Cell Reproduction and Differentiation

Lecture Presentation 

by Suzanne Long, 

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Monroe Community College
 Cells Reproduce by Dividing into Two
▪ Unicellular organisms: cell division is the
mechanism of reproduction

▪ Multicellular organisms: cell division

enables growth from a fertilized egg to a
multicellular individual

▪ Mechanism of cell division is the same in

all eukaryotes

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 The Cell Cycle Creates New Cells
Cell cycle includes two major phases

INTERPHASE “between cell

division”

MITOTIC PHASE (cell

division)

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 Mitosis Cytokinesis
Nucleus divides Cell divides

MITOTIC
PH A SE

G2
G1
Cell prepares
for division. Primary period
Growth continues of cell growth.
slowly.

DNA is duplicated. G0
Growth continues
slowly.

INTE RPHASE
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 Mitosis Cytokinesis
Nucleus divides Cell divides
INTERPHASE
– Long growth period
MITOTIC between cell divisions
PH A SE
– G1 (first gap)
– Primary growth
M
phase, very active
G2
G1 growth
Cell prepares
for division. Primary period – S (synthesis)
Growth continues of cell growth.
slowly. – Synthesis of DNA for
next cell division
S
– G2 (second gap)
DNA is duplicated. G0
Growth continues
slowly.
– Final growth phase
before cell division
INTE RP HASE

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 The Cell Cycle Creates New Cells
MITOTIC PHASE (cell division phase)
– Mitosis
– Nuclear division
– Duplicated DNA is distributed
between two daughter nuclei,
nucleus divides
– Cytokinesis
– Cytoplasm divides
– Two new daughter cells are
formed

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 The Cell Cycle Creates New Cells
▪ Complete cell cycle takes 18–24 hours
▪ Mitosis and cytokinesis takes less
than one hour of the complete cell
cycle
▪ Many cells enter a nondividing state,
G0, either temporarily or permanently
– Neurons, osteocytes enter G0 after
adolescence

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 What do you think happens if these cells
do not enter a non-growing state?

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 DNA Structure and Function: An Overview
▪ Human DNA: organized into 46 separate
chromosomes containing 3 billion base pairs of
DNA
▪ Chromosomes consist of DNA and histones (proteins)
▪ Throughout most of cell cycle, DNA is loose and
diffuse, referred to as chromatin
▪ During mitosis, DNA is compacted into chromosomes
that are visible under the microscope, each consisting
of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere
▪ Gene: short segment of DNA that contains the
code, or recipe, for a protein
▪ Twenty thousand genes on the 46 chromosomes

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 Double-stranded
DNA

Histones

Chromatin
material:
not visible
during
interphase

One chromatid

Its sister
chromatid

Centromere

Chromosome: visible during mitosis

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 DNA Structure and Function: An Overview
▪ Three processes essential to DNA function
1. Replication: process of copying the cell’s DNA
prior 

to cell division
2. Transcription: process of creating a coding 

message of a single gene that can be carried
out of 

the nucleus
3. Translation: process of converting the coded 

message into proteins useful to the cell

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 Replication: Copying DNA Before Cell Division
▪ DNA replication
– Process of copying DNA prior to cell division
– This involves making exact copies of all 46
chromosomes
– Steps
– DNA uncoils and “unzips,” pulling apart the two
strands
– A new complementary strand of DNA is built
upon each template strand, using appropriate
base-pairing (T-A and G-C)
– DNA polymerase: major replicating enzyme
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Figure 17.3

Parent New (daughter) Parent

strand strands forming strand

Keys:
= Thymine = Adenine

= Cytosine = Guanine
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 Mutations Are Alterations in DNA
▪ Mutation: alteration in DNA
▪ Sometimes results from errors during
replication
▪ May be caused by physical or chemical
forces
▪ Somatic cell (non-gametes) mutations—
may affect function of tissues or cause
cancer, but not passed on to
descendants
▪ Gamete mutation—passed on to future
generations

