i

Acknowledgment
The success and the final outcome of our final year project ultimately required a lot of
assistance and guidance from a number of persons and we are extremely privileged that we got
this all along the completion of our project. It is no doubt that all that we have done is solely
due to such supervision and assistance and we can actually never forget to thank them.

First of all, we as a group are very much grateful to every teacher in our department due to
which we become capable enough to successfully research and start our project. While most
importantly, it’s our supervisor, Dr. Syed Sabir Hussain Shah Bukhari, and co-supervisor, Mr.
Engr. Jamshed Ahmed Ansari, without whom, we might be unable to achieve this huge
milestone.

Along with all these, we can never forget our parents who supported us at each level,
emotionally and financially so that we remain intact to achieve our goal.

ii
 Abstract
In the current era, Brushless DC motors are replacing the conventional DC motors in a wide
area of applications like aviation, home appliances and in the automotive industry. It’s because
all these applications need the more robust, efficient and higher power density for their
operation. Unlike the traditional DC motors, BLDCs are the electronically commutated motors.
They use a microcontroller which supplies the power to 3-phase power Semiconductor Bridge.
The output from the bridge is given to the stator windings according to the control algorithm.

Our project is aimed to make a controller circuit for the brushless dc motor for different
application where we need to control speed. i.e a solar automobile. For that, firstly, we made
the controller circuit on prototype level i.e we controlled 12V senseless dc brushless motor
then moved to control the 24 V sensorless BLDC motor. For both 12V BLDC motor, we used
an inner rotor and sensorless BLDC motor. It is because the sensorless BLDC motor is least
expensive and don’t need extra circuitry for the decryption of sensing signals.

We used a BLDC motor instead of a generally used induction motor for the purpose of electric
motors. The answer is just the controlling and very least maintenance cost, we have more
accurate control and the maintenance cost is almost negligible.

About controllers, we had a variety of options from the controllers to choose from like its driver
circuits, Arduino, pic microcontrollers and others however considering the overall cost,
simplicity and efficiency and the parameters set by our worthy supervisor, we chose to use
ATMEGA 328 P microcontroller. We had the choice to use hall sensors or detect the back
EMF. So, after comparing the pros and cons as discussed above, it was relatively beneficial to
use the back EMF for the controlling of the motor.

BLDC motor is actually an electronically commutated or a synchronous motor that gets power
from the DC source through the inverter which produces the alternating current to drive each
phase of the motor using closed-loop controlled circuitry. Here the control circuitry happens to
provide the current pulses to the winding of motor which actually controls the motor parameters
like torque and speed.

ii
i
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................. 2
Abstract............................................................................................................................... 3
Table of Contents............................................................................................................... 3
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... 6
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 7
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................ 8

CHAPTER 1 1
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ....................................................................................................... 3

1.2 Comparison between Brushed and Brushless Motors ....................................... 4

1.3 Comparison between BLDC and SRM .............................................................. 5

1.4 Structural Review .............................................................................................. 5

1.5 BLDC Motor Structures ..................................................................................... 6

1.6 Electrical & Mechanical Angles.......................................................................... 7

1.7 Rotor Structure .................................................................................................. 8

1.8 Stator Structure ................................................................................................. 8

1.9 Typical Applications of BLDC Motors................................................................. 9

1.10 Applications with Speed Control ...................................................................... 10

1.11 A Brief Review on the Control of BLDC Motor ................................................. 10

1.12 Problem Statement .......................................................................................... 11

1.14 Thesis Organization ....................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 2 13
Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 13

2.1 BLDC Motor Construction ................................................................................ 13

2.2 BLDC System Architecture .............................................................................. 14

2.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 16

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CHAPTER 3 17
Components Selections .................................................................................................... 17

3.1 Sensored Vs Sensorless BLDC Motors ........................................................... 17

3.2 BLDC Motor Specifications: ............................................................................. 17

3.3 MOSFETS Vs IGBT ........................................................................................ 19

3.4 Half Bridge Driver IC........................................................................................ 20

3.5 Capacitors ....................................................................................................... 21

3.6 Zener Diodes ................................................................................................... 21

3.7 ATMEGA 328 P ............................................................................................... 21

3.8 Programming ................................................................................................... 22

3.9 Six Step Commutation ..................................................................................... 23

3.10 Analysis of Six Step Commutation ................................................................... 23

3.11 Crystal Oscillator ............................................................................................. 26

3.12 Speed Control ................................................................................................. 26

3.13 Comparative Analysis of Breadboard And PCB Design ................................... 28

3.13.1 Advantages of PCB Design.......................................................................... 28

3.13 Potential Divider .............................................................................................. 30

3.14 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER 4 32
Speed control of BLDC Motor ........................................................................................... 32

4.1 Hall Effect Sensors .......................................................................................... 32

4.2 Direct Back EMF Zero Crossing Technique (Terminal Voltage Sensing) ......... 33

4.3 Indirect Back EMF Integration Technique ........................................................ 35

4.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER 5 38
Working Methodology ....................................................................................................... 38

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 5.1 Simple Brushless Sequence ............................................................................ 38

5.2 Schematic Three-Phase Bridge ....................................................................... 40

5.3 Three Phase Inverter (Components Selection) ................................................ 40

5.4 Limitations of 3-Phase Square Wave Inverter .................................................. 41

5.5 Three-Phase Square Wave Inverters Applications .......................................... 42

5.5.1 Cheap solid-state frequency regulator circuit ................................................... 42
5.5.2 Non-interrupting power supply ......................................................................... 43
5.5.3 Motors driver circuitry ...................................................................................... 43

5.6 Six Steps of The Motor Spin Sequence ........................................................... 44

5.7 Detection of The Back EMF And Synchronization of Sequence ....................... 45

5.8 Speed – Torque Relationship of BLDC Motor .................................................. 47

5.9 Modeling of BLDC Motor Drive ........................................................................ 48

...................................................................................................................................... 51

5.10 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 51

CHAPTER 6 52
Conclusion and Future Recommendations........................................................................ 52
6.1 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 52
6.2 Future Recommendations ............................................................................... 53
References ...................................................................................................................... 55
Appendix ......................................................................................................................... 57

v
 List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Comparison between Axial and Radial Flux Motors 6
Figure 1.2: Comparison between Inner Rotor and Outer Rotor motors 6
Figure 1.3: Three phase BLDC motor with circuit diagram 7
Figure 1.4: 4-pole and 8-pole permanent magnet rotor 9
Figure 2.1: Outer and Inner Rotor Design of BLDC Motor 13
Figure 2.2: BLDC Motor Control Block Diagram 15
Figure 2.3: Internal Block Diagram of Power Converter with BLDC Motor 15
Figure 3.1: BLDC Motor Name Plate 18
Figure 3.2: BLDC Motor Shaft 19
Figure 3.3: Pin Configuration of IR2104 and IR2104 S 20
Figure 3.4: Pin Configuration of ATMEL 328 P IC 22
Figure 3.5: Stator space sectors diagram 23
Figure 3.6: BLDC motor six-step commutation 25
Figure 3.7: PCB Layout of BLDC Motor 30
Figure 3.8: Voltage Divider Circuit 31
Figure 4.1: Position of Hall Effect Sensors 33
Figure 4.2: Back EMF and Current Phase Alignment 34
Figure 4.3: Integrated Area of Back EMF at Different Speeds 36
Figure 5.1: Three Phase Sequence of BLDC Motor 38
Figure 5.2: Three Phase Bridge Circuit Hardware 39
Figure 5.3: Six Step Inverter with Six MOSFET and Micro-controller 40
Figure 5.4: Block Diagram of MOSFET with DC Supply and Motor 41
Figure 5.5: Spin Sequence of Six Steps of the BLDC Motor 44
Figure 5.6: Illustration of Energized and Non-Energized gates 45
Figure 5.7: Speed vs. Torque of a BLDC 47
Figure 5.8: Speed vs. Torque of a Separately Excited DC Motor 48
Figure 5.9: Three phase VSI simulation model 48
Figure 5.10: Speed characteristics of the BLDC motor simulation model 50
Figure 5.11: Torque characteristics of the BLDC motor simulation 50
Figure 5.12: Back-EMF signals of the BLDC motor model 51

vi
 List of Tables
Table 1.1 Comparison between Brushed and Brushless DC Motors 4

Table 3.1: Comparison between Sensored and Sensorless Motors 17

Table 3.2: BLDC Motor Specifications 18

Table 3.3: Comparison between MOSFET and IGBT 19

Table 3.4: IRFZ44N MOSFET Specifications 20

Table 3.5: IR2104 S Specifications 21

Table 3.6: Six Steps Commutation States 24

Table 5.1: High & Low Gates Sequence for the Phases 39

Table 5.2: Hall Effect Signals and Inverter Switches Status of the BLDC Motor 49

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 List of Abbreviations
BLDC Motor: Brushless Direct Current Motor

Back EMF: Back Electromotive Force

DC: Direct Current

I/O: Input / Output

PMSM: Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor

PMDC: Permanent Magnet Direct Current Motor

PWM: Pulse Width Modulation

RPM: Revolutions per minute

MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

IGBT: Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IC Engine: Internal Combustion Engine

EV: Electric Vehicle

viii
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Home appliances come out to be amongst the quickest growing markets for BLDC motors.
Common appliances that use electric motors embrace refrigerators, air conditioners, washers,
dryers and vacuum cleaners. Along with the home appliances, the BLDC motors also goes to
have indulged in Electric Vehicles construction [1]. As, we are more focuses on the application
relevant to the solar automobile, so we will be discussing that. Conventionally, these
automobiles relied on the Internal Combustion Engine or in case of EV, induction motors [2].
However, here we will be focusing on implementing the BLDC motor for this purpose.

It is because of the fact that these are noiseless, having higher efficiency, least maintenance
and are economical [2].

The main target of our project remained to construct and develop a controller circuit for the
brushless direct current motor.

First of all, it must be noted that BLDC motors have the electronic commutation or said to be
the synchronous motors which are supplied by the dc source via an inverter which results in
the alternating current to drive each phase of the motor through a closed loop circuit controller
[3]. Here, the controller provides the pulses of current to the motor windings that controls the
motor parameters like its torque and speed.

BLDC motor has high power to weight ratio, electronic control, and high speed while these
qualities are lacking in brushed motors [3]. These motors can be used as computer peripherals,
hand-held power tools and vehicles that range from prototype aircraft to automobiles.
However, there are disadvantages for the BLDC as a result of variable speed, and thus
adjustable speed drives are there to overcome this.

