJotl', 534.
" arched theoretio profile of, '2!9. I 1 ~ percolation gradient ,
.. Ashokan, ~ I 31- " llO.
Assuan, 2&S: I » plane of saturation, 112.
Australian arched, -2-+'8. L+ 3 " regulator, 315.
" Bear Valley, ~.l 't L mn·off, 52.
.. buttress, iM6-to~.!A( (; (4 , ., rainfa.ll Joss, 55.
onditions of stability of, .OJ. . scour, 161).
" comparison of arched and gravity, shutter crest level, 176.
~lIS. \ ~ '!> silt in suspension, 136.
dividing, 4 2. side slope cha.nnel, 418.
, .. earthen (see' Bank '). sluice, 315.
" elementary profile of, 205. spring channel, 349.
" essential divisions of a joint of, sup rpassf\ge, 501, 502.
223. syphon. 501, 502.
free board of, 216. syphon aquedu t, 501 ,
.. Furens, 232. 502.
, . gravity, orest width of, 215. watershed; 41S.
" gravity design of ' low ' dam, 217, " weil' 196.
218. " wings, canal, 512.
" gravity design of 'high' dam, .. wings, drain, 512.
219- 222. Delta, distincf,ive features of a, 153.
.. gravity' high,' 214. " dra.inag difficulties in n, 158.
" gravity' low,' 214.. " formation of, 15!.
.. Karikanave, 232. " irrigation, facilitles in 110, 15S.
" 'middle third' rille, 2 ... 2, 203 " rivers, characteristics of, 156.
" o\'er1low, 191. " rivers, formation of bars in, 15'.
" Path·finder, 244. " rivers gradua.l flattening of slope
" Periyar, 232. of, 1M.
.. regulating, 480. .. rivers, liability to change of, 166.
 INDEX

Desoription of ( , Definition of 'i. Duty of ater, for d bed ,3 •

Dhukwa weir, 272. in·Kri hn.a. anti da.varl
Diagram of distributi n of Pl'6l!8ures in a d Ita , 2 .31.
jOint, 199. in terms of IiUl per
Diagram of effective weight of a weir U 0, 13.
apron, 291, 293. [~ore t , Hi.
Diagram of pressure on the sloping d pth 0 !'e1l,16.
f3CEl!l of dams or weirs, 227. pia ofm urem nl of,
Diagram of stability of dam, 228, 19.
230, 231. ,. relation betw II di~ r·
Diagram of stahility of regulator, 223· nt 11 tat,ion for 17.
Diagram of stability of weir, 270. ZI. .
" tillits of,force in, 210. r qui.rem nt for pre i
Direct irrigation, 9, 10. tatem nt of. 20
Discharge, maximum. from Ct~Lctullent, (luring' trallsplautation,
89- 100 (alao see ' Flood dischnrge 'i. 27.
Disch rga, Trapezoidal notch, 461. after ranip lnntation, :til,
Distributiou works, 416, 417, 452. !II.
D.stribution typical system of, 422 to
425. E
Diversion works, 175. Earth connexions, 302 397, 476, fil2,
" best sites for, J 85. 532.
Divide groyneB. 181. Earths (800 ':;o iI8')
" wall, J 81. E lem ntary profile or I ria,ngl • 205.
Drains, banks of, 550. press ures on th • 212.
bedfall of, 550. " .. limit of d pth of, 2 13 .
capacity of, 552. Embankment (s e • Bund ' ).
catch, 1)46 . . Eqll!~tion (see' Formula 'i.
,. combined with irrigl\t·ion ('han. Escapes. surplull (ill' ' . urplllS works ').
nels, 5.53. ., tail,547.
Drainage of embank'menLs, 364. Evaporation oombill tl with 0 bsorvt.ion,
irrigated area, 54 t,o 553. 1:!1I, 130.
" outfall sluices, 551. mensurelD nt. of, 127. 12
Drops, 453 to 478. ro.te of, 126.
aprons of, length, 41$8.
•• aprons of, testing for uplift, F
472- 475. Fall iug shllt t.('rs ,
shforU·s. 57".
Drops, aprons of, I,esting for I hickness, Foura I' 8',577,67 .
468. " Krishna Aniout, 57D·A .
Drops, a.prons of, t asl ing for width, 468. Fl\lJfO (. e ' Drops').
Drops, bankcoJmex :onq of, 470,474,476. Fender pi les, 57 I .
body wall of, 4G5. Field cbnnnels 417, 425 (al n M (>
combined with aqued.ucts, 502. 'Chlum Ill' ).
" control of velocit,y of QPproooh to, Fi Id to field irrigation , 425.
456,457. Filter , illV rted. 295.
Drops, depth of canal bed above, 443. Flood bank!!, 175, 1 4.
.. ~design of a, 455,464,47 1,474,475. " c1i Roho.rg of combill d at b ·
~ notches in, 458, 465. menta,41J.
" .pIsces of oxisting, 454. oatchments,larg , 9.
pitching, length of, 469. oatchments of mod •
revetment, longth of, 469.
sites of, 454.
splayed wings for, 473.
.. I' te Biz, 93.
co· ffi oients
Ryve' formul,
for

