49

CHAPTER 5

PROTECTION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

5.1 INTRODUCTION

There is a constant need for the reduction of operational and

maintenance costs of large sized synchronous generators. The most efficient
way of reducing these costs would be continuous monitoring of the condition
of these generators. This allows for early detection of the degeneration of the
generator’s health, facilitating a proactive response, minimizing downtime,
and maximizing productivity. There are many techniques and tools available,
which are used to monitor the condition of these machines and prolonging
their life span. Stator winding faults of synchronous generator are considered
serious problems because of the damage associated with high currents and
high cost of maintenance. A high speed bias differential relay is normally
used to detect three phase, phase to phase and double phase to ground faults.
Detection of single line to ground faults depends on the generator grounding
type which can be classified into low and high impedance grounding. In case
of low impedance grounding, a differential relay can detect and provide
protection of only about, 95% of the windings. However, for high impedance
grounding, ground faults are not normally detectable by the differential relay
because the fault current is usually less than the sensitivity of the relay. In
such case, an over-voltage relay connected across the grounding resistor has
been used to sense the zero sequence voltage. This relay should be set to
avoid tripping of normal unbalance which yields reduced sensitivity.
 50

In this work, Computational Intelligence based approaches for

identifying Stator Earth Fault and Inter-Turn fault of Synchronous Generator
are proposed. The detector uniquely responds to the winding inter-turn fault
and Stator Earth Fault with remarkable high sensitivity. Discrimination of
different percentage of winding affected by these faults is provided via ANN
or GA-BPN or ANFIS which are given with eight dimensional input vector.
This input vector is obtained from features extracted from DWT of faulty
current leaving the generator phase winding for the case of Inter-Turn fault.
For stator earth fault protection subharmonic injection technique is followed.
So the neutral current of the generator is taken for structuring input vector.
Training data for ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS are generated via a simulation
of generator with these faults using MATLAB Simulink. The proposed
algorithm using ANFIS is giving satisfied performance than ANN and GA-
BPN with selected statistical data of decomposed levels of faulty current. The
sample power system is shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Sample Power System

5.2 STATOR EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

Synchronous generators are very important elements in power

systems since they are in-charge of providing an uninterrupted power supply
to the consumers. Therefore, their reliability and good functioning are crucial.
The construction as well as maintenance cost is high depending upon the
 51

complexity and the size of the generators. The important role of generators in
the power system and the high cost of repair in case of damage require a good
protection system against faults. It must be protected against the damage
caused by abnormal conditions in the electrical network or in the generator
itself. Generators are protected against external faults by several circuit
breakers that isolate all faults that occur in the network (i.e. transformers,
buses, lines, etc). At the same time, the generators must be protected against
faults that occur inside the machine. There are several ways to detect these
faults and avoid the damages caused by them. This work focuses on stator
winding ground faults to provide 100% protection in synchronous machines.
A stator winding ground fault is the most common type of fault to which
generators are subjected. Stator ground faults could be caused by the
insulation degradation in the windings as well as environmental influences
such as moisture or oil in combination with dirt which settles on the coil
surfaces and outside the stator slots. This often leads to electrical tracking
discharges in the end winding which eventually punctures the insulation.

A stator ground fault referred in this work is a single-phase to

ground fault. Generators must be protected against the fault for two reasons:

 The first and obvious faults which occur during abnormal

situations in the functioning of the machine causing
undesirable voltages, currents, oscillations or damage.

 The second reason, an undetected and uncleared ground fault

could develop into a phase-to-phase fault or into an inter-
winding fault, if another single-phase to ground fault occurs.
These faults are associated with immediate damage to the
generator since the resulting short-circuit current would be of
devastating magnitude.
 52

The conventional methods like Stator winding zero-sequence

neutral over voltage protection, Instantaneous ground overcurrent protection,
Ground time-overcurrent protection, Ground differential protection and
Percentage phase differential protection can detect ground faults for only
about 95% of the stator winding since there is not enough voltage to drive
current when the fault occurs near the neutral. In the remaining 5% of the
stator winding (the closest part to the neutral), the relays cannot be operated.
Therefore, additional protection methods are used to provide a 100% stator
ground fault protection. Special protection systems based on the third
harmonic analysis and on the subharmonic voltage injection can detect stator
ground faults close to the neutral. These protection methods are strongly
recommended for large generators because the entire stator winding must be
protected.

5.2.1 Subharmonic Injection Method

The subharmonic injection method used to protect the stator

winding of unit-connected generators against stator ground faults is described
as follows:

5.2.1.1 Principle of operation

A subharmonic voltage (usually one fourth of the system

frequency) is injected through an injection transformer between the grounding
element of the generator (i.e. resistor, distribution transformer or reactor) and
ground. The operation theory of this principle is based on measuring the
change of the subharmonic current resulting from the injected voltage when a
stator ground fault occurs. Since the impedance of the stator to ground varies
when the fault occurs, the subharmonic protection scheme can detect this
change of the injected current and initiate the tripping-off of the generator.
During normal operation, the resulting subharmonic current is limited by the
 53

grounding impedance (resistor, reactor or distribution transformer with

resistor loaded at the secondary), by the internal impedance of the injection
circuit and by the shunt leakage capacitance to ground of the stator winding,
bus, step-up transformers, etc. The inductances of the stator windings can be
neglected when compared to the impedances of the grounding element and
the shunt capacitances to ground.