While we perform the mathematical analysis, there are two key performing parameters of
BLDC motor including the motor constants KT (torque constant) and the Ke (back – EMF
constant or speed constant Kv where Kv = 1/ ke. The equation (1.1) and equation (1.2) shows
the relationship in this case.

Newton Meter Kilogram Meter 2

Kt = = (1.1)
Amp Ampere Second2

1
 Volt Second Kilogram Meter2
Ke = = (1.2)
Radian Ampere Second2

Typically, as far as the motor construction is concerned, it usually has 3-phase winding, each
phase having two opposite poles, A, A’, B, B’, C, C’ [4].

The basic purpose of motors is to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Watch in
the world around us and considering the importance of devices that use this mechanism, we
cannot just neglect the electric motors and their way of working. Brushless DC motors also are
known as permanent magnet direct current synchronous motors very popular and useful
because of its high power density (the amount of power per unit Volume), long life, high
efficiency, and reliable operation. Brushless DC motors in contrast to brushed DC motors, no
mechanical brushes are required for the commutation system.

Removal of the brushes for commutation reduces the electrical spark resulting in a reduction
of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). Initially, brushless DC (BLDC) motors were mostly
used in high-end military applications, but due to the high efficiency and long life of these
engines became more common in everyday applications. Lately, these motors are well
preferred in many electrical appliances, both high-end military applications and low Price
household appliances and toys. The main reason for their widespread applications will be
Reality after the recent reduction in the cost of these engines. Ideally, BLDC motors can be
Use any area where traditional motors (brush motors and induction motors) are used
Consumers are now demanding lower energy costs, better performance, and less noise. The
noise that cannot be achieved with conventional technologies.

A typical BLDC motor consists of permanent magnets in the rotor and fixed electric coils alike
spaced in the stator. For example, the rotor magnets (rare earth magnets) used in BLDC motors
typically have high magnetic flux density and high electrical conductivity, resulting in rotor
losses small, which leads to a higher efficiency. Now, if we have sensor BLDC motor, then it
will be having, 9 wires, however, if we use back-EMF i-e not using the hall sensor outputs, then
the BLDC motor will be having only three output wires.

Next, we have the inverter circuit or the electronic commutation, outside the motor, it usually
consists of the six-step inverter circuit for which we can use MOSFETS or IGBTS, comparing
them in details in the next chapters. Now the main control circuitry for the input pulses to the
six-step inverters comes here.

2
For this circuitry, we can use Arduino at the prototype level, but for the main hardware, we are
not allowed by our supervisor for that. So, the main part of our project is to design that circuitry,
which can supply the pulses to each of the 6 MOSFETs or IGBTs [4].

So, as a result, firstly, we did a lot of research work and come to know the few techniques and
control circuits which can be employed for this purpose. We actually have limited choice
among controllers to choose from. We tried with Pic microcontroller, and the specially built
driver circuit ICs like mc33033, mc33035, and mc33039 for the controlling but all failed. At
last, we made our customized circuit for this purpose using the Atmega 328 microcontroller.

1.1 Background
Historically, the electric motors have been described in three categories:

 Brushed Commutator DC motors

 Synchronous motors

 Induction motors

From the start the variable speed Machines were desirable, but that was not possible with the
synchronous machines. With time as the desire of the variable speed machines has progressed,
the types of machines have evolved as well. There were many variations of machines that were
developed and one of those variants is brushless permanent magnet machine. There were many
steps and paths in the development of these machines. Initially, a line start permanent the
magnetic machine was introduced and later electronically commutated (Brushless) permanent
magnet machine has been developed. With more progress in the machine designs, finally, the
concept of the sinusoidal permanent magnet machine was introduced combine with the inverter
to get a machine with adjustable speed without brushing the can give a servo-like performance.

Although the brushless DC motors were developed, these early motors were unable to
generates a large amount of energy, but if the permanent magnet materials were light. In the
1980s, the use of BLDC motors to produce higher power was possible. If no more, with
permanent magnets in combination with high voltage transistors, brushless DC motors generate
as much power as the old DC motors. Towards the end of the 1980s Robert E. Lordo of
POWERTEC Industrial Corporation unveiled the first big brushless DC motor, which had at
least ten times the power of the former brushless DC motors.

There are a number of acronyms associated with BLDC motors. Some of them are below:

3
• BACM: brushless AC motor

• BDCM: brushless DC motor

• BLSM: brushless servo motor

• ECBM: electronically commutated brushless motor

• ECDCM: electronically commutated DC motor

• PMBDC: brushless DC motor with permanent magnets

• PMSM: permanent magnet synchronous motor

• SPMSM: surface PM synchronous motor

Although there are inconsistencies in the literature to indicate the name of engines, this is the
case. In this work, we will use a brushless DC motor (BLDC) motor for trapezoidal EMF and
PMSM (Permanent magnet synchronous motor) for sinusoidal back EMF.

1.2 Comparison between Brushed and Brushless Motors

The main difference between Brushed and Brushless Motor is the elimination of carbon
Brushes used in Brushed motors to control engine speed. The elimination of Brushes give
brushless motors many advantages over brushed motors suitable for different applications. The
basic comparison between brushed and brushless Motors is described in Table 2.1.

Table 1.1 Comparison between Brushed and Brushless DC Motors

Brushed Motor Brushless Motors

Low Efficiency High efficiency

Shorter Life Longer Life (fewer losses)
Moderate Speed Range High-Speed Range
High electrical noise ( due to brushes) Low electrical noise

Low construction cost Higher construction cost

Simple and inexpensive control Complex and expensive control
Low output power to size ration High output power to size ratio
Periodic maintenance required Less maintenance due to brushless

Less efficient heat dissipation Good heat dissipation

4
1.3 Comparison between BLDC and SRM
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a motor type that is different from brushless DC Motor
in the torque generating mechanism. Torque is generated by BLDC motors Interaction of the
magnetic flux of windings and permanent magnets while the SRM is operating the principle of
variable reluctance [2]. These motors generate torque without permanent force Magnets and
without concentrated windings on their shaft. The SRM drive system was first available in the
early 1980s as a result of work done in Leeds and Nottingham universities [3]-[4].

The main difference between a BLDC motor and an SRM motor is in the assemblies rotor and
stator and the materials used. SRM motors also need the sensors and electronics commutation
controller similar to BLDC motors. The main advantages of using SRM are given below:

 SRM is inexpensive to manufacture since it is and is made of simply laminated steel no rotor
windings.

 Since there are no rotor windings at SRM, they heat up mainly in the stator, where the
machine is easy to cool.

 SRM can work in high-speed environments because of its simplicity and speed Robustness.

 The SRM requires only unipolar currents, allowing the design of a low-cost converter with
a controllable circuit breaker per phase.

1.4 Structural Review

To understand how brushless DC motors are more effective and better to use, it really is
important to have a good understanding of how the brushless DC motors are made and how
they work. Each brushless DC motor consists of two main components, i. H. 1) a physical a
stationary element called a stator, and 2) a physical element that rotates, called a rotor. There
are basically two configurations of DC motors based on the design of the Stator and rotor.

 Axial flow

 Radial flow

Axial flux motors are also an active field of research, but these types of motors are not actively
common in servo applications compared to radial flux motors. This type of engines has special
applications such as floppy drives. The main reason for less use of these motors is the stator

5
construction. Since the flow flows axially in these engines, the stator must be laminated all
around. This construction continues to orient slots Distances from each other. As a result, this
significantly increases the stator manufacturing time and costs. The axial flow motors are
further subdivided into one-sided AFPM machines and double-sided AFPM machines [5]. The
difference between radial and axial flow motors is explained in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1: Comparison between Axial and Radial Flux Motors

The radial flux motors are further divided into two categories.

1) Internal rotor motors 2) Exterior Rotor motors.

Internal rotor motors offer a smaller diameter, lower motor inertia because from the smaller
size and better heat dissipation. On the other side the outer rotor motors can provide the larger
overall engine diameter and can provide greater inertia, which is most desirable in constant
speed applications. Although for external rotor motors single magnets can be used, but the
more common practice is to use a single bonded magnetic ring in the Rotor [6]. This motor is
also easy to wind because the teeth of the stator face outward. The main difference between
inner and outer rotor motors is explained in Figure 1.2 below.

Figure 1.2: Comparison between Inner Rotor and Outer Rotor motors

1.5 BLDC Motor Structures

All electrical and mechanical problems due to brushes with brushed technology omitted with

6
brushless DC motors. In BLDC motors, the brushes are replaced with an electronic control that
controls the speed of the engines. The electricity carries coils / windings are stationary and are
energized sequentially to cause the permanent magnet rotor rotate. BLDC motor is normally
designed in single-phase, two-phase and three-phase configurations, where the three-phase
configuration is most commonly available for BLDC engines. BLDC motors with more than
three phases can also be made, but they are not often and they increase the production costs
enormously [7]. A typical three-phase BLDC engine with its wiring diagram is shown in Figure
1.3. Since BLDC is a synchronous motor, the stator and the rotor arrays rotate at the same
frequency. This means that BLDC motors will not slip between the stator and the rotor [8].

Figure 1.3: Three phase BLDC motor with circuit diagram

The three-phase BLDC motor is operated by applying the positive current to one of the motor
phases and a negative current to another motor while leaving no current in the third phase.

The interaction between the fields generated in the stator due to current and from the permanent
Magnets on the rotor, generates the torque in the engine and as a result the engine starts rotate.
To rotate the motor, the current in the stator must generate the magnetic field must be
commuted in a particular pattern. This current commutation is controlled and for each electrical
rotation certain commutation steps are turned on. [8] – [9]

1.6 Electrical & Mechanical Angles

It is the same in every type of electric motor to define two related concepts of speed and
position. The position is the mechanical position of the motor and the speed of the motor is the
speed around which the rotor turns. When the rotor rotates one full revolution, It follows
complete 360 degree mechanical path [10]. Once it has crossed the complete path, the rotor is

7
back to its original position. This movement is described by the mechanical angle of the engine
while the electrical angle is defined as "An angle that indicates a particular point in an
alternating current Cycle or expresses the phase difference between two alternating quantities".

Angle is usually expressed in electrical degrees. The number of magnetic poles on the rotor
plays the main role in determining the relationship between electrical and mechanical positions
of the motor. For a motor that has a pole pair, the electrical and mechanical rotation are equal
and thus the electrical and mechanical angles are the same. But in the case of more than a pole
pair, the number of electrical and mechanical revolutions are not equal and hence their angles.
The relationship between the electrical angle and the mechanical angle can be expressed by
using equation 1.1, which shows that as the number of pole pairs increases Electric revolutions
in a mechanical revolution also increase.

