Chemistry Study Guide

1.Stoichiometric Relationships

1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change

States of matter

● Everything is made up of matter. The characteristics of matter are:

○ Made up of particles – atoms, molecules or ions
○ Particles are in constant motion
○ Occupies a volume in space
○ Has a mass

Properties of three states of matter

Temperature

● The vibration and movement of particles depend on temperature

● As temperature increases, KEavg increases
● The SI unit for temperature is the kelvin (K)
● Absolute zero is 0 on the kelvin scale (-273° on Celsius scale), and is the temperature
at which all movement of particles stops
● Temperature (K) = Temperature (°C) + 273.15
Changes of State

● Take water for

example:
● As temperature increases, kinetic energy in particles increase, causing change of state
○ Melting and boiling are endothermic reactions – energy is transferred from
environment
● As temperature decreases, kinetic energy decreases, causing reversal of state
○ Condensation and freezing are exothermic reactions – energy is transferred
to environment
● There is no change in temperature while melting, boiling, condensing or freezing,
● energy is used to break/create attractive forces so change of state can occur
● Changes of state can be described using the following terms:

Classification of Matter
 ● Ion: A charged species
● Anion: Negatively charged ion
● Cation: Positively charged ion

4 types of chemical reactions

1. Synthesis
2. Decomposition
3. Single Displacement
4. Double Displacement
1. Complete Combustion
2. Incomplete Combustion

State symbols

1. (s) – solid
2. (l) – liquid
3. (g) – gas
4. (aq) – aqueous

The Atom Economy

● Is a measure of the amount of starting materials that become useful products.

● High atom economy means that less waste is created and reaction has a high
efficiency
 ●

1.2 The Mole Concept

The Mole

● Avogadro’s constant NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1

● Mole: a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance
● Molar mass: mass of 1 mole of a substance (g mol-1)

Mole Calculations

Relative atomic mass & molar mass

● Isotopes: Atoms of the same element which have same number of protons
○ Isotopes of an element have different mass numbers
● Relative abundance: Measure of percentage of isotopes present in element
● Relative atomic mass (Ar): weighted average of the atomic masses of its isotopes
and their relative abundances
○ Relative because compared to 1 atom of carbon-12 (12C) which is 12 units
● Relative molecular mass (Mr): Combining individuals Ar values of atoms in
molecule or formula unit

Empirical and molecular formula determination

● Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio of atoms or amount (in mol) of
each element present in a compound
● Molecular Formula: the actual number of atoms or amount (in mol) of elements in
one structural unit or one mole of the compound

1.3 Reacting masses and volumes

The limiting reagent

 ● Limiting reagent is completely consumed during a reaction, the remaining reactants
are in excess
● The limiting reagent is what is used to determine the amount of products formed

Step 1: balance equation

Step 2: convert to moles

Step 3: molar ratio

Percentage Yield
(use the moles of limiting reagent plus the stoichiometric ratios from our balanced reaction to
calculate the theoretical yield. )

percent yield=theoretical yield/actual yield×100%

Molar volume of a gas

● Ideal gas is a gas which follows the kinetic theory of gases. They are found in
systems with high temperature and low pressure.
● Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): The conditions where temperature is
273K and pressure is 100 kPa.
● At STP, the Molar Volume of an ideal gas is 22.7 dm3 mol-1
● Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of any gas measured at the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of molecules
○ This can be applies to stoichiometric relationships in which the coefficients
correspond to the ratio of volumes of gases

The Gas Laws

1. Boyle’s Law

1.
2. Charles’s Law

1.
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law

1.
 4. Combined Gas Law

1.
5. Ideal gas equation

1.

Molar Concentration

2. Atomic Structure

2.1 The nuclear atom

Atom

● Atoms consist of a three subatomic particles

○ Proton
○ Neutron
○ Electron

● Atomic Number Z: number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.

 ● Mass Number A: number of protons + number of neutrons
● Relative atomic mass Ar: Ratio of the average mass of the atom to the unified
atomic mass unit

● Atomic Mass Units (AMU): 1/12th of the mass of a carbon – 12 atom in its
ground state. This is used to express masses of atomic particles.
○ 1 AMU = 1.6605402 x 10-27 kg

The mass spectrometer

● The mass spectrometer is an instrument used to determine the relative atomic

mass Ar of an element by using its isotopes.