trapezoidal notches in 460 to 4t2. 96 to 9 .

water usbion, depth of, 467.
" well. 478.
Durbah Rollers, ] 73·A.
.. .. formule for, 91, 911,
reoordin I v Is of,
100.
Duty ofwatet·, 12 to 36. standa.rd ar a for
merican nolation tor, " " oomputing, 94-.
15 ,. .. Tabl of, 92.
at the field , 19 Floors of irrigation works, 302.
at the head work", 19 Flotation, 234, 235 (also • Uplift. ').
" base of t.he, 18 Flow, m SBurement of, 63 (&18O lee
" effeot of rainfall on. 34 • Stream flow').
" example of working out Formula for aquedu t and syphon
the, 35 aqu duct , ablltm nt
for • dry ' crops, 23 to thiokness of, IUO.
25. aqu ducts and yphon ul.
for rice and w t crops, verts a.nd isohar of
26 to 35. 15 19.
, 4 IND EX

Formula for aqueduot8 and sy phou.head. 'Forruul for weirs, moments of v r·

jng up due to contraotion turning, 262, 268.
of,516. weirs, moments of resis·
balano1ng depth of outting, tance, 268.
" 427.
. berms, width of, 4211 •
weirs, mom fit of pre.vsure
ou face, 2ii7.

.
dams, masonry, arched,
arch stre88, 238.
dams, masonry, arched,
.. ,weirs, apron width of, 283.
weirs, orest width of, 259.
weirs, percolation, length of
extra arch stress due to line of, 283.
weight of masonry, 251. tank, weir, apron, width of,
., dams, masonry, a.rched, 396.

.. orest width of, 240.

dams, masonry, orest width
Free board, 216, 358, 365, 426.
Free rollers, 580 .

. of. 215.
da.ms, masonry, elementary Garden crops, 5 .
G

.. profile, base width, 205.

d~s,masonry,elementary
profile limit of height, 21.3.
Gates, sluice (Bee' Shutters ').
Gauge area curve or table, 76 .
Gauge bench mark in oonnexion with,
dams, masonry, stress, III 72.
" joints of, 197, 209, 211,
., 244.
dams, masonry, stress, in .. oalibration of a, 87.
ereotion of a, 71. .
outlets (see' Outlets ') .
.. high dams, 220.
dams, masonry, stresses,
relation between vertical
readings, 67.
computing flow from, 75.
reoording instruments,
.. and oblique, 207.
duty of water and depth
.. 74.
inacouracies of, 68 .
., over area, 21.
disoharge, nood, 91.
disoharge oombined oatoh- well,73.
selection of site for a,
69,70 •

..
OJ
ment,411.
disoharge, Dickens', 91.
.. Ryves',91.
II
zero of a, 72.
Gradient, grolIDd water, Ill.
hydraulic, 112, 363.
OJ II trapezoidal. .. percolation, 110, 112.
.... notoh,461.
drops, apron, length of, 466. II saturation, 112, 113, 363.
Grit soil, 108, 109, 355.

