Physics 107 Problem 10.2 O. A.

Pringle
Show that the first five terms in the series for the Madelung constant of NaCl are

12 8 6 24
α 6 ..
2
2 3 5

To do this problem, you really must draw a picture of the NaCl structure, find the number of nearest,
2nd nearest, and 3rd 4th 5th nearest neighbors of a reference ion. Then you need to find the distance
from the reference ion to the nearest neighbors. α is just
α number_of_neighbors
( sign ) .
R neighbor_distance
near_neighbor_shells
You will need to draw a picture of the NaCl structure to see the following:
Neighbor Number Distance
nearest 6
R

R. 1
2 2
2nd 12 1

R. 1
2 2 2
3rd 8 1 1

R. 2
2
4th 6

R. 2
2 2
5th 24 1
There is a WordPerfect file named Prob10-2.wp, which will be downloaded along with this homework file,
which contains a 1-dimensional view of the NaCl structure, along with a description of the nearest neighbor
locations. Try loading this file into WordPerfect if you are having trouble finding the near-neighbor shells.

Physics 107 Problem 10.3 O. A. Pringle

(a) The ionization energy of potassium is 4.34 eV and the electron affinity of chlorine is 3.61 eV. The Madelung
constant for the KCl structure is 1.748 and the distance between ions of opposite sign is 0.314 nm. On the basis of
these data only, compute the cohesive energy of KCl.
Key words here are "on the basis of these data only." At first reading, you think Beiser means
calculate V using
α .e
2
. 1 1
V n 9
4 .π .ε 0 .r 0 n

If I give you a problem like this, and say something like "use n=9," I mean exactly that.
However, in this case, Beiser wants you to ignore the overlap repulsive term, and use the
Coulomb energy only. That will produce a discrepancy between calculated and measured
cohesive energy. In part b, you resolve the discrepancy by including the 1-1/n term.

1
 So Beiser wants us to do this first part using
α .e
2
V
4 .π .ε 0 .r 0

Let's see what we get.

1.602 .10 8.854 .10 0.314 .10
19 12 9
e ε0 r0 α 1.748

α .e
2
V
4 .π .ε 0 .r 0

V = 1.284 .10
18

V
V
1.602 .10
19

V = 8.015 This is the lattice energy.

The cohesive energy is (V.eV-V.ionization+V.affinity)/2.

V ion 4.34 V affin 3.61

E coh V V ion V affin

E coh = 7.285 eV This is where Beiser gets -7.29 eV.

Per ion pair, E coh

E cohesive
2
E cohesive = 3.643 eV

(b) The observed cohesive energy of KCl is 6.42 eV per ion pair. On the assumption that the difference between this
figure and that obtained in a is due to the exclusion-principle repulsion, find the exponent n in the formula Br^-n for
the potential energy arising from this source.

V = 8.015 per ion pair

E obs 6.42 is the measured value

We need to use
α .e
2
. 1 1
E obs V ion V affin
4 .π .ε 0 .r 0 n

or

E obs V0 V ion V affin

To get V.0, the lattice energy which includes the core repulsion term. Once we
have V.0, we can calculate n

2
 V0 E obs V ion V affin This problem is subtle, and a bit confusing. You
should study it well. It is not fundamentally
V 0 = 7.15 eV difficult; you just have to work carefully.

1
Solve V 0 V. 1 for n:
n
V
n
V0 V
n = 9.262

Physics 107 Problem 10.4 O. A. Pringle

Repeat Exercise 3 for LiCl, in which the Madelung constant is 1.748, the ion spacing is 0.257 nm, and the observed
cohesive energy is 6.8 eV per ion pair. The ionization energy of Li is 5.4 eV.

(a) The ionization energy of lithium is 5.4 eV and the electron affinity of chlorine is 3.61 eV. The Madelung constant
for the KCl structure is 1.748 and the distance between ions of opposite sign is 0.257 nm. On the basis of these data
only, compute the cohesive energy of Cl.

