Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
measurement devices
and data evaluation
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jörg M. Hoffmann
Content (1)
1 Importance and history of Metrology, Measurement and
Instrumentation (MMI)
Year 1101:
King Henry I. from England: ”One
yard is the distance between my
own (!) thumb and the top of my
nose by stretched arm!”
Disadvantage: Limited living-time of
the standard.
Year 1799:
The standard for one meter was cast by
Fortin from platinum and placed in
Sèvres near Paris.
Disadvantage: Single, more inaccurate
copy’s where distributed by lottery
(Germany get the No.18)
Year 1983:
One meter is the distance, which light
crosses a vacuum during a time of
1/299794458 seconds. One second is the
oscillating-period in resonance of a atom
133Cs (Caesium), multiplied by
9192631770.
●
Primary, the second was derived from astronomical cycles.
●
Since 1967 is the second defined as 9192631770 – fold of the resonance
oscillation period of the caesium isotope 133C (and for this reason based on a
natural constant).
●
Problem: The rotation speed of the earth is unsteadiness and continuously
decreasing. (Up to 0,01 s time difference by the same position. If the time
difference is more than 0,7 s between the “earth time” and the “atomic time” a
leap second is set.
Y =mX n
Y Y Y
m=E=
X
0 0
0 0 X
X
Y Y
Arbeitspunkt
Working point
0 0
0 0
X X
dY
E=
dX
Function Measurement
Generator System
Registration
Equipment
X
Rampenfunktion
Ramp function
X1 Anstiegsantwort
Ramp response
X=r(t)= Kt Y Kt
t0 t1 t
X
Sprungfunktion
Step function
X1 Sprungantwort
Step response
X=w(t)= 1 h(t)
t0 t
Impulsfunktion
Impulse function Stoßantwort,
Unit bzw.
pulse response
X
X (t ) 1
Höhe
High or weighting function
(t) Gewichtsfunktion
lim Xt 1 t 0 d
t 0 g (t ) h(t )
X t dt
X Sinusfunktion
Sinus function
Sinusfunktion
Sinus function (Amplitudengang,
(amplitude- and
phase response)
Phasengang)
X Xˆ .sin t t
Y Yˆ.sin( t )
Y
Stat
Y -5%
Stat
t
tL tV tA ● TL - Laufzeit (Totzeit)
Delay time (dead time)
● TA - Rise
Anstiegszeit
time
tE
● Tv - Verzugszeit
Dwell time
● TE - Settling
Einschwingzeit
time
0 0
Y
lg
X
-1 -45°
-2 -90°
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
lg lg
0 0
Definition of error:
e=Y-X
e means the measuring error
Y means the measured value (the output value)
X means the true value of measure (the input value)
1 N
Sample variance: s2 * (Y i Y ) 2
N 1 i 1
N
Experimental 1
Y standard deviation: s * (Y i Y ) 2
N 1 i 1
1 N 2
(Yi Y )
N 1 i 1
68,3%
For enough big N this context
is also nearly valid for s and Y :
95,5%
Important remark regarding dot and comma: 99,7%
German English
68,3 = 68.3 Y Y
Y-1s Y+1s
11.000,2 = 11,000.2 Y-2s Y+2s
Especially in drawings, I have not change it! Y-3s Y+3s
Yu Y
X Transfer function Correction function
of the system
Y = mX + n Y = Km * (Yu + Kn)
n = Yu – mX
n + Kn = 0 → Kn = -n
Y Y
0 0
0 X 0 X
Y
Y
0
0 X 0
0 X
X [ cm ] Ua [ V ] 10 kW
0 Ua
2
4 5 kW
6
8 0 cm
10
X Measurement Yu Correction Y
System Function
Yu = f(X) Y = f(Yu)
X [ cm ] Ua [ V ] 6
5
0 0 4
2 0,76 Yu 3
4 1,35 2
6 2,03
1
8 3,03
0
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X
0 0
0,380 0 2,63 0
2 0,76
0,295 0,17 3,39 -0,17
4 1,35
0,340 -0,01 2,94 0,01
6 2,03
0,500 -0,97 2,00 0,97
8 3,03
0,985 -4,85 1,01 4,85
10 5
es
YZu er
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
N
Series of measurements at one calibration point:
X N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10 Yu
[cm] [V] [V] [V] [V] [V] [V] [V] [V] [V] [V] [V]
10 1,44 1,45 1,45 1,44 1,42 1,40 1,40 1,43 1,40 1,42 1,42
Power supply
Sensor _
+
0 50
Standard / cm
10 1,44 1,45 1,45 1,44 1,42 1,40 1,40 1,43 1,40 1,42
20 1,75 1,74 1,77 1,73 1,74 1,75 1,78 1,74 1,69 1,71
30 1,85 1,89 1,91 1,93 1,86 1,92 1,94 1,92 1,86 1,96
40 2,06 2,03 2,00 2,04 2,02 2,01 2,07 2,06 1,97 2,01
50 2,27 2,17 2,08 2,10 2,12 2,16 2,19 2,29 2,17 2,13
Yu
m=
X
n = Yu – mX
1
Km=
m
Kn=−n
between the corresponding calibration points.