2.2 Electron configuration

Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)

● Visible light, radio waves, infrared waves (IR), ultraviolet (UV), x-rays and
gamma rays are forms of electromagnetic radiation
● c=vλ where λ is wavelength and v is frequency and c is the speed of light (3.00 x
108)

Emission Spectra:

● When element in gaseous state is subjected to high voltage under reduced

pressure, the gas will emit a certain light. When passed through a prism, the
spectrum is not continuous but a black background with certain line spectrums
● Hydrogen emission spectrum consists of a series of lines in visible region of
spectrum. This is called the balmer series.
● The line spectrums get closer together (converge) at higher energy levels

Energy Levels, sublevels, orbitals , and electron spin

● As n increases, position of electron is further from nucleus and the energies of

orbitals increase
● Each energy level can hold maximum number of electrons given by 2n2
 ● Electron capacity for n=1 is 2, n=2 is 8, n = 3 is 18. This is why we have two
elements in first row of periodic table, 8 in second, etc.
● There are energy levels classified by principle quantum number, n, 1,2,3,4,…
● Sub levels are classified by azimuthal quantum number, l, s, p, d, f
● Orbitals which are the actual probability density with electrons. Classified by
magnetic quantum number, ml. px, py, pz are examples of 3 orbitals
● Orientation of electron is classified by spin magnetic quantum number ms. There
is +1/2, -1/2. Both are arbitrary numbers with no meaning.

Things to know:

1. Aufbau Principle: electrons fill lowest-energy orbital first

2. Pauli exclusion principle: each orbital can hold maximum of 2 electrons, each
with opposite spin
3. Hund's rule: When filling degenerate orbitals (orbitals of equal energy), electron
fill all orbitals singly before occupying them in pairs
4. Full electron configuration
5. Condensed electron configuration
6. Arrow in box orbital diagram

Atomic Structure HL

Emission Spectra and ionization

● First ionization energy IE1 relates to process:

○
● Second IE is

○
● Nth ionization energy IEn relates to process:

○
○ IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4 …
● In emission spectrum, the lines converge at higher energies. At the limit of
convergence, the lines merge forming a continuum
● Beyond continuum, electron can have any energy
● The frequency of the radiation in the emission spectrum at the limit of convergence
can be used to determine IE1
Periodic Trends in ionization energies

● In Ca, big jump between IE2 and IE3 because corresponds to removing electron from
fully occupied 3p sublevel
● In Ti, big jump between IE4 and IE5 because change in energy level. Ti5+ does not
occur naturally
● Ionization energy for Ti increases more gradually than Ca because electrons are being
removed from 3d and 4s orbitals, which are much closer in energy than 3p and 4d.
● These big jumps in energy occur when removal of electrons from different energy
levels n (1,2,3,4,…)

3. Periodicity

3.1 Periodic table

● Groups: Go vertically down

● Periods: horizontal rows of elements
○ There are 7 periods. The period number is equal to principle quantum
number n of highest occupied energy level
● Periodic table is split roughly into metals, non-metals and metalloids
● Left of line is metals, right of line is nonmetals, touching line is metalloids.
○ Metals:
■ Good conductors
■ Malleable
■ Ductile
■ Have lustre
■ Lose electrons
○ Non-metals:
■ Poor conductors
■ Gain electrons
○ Metalloids
■ Close to the line, have both metallic and non-metallic properties
 ■ Some metalloids are semi-conductors

● The periodic table is split into four blocks based on s, p, d, f

● Occupancy of electrons for each sub-level is:

*Two electrons per each orbital

 ● Number of Valence electron (outer-shell electrons) can be found from the group
number of the s and p block elements.