When the ground fault occurs, the fault resistance appears in

parallel with the shunt capacitances to ground. Thus, the impedance limits the
subharmonic current changes and also makes the current change. The
subharmonic injection principle of operation is based on this change in the
subharmonic current. Therefore, detecting and measuring this change and
operating if it is necessary will be the function of the subharmonic injection
scheme inorder to protect the stator winding. Figure 5.2 shows the principle of
operation of this method.

Figure 5.2 Principle of operation

The subharmonic voltage could also be injected at the terminals of

the generator but as stated in Tai et al (2000) the injection voltage scheme
injected from the generator neutral is more flexible to be carried out and
presents better results than injected from the terminals.
 54

As discussed in Reimert (2005), the scheme uses a subharmonic

signal for two reasons. First the lower frequency increases the impedance of
the stator capacitive reactance. This improves scheme sensitivity. Secondly,
by measuring the current as an integrated value over full 12.5 Hz cycles all
other harmonics of 50 Hz are eliminated, allowing more sensitive
determination of the injected current.

The generators considered in this work are unit-connected

generators. This means that a step-up transformer will be connected in
between the terminals of the generator and the electrical network. Moreover,
circuit breakers are placed in between the generator and the bus in order to
isolate the generator from external faults. At this point, it is necessary to make
some assumptions in order to obtain a simple model which means, substitute
some elements of the scheme but taking into account their effect on the
circuit.

First of all, the measuring circuit will be taken out. The injection
transformer and all the elements of the injection circuit (signal controllers, test
circuits, etc) will be substituted for injection impedance (Zinj = Rinj+j·Xinj).
Therefore, the 12.5 Hz voltage source will have to be reflected (E'inj) to the
generator side of the transformer using the turns ratio (rt). The internal
resistance of the subharmonic source will be reflected as well to the generator
side of the transformer and will also be included in the injection impedance
(Zinj).

The generator is modelled as follows:

- One reactor per phase whose value is Xd or Xd' or Xd'' which

are the synchronous, transient and subtransient reactance
respectively.
 55

- The stator winding capacitance to ground will be modelled as

one capacitor per phase placed after the reactance.

- In order to model the 50 Hz power generation of the

synchronous machine, one 50 Hz AC source is placed in each
phase. Their amplitude is the nominal voltage of the generator
divided by square root of 3 (Un/√3) and their phase will be 0º,
-120º and 120º depending on the phase (A, B and C
respectively).

Finally, the capacitor between the circuit breaker and the step-up
transformer, the bus and the step-up up transformer can be modelled just
taking into account their capacitances to ground. Thus, three capacitors per
phase is placed to model these elements. Figure 5.3 shows the equivalent of
the unit-connected generator with the injection scheme.

Figure 5.3 Equivalent of the unit-connected generator with the

injection scheme
 56

5.2.1.2 Typical values for a unit-connected generator

Table 5.1 shows the values and characteristics of the unit-connected

generator used in the calculations and simulations of this work.

Table 5.1 Typical values for a unit-connected generator

Rated Power(SN) 850MVA

Rated Rotational Speed 3000 rpm
Rated Frequency (fo) 50 Hz
Rotor Type Round rotor
Nominal Voltage (Un) 21kV
Synchronous Reactance (Xd) 2.44 p.u.
Transient Reactance (Xd’) 0.43 p.u.
Sub-transient Reactance (Xd”) 0.25 p.u.
Zero Sequence Reactance (X0) 0.13 p.u.
Negative Sequence Reactance (X2) 0.24 p.u.
Zero Sequence Resistance (R0) 0.0025 p.u.
Positive Sequence Resistance (R1) 0.0034 p.u.
Negative Sequence Resistance (R2) 0.04 p.u.
Capacitance to ground of the stator winding (Cgnd) 0.385µF
Power Factor 0.882
Grounding Resistor (Rn) Rated 100A,
21/√3V, Rn=1212Ω
Bus Capacitance (Cbus) 0.1 µF/phase
Surge capacitor between step-up transformer and 0.25 µF/phase
circuit breakers capacitance (Csurge)
Step-up transformer capacitance (Ctrafo) 0.2 µF/phase
 57

5.2.1.3 Typical values for a subharmonic injection scheme

According to the Figure 5.3, there are two values of the

subharmonic injection scheme that must be defined: Einj’ and Zinj. These
values will be taken from an example presented in Pope (1984). Einj’ is the
subharmonic voltage source reflected to the generator side of the injection
transformer. In Pope (1984), the injection transformer has a turns ratio of

Vgenerator _ side 1
rt   (5.1)
Vsource _ side 2.5

and the voltage source has a magnitude of 140 V (source side), which means
that the reflected voltage to the generator side is given by

1
Vgen._ side  Vsource _ side .  56V (5.2)
2.5

Therefore, Einj’= 56 V. Zinj is the equivalent impedance of the injection

circuit. It also includes the internal resistance of the subharmonic voltage
source. In Pope (1984), the leakage impedance of the injection transformer is
Zinj = 36 + j·125 in a 60 Hz system frequency as given in equation (5.3). This
means that,

R  36

Zinj  36  j.125  125 (5.3)
L  2..60  0.331H

Thus, it will be assumed that Zinj (impedance of the injection circuit) will be
calculated with R=36 Ω and L=0.331 H. One must realize that depending on
the system frequency this impedance will vary since X=j2πfL.
 58

5.2.2 Mathematical equations

In this section, the mathematical equation for the subharmonic

current is presented. The subharmonic current in a non-fault scenario is
calculated as

E 'inj
I (5.4)
zinj  R n  ZC total

As one knows the values of the injection circuit impedance, the grounding
resistor and the total capacitance to ground, it is possible to calculate the non-
fault current.