.. ..
.. thiokness, 468.
width,466.
pitohing,
Ground water gradient, Ill.
.. uplift pressure, 114.
Groyne, banging, 280•
lengths of,

.. II .
469.
revetments ,
length s of,
Hazen' s formula, 115.
H

H ead slui ces, 175, 179,341.

.. 469. _
river regulators, apron
"
..
Canals minor, 34
with spring channels,
.. width of, 331.
river regul~tor8, designl'l of.
349.
dimensions for design of
.. 321.
percolation gradient, 119.
II velocity
321.
founda.tions and floors ot,
347.
(Hazen'''l ,11 5. Godavari Eastern delt...
relation between' fet.ch ' ,

...
II 346.
.. and height of waves, 216.
pressure aDd stress in
~ Kistna. Western, 346 .
operating system of, 183•
.... masolll'Y, 197, 209.
aluiQe8, head, design of, 321.
II soolU"ing, apron,
"
irlind Canal, 846.
sites for, 344.
surface wa.ter, arrang·

..
width of, 336. " ments for drawing, 342.
.. deaig~ of, 321. Head work", 174 to 195.
.hutters falling, position of sites favourable for, 185,
.. pivot of, 578.
80rew spear, diameter. of,
58~.
"
186.
typical plan of, 1 2.
Hydraulic gradient, 110, 112, 113,363,
•• water oushion, oistern, Hydraulic jump, ~19 .
. depth of, 460.
water cushion, oitltern,
lengtb of, 468.
I
Inlet. or infall, 584, 635.
water cuahion, ~i~rn, .. and outlets, 534, G39, HO,
~bich." of, 468. " objeo~iollll tp, U(),
 INDEX

tn'-ta. sluice, 535 Navigation canal velocities of, 565

.. surface, 635 " water required for,
Irrigated • dry' crops, 2, 5 557
.. wet, 4 .. widths and depthl of,
Irrigation, direct 11ow, 0, 10 566
"
"
definition of, 1
field to field, 42 5
.. .. oombin d with irriga-
.. flood,7
flow, 6, 9, 10
. ..
tion, 574
speoial works required
for, 56
....
"
inundation, 7
lift, 6
perennial,7•
Needle shutters, 5 ,

o
.. reservoir, 0
tank, 9,10
Out falls (see also' Outlets ')
K " drainag ,549 to 551
.. sluioes, 561
Kennedy channels, table of, 436 .. tidal sluic 8,6(>1
Kennedy's critical velocity, theory of, Outlets. 534, 537 to 549
160, 161
.... gauge outlets, 491 , 492
Vo reduced values of, 164 ....
in eonnexion with inlet, ' ".
539,540
in singl banked oanals, 542
Vo variations in values of,
" 165
Khanki weir, 306
.. Kennedy's gauge, '91, 492
objeotions to, 8& oross draina e
works, 540
Korambu, 848 pipe, dE'feot& of, 490
Kutter's co-efficients, 439 di8Charges of, 488, 480
L .. sizes of, 487
sluicee,63
Lacey Formula, 166
Level-crossings, 633
. lurfaoe, 637
Lock, canal, 669
.. chamber, 661 p
ohopelJa,562
.. oulverts, 563 Palar ADieut, 303
double, 567 Percolation, 101 to 103
and absorption, 102
.. gates, 564
.. floors, 560
.. mooring posts, 568
..barrier for checking, 126
combined with evaporation,
.. lides sloping, 566 129
.. aide walls, 560 effect on irrigation suppliel,
105
aite, 569
.. sluices, 563
., tidal, 565
....
formula for velooity of, 110
gradient, 110
weirs, 558, 669, (>70 length of line of, und r
'Works, 283
M limitofsafev looityof, 120,
Measurement of evaporation, 127 121
.. silt, quantity of, 139 10 !leS from canals and ohan-
.. stream flow, 63 (also nels, 132 to lU
8ee • Stream Bow') .. from tanks, 130
Meter (see • Current Meter ') mean annual, 104,
Me1,tur Dam. 233-A through embankments, ] 22
Mile stones, 449 and under irri"a-
Momenta, method of, for oomputing tion workl, 118
stability, 22(>, 226, 267 rock,107
Momont of overturning on a weir, 262, .. soils, 106
263 " uplift due to, 123
pressure on a faco, 257 .. velocity of, 112,115
" resiltance of a trapezoidal Perennial irrigation, 7, 8
" weir, 265, 268 Piles fender, 67 J
Pipes (see • Outletl ')
If Plastic soil, 108, 109, 365
liarora weir, failure and r storation of, PreBlure,diagram of, on eloping face
305
Natural escape, 398
Navigation oanal, 554
.. ofa dam,227
diltribution of, in a hori:r;onta]
joint ot a darn
.. .. bridges, 573 10Ho 200.
to "headway required, " .. in ~he • el.mem
., "
673
loeb, 5(>9 ~o 571 Puddle in .. canal bed, ISIS
arypNllle, ~U
 416. IN.J>.~X