1.7 Rotor Structure

In general, permanent magnets are used to build the rotor of a brushless DC motor. The number
of magnets in the rotor defines the number of rotor poles. Depending on the requirements, we
can have BLDC motor with different number of poles. By increasing the number of poles in
the rotor we can increase the torque, but it reduces the maximum speed of the engine. The
larger number of magnetic poles generates more torque, but implies more magnetic poles have
less space for each pole. At some point, the maximum point is reached where the gap is between
the rotor magnetic poles is a significant percentage of the total space on the rotor, and the torque
does not increase anymore. The optimum number of magnetic poles depends mainly on it about
the engine geometry and material properties used in the engine. The torque generated depends
on the material used to construct the permanent magnet how the torque depends on the flux
density of the material. The higher the flux density of the material the higher the generated
torque. 4-pole and 8-pole rotors are shown in Figure 1.4.

1.8 Stator Structure

The stator of the BLDC motor is made of laminated steel with windings in the key.
Conventionally, the stator of the BLDC motor is similar to the stator of an induction AC motor.
Windings in the stator can be arranged in a star and triangular shape. The star configuration at
low speeds, high torque results, while the delta configuration results in low torque at low
speeds. Each winding is constructed with numerous interconnected coils and these windings
are distributed over the stator to produce the required number of poles. We can also divide

8
BLDC motors in two types according to the stator winding variant, d. H. trapezoidal Motors
and sine motors. This difference is generated based on the interconnection the coils in the
windings to give different types of back EMF. Sinusoidal motors are smooth rotating motors
that make them popular for applications that require quiet operation low vibrations, but these
types of motors require additional costs for the windings and even the complicated ones
Algorithm for control. The lamella in the stator can be slotted or slotted as shown in the Figure
Figure 1.5. A slotted core has a high inductance which reduces the speed range of the BLDC
Engine. Therefore, a slotless core is more suited to high speed requirements, but they increase
the cost as a slot less core requires more winding to balance the air gap.

Figure 1.4: 4-pole and 8-pole permanent magnet rotor

1.9 Typical Applications of BLDC Motors

Regardless of the need for complex motor control for BLDC motors, BLDC motors offers some
inherent advantages not related to the use of brushed DC motors high torque and high speed
range. Better heat dissipation, improved efficiency and more power density for BLDC motors
makes them more suitable and advantageous in many applications.

The investigation presented in [11]-[12] shows that the permanent magnet machines can do
this more important than induction motors for servo applications. The most important
applications for BLDC motors are given below:

1. Battery powered applications

(a) Electric and hybrid vehicles

(b) Electric scooter and bicycles

(c) Low voltage drives

9
2. Home and building applications

(a) Blenders and power tools and fans

(b) Fans in cooker hoods

(c) Washing machines

(d) Air conditioners and refrigerators

3. Industrial applications

BLDC motors are mainly used in drive, servo and speed control where position control and
stable operations are required. BLDC motors are common used as:

(a) Linear motors

(b) Servomotors

(c) Extruder drive motors

(d) Actuators for industrial robots

(e) Automotive HVAC (Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning)

1.10 Applications with Speed Control

There are applications which require the higher accuracy of speed as well as the better vigorous
response. Along with the obvious automotive area of its applications like fuel pumps, engine
control, and electronic steering, we also found its applications in home appliances like dryers,
washers, and others. We usually require the advanced controlling algorithm for these
applications which make them a bit expensive.

1.11 A Brief Review on the Control of BLDC Motor

In the sensor control of BLDC motors, we use Hall Effect sensors in the stator to sense the
rotor position. These sensors are able to differentiate if there is North or South pole is in front of
it while facing the magnets perpendicularly [2]. As discussed previously, the overall price of
BLDC motor gets increased by using Hall Sensors because of the increase in the wiring as well
as the circuitry. Also, there comes out to be circumstances when it is necessary not to employ
sensors in an application like in case of submersible pumps [3]. In such situations, we choose
the sensorless BLDC control. There are various control system techniques/ algorithms which
are used for the operation of the motor like direct Back EMF zero crossing, Indirect Back EMF
Integration, and Field Oriented Control (FOC) [6].

10
1.12 Problem Statement
BLDCs are quickly replacing the traditional DC motors because of their low noise and
high efficiency that are actually a lot fascinating for consumers. Because of a serious
disadvantage related to BLDCs concerning the variable speed operation, various
studies are being done for the operation of BLDCs with constant speed. This enables BLDCs
to be employed in applications that need constant as well as the variable speed with
variable loads.

Typically, the rotor position in BLDC motors is determined using external sensors, i. H. Optical
sensors, measured and Hall Effect sensors, which increase the cost of the system and reduce its
reliability and life span. To make them more efficient, the external sensors are reduced position
and speed should be avoided. The approaches to measuring the rotor position without sensors
are well known as sensor less control and are mainly dependent on the measurement of
electromotive force (EMF) induced by the rotor. As the back EMF is nearly zero at standstill
and near zero speed and cannot be measured exactly. Another mechanism is needed that can
take over control of BLDC motors near zero speed increases the cost.

1.13 Proposed Work

Taking into account the cost and life of BLDC motors, this work proposes to derive the rotor
Position of the motor of voltage and current signal measurements by releasing this voltage and
current signals to find the inductance of each phase. This inference to the rotor position can be
used to generate a suitable sequence for the commutation of the motor.

Since BLDC motors are bit expensive than the traditional DC motors, various approaches
are taken to cut back the price of the BLDCs. BLDCs with Hall Effect sensors are being
replaced with sensorless controlling mechanisms. These sensorless techniques require a not so
easy algorithm which required effort to implement.

1.14 Thesis Organization

The organization of the rest of the thesis is done in the following manner:

CHAPTER 2 – Description of the construction, working principle of the Brushless DC motor

CHAPTER 3 – Selection of the components for our Project.

11
CHAPTER 4 – Explanation of the various control techniques for the BLDC motor. These
include Hall Effect Sensor, Direct Back EMF Zero-crossing control, Indirect Back EMF and
the Field Oriented Control.

CHAPTER 5 – The implemented Control circuit functionality.

CHAPTER 6 – Conclusion and the Future work.

12
 CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
2.1 BLDC Motor Construction
In terms of construction as well as the working principles, we found that BLDC motors do
share some resemblances with the traditional induction and brushed DC motors [2]. As every
other motor, BLDC motors also includes two important components: the rotatory part that is
rotor and the stationary part that is stator.

We use the steel laminations for the construction of a stator magnetic circuit. As shown in
Figure below, there can be the inner rotor design (slotted) or outer rotor design (slotless) steel
laminations [2]. The three-phase star (Y) or delta (Δ) pattern windings are enclosed around the
stator. Δ winding is used where we require the low torque at low RPM while Y pattern provides
high torque at low RPM.

Figure 2.1: Outer and Inner Rotor Design of BLDC Motor

Permanent magnets are used in the manufacturing of BLDC rotor, which involves a number of
poles according to the application. We get the higher torque as we increase the number of poles
but this reduces the maximum speed. As discussed earlier, majorly BLDC has two motor design
types i-e Outer & Inner rotor design. In case of outer rotor design, winding is at the motor
center, while the rotor magnets environ the stator windings. Yet, in such a case, the rotor
magnets work as the insulator, so reduces the motor heat dissipation rate. All because of the
stator winding position, the outer rotor design usually performs the operations at low current
rating or low duty cycle. We get the main advantage of lower cogging torque by employing the
outer rotor design.

13
In case of inner rotor design, the stator winding is fixed to the motor housing while surrounding
the rotor magnets. The main advantage of this design is the heat dissipation ability and due to
this ability, the capability for the torque production also gets increased. So, because of this
advantage, the bulk of BLDCs have an inner rotor design. The inner rotor design also offers
lower rotor inertia which actually is related to speed control.

As there are no brushes mounted on the rotor, that’s why BLDC is also named as an
electronically commutated motor, as in this case, the electronic commutation is implemented
at specific rotor positions. We know that EMF induces in the windings of the stator is due to
the movement of the rotor, so the displacement and the magnetization of the permanent magnets
on the rotor are selected in such a manner that the Back EMF is of trapezoidal shape. That helps
in the creation of a rotational field at lower ripple torque due to the rectangular shaped three-
phase voltage system. In case of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM), we use the
sinusoidal three-phase voltage system for the creation of rotational fields, also PMSM have
lower ripple torque. So, here in both the manners, BLDC motors differ from PMSM.

We generally use a three-phase power semiconductor bridge for the BLDC controlling
functionality. Where we need the rotor position for the controlling of the bridge which is
attained by the usage of a sensor or sensorless controlling methodology.

2.2 BLDC System Architecture

In Figure 2.2, there is the block diagram of the BLDC motor control system. There are mainly
four parts of this system, namely, power converter, controller, sensors and the motor. A 3-phase
power semiconductor bridge as shown in below Figure referred to as the power converter. Its
main functionality is the power transformation form DC source to the AC such that the motor
becomes capable of the conversion of electrical to mechanical energy. Here, the sensors
determine the position of rotors and send this data to the controller for the further operation.

14
 Figure 2.2: BLDC Motor Control Block Diagram

Now, from the sensor, the information is given to the controller about the specific rotor
position, thus the PWM (pulse width modulation) duty cycle can be generated to power the
semiconductor bridge phases. For the signal generation, the PWM modulator is used in the
controller which actually runs the power converter. The power converter and the controller
inner block diagram is shown below in Figure 2.3

Figure 2.3: Internal Block Diagram of Power Converter with BLDC Motor

The fact of the matter is that BLDCs speed has a direct proportion with the voltage while the
increment or decrement in applied voltage happens accordingly. In case of the PWM controller,
the voltage is controlled effectively by the PWM duty cycle. As we apply the voltage, current
starts to flow across the motor winding which is provided to the torque for the spinning of the
motor. We can spin the motor in either direction by the application of positive or negative
voltage.

15
2.3 Conclusion
So, basically this chapter is related to the literature review of our project where we discussed
about the BLDC motor construction, its types and also the system architecture of BLDC motor.
Here, we come to the conclusion that the selection of specific type of BLDC motor is dependent
on the application where it is going to be used. Main design types includes the outer rotor
design and the inner rotor design.

16
 CHAPTER 3
Components Selections
3.1 Sensored Vs Sensorless BLDC Motors
First of all, talking about the sensor or sensorless. In a simple BLDC motor, we have 3 wires
but in case of sensor motors, we have an extra bunch of wires that connect the brain of speed
controller to the motor. On the other end of the motor side, there are Hall Effect sensors that most
importantly tell us the exact position of the rotor within the motor. We can also have
temperatures sensors in addition to the Hall as well.