56
I non _ fault 
1
36  j  0.331  2  12.5  1212  j  6
2.035 10  2  12.5

 0.0088A78.67

The magnitude of the non-fault current is very small since the impedance of
the capacitances to ground is very large. The angle of the non-fault current is
close 90 º due to the influence of this large capacitance. When the ground
fault occurs, the impedance that limits the subharmonic current changes.
Consequently, the subharmonic current is divided in two currents: one that
flows through the capacitor and the other one through the fault resistance. The
total subharmonic current in a fault scenario is:

E 'inj E 'inj
Ifault  IC  I Rf   (5.5)
Zinj  R n  ZC total || R f Z R
Zinj  R n  Ctotal f
ZCtotal  R f

One can substitute the known values and find Ifault

 59

56 56
Ifault  
 j  6257  R f  j  6257  R f  (R f  j  6257)
36  j  26  1212  1248  j  26 
 j  6257  R f (R f  j  6257)  (R f  j  6257)

56

39150049  R f  6257  R f2 
1248   j   26  
R 2f  39150049  R f2  39150049 

The fault current depends on the fault resistance. It is not easy to

imagine the curve that represents the fault current when varying the fault
resistance. Therefore, MATLAB SIMULINK software is employed to obtain
and analyze the values of the subharmonic current.

The 50 Hz power generation is included in the model of the

subharmonic injection scheme. It could be modeled by one AC source per
phase. When considering the effect of the 50 Hz generation, the measured
current will not only have the 12.5 Hz but also it will contain the 50 Hz.
Therefore, the equations for the current will not be calculated and the whole
study will be based on the data obtained in the simulation in MATLAB
Simulink.

5.2.3 The Simulation Model

In the faulted phase, instead of having just one AC 50 Hz source,

one can introduce two sources whose amplitudes are αUn/√3 and (1- α)Un/√3.
The fault resistance Rf is placed between these two sources. Moreover, the
capacitance to ground of the stator winding is divided in two capacitors: one
placed at the neutral whose value is αCstator and the other is placed with the
rest of capacitances to ground and its value is (1-α)Cstator. The aim of
splitting the stator ground capacitance and the power generation in the faulted
phase is modelling the fault location as follows:
 60

 α=1 means that the fault is placed at the terminals of the

generator since all the capacitance of the stator winding comes
before the fault resistance.

 α=0 means that the fault is placed at the neutral since all the
capacitance of the stator winding is placed after the fault
resistance. Figure 5.4 shows the subharmonic protection scheme
with the 50 Hz power generation.

Figure 5.4 Subharmonic protection scheme with the 50 Hz power

generation

There are two well-differentiated parts in the current curve shown

in Figure 5.5. In the first 0.4 seconds, the current has a small magnitude but
in the second 0.4 seconds, after the ground fault occurs, the current magnitude
increases a lot. Moreover, the frequencies of the fault and non-fault currents
are different. The non-fault part is a 12.5 Hz sinusoid while the fault part is a
50 Hz curve.
 61

Figure 5.5 Injected current per Rf = 1000 Ω and α =1

In Figure 5.6, one can see the 12.5 Hz sine wave. Once again, the
amplitude of the non-fault subharmonic current is 8.8 mA.

Figure 5.6 Non-fault current

 62

5.3 STATOR INTER-TURN FAULT PROTECTION

In this work, Inter-turn winding fault is also considered for the

protection of synchronous generator since all kind of faults develop into inter
winding fault by damaging the inter-winding insulation. So, it is necessary to
protect the synchronous generator against inter winding faults. For inter
winding protection, differential method cannot be implemented as the current
on both side of the fault will be the same. The Inter-turn fault is simulated by
connecting a resistor across the winding which will reduce the resultant value
of both resistance and reactance of the winding as shown in Figure 5.7 which
is reported by Douglas et al (2005).

The Interturn fault is simulated by connecting a resistor across the

winding which will reduce the resultant value of both resistance and reactance
of the circuit. The Figure 5.7 shows the modified circuit for fault simulation.
A variable resistor is connected across the stator winding A. The percentage
of the winding fault can be changed by varying the value of the resistor.

Figure 5.7 Generator with fault simulating resistor

The values of resistor to simulate winding Inter-turn fault have

been calculated from 0% to 100% of winding fault. The calculation is as
follows:
 63

Zph - Impedance of phase winding

Under x% of winding short circuit fault effective Impedance is:

Zph (eff) = Zph – (x/100)Zph = Zph || R

Zph (1- (x/100)) = (Zph*R)/(R+Zph)

R = Zph (1- (x/100)) /(x/100) (5.6)

Using the equation (5.6), Values of resistor to be connected across the

winding have been calculated for simulating different % of winding fault.