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 Mechanism of DNA Repair
▪ Enzymes recognize errors
▪ Errors are cut out with enzymes
▪ Damaged section is replaced
▪ DNA backbone is reconnected
▪ Numerous different DNA repair enzymes
▪ Repair enzymes are most active between the
time of DNA replication and the beginning of
mitosis
▪ Mutations in certain genes that direct DNA
repair lead to increased risk of cancer
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 Replication, Transcription, and Translation: 

An Overview
▪ Transcription
– Process of copying DNA of a gene into
mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid)
– Occurs within the cell nucleus
▪ Translation
– Process of converting the mRNA
template into one or more proteins
– Occurs in the cytoplasm at ribosomes

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 Transcription: Converting a Gene’s Code
into mRNA
▪ Transcription
– DNA of a gene unwinds
– RNA polymerase assists in copying base sequence in
RNA nucleotides
– Primary transcript (RNA) made, includes introns
(intervening sequences) and exons
– Introns edited out
– Exons (carry genetic information) are spliced
appropriately
– Messenger RNA strand produced
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 DNA Introns

Exons
Assembly
site

DNA strand not

DNA being transcribed
template

Introns are
edited out. Codons

mRNA
c) The introns are edited

out by enzymes to

produce the final mRNA.

RNA primary transcript

a) The portion of the DNA molecule
 b) The strand of RNA released from DNA

corresponding to the gene unwinds
 is called a primary transcript. It contains

temporarily, and a complementary
 sections that carry genetic information,

strand of RNA is produced from one
 called exons, and sections that may allow

of the DNA strands. different combinations of genetic information,

called introns.
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 Transcription

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 Transcription: Converting a Gene’s
Code into mRNA
▪ Genetic code
– The genetic code is a triplet code
– Codon
– Sequence of three mRNA bases
– Codes for amino acids
– Redundancy of the genetic code
– Sixty-four different codons, but 20 different amino
acids
– Several different codons encode each amino acid,
with the exception of methionine (AUG, start
codon)
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 Transcription: Converting a Gene’s
Code into mRNA
▪ Genetic code
– Codon “grammar”
– Start codon
– AUG (methionine): begins all genes
– Stop codons
– UAA, UAG, UGA: one ends each gene

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 Second position
U C A G

UUU UCU UAU UGU U

Phe Tyr Cys
UUC UCC UAC UGC C
U Ser
UUA UCA UAA Stop UGA Stop A
Leu
UUG UCG UAG Stop UGG Trp G

CUU CCU CAU CGU U

His
CUC CCC CAC CGC C
C Leu Pro Arg

Third position
CUA CCA CAA CGA A
First position

Gln
CUG CCG CAG CGG G

AUU ACU AAU AGU U

Asn Ser
AUC IIe ACC AAC AGC C
A Thr
AUA ACA AAA AGA A
Lys Arg
AUG Met/start ACG AAG AGG G

GUU GCU GAU GGU U

Asp
GUC GCC GAC GGC C
G Val Ala Gly
GUA GCA GAA GGA A
Glu
GUG GCG GAG GGG G

Phe = Phenylalanine Pro = Proline Gln = Glutamine Cys = Cysteine

Leu = Leucine Thr = Threonine Asn = Asparagine Trp = Tryptophan
Ile = Isoleucine Ala = Alanine Lys = Lysine Arg = Arginine
Met = Methionine Tyr = Tyrosine Asp = Aspartic acid Gly = Glycine
Val = Valine His = Histidine Glu = Glutamic acid
Ser = Serine
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 The Genetic Code

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 Translation: Making a Protein from RNA
▪ Components
– Messenger RNA (mRNA): basically this is a copy of
the “recipe”
– Transfer RNAs (tRNA): relatively small RNA
molecules that escort amino acids to the ribosome
(site of translation)
– Ribosomes made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
protein
– Contain sites for mRNA and incoming amino acid-tRNA
– Contain the enzymes/factors that catalyze the peptide
bond formation