Key words here are "on the basis of these data only." At first reading, you think Beiser means
calculate V using
α .e
2
. 1 1
V n 9
4 .π .ε 0 .r 0 n

If I give you a problem like this, and say something like "use n=9," I mean exactly that.
However, in this case, Beiser wants you to ignore the overlap repulsive term, and use the
Coulomb energy only. That will produce a discrepancy between calculated and measured
cohesive energy. In part b, you resolve the discrepancy by including the 1-1/n term.

So Beiser wants us to do this first part using

α .e
2
V
4 .π .ε 0 .r 0

Let's see what we get.

1.602 .10 8.854 .10 0.257 .10
19 12 9
e ε0 r0 α 1.748

α .e
2
V
4 .π .ε 0 .r 0

V = 1.569 .10
18

V
V V = 9.793 This is the lattice energy.
1.602 .10
19

3
The cohesive energy is (V.eV-V.ionization+V.affinity)/2.
V ion 5.4 V affin 3.61

E coh V V ion V affin

E coh = 8.003 eV
E coh
Per ion pair, E cohesive
2

E cohesive = 4.002 eV

(b) The observed cohesive energy of LiCl is 6.8 eV per ion pair. On the assumption that the difference between this
figure and that obtained in a is due to the exclusion-principle repulsion, find the exponent n in the formula Br^-n for
the potential energy arising from this source.

V = 9.793 per ion pair

E obs 6.8 is the measured value

We need to use
α .e
2
. 1 1
E obs V ion V affin
4 .π .ε 0 .r 0 n

or

E obs V0 V ion V affin

To get V.0, the lattice energy which includes the core repulsion term. Once we
have V.0, we can calculate n
This problem is subtle, and a bit confusing. You
V0 E obs V ion V affin
should study it well. It is not fundamentally
difficult; you just have to work carefully.

V 0 = 8.59 eV

1
Solve V 0 V. 1 for n:
n

V
n
V0 V

n = 8.14

4
 Physics 107 Problem 10.10 O. A. Pringle
Gold has an atomic mass of 197 u, a density of 19.3x103 kg/m3, a Fermi energyof 5.54 eV, and a resistivity of
2.04x10-8 Ω. Estimate the mean free path in atom spacings between collisions of the free electrons in gold under the
assumption that each gold atom contributes one electron to the electron gas.
The mean free path can be calculated from
2 . m .v F 2 . m .v F
ρ or λ
N .e .λ N .e .ρ
2 2

All we need to do is use the given information to calculate N, the free-electron density in
gold, and v.F, the Fermi velocity. We plug those values and the constants into the equation
to get λ.

Calculate N: kg . number_gold_atoms . 1_electron

N
3 kg gold_atom
m

19.3 .10
3
N
1.6604 .10
27 .
197

28 This agrees with the value listed in my Solid State

N = 5.9 .10
textbook.

The Fermi velocity comes from the Fermi energy.

1. . 2
εF m vF
2

2 .ε F
vF
m

Don't forget to multiply ε.F by e if ε.F is in eV.

2 .ε F_eV .e
vF
m

Define the other parameters

9.11 .10
31
m Remember, the electrons are the charge carriers.
ε F_eV 5.54
1.602 .10 2.04 .10
19 8
e ρ

2 .ε F_eV .e
vF
m

v F = 1.396 .10
6
looks reasonable

5
 m .v F
λ
N .e . ρ
2

λ = 4.116 .10
8
meters
λ
λ nm
9
10
λ nm = 41.165 nanometers

A good estimate of the atomic spacing is 1 over the cube root of N, the atomic density.
1
3
a N

a = 2.569 .10
10

In units of atomic spacings, the mean free path is

λ
λa
a
λ a = 160.258

An electron travels an average of 320.5 atomic spacings in gold before

it gets scattered.