The values of resistor to be connected across the phase winding of

synchronous generator are listed in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Values of Resistor for simulating various % of inter-turn fault

in the winding of synchronous generator

% of Resistance Resistance
% of Fault
Fault ( in Ohms) ( in Ohms)
1 5.265649 17 0.672677
2 3.047938 18 0.645939
3 2.254692 19 0.621447
4 1.833225 20 0.598896
5 1.566449 21 0.578036
6 1.379858 22 0.558657
7 1.240637 23 0.540585
8 1.131947 24 0.523673
9 1.044203 25 0.507796
10 0.97152 26 0.492846
11 0.910069 27 0.478731
12 0.857247 28 0.46537
13 0.811213 29 0.452693
14 0.770627 30 0.440638
15 0.73449 31 0.429152
16 0.702037 32 0.418186
 64

Table 5.2 (Continued)

% of Resistance Resistance
% of Fault
Fault ( in Ohms) ( in Ohms)
33 0.407698 67 0.189578
34 0.397649 68 0.185073
35 0.388007 69 0.180607
36 0.378739 70 0.176176
37 0.369819 71 0.171778
38 0.361221 72 0.167407
39 0.352924 73 0.163059
40 0.344905 74 0.158731
41 0.337147 75 0.154418
42 0.329633 76 0.150115
43 0.322346 77 0.145817
44 0.315272 78 0.14152
45 0.308398 79 0.137219
46 0.301712 80 0.132907
47 0.295201 81 0.128578
48 0.288856 82 0.124227
49 0.282667 83 0.119845
50 0.276623 84 0.115423
51 0.270718 85 0.110954
52 0.264942 86 0.106426
53 0.259289 87 0.101825
54 0.25375 88 0.097139
55 0.24832 89 0.092349
56 0.242992 90 0.087434
57 0.23776 91 0.082366
58 0.232618 92 0.077111
59 0.227561 93 0.071624
60 0.222584 94 0.065843
61 0.217682 95 0.059679
62 0.212849 96 0.052992
63 0.208082 97 0.045553
64 0.203376 98 0.036906
65 0.198726 99 0.025877
66 0.194128 100 0.000002
 65

5.4 PROPOSED ALGORITHM

In this proposed scheme, with Ia phase current data measured under

winding inter-turn fault, In neutral current data under stator earth fault of
generator are recorded for 0.25 cycles from the instant of fault. For four
decomposition levels of these current, maximum and range values are taken
as features for framing input vector under faulty condition. Extracted features
may be of anything like maximum, mean, minimum, absolute mean deviation
etc. Output vector of ANN or GA-BPN or ANFIS reveals the percentage of
winding affected by fault. If the disturbance is classified as a fault on the
winding, the circuit breaker of the generator will be tripped. The flowchart of
the proposed algorithm is shown in Figure 5.8.

5.4.1 Data Encoding

For the protection of synchronous generator against stator earth

fault, four decomposition levels (level V, level VI, level VII and level VIII)
are used. First four levels are not considered since they are not giving wide
variation in their statistical data. But for the inter-turn fault protection, first
four levels are used as they are showing wide variations in their statistical
data.

For protecting the generator against stator earth fault training data
for ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS are encoded as specified in Figure 5.9. The
last column of the data is representing the percentage of winding affected by
earth fault which is to be the output of Computational Intelligence
Techniques.
 66

Fault Current of 3phase Synchronous

Generator

Sampling of
Fault current

Sampling counts and

Data Recorder

Check
For
No ¼ cycles
(n = 10)

Yes

Check for Check for

I, II III, IV
quadrant quadrant
of faulty of faulty
waveform waveform

I II III IV

Feature Extraction (DWT),

Data Encoding

ANN ANN ANN ANN

GABPN GABPN GABPN GABPN
ANFIS ANFIS ANFIS ANFIS
Trained Trained Trained Trained
for for for for
I II III IV
quadrant quadrant Quadran quadrant
faulty faulty t faulty faulty
Data Data Data Data

Figure 5.8 Flowchart of proposed algorithm

 67

In Output
In In In In In In In (%
Level
Level Level Level Level Level Level Level Wdg.
V
V VI VI VII VII VIII VIII Under
Max.
Range Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range Earth
Fault)

Figure 5.9 Training Data Encoding for stator earth fault

For protecting the generator against inter-turn fault training data for
ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS are encoded as specified in Figure 5.10. The last
column of the data is representing the percentage of winding affected by
Inter-turn fault which is to be the output of Intelligent Computational
Approaches.

Ia Ia Ia Ia Ia Ia Ia Ia Output
Level Level Level Level Level Level Level Level (% Wdg
I I II II III III IV IV inter-turn
Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range Fault)

Figure 5.10 Training Data Encoding for winding inter-turn fault

The input vector elements for stator earth fault protection are
shown in the Figure 5.11.

In In In In In In In In
Level Level Level Level Level Level Level Level
V V VI VI VII VII VIII VIII
Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range

Figure 5.11 Input Vector for stator earth fault

 68

The input vector elements for Stator Inter-Turn fault protection are
shown in the Figure 5.12.

Ia Ia Ia Ia Ia Ia Ia Ia
Level Level Level Level Level Level Level Level
I I II II III III IV IV
Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range

Figure 5.12 Input Vector for winding inter-turn fault

For different percentage of these winding faults including no fault

case, the output element of each data takes value shown in the Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Output vector for the protection of synchronous generator

Output % of winding affected

vector by the fault
0 No Fault
0.01 1%
0.02 2%
0.03 3%
0.04 4%
0.05 5%
. .
. .
. .
1 100%

5.4.2 Decision Making by Computational Intelligence Approaches

After encoding the data of fault current as per the formats shown
above it is given to the corresponding ANNs or GA-BPNs or ANFISs which
are trained for I, II, III, IV quadrants of faulty currents respectively.
Intelligent Computational approaches are giving decision about the
 69

percentage of winding affected by fault. The same flow can be adopted for
other phase windings of synchronous generator. So, the synchronous
generator can be protected completely from faulty condition by identifying
the percentage of winding affected by Inter-Turn and Earth fault on the phase
winding. No fault case is also taken into account for training the ANN, GA-
BPN and ANFIS.