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 Translation: Making a Protein from RNA
▪ Process
– Initiation
– Initiator tRNA (carrying methionine), start codon on
mRNA, and ribosomal subunits form an initiation
complex
– Elongation
– tRNA brings specific amino acids to developing
protein chain
– Chain elongates one amino acid at a time
– Termination
– Stop codon terminates developing chain, protein is
released from ribosome
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 Amino acids

tRNA captures
free amino acid.
tRNA

Completed protein

Anticodon Bond forms

between amino acids.
His
tRNA anticodon
binds to Val Leu Val
mRNA codon.
Met

Peptide chain
tRNA "Stop"
Ribosomal detaches at
is released. codon
subunits stop codon.

mRNA
Ribosome moves
"Start" codon along mRNA.

Initiation. A tRNA Elongation. tRNA molecules capture free Termination.

carrying the “start”
anticodon binds to the
smaller ribosomal subunit
and to the “start” codon of
mRNA. The larger
ribosomal subunit joins
them.
amino acids and bring them to the When a “stop”
appropriate codon on the mRNA. As mRNA codon is reached,
passes between the two ribosomal subunits, the ribosomal
the ribosome binds to the tRNA and subunits and the
catalyzes the formation of the bond between newly formed
successive amino acids. The tRNA is then protein detach
released to find another amino acid. from the mRNA.

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 Translation

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 Cell Reproduction: One Cell Becomes Two
▪ Two types of cell reproduction processes
– Mitosis: generates new diploid cells
– Diploid—cell has two sets of chromosomes,
one from the mother and one from the father
– Meiosis: generates haploid gametes
– Haploid—cell has only one set of
chromosomes

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 MITOSIS CYTOKINESIS

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 Mitosis: Daughter Cells Are Identical to the
Parent Cell
▪ Nuclear division (mitosis) followed by
cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis)
– Daughter cells offspring) are genetically
identical to the parent cell
– Sequence of phases
– Prophase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase

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 MITOSIS CYTOKINESIS

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 Prophase
– Mitotic spindle formed
– Centrioles migrate to cell poles
– Chromatin condenses into visible
chromosomes
– Nuclear membrane dissolves
– Metabolic activity decreases

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 Prophase

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 Prophase

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 Metaphase
– Duplicate chromosomes form
single line at the equator
between centriole poles
– Meta “after”

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 Metaphase

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 Metaphase

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 Anaphase
– Duplicate chromosomes
separate
– Daughter chromosomes are
pulled toward poles by
microtubules

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 Anaphase

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 Anaphase

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 Telophase
– Reverse of prophase
– Mitotic spindle
disintegrates
– Nuclear membrane
reforms
– Chromosomes uncoil
and revert to chromatin

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 Telophase

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 Telophase

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 Cytokinesis
– Contractile ring of filaments forms at
midsection of cell and tightens, forming a
cleavage furrow
– Two daughter cells formed as the contractile
ring pinches them apart
– Result: two identical daughter cells (diploid)

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 Mitosis Cytokinesis
Nucleus divides Cell divides

MITOTIC
PH A SE

G2
G1
Cell prepares
for division. Primary period
Growth continues of cell growth.
slowly.

DNA is duplicated. G0
Growth continues
slowly.

INTE RPHASE
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 Mitosis Produces Cells Identical to the
Parent Cell
▪ All cells in human body divide by mitosis, with the
exception of the cells that form sperm and eggs
▪ All body cells other than sperm and eggs have 46
chromosomes (are diploid)
– These represent 23 pairs of chromosomes
– The chromosomes in each pair are called
homologous chromosomes
▪ 23 pairs of chromosomes
– 22 pairs are autosomes (chromosomes other than
sex chromosomes)
– 1 pair of sex chromosomes
– XX in females, XY in males
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 Mitosis

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 Meiosis: Prepares Cells for Sexual Reproduction
▪ Gametes (sperm, eggs) are haploid
▪ Have just one set of 23 chromosomes
▪ Reduction in chromosome number from
diploid to haploid is accomplished by
meiosis, a special cell division process that
occurs in ovaries and testes