Likewise, sensorless don’t include any sensors. So, in such a case, the likely position of the
rotor is determined using the feedback known as back EMF or back electromotive force. Back
EMF is the essential voltage or resistance that pushes back the current flow to the motor.

Following table shows the comparison among them.

Table 3.1: Comparison between Sensored and Sensorless Motors

Sensored Sensorless

Can Control the throttle feel better No fear of break or loosing of sensors

More startup torque or power off the line Less expensive, less complex

Don’t produce cogging at low speeds More efficient on higher speed

The Table 3.1 shows the difference between Sensored and Sensorless BLDC motors. Though
n sensorless motors, we can effectively reduce the cogging at low speeds by installing a small
pinion gear, upgrading to the higher quality, higher C- rating batteries and using the higher
voltage batteries.

3.2 BLDC Motor Specifications:

The specifications for the BLDC motor that we have used in our project are given below:

In this table we will discuss the parameters and specific values of BLDC motor.

17
 Table 3.2: BLDC Motor Specifications

Parameters Values

Model FH6 – 1376 TL 1103

Company KOKUSAN DENKI Co. Ltd

Made Japan

Maximum Voltage Rating 24 V

Maximum Current Rating 10 A

Power Rating 240 W

Type Sensor Motor

Design Inner rotor

Figure 3.1: BLDC Motor Name Plate

18
 Figure 3.2: BLDC Motor Shaft

3.3 MOSFETS Vs IGBT

Now, let’s compare the IGBT and MOSFET for the motor application. The difference is given
in Tabled 3.3.

Table 3.3: Comparison between MOSFET and IGBT

MOSFET IGBT

Offers Higher Switching speeds (MHz) Slower switching speed

Higher Peak current, wider SOA (safe operating

Higher current rating, rugged
area)

As voltage rating increases, reverse Lack of internal reverse recovery

recovery performance of integral diode
declines, increasing switching losses
For 100 ~ 150 W BLDC motor,
conduction loss is more as temperature
increases
diode, so need to an IGBT co-
packaged with a diode
Lower thermal impedance

19
Keeping in mind the above points, we can conclude that the MOSFET can be used after
considering the operating range of current output, junction temperature, and the switching
frequency. We must also need to consider the cooling conditions when selecting the target
device.

The specifications due to which we used the IRFZ44N MOSFET transistor are given in Table
3.4.

Table 3.4: Specification of IRFZ44N MOSFET

Specifications Values

Type of Control Channel N channel

Maximum Power Dissipation (Pd) 83 W

Maximum Threshold Voltage (Vgs) 10 V

Maximum Drain Current |id| 41 A

Maximum Junction Temperature

150 Degree Centigrade
(Tj)

Maximum Drain-Source On-state

0.024 Ohm
Resistance

3.4 Half Bridge Driver IC

For driving the IGBT or MOSFET, we are required to have a driver IC which must be having
a higher performance. Here we are using the IR2104 (S) for this purpose. IR2104S is a half
bridge driver having high voltage, high-speed power MOSFET and IGBT driver with the
dependent low and high side referenced output channels.

Figure 3.3: Pin Configuration of IR2104 and IR2104 S

20
 Table 3.5: Specifications of IR2104 S

Specifications Values

MOFFSET 600 V max

IO +/- 130 mA / 270 mA

VOUT 10 – 20 V

Ton/off (typ) 680 & 150 ns

Dead time 520 ns

The Table 3.5 shows the Values according to its given parameter. While the Figure 3.3 shows
the pin configuration of IR2014 and IR2014S.

3.5 Capacitors
In our circuit, we have used the 10 microfarad and 2.2 microfarad capacitors which are having
25 V and 50 V caring capacity respectively. These capacitors are used for the filtering purposes.

3.6 Zener Diodes

We have used the three zener diodes in our circuit for the voltage regulation. We have used
1N4148 zener diodes which are having the high switching speed of up to 4ns. These are general
purpose having the continuous reverse voltage and repetitive peak reverse voltage of maximum
100 V. Repetitive peak forward current is 450mA maximum.

3.7 ATMEGA 328 P

The microcontroller, we have used for our circuit is the ATMEGA 328 P which is a single chip
microcontroller IC created by the Atmel in their mega AVR family. This is the same
microcontroller that is used in the designing of Arduino chip. As usual, it is working as the
brain of our entire circuitry having the building functionality while we also did the programming
in it as well.

21
 Figure 3.4: Pin Configuration of ATMEL 328 P IC

ATMEGA 328 has total 28 number of pins as mentioned above Figure in 3.4. There are 6
analogue pins, 14 digital pins, 2 ground pins, 2 VCC pins, 1 analogue reference pin, 2 crystal pins
for crystal oscillator and 1 RESET pin.

3.8 Programming
To fully understand the code, one must be required to read the ATmega328 datasheet! The code
is given in Appendix A.

22
3.9 Six Step Commutation
This part of the chapter describes a sensorless BLDC motor control method based on line
voltage Differences [6] are introduced and experimentally verified. As presented. Methods
based on line voltage differences can be used prerequisite for motor - neutral voltage, which
will increase the accuracy of the commutation strategy.

Six-stage commutation is the most common method for commutating a BLDC motor. Figure
4.1 shows the stator space sector diagram. A and X represent the stator windings of phase A.
B and Y represent the stator Phase B windings. C and Z represent phase C stator windings. A-
X, B - Y and C - Z separate the room into six 60◦ Sectors.

3.10 Analysis of Six Step Commutation

The six sectors represent six states of a BLDC motor. If there are Hall Effect sensors used to
capture rotor positions for each of the six states three digit numbers Based on the three Hall
Effect sensors, signals are used to represent the current Rotor position. When the rotor moves
to the next sector, the three-digit Numbers change to another set of three-digit numbers that
represent the new state. For sensorless control methods, different techniques are used to
estimator engine positions.

Figure 3.5: Stator space sectors diagram

Assuming that the motor is 0, the current direction is phase A from the current direction from
Phase B to Phase C is pending. The field is now in the in Fig 3.2 (a) and will start this module
1. After moving into the sensor 1, the current direction of phase A is displayed in the current
direction from phase C to phase and phase.

23
 Table 3.6: Six Steps Commutation States

Commutation States ia ib ic

0 Positive Negative Floating

1 Positive Floating Negative

2 Floating Positive Negative

3 Negative Positive Floating

4 Negative Floating Positive

5 Floating Negative Positive

The stator will be in the main field where the field is located in Figure 3.2 (b). The torque is
generated on the basis of the phase shift between the rotor blade and the field. Then the torque
wired the rotor to move to sector 2. In sector 2, the current direction of the phase from the
previous position to the current direction of phase B is from 2 and phase A is floating. The
stator field as shown in Figure. 3.2 (c), and the rotor to move to sector 3.

In sector 3, the current direction of the phase from A to the current direction of phase to and
phase C is floating. The stator field is in the direction of C - Z, as shown in Figure 3.2 (d), and
it will drive the rotor moves to sector 4.

In sector 4, the current direction of phase A is from X to A. The current The direction of phase
C is from C to Z and phase B is pending. The stator field is in the direction of B - Y, as shown
in Figure 3.2 (e), and it will drive Rotor moves in sector 4.

In sector 5, the current direction of phase C is from C to Z. The current in direction of phase B
is from Y to B and phase A is floating. The stator field is in the direction of A - X as shown in
Figure 3.2 (f) and it will drive Rotor moves in sector 0.

24
 Figure 3.6: BLDC motor six-step commutation

As analyzed above, the stator field moves electrically in a discrete step of 60 Degree. The
torque continuously drives the rotor to rotate. Because that the phase shift between the rotor
field and the stator field changes when the rotor turns, this shift causes torque ripples. The
torque ripples may be reduced when the field-oriented control is applied. Then the phase shift
between the rotor field and the stator field are set at 90 electrical degrees to generate the
maximum torque. The commutation status pointer input (0 to 5) indicates one of the six states.

During each state, only two phases are conductive so that two switches are active and the other
four are turned off. When the commutation state pointer equals 0, current flows from phase A
to phase B. Table 3.6 shows the six Commutation states of the BLDC motor.

25
3.11 Crystal Oscillator

A quartz oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit which uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to generate an electrical signal with a precise
frequency.

This frequency is frequently used to hold the time as in quartz wristwatches, in order to provide
a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers. The most widespread type of piezoelectric resonator used is the
quartz crystal so that oscillator circuits which they contain are known as crystal oscillators, but
other piezoelectric materials which contain polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits.

A quartz oscillator, in particular, a quartz crystal, operates by being distorted by an electric

field when the voltage is applied to an electrode in the vicinity of or on the crystal. This property
is referred to as electrostriction or inverse piezac current. When the field is removed, the quartz,
which oscillates at a precise frequency, generates an electric field when it returns to its previous
shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result of this is that a quartz crystal behaves like an
RLC circuit.

Quartz crystals are produced for frequencies of a few tens of kilohertz up to hundreds of
megahertz. Each year more than two billion crystals are produced. Most of them will be used
for consumer devices such as B. Wristwatches, watches, radios, computers and mobile phones
are used. Quartz crystals can also be found in testing and measuring instruments such as
counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes

In our circuit, we also employed the crystal oscillator having a frequency of 16 MHz in
cooperation ATMEGA 328 for the generation of oscillating frequency.

3.12 Speed Control

A brushless DC-motor speed control requires the execution of three control layers. The
innermost part determines the rotor position in order to properly commute the stator flux. Once
the rotor position is known, the size of the stator flux must be generated and controlled [9].
Assumable, the stator flux is proportional to the current flowing in the stator.

Coil, the control of the stator flux size is equivalent to the control of the input current. The
largest external control loop is the speed control loop.

26
Mostly, mechanical angle position sensors are used to obtain the rotor position. The known
incremental encoders and Hall-effect sensors represent the most frequently selected solutions
in order to obtain the rotor position. Incremental rotary encoders offer a very high angular
resolution as well as a precise, derived speed feedback in each speed range. They are ideally
suited for a high- precision speed and/or position control.

Nevertheless, sensors, such as those based on the Hall Effect, are often preferably incremental
encoders if the speed range is not too low (more than 50 rpm), even if they do not provide
services that are comparable to the encoders. The reasons are the coarse position information,
which is required by the brushless DC drive, and the cost is the effectiveness of this type of
drive.

Depending on the electrical time constant of the engine, the current control can be either analog,
thanks to the Hysteresis amplifier, or digital, thanks to the software, thanks to software. The
selection of the analog solution is limited to the reason that it forces the energy board to support
these regulators. This is corrected by the necessity with a high chopping frequency in order to
keep a continuous phase current in a motor with a very small electrical time constant. Provided
that the digital solution also has these high chopping frequencies, the current regulators could
also be made numerically. This integration is displayed in this report.