R Scouring Buioos, Rupar weir, 339

Ra.infall, 37 to 60 " silllevo18 of, 384
annual fiu('tuatiolls of, ~ 7 " vente, size of, 335
,. a,'orag , 4:1 • " of Toludur
" of a. bad year, GO Regulator, 33
disposal Qf, 55 Screw-gear, 5 1 to '5 3
mean fltimating, 4.6, 49 Serew llpear or ahaft, dimensions of, 5 2
,I
obs rvi~g and l' gis~ring, 40 Seepage, 103
proportIon of maxImum and Shutters, Ashford's patent drop, 579
" " crest, for weirs, 576
.. minimum to mean, 4
run-oJ{ estimating, 67 to 62
.. maximum (s e ' Flood
" Foura res' falling, 577, 57
horizontal plank, 5 5
" diBcharg ') lift, for large spans, (i80
II stations, 41 needle, 584
Rainfall, variations 'of, 42, 44, 47 screw geared, 58J to (i83
Rain gau.ge, 3 II with non-rising
" setting up, 39 screws,583
Recorder, water level, 74 II sluic , canal, 484
Regulator, canal, 479 to 4 1 " If tank, 383, 3114
" head (see ' Head sluices') Silt, 136 to 168
crOS8 thrust on piers of 328 " bed, ]36, 147
differ nt conditions 01. stress .. classes of, 136
" on, 3211, 325 " deposit, at cllnal head, 166
aim Mions of parts of, 320 in lakes, 150

.," 321
foundations, pI' S8UI on. 327
river,317 .
" aprons, width of, 33 L
.. xampl of design, 322,
" 324,327, 328
" roadwa.y over, 318
" Toilldur, 329, 332
R09Elrvoir (see ' Tanks')
If ~ "
in Beo. (see 'Deltas')
in tanks, 167, 168
.. Kennedy's theory about, 100, 161
.. measurement of, 139. 147
me hanical analysis of ll6 117
141, 142 '"
If non-silting velocities, 160 161
.. quantity carried in Cauv~ry, 144

"
component works of, 190
da.ms, 191
.. "
in Krishna, 144
various rivers, 143,
146
.. irrigation, I) " samples of taking, 140
II site, best oonditions of, 194 .. suspended, 136
Retaining walls, 497 to 500 .. tr8oll.sporting power of water 109
Revetments of bunds. 367 .. weight and volume of, ~lation
" of ' drops' length of, 469 between, 145
Ric (s ' Wet crops ') Slipping of bllnks, 354
" Qrea cultivated in Madras, 10 Sluices-barrel or culvert of, 377 to 3 0,
Riv r Train:ng, 173·A 483
Rupar w ir bead regulator, 345 canl'll, 483 to 485
" soollring slui es, a3~ .. soouring, 54-3, 54-4
Ryve • formula, 91 drainage, 551
head (see ' Head sluices ')
S
Sand, cla.ssifioation . of, for weir founda-
t.ions.282
.. inlet, 635
olltlet,53
" . pipe, 486 (see ' Outlets, pipe ')
" meolumioal a.nalysis of, 116, 117, shutters for (see ' Sbutters ')
141 142 " Sorew gear for, 581 to 583
unk ala Anj ut 272
turation gradient, 112, 363 (also see
, Percolation ')
.. Scouring (see 'Scouring sluices')
Tank, cistern of, 385
" head wall, 381
Soour, 169 0173 plugs, details of, 383,
effect of, n irrigation work, 170, 384
171 .. sites for, 386
" holes, tr atm ' nt of, 373 " surplus, 400, 4QI
to power of clear water to, 173 " " tower head, 382
" proteotion against, 172 .. " we]) head, 382
Scouring simoes, 1 0, 333 to 3tlO, 643 " tidal, 551
.. aprons width of, 336 " vents, dimensions of, 4 3
" capaoity of, 1 3 Soakage, 103
oanal, 5~3, 544 Soils-grit and plastic, 108, 109 355
dim nsions of com- pecifie gravity of masonry, 200
" ponent parts of, 321 Spring channel, 349
., face walls of, 340
operating, sy t m of;
183,337
Stability, by method of momenta 2 0 11:
226
Standini Wave, 419
' ......