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 Meiosis: Prepares Cells for Sexual Reproduction
▪ Meiosis includes two successive cell
division processes
– Meiosis I
– Prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I,
telophase I, and cytokinesis
– Meiosis II
– Prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II,
telophase II, and cytokinesis
▪ Meiosis reduces chromosome number by
half (reduction division)
– Daughter cells are haploid (n)
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 Prophase I

– Duplicated homologous chromosomes pair up

– Crossing over

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 Homologous
chromosomes

Sister
chromatids

Paternal Maternal Crossing over

SYNAPSIS CHIASMA RECOMBINANT

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 Prophase I

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 MEIOSIS I

Metaphase I
– Homologous pairs of
chromosomes line up

– Double line of chromosome

pairs

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 Metaphase I

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 Anaphase I

– Pairs of chromosomes
separated, but duplicated
chromosomes stay intact

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 Anaphase I

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 Telophase I

– two haploid daughter

cells, but chromosomes
are still in duplicated
state

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 Telophase I

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 Meiosis II
– Each of the two daughter cells from meiosis I
goes through meiosis II
– Similar process to mitosis
– Prophase II
– Metaphase II
– Anaphase II
– Duplicated chromosomes (chromatids)
separate
– Telophase II and cytokinesis
– Nuclei have the haploid chromosome number
– End of meiosis II: four haploid daughter cells
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 MEIOSIS Il

Prophase II
Spindle
apparatus
forms.

Metaphase II
Chromosomes
align on
equatorial
plane.

Anaphase II
Sister
chromatids
separate.

Telophase II
Nuclei form at
opposite poles;
cytokinesis occurs.

Four haploid daughter cells

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Four haploid daughter cells
 Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

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 What would happen if Mitosis
and Meiosis did not occur?

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 Sex Differences in Meiosis:
Four Sperm Versus One Egg
▪ Males
– Four sperm produced from each cell
entering meiosis
– All viable, functional
▪ Female
– Unequal cytokinesis during meiosis I and II
– One egg and three polar bodies produced
from each cell entering meiosis
– Only the egg is viable

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 OOGONIUM SPERMATOGONIUM
STEM CELL = STEM CELL =
UNDIFFERENTIATED UNDIFFERENTIATED

OOTIDS SPERMATIDS

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 Sperm Polar
(23 chromosomes) bodies

Egg
(23 chromosomes)

Fertilization

Nucleus of
fertilized egg
(23 pairs of
chromosomes)

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© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 How Cell Reproduction Is Regulated
▪ Not all cells divide at the same rate
▪ Internal surveillance and control mechanism
▪ Several key checkpoints where “go ahead”
signals must be received in order for the cycle
to progress to the next phase
– G1, G2, M checkpoints
▪ Outside influences
– Can modify cell cycle
– Hormones, growth factors, presence of other
cells
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 M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint

G2 G1

G1 checkpoint

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 Environmental Factors Influence Cell
Differentiation
▪ All body cells have the same DNA, yet there
are great differences between the shape and
function of different cell types
▪ Differentiation
– Process by which a cell becomes different
from its parent or sister cell
– Differentiation is based on different gene
expression

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EARLY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

HUMAN BIOLOGY (CENGAGE LEARNING)

 Fertilized egg

2-cell stage

4-cell stage

8-cell stage
Each cell is exposed
to the same environment.

A cell at the center of this 16-cell stage

ball will be exposed to a
different environment than
a cell on the surface.