10 1,425
0,0315 1,110 31,746 -1,110
20 1,740
0,0164 1,412 60,976 -1,412
30 1,904
0,0123 1,535 81,300 -1,535
40 2,027
0,0141 1,463 70,922 -1,463
50 2,168
•
•
•
3
50 50
2 40 40
YuZ 30 30
Y Y
1 20 20
10 10
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 10 20 30 40 50
YZu X
X
10 10,48 10,79 10,79 10,48 9,84 9,21 9,21 10,16 9,21 9,84
20 20,61 20,00 21,83 19,68 20,00 20,61 22,44 20,00 18,41 19,05
30 26,71 29,15 30,49 32,11 27,32 31,30 32,93 31,30 27,32 34,55
40 42,34 40,21 37,80 40,92 39,43 38,62 43,05 42,34 35,37 38,62
50 57,23 50,14 43,76 45,18 46,60 49,43 51,56 58,65 50,14 47,30
s = + 4,84 cm
Biggest deviation from the true value: measurement N8 at calibration point 50 cm:
0 0 32
Formula for flow calculating:
QV A0 2 p
QV A0 2 p
QV k p k A0 2 141,42136
Qv2
p
k2
ADC m p n
( ADC) n ADC m p
ADC m p n m 7,86107
(p) n 32
ADC p Qv
ADC n Qv k p
p
m
ADC n
Qv k
m
k
Qv ADC n 10 ADC ( ADC Zahl )
m
20 Qv 0,015952 ADC 32
Qv 0,015952 ADC 32 30 Print Qv
Example:
X Yu km kn
0 0
10 ADC ( ADC Zahl ) 1
20 ADC ADC 32 km 0,0159516 0
Yu
21 Yu ADC
X
30 Qv 0,0159516 (Yu 0)
1 3930
40 Print Qv
In this case, the function is already linear. Otherwise it could be used more
calibration points from line 30 onwards.
Attention: The displaying range can be bigger than the measurement range!
The resolution is the smallest unit of change of the input value that can be
detected with a measuring device.
The word “precision” is used very differently. Important is, that the “precision” is
completely different from the “resolution”. The maximum error of a system can
never be smaller then the resolution, but it can be much bigger. Therefore,
instead of using the term “precision” you should better use terms in connection
to the error.
Will be calculated a measurement result from several measurands and have the
measurands errors, will have the result also errors.
With the laws of the error propagation (Gauss´s low of error propagation) can be
calculated how big the resulting error of a calculated measurement result is.
k f 2
SY x sj
j 1 j
There means:
Sj Standard deviations of the single measurands, which are involve in the result
f Partial derivative
xj
k f 2
Y x xj
There means: j 1 j
Y Average expected error of the resulting measurand
xj in result involved single measurands
xj Average error of the single measurands, which are involve in the result
f
xj Partial derivative
k f
Y
x xj
j 1 j
There means:
Y Maximal error of the resulting measurand
xj in result involved single measurands
xj Maximal error of the single measurands, which are involve in the result
f Partial derivative
xj
Maxima errors of single measurands are extremly rare. That they appears for all
single measurands to the same time is nearly improbable.
●
Average expected error: Mathematical not accurate, but very good to use
●
Maximum possible resulting error: His appearance is nearly improbably, but
useful for worst case scenarios.
V=a·b·c
●
The measurands are:
●
a + Δa / 2 cm + 0,01 cm
●
b + Δb / 3 cm + 0,02 cm
●
c + Δc / 5 cm + 0,02 cm
●
Looking for:
●
Average expected error for the volume
●
Maximum possible error for the volume
k f 2
Generally formula: Y xj
j1 xj
V 0,2773cm3
Y 3 5 0,01 2 5 0,02 2 3 0,02
Y 0,47cm3
k
Y f xj
There means:
j 1 xj
Case 2:
Partly, the same methods are also used to investigate changing measuring
objects.
Example: A size analysis of 10.000 particles is statistical investigated (Test of
product quality)
h(Y ) 1 e 2 2
2
Characterised by:
Y Y Y
1 2
●
The mean Y , as the estimation of the true value μ, is with high probability very
close to µ. At the practice,Y is used for the true value.
●
The empirical standard deviation S is an estimation for the standard deviation
σ. The empirical standard deviation is a range, calculated from a series of
measurements. In this range is the true value with a certain statistical reliability.
S is a measure for the mean expected error of a single measurement and there
for a measure for the quality of a series of measurements.
Mean:
N
Y 1 * Yi
N i1
The mean Y , as the estimation of the true value μ, is with high probability very
close to µ. At the practice, Y is used for the true value.
Y
N
2
s 1 * (Yi Y )2
N 1 i 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 N
The empirical variance s2 is an estimation of the variance σ2. This is the true
value actual looking for. The empirical variance s2 converged with increasing
number of measurands against the variance σ2.
To note is the denominator N-1 of the equation. The number N-1 is the degree
of freedom. Because the mean Y is included, exist only Y2....YN as free
degrees; Y1 is defined by Y and Y2....YN.
68,3%
95,5%
99,7%
Y Y
Y-1s Y+1s
Y-2s Y+2s
Y-3s Y+3s
Yi
ni
n Yi
Y
Recommended value für the number of classes: k≈ n
Example: It is to draw a histogram with 10.000 measurands.
The number of classes should be roughly: k≈ 10.000=100
Y
This would lead to the following drawing: h(Y)
20
15
10