3.2 Periodic trends

Periodic Trends

Electron configuration help determine atomic properties. Atomic properties show pattern
amongst the period table which can be classified as trends

6 trends need to know:

1. Atomic Radius
2. Ionic Radius
3. Ionization Energy
4. Electron Affinity
5. Electronegativity
6. Metallic vs non metallic
1. Atomic Radius
○ Definition
■ Distance from center to the outermost region
■ Bohr model has orbits, thus radius can be measured easily however we
know that this is highly simplistic. Electrons are found in orbitals
■ Way of finding radius would be to measure distance between two
atoms in diatomic molecule X2 and divide by two for the radius. R =
1/2d
○ Trends
■ Atomic radius decreases across period from left to right. Nucleus
positive charge is greater relative to charge of electrons in same shell,
pulling electrons closer to nucleus and thus reducing atomic radius
■ Atomic radius increase down group from top to bottom. Each new
period begins with new energy level which is farther from nucleus,
increasing atomic radius.
1. Ionic Radius
○ Definition
■ Distance from center to the outermost region in ion
■ Radii of cations and anions are different from parent atoms
○ Trends
■ Radii of cations (e.g. Mg+) are smaller than their parent. This is
because there are more protons than electrons in the cation, so valence
are more strongly attracted to nucleus.
■ Radii of anions(e.g. Cl–) are larger than their parent. This is because
the extra electron in the anion results in greater repulsion between
valence electrons, thus larger radius.
1. Ionization Energy (IE)
 ○ Definition
■ The minimum energy required to remove 1 mol of electrons from 1
mol of neutral gaseous atoms in ground-state.
■ First ionization energy IE1 relates to process:

■
○ Second ionization energy IE2 is energy required to remove electron from IE1
○ Positive sign meaning energy used (endothermic)

○ Trends
■ IE increases across period from left to right. This is because since
electrons are pulled closer to nucleus (see atomic radius), more
difficult to remove them.
■ IE decreases down a group from top to bottom. This is because atomic
radii increase down group, making easier to remove electron. Also
because of shielding effect weakens forces between nucleus and outer
electrons.
1. Electron Affinity
○ Definition
■ The change in energy released which accompanies addition of an
electron to an atom in gaseous state.

■
■ Negative sign meaning energy released (exothermic)
○ Trends
■ Increases across a period from left to right (becomes more negative.
With some exceptions)
■ Decreases down a group from top to bottom (becomes less negative.
With some exceptions)
1. Electronegativity
○ Definition
■ Relative attractions that an atom has for a shared pair of electrons in a
covalent bond
○ Trends
■ Same as ionization energy for same reasons
 ■ Electronegativity increases across period from left to right. This is
because since electrons are pulled closer to nucleus (see atomic
radius), more difficult to remove them.
■ Electronegativity decreases down a group from top to bottom. This is
because atomic radii increase down group, making easier to remove
electron. Also because of shielding effect weakens forces between
nucleus and outer electrons.
1. Metallic & Non-metallic
○ Definition
■ These trends occur due to combination of trends above

○ Trends
■ Metallic character decreases across period from left to right
■ Metallic character increases down a group from top to bottom
■ Tend to have low IE values – tend to lose electrons. Thus they are
oxidized

Trends in properties of metals and non-metal oxides

● Oxide is formed from combination of element with oxygen

● Metal Oxides + water –> base
● Non-metal oxide + water –> acid
● SiO2 classified as acidic oxide, because it can react with NaOH to form Na2SiO3 (aq)
and water.
● Al2O3 is classified as amphoteric oxide. It can react as both an acid and a base.

Similarities and differences in properties of elements

● Group 1: More vigorous reactions with water as you go down the group
● Group 17: Less vigorous reactions going down the group. Reason being atomic radius
increases, harder to gain electron
3. Periodicity HL

● Transition elements are sometimes described as transition metals due to their metallic
nature.
● Important: Two exceptions are Chromium and Copper. Cr electron configuration is
[Ar]3d54s1 and not [Ar]3d44s2. Cu electron configuration is [Ar]3d104s1 and not
[Ar]3d94s2.