As far as speed control is concerned, digital integration appears to be an efficient solution. The
speed feedback must be based on the speed feedback from the software position sensor. When
this feedback is calculated, the speed control can be carried out on the basis of the speed
reference, which is obtained by sampling the analog input of the via a serial link.

For the purpose of speed control, we have used the two switching buttons for increasing and
decreasing the speed respectively. If we are required to make an increment in the speed, then
we have to keep pressing the speed up button. Internally, this mechanism will enhance the 6%
speed as compared to the previous speed of the BLDC motor each time. Likewise, we have the
speed rising formula of 6 nths, where n is the number of turns during which the microcontroller
returns to take input from the button.

In the speed decrement mechanism, same 6% decrement will occur on each pressing of the
button through the same formula.

27
3.13 Comparative Analysis of Breadboard and PCB Design
So, after having discussed every component used in the circuit, let’s talk about the whole
circuitry. While implementing the circuit, first of all we chose breadboard for this purpose. But
we come to know that along with the benefits, breadboard has some limitations as well.

No doubt, that bread board is adjustable and every designer should firstly try out its PCB design
on breadboard firstly. It is because a bug can be detected and correction is easily possible.
While debugging a rocking solid design is hard and on the other hand, we just have to adjust
the jumper leads that make the debugging in the design.

A Breadboard ensures that your design is preserved by acting as a shield if it suffers an accident,
and keeps the cycle firmly in place for it not to be destroyed before it reaches its destination.
It's strong enough to keep your project in force.

Also, a breadboard is flexible, because you can reuse it by using connections to create
temporary prototypes. The nodes on the Breadboard make it easy to use again. This allows you
to experiment with circuit designs that are less constrained to a single option, since they do not
have to be soldered.

The fact of the matter is that, along with these advantages there were numerous disadvantages
of breadboard that lead us to use PCD design for our circuit. The board connection does not
work well with high voltage applications. PCB applications often work with low voltages, but
in areas of 48 volts and above, your bread board can force you to look for other alternatives.
They are therefore not efficient for complex experiments.

Along with that the high current applications may not be customized to your breadboard. Your
design does not work well when it comes to 20mA and above. Also, the breadboard consists
of strips that carry a high resistance, which affects the signal integrity of the spectrum, which
means that high frequencies are not travelled by the board. Therefore, you cannot use your
motherboard to send 10 MHz analog signals and over.

3.13.1 Advantages of PCB Design

The printed circuit boards are a very important part of a modern electronic device. PCB is an
acronym for printed circuit board. A basic PCB circuit consists of a very large number of
passive and active components. All components are connected from side to side with
interconnects on the board. It is absolutely possible to develop very large circuits on small

28
circuit boards with the availability of very small electronic components.

The printed circuit board offers a wide range of advantages that they offer for manufacturers
of electronic components, instruments and devices everywhere in the right choice. The
advantages of the printed circuit board are discussed.

A characteristic PCB contains a large number of electronic components. On a printed circuit

board, the connection between the components is produced via copper traces instead of a
number of current-carrying wires. It makes the connections less bulky. Most of these
components are very small. It would be almost impossible to connect these components without
the help of circuit boards with wires.

A printed circuit board generally provides a simple platform for compressing and efficiently
arranging the electronic components. This compactness makes it possible to create large and
complicated electronic circuits in small form factors. This, in turn, takes up less space in the
Devices. If, in the event of a damage, it is very easy to check and replace the individual damage
components. The electronic components and their polarities on a correctly designed printed
circuit board are clearly marked on the board.

This enables both convenience during the installation process as well as the repair process.
Signal paths are frequently tracked in the diagnosis. The conventional method of circuit
connections takes up a great deal of time to connect the components. Whereas the printed
circuit board requires less time in the assembly of a circuit as a conventional method.

Since the connections are automatically made via copper tracks, there is no chance of loose
connections or short circuits. A printed circuit board (which is properly designed) provides less
electronic noise. If it is not designed properly, the noise could significantly reduce the power
of the circuit. The electrical components on a printed circuit board are constructed in such a
way that the path lengths of the electric current between them are as low as possible.

This leads to a low emission and collection of electromagnetic waves and thus provides for a
lower crosstie between components and between different tracks, which is generally a main
concern in electronic circuits.

The electrical noise can be released in the form of heat, radiation or flickering. Its mass
production can be achieved at a lower cost. It must be noted here that all of the factors

29
mentioned above lead to a reliability of the power of the circuit. The PCB layout can be seen
in Figure 3.7:

Figure 3.7: PCB Layout of BLDC Motor

3.13 Potential Divider
Here, in our circuit, we have used the resistors of values 33 kilo-ohms and 10 kilo-ohms for
the purpose of the voltage divider. These resistors are here to decide the voltage division of the
specific amount will be given to the different sections of the circuit. Here we have the
microcontroller, named as ATMEGA328, which is operating at 5 V DC input. Thus, these
resistors will decide to give 5 V to the ATMEGA 328 microcontroller by taking the input of
24 V DC from the main battery source.

30
 Figure 3.8 Voltage Divider Circuit

3.14 Conclusion
This chapter was all about the selection of the best optimum components and the relative
techniques like speed controlling and the best suitable programming. The programming we used
gave us the best results after hit and trial method.

31
 CHAPTER 4
Speed control of BLDC Motor
In this chapter, we will be putting our focus on the different sensor and sensorless commutation
methodologies, which are required for driving the motor. Previously, BLDC controllers had
the Hall Effect sensors which sense the angular position of rotor magnets. As the advancement
occurred, and we moved to the sensorless controlling methodologies for the overall cost
reduction of the system. The sensorless controlling methodologies that we are going to discuss
in this chapter includes the Back EMF and the current sensing, which in the same manner,
provides the due information regarding the rotor position, and likewise, the information for the
operation of the motor with synchronous phase currents. We will also be discussing the various
concepts regarding that and also the advantages and disadvantages.

Following are the techniques that will be discussed in this chapter.

i. Hall Effect Sensors – Sensor Technique

ii. Back EMF Methodology:

a. Direct Back EMF zero crossing/ Terminal Voltage Sensing/ Trapezoidal Control

Sensorless Controlling Technique

b. Indirect Back EMF – Sensorless Controlling Technique

4.1 Hall Effect Sensors

In 1879, Edwin Hall discovered the theory that is now called as Hall Effect theory. And the
Hall Effect sensors are based on the same theory. It states that the magnetic field is produced
in a conductor due the electric current that actually exerts a transverse for on the moving charge
carriers, while this force tends to push them to the one side of that conductor. That influx of
charges to the sides of conductor balances the magnetic influence. As a result, a measurable
transverse voltage is produced, which is named as Hall Effect [10].

The commutation of the BLDC motor is controlled electronically. We energize the stator
windings in a particular sequence if we need to rotate the motor, and for that, we must know
the exact position of the rotor. Here, the position of the rotor is sensed by the usage of Hall
Effect sensors which are implanted in the stator. Below Figure show the position of Hall Effect

32
sensors in the stator.

Figure 4.1: Position of Hall Effect Sensors

As the poles of the rotor magnet pass the sensors, the sensor varies its state at the same angular
position each time a magnet passes by. So, due to this reason, whenever the poles of rotor
magnet pass near the Hall sensor, the sensor either sends a high or a low signal for the North or
South Pole to the control circuit. Resultantly, we can determine the exact sequence of
commutation based on these combinations.

Some advantages of the Hall Effect design are:

 It has a faster response time to the changes in the magnetic field, so as a result, they provide
higher efficiency in the commutation of BLDC motor

 We get the constant torque due to their high accuracy

 By using the chopper stabilization technique, the Hall sensors can provide higher sensitivity
and stability over the temperature as far as the disadvantages are concerned, the sensor
technology has a higher cost due to the increase in wiring and the hardware.

4.2 Direct Back EMF Zero Crossing Technique (Terminal Voltage

Sensing)
At each time of the 3 phase BLDC motor operation, there will always be two out of three phases
conducting each time. The non-conducting phase Back EMF has a direct proportionality
relationship to the speed, while the speed has a direct relation with the applied voltage as shown
in the Figure below. At standstill, the Back EMF is zero while rises with the rise in speed [8].

The detection of the instant when Back EMF of the non-conducting phase crosses zero can be

33
done by the zero crossing approach. That zero crossing just like a simple RC time constant
triggers a timer. In the same manner, the commutation of the next power stage occurs when
this timing interval ends [11].

For the proper operation and the production of constant torque in BLDC motor, the Back EMF
and the phase current of the motor must be aligned [10]. Thus, zero crossing point of Back
EMF and a 30-degree phase shift estimation is used for the current commutation. It is shown
in Figure 4.1 below:

Figure 4.2: Back EMF and Current Phase Alignment

Two phases conduct the current at a time while the interval for the conduction of each phase is
120 degrees electrical. While the 3rd phase will be non-conducting or floating at the same time
interval. The above Figure illustrates the phase current and Back EMF alignment which is
required for the generation of maximum torque [5]. For this reason, the inverter is required to be
commutated every 30 degrees after the detection of zero crossing of the non-conducting phase.

In Figure 4.2 above, the 30 degrees electrical delay from the zero crossing instant is shown.
This 30-degree electrical delay does not get affected by any change in the speed. For the
detection of zero crossing point, the monitoring of the Back EMF of non-conducting phase is
necessary, and we also make sure that the measurement is low pass filtered to eliminate the EMI
that is caused by the switching of the inverter [11].

We can find the non-conducting or floating phase terminal voltage by the following equation
(4.2.1):

VC = eC + VN = eC + (VCE - VF) / 2 – ( eA + eA ) / 2 (4.2.1)

34
Here in equation (4.2.1), eC represents the Back EMF of open phase C, VN is the neutral point
potential of the three- phase motor, while VF and VCE are the forward voltage drops of the
diodes and the transistors respectively.[13]

As we know that the Back EMF of the other two phases that are conducting ( A & B ) will be
having the same amplitude and opposite signs. The non-conducting or floating phase terminal
voltage is represented by the following mathematical equation (4.2.2):

Vc = eC + VN = eC + (VCE – VF) / 2 = eC + (VB + VA) / 2 (4.2.2)

From above equation (4.2.2),

VCE = VB ( The collector-emitter voltage of transistor SBb ) (4.2.3)

-VF = VA (4.2.4)

As the detection of zero crossing point is done at the end of PWM on-state and also the
chopping is done only on the higher side of the inverter, VCE is alike for both the SBb and SAt
transistors.