Stabitty, by di&gl'an1S (see' Diagram ')
Stoney shutters, 580
torage works, 189, 350 to 41 5 (see
'Tanks ')
Storage oapaeity, 409, 412
trange's tab! s of run-off, 5 , 61
Stream-flow, computing, 79
" "from gaug road-
iog, 6. , 74
gauging, 63, 64, 65, 67
methods of, 77
sites for, 76
.. by weirs, 86
measuring by inter '('pting
reservoirs, 8
velocity of, measuring by
current meter, 8 1, 82
velocity of meaSlu·jng by
floats, 78
velocity of, meus uring by
" drains in, 3(13, 368
rods,80
Stross, condition of great st, on a weir,
260, 264, 266
Stress, different conditions of, on regu-
lators, 323
Stress in an arohed dam, 237,238, 241,251
Stress in a horizontal joint, in a masonry
dam, 207 to 211
Superpassage, 501, 502
Surplus works, canal, sluices, 538
.. " outlets, 534 to 542
s ingle bnnked canals, 450,
542
tanks, 388 to 407 (also
so ' Weirs' )
" tanks, sites for, 407
.. tail SCl).pes, 64. 7
Syphon, 501, 502 , 532
" agu duct, 501, 502
abutm nts, thi(·kneAA
of,510
bank connexions of,
" 512
()ontraot,ion of water-
" way of, 524 to 526,
528
!! III verts,
" " for, 506
dosign of, 509 to 528
.. plana of xisting. 531
1 ction of, 504
" sites for flO1 oLion of,
607,508
typo of, 503
" type I, 530
cnlv rts, arch 8, thickn of,
609
discharg of, 519_
" .. number of, required,
509
uplift in, 614, 616, 51
velocity through, 620,
532
width of w rway of,
505
h ad on, 520
" irrigation, 532
road. 49~
uplift on, 514, 516, 51
" Spillways, 407-A
"
il1
T
1'\'016 of Ilis ' hal'ge of tank IItwplua
work», 416.
.. pip!' outl ts, 4 9
m o.ximUID Bood d ' bar 02
II n -silting Mals Md diatri·
" butari ,436
J'i\infall in twas ' l'esirienc ,
49
run -oft' from monsoon rainfall,
" fiS
" .. daily l't\infl\lI 61
TableR, working. 415
'rank, aGO to 415
bl\nkf! or bIULdJ!. au s of faj]lu'O
of .352 t 354,
357,358
dim Mions of
36 ,365
. fl . oution
. rthwork, of
of
37J,37:-
foundation of, 3(19
. "
,.
fr board of, 365
r evetm nt of, 367
., slopes of, 356,
368, 37v
., testing Boil for,
374
,. .,
top widtl1 of. 3M
typ 9 of, 351, 359,
361,362
hed, teRting perm ability of, 375
" hI' nching sa tion in, :106, 408
('nJingu!ah, !l9fJ
oapl\city. 400, 412
component works of t\. H)O
flood absorbing cl\pal'it.v of a, 410
formed on a s in 10 hank I'd (' I1BI,
450,451
flUM Boay>Os, 39
grouping of. 40
irri atiort, 0, 10
nnturill eHoapes, 398
out lets (seo' luices')
.. !!(Jollr hoi II blow, 373
Hilt deposit in. ]67, 16
" Hi H favolU'abl for, J 94
IJllli(WA, supply. 377 to 387
shutters for lS 3,
61U
" 8ite for. 3 6
sluices, urpllJs ••00, 401
supply 'hanneL!,414
8urpluK w!\tor, diapo I of, 403,
t04
w ir nil urplus worh, 3
407 ( )fI() • W irs ')
w irs and urplus works, pl' n8,
widths of, 3 6
w irs and 1IW'p1Ull w des, dam
sta on, 399
.. W&irs and surplus works, (lite ,
plwu of, 40lS, 406
weiI'II d surplus works,
leotian of, 407
w irs and lurplus worka, type(l o~
3 8
 IN.DJI~