Characteristics of Transition Elements:

1. Variable oxidation states

1. Can have oxidation states ranging from +1 to +7
2. This is due to patterns of successive ionization energies
2. Compounds of transition elements and their ions are often coloured
1. g. KMnO4 is purple
2. g. Cu2SO4 . H2O is blue
3. Compounds of zinc are colourless unless ligands have chromophore (group of
atoms responsible for absorption of electromagnetic radiation)
3. Transition metals form complexes with ligands
1. Coordinate bonds between metal is bonded to group of atoms/molecules
(termed ligands)
2. See classification of ligands below
4. Transition metals are often used as catalysts
1. g. (Haber process, biological catalysts)
5. Magnetic properties of transition metals depend on their oxidation states and
coordination number
 1. Depend on things such as oxidation state, coordination number, and the
geometry of complex.
2. Paramagnetic contain unpaired electrons that behave as tiny magnetics
3. Diamagnetic do not contain unpaired electrons and therefore are repelled by
external magnetic fields

Classification of Ligands

● Ligands are either negatively charged anions Cl– or neutral molecules with lone pair
(e.g. NH3)
● Number of coordinate bonds depends on number of lone pairs in ligand which are
bonded
● Monodentate ligands are 1 coordinate bond actually bonded. Examples include H2O
and NH3
● Polydentate (chelate) ligands can form 2 or more. Examples include (EDTA)4-
which can form 6 bonds

Coordination Numbers

● Total number of points of attachment to central element.

13.2 Coloured complexes

● In isolated atom, d orbital has 2 energy levels. In complex ion they split into two
sublevels. Electronic transitions between these sublevels leads to absorption and
emission of photons of visible light.

Crystal Field Theory (CFT)

● D sub-level consists of five d orbitals dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2-y2, dz2

● In free metal ion, Mn+, with ligands infinite distance away, these five orbitals are
degenerate (same level)
● If electrostatic field created by the ligand point charge is spherically symmetrical,
energies of d-orbital will remain degenerate but increase in energy

Explanation of colour transition metal complexes

● Colour comes from partially filled d orbital

● Transition metal complexes absorb complementary colours to what they transmit
● When electron jumps from lower to higher energy, requires photon of energy and thus
emits light
4. Chemical Bonding and Structure

4.1 Ionic bonding and structure

Ionic Bonding

● Ionic Bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

● Ions are formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to
another
● The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by the electron
configuration of the atom
● The reason there is transfer of electrons is because they want to achieve a noble
gas configuration
● Positive ions (Cations) form by metals losing valence electrons
● Negative Ions (Anions) form by non-metals gaining electrons
○ OIL RIG
■ Oxidation Is Loss of electrons
■ Reduction Is Gain of electrons
○ Ionic compounds are typically solids and have lattice-type structures that
consist of 3D repeating units of positive and negative ions

Oxyanions

Easy way to memorize all the oxyanions is to remember the following sentence, and the
rules to go with them.

● Consonants are the number of oxygens, vowels is the charge.

Physical Properties

● Volatility
○ Tendency to vaporize. Ionic compounds have strong electrostatic forces
thus they have low volatility
● Electrical Conductivity
○ For ionic compound in solid state, ions occupy fixed position. Hence, they
do not move around or conduct electricity. In molten state they are free to
do so.
● Solubility
○ Ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents such as water
 ○ This is because partial charges of polar solvents are attracted to ions in
the lattice
○ As result, individual ions are pulled out of lattice structure

4.2 Covalent bonding

Covalent Bonding

● Formed by electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the

positive nuclei
● In ionic, atoms lose or gain electrons. In covalent, atoms share electrons to
achieve noble gas configuration
● Occurs between non-metals
● There are single bonds (F2), double bonds (O2) and triple bonds (N2)
● There is also HF for example in which H does not acquire a octet rule

Bond Strength and bond Length

● The trend in bond strength is:

○ Triple > double > single
● The trend in bond length is
○ Single > double > triple

Electronegativity

● Electronegativity is the relative attraction that an atom of an element has for the
shared pair of electrons in covalent bond.
● It can be determined with electronegativity values the type of bond:
● To find Δen, subtract the electronegativity values for two atoms