Thus, as the voltage of the phase that is floating reaches the half of the DC rail voltage, the
zero crossing occurs. And that zero crossing point detection is done at the end of the PWM
period.

Comparing to the other sensorless technologies, using the Back EMF sensing technique has the
main advantage because of the simplicity of the control algorithm. As we analyzed, this
technique is found to be having the simplest method of implementation.

Talking about some of the drawbacks, zero crossing method has, includes its tendency for the
noise sensitive nature in the detection of zero crossing which actually lowers the performance
over the wide ranges of speed. Another drawback includes its inability in obtaining a switching
pattern at lower speeds due to the low Back EMF.

4.3 Indirect Back EMF Integration Technique

As a matter of fact, a commutation delay is occurred at higher speeds due to filtering and also
the lower Back EMF is the cause of the decline in the signal sensitivity at lower speeds, which
becomes the cause of the reduction in the speed ranges in case of direct Back EMF zero-

35
crossing method. Now, if we have to overcome this issue, then we are required to employ the
Indirect Back EMF Integration Technique which actually reduces the switching noise.

The commutation instant in the indirect Back EMF integration technique is determined by the
integrating the back EMF of the open phase after the zero crossing. It is illustrated in the Figure
4.3 below. A certain value of the threshold is set for the different speeds. As the predefined
threshold value of the integral is reached, corresponding to the commutation point, the phase
current happens to be commutated.

Figure 4.3: Integrated Area of Back EMF at Different Speeds

As represented in Figure 4.3 above, the highlighted areas in brown, orange and yellow illustrate
the high, mid and low speeds respectively. In the above Figure, the highlighted areas are the
same for different speeds [14]. Also, the threshold voltage has its own values for each of these
speed ranges. So, as the threshold voltage value of the integration is reached, a reset signal to
zero the integrated output is declared. Till the open phase residual current passes a zero
crossing, the reset signal will remain active.

36
4.4 Conclusion
In this chapter, our main focus was to get the knowledge of different control techniques for the
controlling of BLDC motor, while selecting the most suitable one according to our desired
application. We discussed about the Hall Effect sensors technique and Back EMF
methodology. In comparing both the techniques, we come to know that the Back EMF is
relatively economical while having less complex than the Hall Effect Sensor technique.

37
 CHAPTER 5

Working Methodology
Any system which will use microcontroller regarding motors will be exactly having voltage
and current problems. A system with microcontroller will operate on 5 volts. Motors will be
mainly operating upon current ratings which will be about 20 to 30 Amps. So, these
microcontrollers will not be proving that much big amount of current because they themselves
will be operating on about 5 to 3.3 volts. So for the further process, we have to separate portions
of microcontroller and MOSFET section with respect to current ratings as well as electronic
speed controller will be needed.

5.1 Simple Brushless Sequence

Figure 5.1: Three Phase Sequence of BLDC Motor

We can see in the diagram above that we have to switch three inputs H1, H2 and H3 in a proper
sequence. We will call the three inputs, input A, B and C [15]. The sequence we require to
create is as follows given in the Table 5.1.

38
 Table 5.1: High & Low Gates Sequence for the Phases

High gates C A A B B C

Low gates B B C C A A

Here the big gates take the decision to the transistors connected to Vdd and zero gates to the
transistors which are connected to ground in our three-phase bridge. The pins show links to the
microcontroller.

Figure 5.2: Three Phase Bridge Circuit Hardware

39
5.2 Schematic Three-Phase Bridge

Figure 5.3: Six Step Inverter with Six MOSFET and Micro-controller
In the above Figure 5.3, we have six step inverters, around each of the MOSFET, we have
employed the aluminum alloy for the heat sink.

5.3 Three Phase Inverter (Components Selection)

As we know, in a single-phase quadratic inverter, the switches work in a balancing manner in
each branch of the three-phase inverter. If a superior switch of a leg is on the lower switch, it
will be necessary to block the entire direct current bus voltage and in the same way for the
opposite state [15]. We should not forget that the switches should be able to block the current
magnitude of the DC voltage. Therefore, the switches should be dimensioned in such a way
that they carry the expected peak value of the instantaneous load phase current. The diode,
which is connected antiparallel to the switch, with the exception of the unit power factor load,
will discharge a part of the switch current. The current circuit between the diode and the
controlled switch is based on the load power factor at the frequency at which it operates. Both
the diode and the controlled switch should generally be designed in such a way that they carry
the peak load current. These diodes also have to stop a peak reversal voltage equal to the worst
drop voltage across the switches.

40
 Figure 5.4: Block Diagram of MOSFET with DC Supply and Motor

5.4 Limitations of 3-Phase Square Wave Inverter

The three-phase rectangular wave inverter described above can be used to generate a balanced
three-phase AC voltage of the desired (fundamental frequency) frequency. However, harmonic
voltages of the 5, 7, and other non-triplane multiples of the fundamental frequency distort the
output voltage. In many cases, such distortions are not tolerable in the output voltages, and it
may also not be expedient to use filter circuits in order to filter the harmonizing waves in a
satisfactory manner. In such situations, the inverter discussed in this training unit will not be
an appropriate choice. Fortunately, there are some other types of inverters, namely pulse-width
modulated (PWM) inverters, which can deliver a higher quality of the output voltage. The
rectangular wave inverter discussed in this training unit can continue to be used for many loads,
particularly in the case of load-force engine types. The engine loads are inductively in nature
with the inherent quality, in order to suppress the harmonic currents in the motor.

The example of a purely inductive load discussed in the previous section shows the
effectiveness of inductive loads in the case of the blocking of higher harmonic currents. In spite
of the inherent low-pass filtering of the engine load, the load current can still contain some
harmonic oscillations. These harmonic currents lead to additional iron and copper losses in the
engine. They also generate undesired torque pulsations. Fortunately, the torque pulsations due
to harmonic currents of high frequencies and their effect are undergrounded due to the great
mechanical inertia of the drive system. The engine speed hardly changes as a function of these

41
torque pulsations. However, in some cases, torque pulsations of certain frequencies can cause
undesired resonance in the mechanical system of the drive. A special notch filter may then be
required in order to remove these frequencies from the inverter output voltage. The input DC
voltage to the inverter is frequently derived from an alternating voltage source after the rectifier
and the filtering. A simple diode bridge rectifier, followed by a filter capacitor, is often the most
cost-effective method in order to obtain the DC voltage from the AC power supply. In some
applications, such as uninterrupted power supplies, the DC input can come from a battery bank.
In both of the following examples, the input constant size is relatively constant. With a fixed
input DC voltage, the square- wave inverter can only output a fixed magnitude of the load
voltage. In many cases, this does not correspond to the requirements in which the load requires
VVVF supply (VVVF = variable Voltage variable frequency). In order to be able to control the
alternating voltage variable, the input voltage of the inverter must be varied with an additional
DC-DC converter. A better solution is, however, the use of a PWM inverter which can supply
VVVF output with the increased output voltage. In spite of the limitations described above, the
rectangular inverter can be a preferred choice because of its simplicity and low cost. The
switching control circuit is very simple and the switching frequency is substantially lower than
that of the PWM inverters [20].

This leads to low switching losses. The formwork costs can also be lower since it is possible
to switch off with slower switching devices and slightly lower rated switches. A further
advantage compared to the PWM inverter is the ability to output a higher basic voltage than
the maximum that can be output by a PWM inverter.

5.5 Three-Phase Square Wave Inverters Applications

5.5.1 Cheap solid-state frequency regulator circuit

This circuit converts the 3-phase AC voltages from a frequency to 3-phase alternating voltage
(output frequency) of the desired frequency. The input current is first converted into direct
current and is then converted back into the alternating current of the new frequency. The
rectangular inverter discussed in this lesson can be used for the conversion of direct current
into alternating current. Such a circuit can, for example, convert 3-phase alternating voltages
of 50 Hz into three- phase alternating voltages of 60 Hz. The input of this circuit could likewise
originate from a single- phase supply, the single-phase AC voltage initially being converted
into direct current and then again being converted into a three-phase alternating current of the

42
desired frequency.

5.5.2 Non-interrupting power supply

Continuous power supply circuits are used to provide an uninterrupted power supply to a
critical load. A critical load was taken into consideration, which requires a Three-phase AC
power supply of fixed size and frequency. In the event of a failure of the AC power supply, the
Three-phase load can be switched electronically within a few milliseconds to the output of the
three-phase-square inverter. The DC power supply of the inverter often comes from a battery
bank.

5.5.3 Motors driver circuitry

For different motors driver circuitry design we use the fundamental three-phase inverter
because it is an important thing for that purpose. Actually, we are in need of controlled ac
which will be the output of three-phase inverter.

We analyze the simple structure of an electronic speed controller and divide it into three parts.
First of all, we need a microcontroller that will make the micro-process part here we used
ATMEG8362. The microcontroller processes the data and finalizes that which signal will be
sent to the next part, the drivers. The main motto of these drivers is to feed the required voltage
at the gates of the MOSFET transistors of the 3rd part called three-phase Bridge and open or
close the current flowing through these transistors. In the end, the third section bears the name
of the three-phase bridge. We have to energize a three-phase motor following a certain
sequence and flow the current through the motor windings. Opening and closing 6 transistors
in a very accurate way we could attain the required sequence in order to rotate the motor’s
rotor.

As already told that diagram is very general. In order to synchronize the rotation speed of the
motor with our required sequence at all time, we need to control the motor position and relate
it with the desired position of rotor and phases. For that, we detect the Electromotive force or
the electromagnetic field which is created by the revolution of the motor like dynamo magnets
create a certain electromagnetic force in the motor windings. As we perform the calculation of
the voltage drop at the motor terminals, we surely are able to make a fine micro-process and
can know the position of the motor and relate each turn.

43
5.6 Six Steps of The Motor Spin Sequence

Figure 5.5 Spin Sequence of Six Steps of the BLDC Motor

To understand the inner function of a three-phase brushless motor in the best way we look at
Figure 5.5 above. We know that the motor has a multiple of 3 number of coils of metallic wire.
The distribution of coils is done equidistantly around the perimeter of the motor. In this way,
among each coil, there will be 360 degrees divided by the number of coils. In the current
scenario, there are 12 coils of the engine, 4 coils for each of the 3 inputs points. In the Figure
shown above, the representation is done by one coil only for each of the input. There may be
the external or internal moving shaft of the motor, in this case, we have the external one. Here,
we need to place some strong magnets around the movable part in the same way as the 12 coils,
equally spaced. We know the fact that as the current flow through the coils, there is a magnetic
field which is created depending on the direction of current flow. As we alternate the current
flow direction through the coils, we are able to have the alternate polarity of the electromagnetic
field is created. It is in such a way that we will have the opposite poles between the coils and
magnets in certain points in time. By looking at the Figure we can conclude that we start
switching the lower "A" gate and the upper "C" gate. In this manner, we make the flow of
current from C to A, thus, creating a magnetic field across the two coils. The field that is made,
is opposite to the magnets field and also creates a strong push force which moves forward the
interval axis (360/120 degrees). At the same instant moment when the coils pass through each
other center, the next magnet has to perform switching to the next state so that the current flow
from A to B and so forth is made, creating an infinite loop that repeats every 6 states.