5.5 GENERATION OF TRAINING DATA FOR STATOR

INTER-TURN FAULT PROTECTION

A practical test system with unit connected generator of rating

(ABB Industry Oy / Machines) 21KV, 850MVA, 50Hz has been simulated
for various percentage of inter-turn faults of one phase winding of
synchronous generator using MATLAB Simulink. Simulation model of the
sample power system is shown in Figure 5.13.

Figure 5.13 Simulation Model of Sample Power System for Stator Inter-
Turn Fault
 70

Training data for the ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS are prepared by
simulating various percentage of winding short circuit faults on the phase
winding. With 95% Inter-Turn fault on phase ‘A’ winding of the generator,
the phase fault current recorded for quarter cycle is shown in Figure 5.14.

Figure 5.14 Fault Current from Phase A of Synchronous Generator

The phase current of the generator is passed through sampling

circuit. Then sampled signal performs as the input to the DWT based fault
diagnosis algorithm. The described DWT based algorithm is applied and
tested on the sample system. The test includes different percentage of short
circuit fault and no fault case under loading condition.

This current is then loaded to Wavelet Tool of MATLAB and

analyzed with ‘db-2’ wavelet for four-level decomposition. Outputs of DWT
tool for different levels are shown in Figure 5.15 to Figure 5.18 for the faulty
current in phase A.
 71

Figure 5.15 Decomposed Level-I of Fault current

Figure 5.16 Decomposed Level-II of Fault current

 72

Figure 5.17 Decomposed Level-III of Fault current

Figure 5.18 Decomposed Level-IV of Fault current

 73

Extracted features of statistical data, maximum and range for four

levels of the faulty phase current are arranged to form input vector for ANN,
GA-BPN and ANFIS. Training data have been developed for different
percentage of winding faults with the fault simulating resistor which is
connected across the phase winding. For various percentage of winding inter-
turn fault at different loading of generator (60%, 80%, 100%, 120%), 400
fault current data have been simulated using MATLAB Simulink. Training
data recorded at a loading of 100% of the system for inter-turn fault
protection are listed in Appendix 2.Among these data, 200 data are used to
train Intelligent Network, 100 data are used for testing and 100 data for
validation. The output element of each data takes the value as shown in the
Table 5.3 for different percentage of winding inter-turn fault including no
fault case.

Total simulated data are four hundred in number which are shown
in Appendix 2. But ten sample data are given in Table 5.4 (Unnormalized).
Table 5.5 shows corresponding normalized data. System is tested with many
data for different % of Inter-turn fault.

Table 5.4 Simulated Actual Training Data of Sample Power System for
Stator Inter-Turn fault protection

Data Level I Level II Level III Level IV Output

Number Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range Max. Range % of fault
1 2.73 6.42 22.74 38.57 84.43 116.8 194 288.4 1
2 3.06 4.66 14.65 25.3 66.86 94.52 165.4 229.9 2
3 2.13 3.22 14.2 23.7 53.08 75.88 135.5 191.9 3
4 1.36 2.75 12.79 21.36 48.44 69.34 127.1 175.4 4
5 1.97 4.42 8.9 15.13 41.85 60.99 115.3 159 5
6 1.83 4.22 8.34 14.19 39.29 57.26 107.7 148.6 6
7 1.72 2.35 7.83 13.32 36.68 53.45 100.6 138.9 7
8 0.88 1.47 7.39 12.55 34.3 50.01 94.42 138.3 8
9 0.88 1.4 7.14 12.1 7.14 12.1 89.14 123.2 9
10 0.83 1.33 6.8 11.52 30.66 44.68 84.58 116.9 10
 74

Table 5.5 Simulated Actual Training Data of Sample Power System for
Stator Inter-Turn fault protection (Normalized)

Level I Level II Level III Level IV Output

Data
Number % of
Max Range Max Range Max Range Max Range
fault
1 0.892157 1 1 0.27854 0.635782 1 1 1 0.01
2 1 0.725857 0.644239 0.182708 0.503475 0.809247 0.852577 0.797157 0.02
3 0.696078 0.501558 0.62445 0.171154 0.399708 0.649658 0.698454 0.665395 0.03
4 0.444444 0.428349 0.562445 0.154255 0.364767 0.593664 0.655155 0.608183 0.04
5 0.643791 0.688474 0.391381 0.109264 0.315143 0.522175 0.59433 0.551318 0.05
6 0.598039 0.657321 0.366755 0.102476 0.295865 0.49024 0.555155 0.515257 0.06
7 0.562092 0.366044 0.344327 0.096193 0.276211 0.45762 0.518557 0.481623 0.07
8 0.287582 0.228972 0.324978 0.090632 0.258289 0.428168 0.486701 0.479542 0.08
9 0.287582 0.218069 0.313984 0.087382 0.053766 0.103596 0.459485 0.427184 0.09
10 0.271242 0.207165 0.299033 0.083194 0.230879 0.382534 0.435979 0.40534 0.1

5.6 SIMULATION RESULTS FOR STATOR INTER-TURN

FAULT PROTECTION

With the proposed procedure, sample system having one generator

has been tested and gives 100% accuracy in identifying the percentage of inter
turn fault with only two features of maximum and range of four
decomposition levels of phase current leaving the winding to be protected.
Therefore input vector will have eight components. Similar procedure can be
followed for other phase currents of generator. To ensure the isolation of the
faulty generator, relay is provided at the bus to which generator is connected.
So, CB will be operated according to the decision made by ANN, GA-BPN
and ANFIS.
 75

The ANFIS structure used for the protection of synchronous

generator is shown in Figure 5.19. Details of ANFIS are:

Number of nodes : 1433

Number of linear parameters : 711

Number of nonlinear parameters : 1264

Total number of parameters : 1975

Number of training data pairs : 200

Number of checking data pairs : 100

Number of fuzzy rules : 79

ANFIS used for this purpose uses hybrid method as its optimization
method. The error tolerance is taken as zero.