4.3 Covalent structures

Lewis (Electron dot) structures

 ● Based on formation of covalent bonds in a molecule
● Important to show:
○ Bonding pairs of electrons (showing covalent bond as single, double, or
triple bonds
○ Non-bonding pairs of electrons (often called lone pairs, not involved in
bonding)
● Each line represents 1 pair of electrons (2 electrons)
● Each dot represents 1 electron
● The Octet Rule states that elements tend to lose electrons, or gain electrons, or
share electrons in order to acquire noble gas configuration (8 electrons in valence
shell)

Lewis (Electron dot) structures of cations, anions and ionic compounds

● When you have a bond between cation [NH4]+ and anion [NO3]–, you have ionic
bond between the ions, however the cation and anion are covalent in nature

● Here is diagram of ammonium nitrate NH4NO3

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion [VSEPR] theory

● Lewis structures don’t tell anything about actual shape. They are 2D
● VSEPR theory takes into account 3D shape and bond angles
● Theory is: since electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles, pairs of
electrons repel one another to be as far apart as possible in space
● Every pair of electrons are described as occupying an electron domain
● Electron Domain Geometry based on total number of electron domains
● Molecular Geometry gives shape of molecule
Bond angles in molecular geometries

● Lone pairs occupy more space than bonding pairs, so they decrease bond angle
between bonding pairs

Resonance Structures

● Occurs when there is more than one possible arrangement for a double bond in a
molecule
● These multiple possible arrangements contribute to an overall structure called
resonance forms.
● The actual electronic structure of the species is called a resonance hybrid of these
resonance forms.
● In order to show this idea of resonance, the contributing resonance forms are
linked via a double arrow
● One best known example of resonance is benzene C6H6 which forms delocalized
benzene ring
Molecular Polarity

● Whether a molecule itself is polar or not

● Easy method:
○ If there are non-polar bonds, molecule is non polar
○ If there are polar bonds and molecule is symmetrical, molecule is non-
polar
○ If there are polar bonds and molecule is asymmetrical, molecule is polar

Allotropes

● Allotropes of same element can vary in both chemical and physical properties
● Carbon has 4 allotropes: graphite, diamond, graphene, C60 fullerene
● Covalent Network Solids is one with atoms held together by covalent bonds in 3D
lattice structures.
● Covalent Network Solid examples include graphite, diamond, graphene, and
SiO2
● C60 is molecular because had weak London forces between molecules

Silicon Dioxide

● Silicon dioxide in its most common crystalline form is called quartz. This is
another example of a three-dimensional covalent network solid
Coordinate Covalent Bonding

● The shared pair of electrons comes from only 1 of the 2 atoms

● Examples include [NH4]+

4.4 Intermolecular forces

Three types of intermolecular forces of attraction

1. London forces (also called dispersion forces or instantaneous induced dipole-

induced dipole forces)
2. Dipole-dipole forces
3. Hydrogen bonding

Van der waals forces = London forces + dipole-dipole forces + dipole-induced dipole

1. London Forces
○ H2 for example. Although molecule is non-polar, every H2 molecule
consists of positive nuclei with cloud of negatively charged electrons. If
you were to take a snapshot at any given instant of time, one part of
molecule may have slightly more electron density than another part. This
generates a temporary dipole. It is termed an instantaneous dipole
○ What affects magnitude of London forces?
■ Number of electrons
■ Greater the number of electrons, the larger the distance
between the valence electrons and the nucleus. Attraction of
valence electrons to nucleus will be reduced and hence the
electron cloud will be polarized more easily increasing the
boiling point.
■ Size (volume) of the electron cloud
■ In a large electron cloud, the attraction of electrons to the
nucleus will not be as great as in smaller cloud, hence the
electrons in larger clouds can be polarized easily increasing
boiling point.
■ Shapes of molecules
■ Larger the surface area of molecule, the more area of
interaction with other molecules increasing the boiling
point.
 1. Dipole-dipole Forces
○ Exists in all polar molecules permanently
○ When positive end of one dipole is attracted to negative end of one dipole
2. Hydrogen Bonding
○ Occurs only between hydrogen and F, O or N
○ Occur between molecules
○ Examples include hydrogen bonding in water