Differentiation

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 EARLY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
CLEAVAGE

EVERY THING S TARTS FROM A SINGLE CELL

CLEAVAGE
CELL DIVISION CONVERTS THE ZYGOTE INTO A BALL OF CELLS

MORULA
SIXTEEN-CELLED ZYGOTE; MULBERRY; UTERUS

BLASTOMERE
EACH NEW CELL THAT FORMS DURING CLEAVAGE
 EARLY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
GASTRULATION

GASTRULATION
PROCESS OF EARLY DEVELOPMENT THAT PRODUCES THE
THREE GERM LAYERS

GERM LAYERS
THREE PRIMARY TISSUES THAT FORM AS AN EARLY
EMBRYO DEVELOPS.
 EARLY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
GASTRULATION

ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM

NERVOUS SYS TEM & C ARTIL AGE, BONES, LINING OF DIGES TIVE
SENSE ORGANS MUSCLES TUBE
C ARDIOVASCUL AR
PITUITARY GL AND LYMPHATIC SYS TEM LINING OF
URINARY SYS TEM RESPIRATORY
EPIDERMIS AND REPRODUCTIVE AIRWAYS
ASSOCIATED OUTER L AYERS OF
S TRUCTURES (HAIR) DIGES TIVE SYS TEM
 EARLY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
GASTRULATION

CELL DIFFERENTIATION
NEWLY FORMED CELLS
BECOME SPECIALIZED
FOR A CERTAIN
FUNCTION

MORPHOGENESIS
“THE BEGINNING OF
FORM”

SPECIFIC ORGANS
AND TISSUES FORM
 EARLY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
IMPLANTATION
BLASTOCYST
EMBRYONIC STAGE THAT DEVELOPS FROM MORULA
AND WILL EVENTUALLY IMPLANT THE UTERINE WALL;
SECRETES HCG

HAPPPENS WHEN THE MORULA ENTERS THE UTERUS

TROPHOBLAST — SURFACE EPITHELIUM

INNER CELL MAST — SMALL CLUMP OF CELL WHERE
EMBRYO DEVELOPS
EARLY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
 Differentiation Later in Development
▪ External substances harmful to fetuses:
– Cigarette smoke: retards growth
– Alcohol: fetal alcohol syndrome
– Medications (prescription/over-the-
counter): pass through placenta
– Illegal drugs: child born addicted
– Environmental chemicals: in air, water, soil
– Radiation: radon, X-rays
– Intrauterine infections: HIV, syphilis, rubella

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 Reproductive Cloning Requires an
Undifferentiated Cell
▪ Reproductive cloning
– Producing a “copy” of an entire organism
– Requires a completely undifferentiated
cell as the starting point
– Two methods
– Embryo splitting
– Somatic cell nuclear transfer

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 Embryo Splitting: Producing Identical Offspring
▪ Procedure
– Egg is fertilized in vitro, and allowed to divide to
the eight-cell stage
– Cells of eight-cell stage are carefully separated
and each is implanted into a different surrogate
mother in which it develops
▪ Results: clones are genetically identical to
each other but not to either parent
▪ Process has not been attempted with humans

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 Eight Eight different
identical cells surrogate mothers

Fertilized Eight-cell Eight identical lambs

+ egg stage

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 Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Produces a
Clone of an Adult
▪ Somatic cell: any cell other than a gamete
▪ Each somatic cell has a full diploid set of
chromosomes
▪ Procedure
– Somatic cell from the adult organism to be cloned
is inserted into an enucleated fertilized egg
– An electrical current is used to fuse the cells
– Fused cell is implanted into uterus of surrogate
mother and allowed to develop
▪ Result
– Offspring is a clone of the adult organism that
provided the somatic cell
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 The nucleus is removed
from an unfertilized egg
taken from a female.

A body cell from the

adult animal to be
cloned is inserted into
the egg.

Electrical current is
applied to fuse the cells.

The nucleus of the

animal to be cloned
is now the nucleus of
the egg.

The egg is implanted

into a surrogate
mother.

The surrogate mother

gives birth to a clone.

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 Therapeutic Cloning: Creating Tissues
and Organs
▪ Therapeutic cloning
– The cloning of human cells specifically
for treating patients
– Ideally, remove a single cell from a
patient and nurture it to develop and
differentiate into the cell type needed to
treat the disease
– Potential for creating new cells, tissues,
or organs—as yet unrealized

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