6
 Physics 107 Problem 10.11 O. A. Pringle
Silver has an atomic mass of 108 u, a density of 10.5x103 kg/m3, and a Fermi energy of 5.51 eV. On the
assumptions that each silver atom comtributes one electron to the electron gas and that the mean free path of the
electrons is 200 atom spacings, estimate the resistivity of silver. (The actual resistivity of silver at 20 C is
1.6x10-8 Ω*m.)
The resistivity can be calculated from
m .v F
ρ
N .e . λ
2

All we need to do is use the given information to calculate N, the free-electron density in
gold, and v.F, the Fermi velocity, and λ.

Calculate N: kg . number_gold_atoms . 1_electron

N
3 kg gold_atom
m

10.5 .10
3
N
1.6604 .10
27 .
108

N = 5.855 .10
28
This agrees with the value listed in my Solid State textbook.

The Fermi velocity comes from the Fermi energy.

1. . 2
εF m vF
2

2 .ε F
vF
m

Don't forget to multiply ε.F by e if ε.F is in eV.

2 .ε F_eV .e
vF
m

Define the other parameters

9.11 .10
31
m Remember, the electrons are the charge carriers.
ε F_eV 5.51
1.602 .10
19
e

2 .ε F_eV .e
vF
m

v F = 1.392 .10
6

We are given that λ is 200 atomic spacings.

A good estimate of the atomic spacing is 1 over the cube root of N, the atomic density.
1

a = 2.575 .10
3 10
a N

Thus λ 200 .a

7
 λ = 5.15 .10
8
meters
looks reasonable

λ
λ nm
9
10
λ nm = 51.505 nanometers

Finally, calculate ρ

m .v F
ρ
N .e . λ
2

ρ = 1.639 .10
8

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 Physics 107 Problem 10.15 O. A. Pringle
(a) Why are some solids transparent to visible light and others opaque?

Visible light has wavelengths ranging from λ1 400 nm to λ 2 700 nm

3 .10 6.63 .10 1.6 .10

8 34 19
c h e
The energies range from
h .c
E2
λ 2 .10 .e
9

E 2 = 1.776 eV

to
h .c
E1
λ 1 .10 .e
9

E 1 = 3.108 eV

Solids having band gaps less than 3.1 eV, or having partly filled energy bands wider than 3 eV wide
can absorb visible photons, and are opaque. Metals, are a good example of opaque solids.
Solids having a filled band, a band gap greater than 3.1 eV, and an empty band above that are
incapable of absorbing visible light, and so are transparent. Glass and diamond are good examples.

Silicon has a 1.17 eV band gap, so that silicon can absorb visible light, and silicon appears metallic.
Many solids that should be transparent (wide band gaps) are opaque because of impurities that scatter
light.

(b) The forbidden band is 1.1 eV in silicon and 6 eV in diamond. To what wavelengths of light are these
substances transparent.
Silicon is transparent to light having energies less than 1.1 eV, or wavelengths greater
than
h .c
λ
1.1 .e

λ = 1.13 .10
6
or wavelengths greater than 1130 nm

Diamond is transparent to light having energies less than 6 eV, or wavelengths greater than

h .c
λ
6 .e

λ = 2.072 .10
7

or wavelengths greater than 207 nm

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 Physics 107 Problem 10.16 O. A. Pringle

The forbidden band is 0.7 eV in germanium and 1.1 eV in silicon. How does the conductivity of germanium
compare with that of silicon at (a) very low temperatures and (b) room temperature?

(a) Semiconductors conduct when electrons are excited across the band gap into the
conduction band. The excitation, in this case, takes place due to thermal energy. At very
low temperatures, there is not enough thermal energy to excite any significant number of
electrons across the band gap in either germanium or silicon, so both are insulators at very
low temperatures.

(b) At higher temperatures, where thermal energy is available to excite electrons across the
band gap, germanium, with its smaller gap of 0.7 eV, will always be a better conductor that
silicon, with its gap of 1.1 eV.