London Forces < dipole-dipole forces < hydrogen bonds

4.5 Metallic bonding

Metallic Bonding

● Metals have low ionization energies, so valence electrons can be delocalized

throughout metal.
● Structure of metal is a giant lattice of positive ions (cations) surrounded by “sea”
of delocalized electrons
● Metallic Bond: the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions
(cations) and delocalized electrons
● Strength of metallic bond depends on
○ Number of valence electrons that can become delocalized
○ The charge of the metal ion
○ The ionic radius of the metallic positive ion (cation)

Alloys

● Alloy is a mixture that consists either of

○ Two or more metals
○ Metal(s) combined with an alloying element (one or more non-metals)
● Alloys have enhanced properties such as strength, hardness and durability

Electrical Conductivity
 ● Metals are good conductors because the delocalized electrons can move through
the metallic structure and carry a current
● Presence of impurities can restrict movement

Malleability

● Metals are malleable because cations can slide past each other which leads to
rearrangement of solid (Non-directional bonding)

Trends in melting points

● Melting point depends on the strength of the attractive forces that hold the
delocalized electron together

4. Chemical bonding and structure HL

Covalent bonding and electron domain and molecular geometries

Formal Charge

● Sometimes there are multiple ways of drawing Lewis structures that obey the
octet rule, best one can be determined by the hypothetical formal charge
equation
● FC = V – N – 1/2B
○ Where V is number of valence electrons
○ N is number of non-bonding electrons
○ B is number of bonded electrons
● The correct Lewis structure of a molecule can be determined by:

○
○ When it is closest to 0

Molecular Geometries based on five and six electron domains

Overlap of atomic orbitals: Sigma (σ) and pi (π) bonding

● Single covalent bond sharing 2 electrons is a sigma bond (σ)

● Double covalent bond consisting of 4 electrons, 2 pairs, is a sigma plus pi bond (σ
+ π)
● Triple covalent bond consisting of 6 electrons, 3 pairs, is a sigma plus two pi
bonds (σ + 2π)

Delocalization and Resonance

● Two or more different arrangements of electrons

● The actual bond length is between them
● Both Lewis structures are resonance forms and contribute to structure called
resonance hybrid
● Dashed curve conveys delocalization
● Delocalization is a quantum mechanical model to describe pi bonding in a
conjugated system
● Conjugated System is a molecular entity whose structure can be represented as a
system of alternating single and multiple bonds
 ●

Ozone Depletion

● Ozone is a bent molecule with bond angle 116.8°

● It has a resonance structure

Step 1: An oxygen molecules is photolyzed by solar radiation, creating two

oxygen radicals:

hν+O2→2O.(1)

Step 2: Oxygen radicals then react with molecular oxygen to produce ozone:

O2+O.→O3(2)

Step 3: Ozone then reacts with an additional oxygen radical to form molecular
oxygen:

O3+O.→2O2(3)

Step 4: Ozone can also be recycled into molecular oxygen by reacting with a
photon:

O3+hν→O2+O

Another reaction

Cl+O3→ClO+O2(step 1)

ClO+O.→Cl+O2(step 2)
 O3+O.→2O

14.2 Hybridization

Molecular Geometries

● There are 2 theories that are used to understand molecular geometries:

1. Valence bond theory (VBT)
■ VBT considers that atoms approach each other to form a molecule.
The bond formed results from the overlap of atomic orbitals
resulting in a bonding orbital with the electrons localized between
two atoms.
■ This theory is also used to explain hybridization
2. Molecular orbital theory (MOT)
■ MOT assumes that when atomic orbitals overlap, the overlap
results in the formation of a new orbital called molecular orbital

Hybridization

● A hybrid orbital results from the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals on
the same atom
● Consider:
○ sp3 as seen in methane
■ Watch this video
○ sp as seen in ethene
2

■ Watch this video

○ sp as seen in ethyne
■ Watch this video

8. Acids and Bases

8.1 Theory of acids and bases

The role of acids and bases

● Acids and bases are opposites

● Many theories describe how they work
1. Arrhenius Theory of acids and bases
 ○ Acids produce H+ ions, bases produce OH– ions
○ Neutralization is the process of combining an acid and a base
○ Limitation: weak base ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas could not be
explained, as ammonia does not contain OH–
2. Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases
○ Refer to hydrogen ion as a proton;
○ Acid is proton donor, base is proton acceptor