Tank, wein and aurplWl works, t.ypes of Weir, AWltin, 273

~on of mitabJe, 393 " bank connex.ione of, 302, 397
.. workillg tabJee for, 4H; .. baae width of, 31t
Tida1100k,G66 " buttreaR,274
.. outfallaluice,351 " body w.u dMigD of, 287 308
Toludur Regulator, 629 .. crest lovel, 176
" If 1C0uring vents of, 338 " " width, 269
Tow.path,672 " creel. sbuttora, 314, 676 (eee ' Shut·
" bridges, 672 tore ')
T,.EOidal notches, 467 to 463 (.lao 1186 definition of, 254.
• Notchee ') " Dhukwa, plan of, 272
.. disadvantages of, 177
u .. failure, cauaes of, 276
.. foundations, classification of sand
Uplift, 234, 236 in, 282
.. ondition of grea t, on w ira, .. foundations on sand, 275
304: " functions of, 256
.. on aprons, 288. 291, 294, 300, .. hanging groynes, 280
301 .. moment of overturning, 207, 262,
.. Pl'efl8ure due to ground water, 268
114, 234, 236 .. moment of resistance, 266, 268
.. Narora, failure of, 30G
v " open, 314:
.. Palar, a03
Velocit.y of 60w (Bee ' Stream·fiow ') percolation-length of Hne of, 283
to approach, 26 " p~itferent' states' of,
" mee.aurement of mean, on, 261
unlcosala,272
. 83 .
non·silting (aee • Ken·
nedy's theory ')
"" stability of. by diagram, 274
" " by method of moments,
through syphon cul· 267
" " stress, condition ofmarimum, !l80.
.. verts, 632
through drainage cul·
verts, 682
2M, 266
" types of, 278, 38i
" typo A, 278, 298
" " B, 278. 306
" .. C, 278, 307, 310
" types, comparison of, 298. 51!
Water ouahion oi tern, depth of, 467 " W&ter oushions, 313
.. .. length of, 468 .. working Conditions, 391
deaign of, 471 Wet orope, 4. I)
W.~r 00 ' Obaono18, field 'J " duty of water, for 26 to 29
.. duty ot ( • Duty of water ') " .. during trans.
.. 1 vel recorder, 74 plantation,
.. ~,Ill
Weiabt of DUIIIO&'Y,
.. water, 20& " . 27
after trans·
plimt&tion,
W ir, look, M8, 669, 670
.. river (or aniout), 264 to 3H
" apron of, 277, 279
. .. 28,31
examples o~
SG,B6
.. "balanoing b ads of, 292 " " for tank irri.
" " design of, 2 6 to 299, gation. S3

...
3ll,313 Wing walls, canal aqueducts, 612
."
.fIi tive weight of, 290
__ 1;293 diasrarn of,
..
..
drain aqueduots, 612
splayed or square for drop..
..
OJ
.. materi for, 396
upUft on, 286, 2 9 to
"3
WOJ'k&-diveraion, 175
" diatribution, '16, 417, .02
.. ..." IN, 800, 801
npljft, pw. ,S04.
tlUoknela of, 2M
"
"
"
bead,l"
maaonry in oanals, " ' to UI
IUlplua (eee • Burplua ..... ')
If width of, JU, 196 WorkiDc tab_, 41~

AGRiCUL rURAL COLLEGE,

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Aacn. -No ..•. _t~.i k..... ..
I Oate .......................................
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