Figure 5.19 ANFIS Structure for Stator Inter-Turn Fault Protection

Training error for percentage of winding fault diagnosis of

synchronous generator of sample network for ANFIS is shown in Figure 5.20.
 76

Error

Epochs

Figure 5.20 Error Vs Epochs of Trained ANFIS

Test results for various fault simulated for different percentage of

winding inter turn fault of the sample system using the proposed algorithm are
shown in the Figure 5.21 to Figure 5.24. Figure 5.21 shows output of ANFIS
for 25% of winding inter-turn fault of the generator. Its average testing error
is only 1.9298x10-7 i.e., indicating the percentage of winding affected by fault
is 25.

Testing Data: ANFIS Output: *

Figure 5.21 ANFIS output for 25% of winding Inter-turn fault

 77

Figure 5.22 shows output of ANFIS for 15% of winding interturn

fault of the generator. Its average testing error is only 0.0057901 i.e.,
indicating the percentage of winding affected by fault is 15.
Output

Testing Data: ANFIS Output: *

Figure 5.22 ANFIS output for 15% of winding Inter-turn fault

Figure 5.23 shows output of ANFIS for 3% of winding interturn

fault of the generator. Its average testing error is only 8.1805x10-9 i.e.,
indicating the percentage of winding affected by fault is 3.

Testing Data: ANFIS Output: *

Figure 5.23 ANFIS output for 3% of winding Inter-turn fault

 78

Figure 5.24 shows output of ANFIS 60% of winding inter-turn fault

of the generator. Its average testing error is only 9.798x10-5 i.e., indicating the
percentage of winding affected by fault is 60.

Testing Data: ANFIS Output: *

Figure 5.24 ANFIS output for 60% of winding Inter-turn fault

ANN used for this application is feed forward propagation network.

Levenberg-Marquardt optimization is used for updating the weights and bias
values of the Neural Network. Figure 5.25 shows performance curve of ANN
after training the network.

Figure 5.25 Performance (MSE) curve after training of ANN

 79

5.7 GENERATION OF TRAINING DATA FOR STATOR

EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

An unit connected generator of rating (ABB Industry Oy /

Machines) 21KV, 850MVA, 50Hz has been simulated for various percentage
of Stator Earth faults of ‘A’ phase winding of synchronous generator using
MATLAB Simulink. Simulation model of the practical system is shown in
Figure 5.26.

Figure 5.26 Simulation Model of Practical System with Subharmonic

Injection Scheme
 80

Training data for the ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS are prepared by
simulating various percentages of stator earth faults on the phase winding.
With 50% stator earth fault on phase ‘A’ winding of the generator, the neutral
subharmonic current recorded for quarter cycle is shown in Figure 5.27.

Figure 5.27 Neutral Subharmonic Current for 50% of ‘A’ winding earth
fault of Synchronous Generator

The neutral subharmonic current of the generator is passed through

sampling circuit. Then sampled signal acts as the input to the DWT based
fault diagnosis algorithm. The described DWT based algorithm is applied and
tested on the sample system. The test includes different percentage of stator
earth fault and no fault case.

This current is then loaded to Wavelet Tool of MATLAB and

analyzed with ‘db-2’ wavelet for four-level decomposition. Complete
output of this tool for eight decomposition levels is shown in Figure 5.28.
Figure 5.29 to Figure 5.21 shows four levels of decompositions for the
 81

subharmonic current in neutral when the generator ‘A’ phase winding is under
50% of stator earth fault.

Figure 5.28 Decomposed Levels-I to VIII of subharmonic neutral current

 82

Figure 5.29 Decomposed Level-V of subharmonic neutral current

Figure 5.30 Decomposed Level-VI of subharmonic neutral current

 83

Figure 5.31 Decomposed Level-VII of subharmonic neutral current

Figure 5.32 Decomposed Level-VIII of subharmonic neutral current

 84

Extracted features of statistical data, maximum and range for four

levels of the subharmonic neutral current of generator are arranged to form
input vector for ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS. Training data have been
developed for different percentage of winding earth faults using subharmonic
injection scheme. For various percentage of winding involved in stator earth
fault with different values of fault resistances (Rf -0Ω,100 Ω ,200Ω, 300Ω
,400Ω, 500Ω, 600Ω, 700Ω, 800Ω, 900Ω, 1000Ω), totally 460 fault neutral
current data have been obtained using MATLAB Simulink. Among these
data, 230 data are used to train Intelligent Computational Techniques, 115
data are used for testing and 115 data are used for validation. For different
percentage of stator winding earth fault including no fault case, the output
element of each data takes the value as shown in Table 5.3.