44
5.7 Detection of The Back EMF And Synchronization of Sequence

The fact of the matter is that a magnet creates a magnetic field around it. As we put a coil in
front of it, the movement changes the field flow through the coil and creating a current flow
through the windings. As the field flow rises through the coil, current intensity passes through
winding also gets increased and a higher tension could fall on the terminals. Let us look at the
next Back EMF detection example:

Figure 5.6 a: Illustration of Energized and Non-Energized gates

We observed in the upper mentioned Figure that the upper gate of the A output and the lower
gate of the B are energized. That causes a current flow from A to B coils in the direction of grey
arrows. This current flow creates an equal magnetic field in both A and B coils. That magnetic
field will switch on the opposite magnetic field of the external magnets rotating the motor. In
the specific example, we name the red color of the magnets as south polarized and the blue
ones to be north polarized. We can observe that blue arrows coming out of the blue magnet. So,
let's have a look at the C coil for now. Considerably, those field lines are not yet crossing the
C coil. We can see that almost all the field lines are out of the coil but in the next Figure, a few
moments after we can see that there are a few lines cutting the coil. In this manner the created
current flow it is affected by the rotation of the motor. This will give us a voltage change VC-
BF which we may measure with our microcontroller ADC. As the field lines get more
perpendicular to the coil, the higher the amount of current flow is there each time and so the
voltage drop of it will also be higher.

45
 Figure 5.6 b: Illustration of Energized and Non-Energized gates

Now, in the next schematic, we observe that the field lines are totally cutting the C coil. This
implies that the field flow is maximum and so also the current flow in the C coil. This is the
exact time when we need to change to the next step of our sequence. If we are able to detect
this exact time with our microcontroller we could move to the next part of our sequence in the
right time. AS we could now see, we have a voltage drop in the non-energized coil which
depends on the motor movement. That voltage drop can easily be measured using our ADC and
compare it with the mean of all 3 coils voltage. When we will see that maximum voltage we
could make the sequence change.

Figure 5.6 c: Illustration of Energized and Non-Energized gates

We already knew what we have to do for further process. Put in the three-phase bridge, make
a connection of a microcontroller and read the outputs of Back EMF of the motor and make a

46
switch sequence depending on that BEMF read. At first, we create a schematic in easy PCB
design software. You can use any PCB design program. To make the schematic import all
specified components. Make the connections and create the PCB module of your own.

In conventional BLDC we have to use the hall sensors for the rotor position detecting but the
work of sensors have been taken through the microcontroller. Internally mechanism is
something like that when any of three phases will be energized then that energized phase will
be having current inside it and as we know that there will also be a potential difference. So,
due to that potential difference, it will feed it to an operational amplifier and then that op-amp
will cause to energies next pole with the help of gates logic.

5.8 Speed – Torque Relationship of BLDC Motor

BLDCs have been introduced to replace DC motors for more efficiency and Lower costs. The
relationship between speed and torque for the BLDC is linear, but the speed decreases when
the load torque increases. In comparison, the speed of the separately excited DC motor only
gradually decreases as the load torque increases. A speed loop is used in some BLDC
controllers to provide a constant speed over the torque range. This part has the main goals to
reduce the speed vs. Torque characteristics of BLDCs for the study of electric motors, it is
important to understand the term torque. By Definition, torque is the product of force and radius
to turn an object around its axis [15].

Therefore, in a BLDC, the torque can be increased by increasing either the force or the force
radius. The force can be increased by using stronger magnets or increasing the currents in the
phases. A typical speed-torque characteristic diagram of a BLDC is shown in Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7: Speed vs. Torque of a BLDC

47
The speed-torque characteristic of a separately excited DC motor is shown in Figure below. As
shown in the Figure, the speed drop across the torque range is very small, therefore a good
speed regulation unlike the BLDC. Speed in a DC machine increases when the terminal voltage
rises.

Figure 5.8: Speed vs. Torque of a Separately Excited DC

Motor [15]
5.9 Modeling of BLDC Motor Drive
The schematic representation of a three-phase, four-pole, star-connected BLDC Motor drive is
shown. A three-phase inverter is used to deliver Voltage to the windings of the BLDC motor.
Metal oxide semiconductor field effect Transistors (MOSFET) are used to model the three-
phase VSI in Simulink.

Two phase line mode voltage space vectors of the VSI are selected based on Hall Effect
position sensor signals. Detect three Hall Effect sensors Permanent rotor position of the BLDC
motor. In this model, Hall Effect Signals from the BLDC motor are generated by an embedded
MATLAB code file according to the electrical degree rotation of the motor. Electrical grade
sections, corresponding Hall Effect signals and inverters switch the status of the BLDC Engine
are shown in Table 5.2.

Figure 5.9: Three phase VSI simulation model

48
 Table 5.2: Hall Effect Signals and Inverter Switches Status of the BLDC Motor

Inverter switches status

Electrical
Hall A Hall B Hall C
Degree
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6

0–60 0 1 0 On Off Off Off Off On

60–120 1 1 0 On Off Off On Off Off

120–180 1 0 0 Off Off Off On On Off

180-240 1 0 1 Off On Off Off On Off

240-300 0 0 1 Off On On Off Off Off

300-360 0 1 1 Off Off On Off Off On

The speed is directly proportional to the average value of the applied voltages in the BLDC
motor. Variable DC link converter and pulse width modulation switchover Techniques are the
two basic methods to control the average applied voltage BLDC motor. Variable DC link
converters have a bad harmonic control and additional Conversion systems compared to PWM
controlled inverters.

A direction Force flow, high component loads and high peak currents that cause EMI problems
are the main disadvantages of variable DC link inverters. The main thing disadvantages of
PWM inverters are the complexity of controller and high frequency switching losses [16].
Performance comparison of PWM inverters and variable DC High Speed Link Inverter (up to
50000 RPM) Sensorless control of the BLDC motor indicates that more stable sensor less
operation can be achieved with this variable DC link converters at high speeds [17]. A
regenerative braking system is a important factor to increase the battery life or the mileage of
the electric vehicle. On Direction power flow characteristics of the variable DC inverter is not
suitable for the regenerative braking system in electric vehicles. Therefore, PWM switching
technology is better suited to control the average output voltage of VSI.

49
Figure 5.10: Speed characteristics of the BLDC motor simulation model

Figure 5.11: Torque characteristics of the BLDC motor simulation model

50
 Figure 5.12: Back-EMF signals of the BLDC motor model

5.10 Conclusion
Improved control strategies of the wheel hub motors lead to an overall improvement Power of
the application. An accurate model of the in-wheel engine provides accurate information about
the generated torque and engine speed values is needed to study the behavior of specific
application under different control algorithms and working conditions. In this chapter the
simulation model of a three Phase star linked BLDC motor model presented with the ideal back
EMF. The proposed model is simulated in MATLAB / Simulink. Simulation results under Load
conditions show the proper performance of the BLDC motor model. Experimental results prove
the correct performance of the simulation model of the BLDC motor. The presented simulation
model is simple and based on the Laplace transformation of mathematical equations of the
BLDC motor. Simplicity and discussed Specifications of the proposed model make it useful
for the design of the BLDC Motor drives with different control algorithms.

51
 CHAPTER 6
Conclusion and Future Recommendations
6.1 Conclusion
BLDC motors have other engines in applications replaced by air-conditioning systems to
remote- controlled drives, the advantages offer efficiency, reliability, and performance. The
cost of BLDC engines has decreased dramatically over the last decade, and the adjustment rate
to spike, a strong need to develop "improved control and performance improvement" is needed,
and that is motivation for the work. The closed-loop control of BLDC drive is in the industrial
and domestic applications. In order to meet the control objectives in these applications, digital
control systems are generally preferred because of the inherent earnings.

In general, the industrial drive system is to a large extent with dynamic loads. The available
controllers are not enabled, the system is to achieve the desired performance levels. Therefore,
there was a continuous focus construction and development of targeted controls, the
Instrumental in the ideal interfacing of the drives with the load. It is in this direction that a
greater emphasis has been placed on the development of ECUs for BLDC, motor drives. A
review of the literature has led the author to design made controllers in addition to the
construction of innovative strategies, which not only served to improve the performance of the
converters but also served the overhead line of the current harmonics.

We come to the period of time when the BLDC motors are constantly replacing the DC motors
in a variety of applications. The applications of BLDC motors varies from pumps, fans, blowers
and the automobile industry in terms of EV to name a few. Typical brushless works as a
permanent magnet DC motor with linear speed vs torque characteristics where we found the
decrease in speed with the increase in load. There are applications such as automobile
windscreen wiper which require a constant speed while for driving the vehicle, we require the
variable speed control. In such a case, the BLDC motor with proper control improves the
performance comparing to the DC motors.

In this context, the proposed project will definitely help us out in controlling the BLDC at
varying speed. The controlling of BLDC, although has several techniques however one of them
is favorable which has good efficiency, reliability, and performance than others. The
applications of BLDC in automobiles are enormous, but in pure electrical cars, it will become
a great achievement due to the fact that vehicles are exposed to the rough environment and

52
they need high performance and reliability. So keeping that thing in mind, the hall sensors are
eliminated to reduce price and increasing the reliability for the rough environment and also the
BLDC will be affordable in this application. So by elimination the hall sensor or position
sensors, we got better performance and reliability of the BLDC.

6.2 Future Recommendations

The role of the speed governability regulates the power of each electric motor drive to a
considerable extent. The latest enhancements in Controllers have paved the way for the desired
excellence in electrical utilities that are used to improve these line current distortions.

The advances in hardware technology offer a broad scope for expanding the horizon of
applicability of newer controls in the existing/improved drive topologies. 148

(i) It will be interesting to see the performance of the proposed controls and algorithms for
permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM).

(ii) Vector-based pulse width modulation method with spatial height instead of the
conventional pulse width modulation

(iii) Control algorithms can be implemented in the FPGA.

(iv) An artificial intelligence (AI) on the basis of speed control approach for the BLDC
engine to further think the performance improvement.