Conjugate acids and bases

● In a reversible reaction between acid and bases, there are conjugates as well

Amphiprotic species

● Amphiprotic species: Substances which can be both Bronsted-Lowry acids or

bases depending on the reaction
○ Examples:

8.2 Properties of acids and bases

Properties of acids and bases

Reactions of acids with metals, bases, and carbonates

● Most acids react with metals, metal oxides, hydroxides, hydrogencarbonates and
carbonates
● All these reactions produce a salt which is a compound of anion and cation
● Standard enthalpy change of neutralization: the energy change associate with the
formation of 1 mol of water from the reaction between a strong acid and a strong
base under standard conditions
○ Negative value because neutralization is exothermic
● For acids and bases:

● For metals higher than hydrogen on activities series:

○
● For metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates:

8.3 The pH scale

The pH scale

● pH scale is effective way of representing concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] in a

solution
 ● It is a logarithmic scale with base 10, easy way for non-scientist to understand
safety of materials
● pH distinguishes between acidic, neutral and alkaline

Calculating pH

● The concentration of an acid with one proton is the same as the concentration of
hydrogen ions [H+]
○ [HCl] = [H+]
● For more protons:
○ [H2SO4] = 2[H+]

Ionization of water

8.4 Strong and weak acids

and bases

Strengths of acids and bases

● Strength of an acid or base depends on the degree to which it ionizes (dissociates)

in water
● In the following reactions, an acid or a base reacts with water to produce
conjugates
○ Strong acid is an effective proton donor that is assumed to completely
dissociate in water.
■ Examples: HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3
■ Conjugate base of strong acid is weak base
○ Weak acid only partially dissociates in water; it is a poor proton donor.
■ Examples: CH3COOH and H2CO3
■ The dissociation of a weak acid is a reversible reaction that reaches
equilibrium
 ■ Only small portion of acid molecules have dissociated at
equilibrium
■ Conjugate base of weak acid is strong base
○ Strong base completely dissociates in water
■ Examples: KOH, NaOH (Any group 1 metal hydroxides)
■ Note: Metal hydroxides don’t act as Bronsted-Lowry bases,
however in solution the hydroxide ion OH– acts as a base
○ Weak base partially dissociates in water
■ Example: NH3
● Words strong and concentrated, and weak and diluted have very different
meanings.
○ Strong: completely dissociated into ions
○ Concentrated: a high number of moles of solute per litre of solution
○ Weak: slightly dissociated
○ Diluted: a low number of moles of solute per litre of solution

Experimental determination of the strength of acids and bases

● Techniques to compare strength of acids and bases of equal concentration

● Conductivity
○ All acids and bases dissociate in water to form ions. The conductivity of
an aqueous solution depends on the concentration of ions present. Voltage
is applied to different solutions (of equal concentration), and the voltage
reflects on concentration of ions, and thus strength as well.
○ Strong acids and bases have higher conductivities
○ Weak acids and bases have lower conductivities

Energy changes on neutralization

● Neutralization: occurs when an acid and base react together

● This reaction is exothermic, ΔH < 0
● The enthalpy change of neutralization for a strong acid is almost identical to that
of weak acid
○ For strong acid or base:
■ They are completely dissociated in water, thus only enthalpy
change to consider is exothermic formation of water from H+ and
OH– ions
○ For weak acid or base:
■ Dissociation of weak acid or base is mildly endothermic
■ Enthalpy change for strong base-weak acid is less than strong
base-strong acid
■ The weaker the acid, the more endothermic, and thus lower
enthalpy change of neutralization
10. Organic Chemistry

10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry

Introduction

● Organic Chemistry: Field of chemistry which studies carbon-based compounds

● Homologous Series: A series of compounds of the same family, with the same
general formula, which differ from each other by a common structural unit.
○ Hydrocarbons:
■ Alkanes: CnH2n+2
■ Alkyl: CnH2n+1 (Hydrogen of CH4 replaced with other
group)
■ Alkenes: CnH2n
■ Alkynes: CnH2n-2
○ Functional Groups
■ Alcohols: CnH2n+1OH
■ Aldehydes: CnH2nO
■ Ketones: CnH2nO
■ Halogenoalkanes: CnH2n+1X
○ Homologous series which contain functional groups also have similar
physical and chemical properties within the series. Most of the time its
reactive and contains oxygen or nitrogen. In alkene and alkyne, the
double and triple bonds are functional groups.