Total simulated training data of 460 in number are given in

Appendix 2. But, ten sample data are given in Table 5.6 (Unnormalized).
Table 5.7 show corresponding normalized data. System is tested with many
data for different % of stator earth fault.

Table 5.6 Simulated Actual Training Data of Sample Power System for
stator earth fault protection

Data Level V Level VI Level VII Level VIII Output Rf

Number Max Range Max Range Max Range Max Range % of fault in Ω
1 0.4461 0.8925 2.428 4.854 11.65 23.31 32.01 64.2 10 0
2 0.4272 0.8541 2.32 4.638 11.08 22.18 29.21 59.69 20 100
3 0.5104 1.02 2.696 5.484 12.54 24.58 29.01 57.71 30 200
4 0.5804 1.161 3.129 6.261 14.54 29.05 34.7 69.09 40 300
5 0.7388 1.478 3.967 7.937 18.05 36.07 39.32 78.68 50 400
6 0.7879 1.575 4.238 8.543 19.49 39 44.61 88.98 60 500
7 0.9157 1.832 4.917 9.831 22.25 44.55 47.42 96.05 70 600
8 0.9653 1.942 5.184 10.58 23.5 47.15 52.15 104.9 80 700
9 0.9977 2.1 5.289 10.77 24.69 49.36 5.35 111.8 90 800
10 1.132 2.424 5.699 11.28 25.65 51.32 60.08 120.2 100 900
 85

Table 5.7 Simulated Actual Training Data of Sample Power System for
stator earth fault protection (Normalized)

Level V Level VI Level VII Level VIII Output

Data Rf
Number % of
Max Range Max Range Max Range Max Range in Ω
fault
1 0.1741 0.1722 0.2027 0.1997 0.1285 0.2306 0.2679 0.2749 10 0
2 0.1667 0.1648 0.1937 0.1908 0.1222 0.2194 0.2444 0.2556 20 100
3 0.1991 0.1968 0.2250 0.2256 0.1383 0.2431 0.2428 0.2472 30 200
4 0.2265 0.2240 0.2612 0.2575 0.1604 0.2873 0.2904 0.2959 40 300
5 0.2883 0.2852 0.3311 0.3265 0.1991 0.3568 0.3290 0.3370 50 400
6 0.3074 0.3039 0.3538 0.3514 0.2150 0.3858 0.3733 0.3811 60 500
7 0.3573 0.3535 0.4104 0.4044 0.2455 0.4407 0.3968 0.4113 70 600
8 0.3766 0.3747 0.4327 0.4352 0.2592 0.4664 0.4364 0.4493 80 700
9 0.3893 0.4052 0.4415 0.4430 0.2724 0.4882 0.0448 0.4788 90 800
10 0.4417 0.4677 0.4757 0.4640 0.2830 0.5076 0.5028 0.5148 100 900

5.8 SIMULATION RESULTS FOR STATOR EARTH FAULT

PROTECTION

With the proposed procedure, unit connected generator has been

tested and gives 100% accuracy in identifying the percentage of stator earth
fault with only two features of maximum and range for four decomposition
levels of subharmonic neutral current. Therefore input vector will have eight
components. Similar procedure can be followed for other phases of generator.
To ensure the isolation of the faulty generator, relay is provided at the bus to
which generator is connected. So, CB will be operated according to the
decision made by ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS.
 86

The ANFIS structure used for the protection of synchronous

generator is shown in Figure 5.33. Details of ANFIS are:

Number of nodes : 36

Number of linear parameters : 81

Number of nonlinear parameters : 126

Total number of parameters : 105

Number of training data pairs : 230

Number of checking data pairs : 115

Number of fuzzy rules : 4

ANFIS used for this purpose uses hybrid method as its optimization
method. The error tolerance is taken as zero.

Figure 5.33 ANFIS Structure for Stator Earth Fault Protection

Training error for percentage of winding fault diagnosis of

synchronous generator of sample network for ANFIS is shown in Figure 5.34.
 87

Figure 5.34 Error Vs Epochs of Trained ANFIS

Test results for various fault simulated for different percentage of

winding earth fault of the sample system using the proposed algorithm are
shown in the Figure 5.35 to Figure 5.38. Figure 5.35 shows output of ANFIS
for 90% of winding earth fault of the generator with fault resistance equal to
400Ω. Its average testing error is only 4.1836x10 -7 i.e., indicating exactly the
percentage of winding affected by fault as 90.

Testing Data: ANFIS Output: *

Figure 5.35 ANFIS output for 90% of winding earth fault

 88

Figure 5.36 shows output of ANFIS for 40% of winding earth fault
of the generator with fault resistance equal to 200Ω. Its average testing error
is only 0.0019157 i.e., indicating the percentage of winding affected by earth
fault is 40.

Testing Data: ANFIS Output: *

Figure 5.36 ANFIS output for 40% of winding earth fault

Figure 5.37 shows output of ANFIS for 60% of winding earth fault
of the generator with fault resistance equal to 0 Ω. Its average testing error is
only 0.00084479 i.e., indicating the percentage of winding affected by earth
fault is 60.

Testing Data: ANFIS Output: *

Figure 5.37 ANFIS output for 60% of winding earth fault

 89

Figure 5.38 shows output of ANFIS 2.5% of winding earth fault of

the generator with the fault resistance equal to 600Ω. Its average testing error
is only 0.0011466 i.e., representing the percentage of winding affected by
fault is 2.511.