(v) There is a compelling need to develop a control system with which the torque ripple in
the drive can be minimized by a regular speed control.

(vi) The advantages of LMS and RLS algorithms can go a long way in the development of
state-of-the-art drive systems for demanding industrial applications.

(vii) The simulation study of the BLDC drive performance with the newer multi-level
inverter topology is from the beginning of Art.

We can extend our hardware project as well as the thesis by considering the following
prospects:

 Considering and comparing the other sensorless techniques apart from done in the
project or discussed in the thesis

53
 Can increase the power rating of the motor to 2 to 3 horsepower

 Can include the more user-friendly interface for the user including the LCD display
for the instant speed as well as the volt and amp meters.

 We can increase its size for the heavy loads and for rough environmental conditions
as well.

54
 References

[1] S. Rambabu, “Modeling and Control of A Brushless Dc Motor,” M.S. Thesis, National
Institute of Technology, Rourkela, 2007.

[2] R. Gambhir and A. K. Jha, “Brushless DC Motor : Construction and Applications,”

International Journal of Engineering and Science, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 72–77, 2013.

[3] L. Zhong, M. F. Rahman, W. Y. Hu, and K. Lim, "Analysis of direct torque control in
permanent magnet synchronous motor drives," IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, vol. 12, pp. 528-536, 1997.

[4] Galil, "Brushless Sine Drives- Application Note". [Online]. Available:

http://www.galilmc.com/support/servotrends/st_04_11/sine-drive-setup.php

[5] B. Robert, H. H. Iu, and M. Feki, "Adaptive Time-Delayed Feedback For Chaos Control
In A PWM Single Phase Inverter," Journal of Circuits, Systems, and Computers, vol.
13, pp. 519-534, 2004.

[6] T.-S. Kim, B.-G. Park, D.-M. Lee, J.-S. Ryu, and D.-S. Hyun, "A new approach to a
sensorless control method for brushless DC motors," International Journal of Control,
Automation, and Systems, vol. 6, pp. 477-487, 2008.

[7] G. Paranjothi and R. Manikandan, “Photovoltaic Based Brushless DC Motor Closed

Loop Drive for Electric Vehicle,” IEEE, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 9–15, 2014.

[8] A. Dwivedi and A. N. Tiwari, “A Review : Speed Control of Brushless DC Motor,”

IJBSTR, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 14–19, 2013.

[9] J. C. Gamazo-Real, E. Vázquez-Sánchez, and J. Gómez-Gil, “Position and speed

control of brushless DC motors using sensorless techniques and application trends.”
Sensors (Basel)., vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 6901–47, Jan. 2010.

[10] Jianwen Shao, "Direct Back EMF Detection Method for Sensorless Brushless DC
(BLDC) Motor Drives, M.S. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and the State
University.”, Blacksburg, Virginia, 2003.

[11] Nilsson, James William, and Riedel, Susan, “Electric Circuits”. Vol. 8. Prentice Hall,

55
 2009.

[12] P.C. Sen, “Principles of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics”, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1997.

[13] Fabreeka, "Vibration and Shock Isolation". [Online]. Available:

http://www.fabreeka.com/documents/file/papers/isolation_theory.pdf

[14] D. L. Gabriel and J. Meyer, “Brushless DC Motor Characterisation and Selection for a
Fixed-Wing UAV,” IEEE Africon 2011, pp. 13–15, 2011.

[15] T. Wildi, “Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems”, 6th Edition, A. Wolf, Ed.
United States of America: Prentice Hall, 2006.

[16] K. Åström and T. Hägglund, "Revisiting the Ziegler–Nichols step response method for
PID control," Journal of process control, vol. 14, pp. 635-650, 2004.

[17] Man-Kee Kim, Hyun-Soo Bae, Bum-Seok Suh, “Comparison of IGBT and MOSFET
Invertors in Low-Power BLDC Motor Drives” Fairchild Semiconductor, Republic of
Korea, https://sci-hub.tw/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1712140/

[18] Umesh Chugh, “Design and Simulation of Controller for Sensored Brushless DC
Motor” Master Thesis for Electronics Instrumentation and Control, Thapar University,
India, July 2014 http://dspace.thapar.edu:8080/jspui/bitstream/10266/3006/4/3006.pdf

[19] Markos Tawadros, “Sensorless Control of Brushless DC Motor” Thesis Submitted to

the University of Western Sydney for Ph.D., December 2012
https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws%3A17785/datastrea
m/ PDF/view

[20] Pablo Armero Almazan, “Design and Programming of the Software to Control the
Sensorless BLDC Motor of the Electrical Propulsion System for the Solar Aircraft”
Master’s Thesis, Technishe Universitat Berlin, August 2014
https://upcommons.upc.edu/bitstream/handle/2099.1/24117/Thesis.pdf

[21] Three Phase Inverter, http://www.electronics-tutorial.net/dc-to-ac-inverter/three-

phase- inverter/index.html

56
 Appendix
SPEED_UP A0

#define SPEED_DOWN A1

#define PWM_MAX_DUTY 255

#define PWM_MIN_DUTY 50

#define PWM_START_DUTY 100

byte bldc_step = 0, motor_speed; unsigned int i;

void setup() {

DDRD |= 0x38; // Configure pins 3, 4 and 5 as outputs PORTD = 0x00;

DDRB |= 0x0E; // Configure pins 9, 10 and 11 as outputs PORTB = 0x31;

// Timer1 module setting: set clock source to clkI/O / 1 (no prescaling) TCCR1A = 0;

TCCR1B = 0x01;

// Timer2 module setting: set clock source to clkI/O / 1 (no prescaling) TCCR2A = 0;

TCCR2B = 0x01;

// Analog comparator setting

ACSR = 0x10; // Disable and clear (flag bit) analog comparator interrupt
pinMode(SPEED_UP, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(SPEED_DOWN, INPUT_PULLUP);

// Analog comparator ISR

ISR (ANALOG_COMP_vect) {

// BEMF debounce for(i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if(bldc_step & 1){ if(!(ACSR & 0x20)) i -= 1;

else {

if((ACSR & 0x20)) i -= 1;

57
 bldc_move(); bldc_step++; bldc_step %= 6;

void bldc_move(){ // BLDC motor commutation function switch(bldc_step){

case 0: AH_BL();

BEMF_C_RISING();

break; case 1: AH_CL();

BEMF_B_FALLING();

break; case 2: BH_CL();

BEMF_A_RISING();

break; case 3: BH_AL();

BEMF_C_FALLING();
break; case 4: CH_AL();

BEMF_B_RISING();

break; case 5: CH_BL();

BEMF_A_FALLING();

break;

void loop() {

SET_PWM_DUTY(PWM_START_DUTY); // Setup starting PWM with duty cycle =

PWM_START_DUTY i = 5000;

// Motor start while(i > 100) {

delayMicroseconds(i); bldc_move(); bldc_step++; bldc_step %= 6;

i = i - 20;

motor_speed = PWM_START_DUTY;

ACSR |= 0x08; // Enable analog comparator interrupt while(1) {

while(!(digitalRead(SPEED_UP)) && motor_speed < PWM_MAX_DUTY){ motor_speed++;

SET_PWM_DUTY(motor_speed); delay(100);

58
}
while(!(digitalRead(SPEED_DOWN)) && motor_speed > PWM_MIN_DUTY){ motor_speed--;

SET_PWM_DUTY(motor_speed); delay(100);

void BEMF_A_RISING(){

ADCSRB = (0 << ACME); // Select AIN1 as comparator negative input ACSR |= 0x03; // Set
interrupt on rising edge

void BEMF_A_FALLING(){

ADCSRB = (0 << ACME); // Select AIN1 as comparator negative input ACSR &= ~0x01;
// Set interrupt on falling edge

void BEMF_B_RISING(){

ADCSRA = (0 << ADEN); // Disable the ADC module ADCSRB = (1 << ACME);

ADMUX = 2; // Select analog channel 2 as comparator negative input ACSR |=

0x03;

void BEMF_B_FALLING(){

ADCSRA = (0 << ADEN); // Disable the ADC module ADCSRB = (1 << ACME);

ADMUX = 2; // Select analog channel 2 as comparator negative input ACSR &=

~0x01;

void BEMF_C_RISING(){

ADCSRA = (0 << ADEN); // Disable the ADC module ADCSRB = (1 << ACME);

ADMUX = 3; // Select analog channel 3 as comparator negative input ACSR |=

0x03;

void BEMF_C_FALLING(){

ADCSRA = (0 << ADEN); // Disable the ADC module ADCSRB = (1 << ACME);

ADMUX = 3; // Select analog channel 3 as comparator negative input ACSR &=

59
 ~0x01;

void AH_BL(){ PORTB = 0x04; PORTD &= ~0x18; PORTD |= 0x20;

TCCR1A = 0; // Turn pin 11 (OC2A) PWM ON (pin 9 & pin 10 OFF) TCCR2A = 0x81;
//

void AH_CL(){ PORTB = 0x02; PORTD &= ~0x18; PORTD |= 0x20;

TCCR1A = 0; // Turn pin 11 (OC2A) PWM ON (pin 9 & pin 10 OFF) TCCR2A = 0x81;
//

void BH_CL(){ PORTB = 0x02; PORTD &= ~0x28; PORTD |= 0x10;

TCCR2A = 0; // Turn pin 10 (OC1B) PWM ON (pin 9 & pin 11 OFF) TCCR1A = 0x21;
//

void BH_AL(){ PORTB = 0x08;

PORTD &= ~0x28; PORTD |= 0x10;

TCCR2A = 0; // Turn pin 10 (OC1B) PWM ON (pin 9 & pin 11 OFF) TCCR1A = 0x21;
//

void CH_AL(){ PORTB = 0x08; PORTD &= ~0x30; PORTD |= 0x08;

TCCR2A = 0; // Turn pin 9 (OC1A) PWM ON (pin 10 & pin 11 OFF) TCCR1A = 0x81;

void CH_BL(){ PORTB = 0x04; PORTD &= ~0x30; PORTD |= 0x08;

TCCR2A = 0; // Turn pin 9 (OC1A) PWM ON (pin 10 & pin 11 OFF) TCCR1A = 0x81;

void SET_PWM_DUTY(byte duty){ if(duty < PWM_MIN_DUTY)

duty = PWM_MIN_DUTY; if(duty > PWM_MAX_DUTY) duty = PWM_MAX_DUTY;

OCR1A = duty; // Set pin 9 PWM duty cycle

OCR1B = duty; // Set pin 10 PWM duty cycle

OCR2A = duty; // Set pin 11 PWM duty cycle

60