Physical properties of homologous series

● Generally, as the length of the chain increases, the boiling point increases (due to
increased SA, greater chance of intermolecular bonding, more energy to break
bonds, higher boiling point)

Chemical formulae of organic compounds

● Lewis dot structures: Useful to visualize valence electrons

● Empirical formula: Simplest ratio of atoms in a molecule
● Molecular formula: Actual number of atoms present in molecule
● Structural formula: Takes into account the possible structure
○ Full structural formula: 2D representations showing all atoms and bonds
and their positions
○ Condensed structural formula: All atoms and relative positions, bonds
are omitted
 ○ Skeletal formula: Carbon and hydrogen atoms are not shown, end of each
line and vertex represents C atom. Functional groups shown as well.

Nomenclature (Naming)

● IUPAC is the world authority in naming and the one used by IB

● Best way to learn this is to practice naming multiple compounds
1. Identify the longest chain and thus the root name.
1. 1 carbon = meth-
2. 2 carbon = eth-
3. 3 carbon = prop-
4. 4 carbon = but-
5. 5 carbon = pent-
6. 6 carbon = hex-
7. 7 carbon = hept-
8. 8 carbon = oct-
2. Identify the type of bonding in chain or ring
1. All single bonds = -an-
2. One double bond = -en-
3. One triple bond = -yn-
3. Identify functional or alkyl groups (this may by at beginning or end of name)
1. Alkane: only hydrogen joined to chain -e
2. Hydroxyl: -ol
3. Amine: amino-
4. Amide: -amide
5. Nitrile: -nitrile
6. Halo: chloro-, bromo- or iodo-
7. Aldehyde: -al
8. Ketone: -one
9. Carboxyl: -oic acid
10. Ether: -oxy-
11. Ester: -oate
4. Use numbers to give position of groups or bonds along chain. Always aim to have
lowest numbers.

Structural isomer

● Compounds with same chemical formula but a different structural formula.

Have unique physical and chemical properties

Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

● Saturated: All carbon to carbon bonds are single bonds (Saturated with H
atoms)
● Unsaturated: Contain double or triple bonds
Functional groups

● When naming, the position of group is identified by giving the number of the
carbon atom to which it is attached
● When numbering, functional groups take priority over substituents and c-c
multiple bonds

Classifying molecules: primary, secondary, and tertiary compounds

● These are three classes of compounds

○ Primary (1°): Carbon atom bonded to functional group is also bonded to
one other carbon atom
○ Secondary (2°): Carbon atom bonded to functional group is also bonded
to two other carbon atoms
○ Tertiary (3°): Carbon atom bonded to functional group is also bonded to
three other carbon atoms
● Classifying halogenoalkanes
○ Alkanes undergo free-radical substitution reactions with halogens
○ Whether primary, secondary or tertiary depends on conditions and
mechanism of reaction
● Classifying alcohols
○ Position of the hydroxyl (OH) group determines the class of alcohol
● Classifying amines
○ Classified depending on number of alkyl groups bonded to the nitrogen
atom of functional group
○ N signifies the substituent on the amine. Refer to examples to understand.

Aromatic hydrocarbons

● Aromatic hydrocarbons are characterized by the presence of benzene

● Benzene is C6H6 composed of alternating double and single bonds
● Benzene contains 6 sp2 hybridized carbon atoms bonded to one another, and
each carbon bonded to single hydrogen
● The p orbital overlaps creating a continuous π bond above and below plane of
carbon atoms
● Benzene has a resonance structure