Testing Data: ANFIS Output: *

Figure 5.38 ANFIS output for 2.5% of winding earth fault

The ANN used for this protection scheme is also feed forward
network which follows Levenberg-Marquardt optimization for updating the
weights and bias values of the Neural Network. Figure 5.39 shows the
performance curve of ANN after training the network.

Figure 5.39 Performance (MSE) curve after training of ANN

 90

5.9 CONCLUSION

A proposed fault detector for generator protection against stator

earth fault and stator inter-turn fault is introduced in this chapter. The detector
is a computational intelligence techniques based algorithm, fed with input
data obtained through DWT of phase current leaving the generator winding.
The detector is characterized with very high sensitivity in discriminating
percentage of winding under earth faults as well as inter-turn faults. Also, it
has high stability for external faults of the system. The proposed detector
schematic, training and testing procedures, and comparison with the
conventional differential algorithm are described in the above sections. A
method for generator stator earth fault simulation and generator inter-turn
fault simulation have been described, and validated to insure its compatibility
and efficacy.

The comparison of training performance of these three

computational intelligence techniques for the stator earth fault protection and
winding inter-turn fault protection of a practical system with unit connected
generator of rated (ABB Industry Oy / Machines) 21KV, 850MVA, 50Hz is
shown in Table 5.8

Table 5.8 Training performance of ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS

Intelligent Stator Earth Fault Protection of Winding Interturn Fault

Computa- sample system Protection of sample system
tional TIME TIME
Techniques MSE EPOCHS MSE EPOCHS
(Sec.) (Sec.)
ANN 0.01063 50 1.6 0.0101 50 1.4
GA-BPN 0.011 100 8 0.0099 100 8

ANFIS 0.00006 50 20 0.00005 50 20

 91

From the above results, it is found that ANFIS is giving lesser MSE
but the time taken for training is more than the other two techniques. Table
5.9 shows the test results at different loading of sample system for Winding
Inter-turn Fault Protection. Table 5.10 shows the test results at different fault
resistance of the sample system for Stator Earth Fault Protection. From the
tables, it is understood that ANFIS is giving better performance than the other
two techniques.

All the proposed schemes are providing 100% stator earth fault
protection that is covering 0-100% of phase winding. Percentage of winding
nearer to the neutral of about 5% can effectively be protected using these
techniques than the conventional protection schemes where they are just
giving 5-100% protection.

The same schemes can be adopted for other two phase windings of
synchronous generator. So, the synchronous generator can be protected from
faulty condition by identifying the percentage of winding affected by the earth
fault and the percentage of winding by the inter-turn fault. No fault case is
also taken into account for training the ANN, GA-BPN and ANFIS.
 92

Table 5.9 Comparison of testing performance of ANN, GA-BPN and

ANFIS at different loads for Winding Inter-turn Fault
Protection

Actual Output Inference

Target
Data No. (% Wdg. Under % Load
Output ANN GA-BPN ANFIS
Interturn Fault)
1 0 0.1044 0.1001 0.0005 0
2 0.03 0.0316 0.0323 0.031 3
3 0.4 0.3510 0.3612 0.4001 40 60%
4 0.6 0.6497 0.65 0.592 60
5 0.95 0.894 0.904 0.958 95
1 0 -0.0332 -0.0132 0.0002 0
2 0.08 0.0541 0.0752 0.0802 8
3 0.25 0.213 0.2111 0.2508 25 80%
4 0.8 0.74 0.7502 0.792 80
5 0.98 0.9698 0.9722 0.9803 98
1 0.15 0.175 0.166 0.142 15
2 0.25 0.2761 0.2633 0.256 25
3 0.75 0.7391 0.7199 0.7508 75 100%
4 0.875 0.8907 0.887 0.867 87.5
5 0.975 0.9454 0.956 0.983 97.5
1 0 0.0982 0.0632 0.006 0
2 0.1 0.1507 0.199 0.099 10
3 0.275 0.2367 0.265 0.283 27.5 120%
4 0.57 0.5946 0.5645 0.573 57
5 0.93 0.885 0.8995 0.9282 93
 93

Table 5.10 Comparison of testing performance of ANN, GA-BPN and

ANFIS at different fault resistance (Rf) for Stator Earth
Fault Protection

Actual Output Inference

Fault
Data Target (% Wdg. Resistance(Rf)
No. Output ANN GA-BPN ANFIS Under
in Ohms
Earth Fault)
1 0 0.1068 0.1128 -0.008 0
2 0.05 0.0516 0.0523 0.042 5
3 0.3 0.2310 0.2612 0.292 30 0
4 0.7 0.7497 0.75 0.692 70
5 0.9 0.794 0.824 0.908 90
1 0 -0.0432 -0.0332 0.008 0
2 0.025 0.011 0.22 0.242 2.5
3 0.1 0.113 0.111 0.108 10 200
4 0.4 0.58 0.502 0.392 40
5 0.825 0.8198 0.822 0.833 82.5
1 0.15 0.175 0.166 0.142 15
2 0.25 0.2761 0.2633 0.256 25
3 0.6 0.6391 0.6199 0.608 60 400
4 0.875 0.8907 0.887 0.867 87.5
5 0.975 0.9454 0.956 0.983 97.5
1 0 0.0982 0.0632 0.006 0
2 0.1 0.2507 0.199 0.092 10
3 0.275 0.2497 0.265 0.283 27.5 600
4 0.575 0.6046 0.582 0.583 57.5
5 0.85 0.7585 0.7925 0.842 85