It can be shown that the relative number of atoms having electrons excited into the
conduction band is proportional to

Eg
exp =
k .T

Because kT at room temperature is about 0.026 eV, the relative number of conduction electrons
in silicon is
( 1.1 )
= 4.227 .10
19
exp
0.026

and in germanium is
( 0.7 )
= 2.03 .10
12
exp
0.026

There are 7 orders of magnitude more electrons in germanium's conduction band, but in fact
both are poor conductors because even in germanium there are very few electrons in the
conduction band.

10
 Physics 107 Problem 10.21 O. A. Pringle
Phosphorus is present in a germanium sample. Assume that one of its five valence electrons revolves in a Bohr
orbit around each P+ ion in the germanium lattice.
a) If the effective mass of the electron is 0.17 m.e and the dielectric constant of germanium is 16, find the radius of
the first Bohr orbit of the electron.
The first step is to figure out what this problem is asking. You are told to consider the
electron as orbiting a nucleus of charge +1. The effective mass of the orbiting electron is
0.17*me . From way back in chapter 4 we know how to calculate Bohr radii. The equation to
use is 4.13.

n .h .ε 0
2 2

rn
π .m e .e
2

The only really tricky part is knowing that a dielectric constant of 16 means to use
16*ε0 in this equation.

Define constants and plug numbers into the equation:

6.626 .10 8.854 .10 1.602 .10 9.11 .10
34 12 19 31
n 1 h ε0 e me

ε 16 .ε 0 m 0.17 .m e

1 .h .ε
2 2
r1
π . m .e
2

r 1 = 4.981 .10
9
about 5 nm

b) The energy gap between the valence and conduction bands in germanium is 0.65 eV. How does the ionization
energy of the above electron compare with this energy and with kbT at room temperature?

The ionization energy of this orbiting electron is given by equation 4.15, using the effective
mass, m, n=1 because the electron is in its lowest energy level, and ε instead of ε.0.

m .e
4
E
8 . ε .h
2 2

E = 1.447 .10
21
Joules

In eV, the energy is

E
E eV
e
E eV = 9.033 .10eV
3

This value of the ionization energy is much less than the 0.65 eV energy gap. kT at room temperature is
about 0.025 eV, so the ionization energy is less than kT. At room temperature, there is enough thermal
energy to ionize the phosphorus and put the electron into the conduction band.

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 Physics 107 Problem 10.22 O. A. Pringle
Repeat exercise 21 for a silicon sample that contains arsenic.

a) If the effective mass of the electron in silicon is 0.31 m.e and the dielectric constant of silicon is 12, find
the radius of the first Bohr orbit of the electron.
The solution proceeds as in problem 10.21. The first step is to figure out what this problem is asking. You
are told to consider the electron as orbiting a nucleus of charge +1. The effective mass of the orbiting
electron is 0.31*m e . From way back in chapter 4 we know how to calculate Bohr radii. The equation to use
is again 4.13.

n .h .ε 0
2 2

rn
π .m e .e
2

The only really tricky part is knowing that a dielectric constant of 12 means to use
12*ε0 in this equation.

Define constants and plug numbers into the equation:

6.626 .10 8.854 .10 1.602 .10 9.11 .10
34 12 19 31
n 1 h ε0 e me

ε 12 .ε 0 m 0.31 .m e

1 .h .ε
2 2
r1
π . m .e
2

r 1 = 2.049 .10
9
about 2 nm

b) The energy gap between the valence and conduction bands in silicon is 1.1 eV. How does the ionization energy
of the above electron compare with this energy and with kbT at room temperature?
The ionization energy of this orbiting electron is given by equation 4.15, using the effective
mass, m, n=1 because the electron is in its lowest energy level, and ε instead of ε.0.

m .e
4
E
8 . ε .h
2 2

E = 4.691 .10
21
Joules

In eV, the energy is

E
E eV
e
E eV = 0.029 eV

This value of the ionization energy is much less than the 1.1 eV energy gap. kT at room temperature is
about 0.025 eV, so the ionization energy about equal to kT. At room temperature, there is enough
thermal energy to ionize the arsenic and put the electron into the conduction band.

12