2

class materials are school-related factors that are influential to the students’ learning motivation

(Meshkat & Hassani, 2011; Al Kaboody, 2013; Muhonen, 2004).

There are only few studies in task-specific amotivation. For instance, in Physical

Education, students are amotivated to attend P.E. hours for the reason that it is just an optional

subject to attend to. Amotivation was manifested through mainly by their avoidance behavior, low

involvement in class, low future intention to participate in physical activity and boredom

(Ntoumanis, Pensgaard, Mertin & Pipe, 2004). With regard to exercise amotivation, a lot of factors

are argued to be the contributors of the absence of motivation towards exercising. These factors

include the individuals’ capacity beliefs (where a person’s perception in exercise competence is

low), outcome beliefs (where a person perceives that there is nothing to be gained with exercising),

effort beliefs (where the person has a lack of motivation to invest energy & effort required in

exercising regularly), and value beliefs (when a person diminished the importance of value of

physical activity) (Vlachopoulous, Letsiou, Palaiologou, Leptokaridou & Giguodo, 2008). Clearly,

just like the case of academic amotivation which a person would think academic tasks as

uninteresting, boring, irrelevant and lacking stimulating qualities (Legault et.al., 2006), it is argued

that amotivation towards exercise & Physical education may also result from the same reason.

Although none so far have examined the antecedents of amotivation in reading, precursors

of reading motivation provide ideas that may also be relevant in seeking why amotivation occurs.

For instance, students tend to be motivated to read when they have resources, may it be personal

(i.e., self-efficacy) or social (i.e., admiration and support from other) resources (Gardner, 2006;

Wu, 2003). In the context that learned helplessness is a cardinal feature of amotivation process,

the lack of personal, social and school-related resources may eventually lead to amotivation.
 3

Alternatively, this study hypothesized that with sufficient resources, students’ amotivation toward

reading may be lowered.

Theoretical Framework

The three theories are inter-connected. In which both Self-determination and Learned

Helplessness Theory are under Ecosystems Theory. Specifically, under microsystem -- which

incorporates direct relationships and interactions of a person with his or her surroundings (Paquette

& Ryan, 2001). Family, neighborhood, school, or any childcare environments are the structures in

this system (Paquette & Ryan, 2001) -- and mesosystem -- which encompasses the linkages and

connections between microsystems in which individuals are surrounded (Johnson, 2008) where

for instance, a student interacts with his or her family, school, doctor, and peers -- are self-

determination theory and learned helplessness theory.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory explains how human development is

influenced by different types of environmental systems (Ettekal & Mahoney, 2017) and understand

the context system of relationships that form the person’s environment (Johnson, 2008). According

to Bronfenbrenner’s initial theory (1989), the environment is composed of four layers of systems

(Johnson, 2008). These layers of system interact in complex ways and can affect the person’s

development (Johnson, 2008). First, microsystem encompasses relationships and interactions a

person has with her surroundings on which he or she directly interact (Paquette & Ryan, 2001).

Family, neighborhood, school, or any childcare environments are the structures in this system

(Paquette & Ryan, 2001). In this level, the influences between a developing person and these
 4

structures are bi-directional (Mahoney, 2017), which means relationships have impact in two

directions – both away from the person and toward the person (Paquette & Ryan, 2001). The person

influences and is influenced by the microsystem (Johnson, 2008). For example, a parent may affect

the child’s behavior and beliefs, however, the child may also affect the behavior and beliefs of the

parent. The key to this theory is the interaction of structures within and between layers (Paquette

& Ryan, 2001).

Second, mesosystem comprises the linkages and connections between microsystems in

which individuals are embedded (Johnson, 2008). For example, a student interacts with his or

her family, school, doctor, and peers. On the other hand, the doctor interacts with the family and

even the school, then, the peers interact with the family and school (Johnson, 2008). Moreover,

what happens in a micro system such as the home where a child lives, can probably influence what

happens in the school, and what happens in the school can influence the child’s interaction in his

or her home (Krishnan, 2010). The key point is what happens in one microsystem affects to other

microsystems (Ettakal & Mahoney, 2017).

Third, exosystem defines the larger social system in which a person is involved but not

directly embedded (Ettaka & Mahoney, 2017). It involves events, decisions, and policies by which

a developing person has no influence on it (Johnson, 2008). A person eventually feels the positive

or negative pressure within interacting his or her own system, although he or she is not directly

involved at this level (Paquette & Ryan, 2001). This system includes the micro and meso systems

and thereby affects the wellbeing of all those who come into contact with the individual (Krishnan,

2010). It also “trickles down” the person’s development through other people involved in his or

her life (Mahoney & Ettakal, 2017). An example of this system is how parents affect their students’

learning achievement and activities engagement. Some parents expose their children to learning
 5

or physical activities they are familiar with, thus, children also participate in those activities their

parents participated in as children (Mahoney & Ettakal, 2017). Students’ parents with the

knowledge of certain activities, increasingly demanding work schedules offers time to participate.

However, children from families with both working parents do not have time to participate in the

activity. This would likely affect students approach and participation in an activity (Mahoney &

Ettakal, 2017).

Fourth, macrosystem is the outermost context layer of the person’s environment (Mahoney

& Ettakal, 2017). This system is comprised of cultural values, beliefs, customs, and laws (Berk,

2000). It also influences the development within and also among other systems and serves as a

lens through which an individual explicates his or her future experiences and activities (Mahoney

& Ettakal, 2017). According to research, macrosystem provides perception into why a person

participate on a certain activity, why some individuals in the same activity have differences

particularly different experiences, and issues related to such activities (Mahoney & Ettakal, 2017).

The effects of larger principle under the macrosystem has a great influence throughout the

interactions of all other systems (Paquette & Ryan, 2001). For example, in a certain culture, parents

are always responsible for raising and supporting their children, that culture is less likely to provide

resources to help parents on their shared responsibility. This case affects the structures by which

parents are involved. Moreover, the parents’ ability and inability to provide support and act their

responsibilities toward their children within the context of their children’s microsystem

development is likewise affected (Paquette & Ryan, 2001).

Fifth, chronosystem encompasses the aspect and dimension of time (Mahoney & Ettakal,

2017) as it relates to a person’s environment such as, chronological age, duration and nature of

periodicity (Paquette & Ryan, 2001). Degrees of an event may vary depending on the impact on
 6

development, and the impact decreases as time progresses (Mahoney & Ettakal, 2017). Elements

on this system may include external such as, timing of a parents’ or relatives’ death, or internal

such as, physiological changes that happen when a person is in the aging stage (Paquette & Ryan,

2001). As a person get older, his or her reaction and approach to the environment changes, and he

or she also may be able to know how that changes will likely influence them (Paquette & Ryan,

2001).

Consequently, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and

context of a person’s environment, and how he or she interacts within these environments in the

process of his or her development in a complex way (Paquette & Ryan, 2001). This complexity

can arise as a person grow and mature (Paquette & Ryan, 2001).

Most people faced several problems in reading (Souriyavongsa, Rany, Abidin & Mei,

2006). Moreover, personal, social, and school-related factors may also affect the individual’s

motivation in reading. In personal factor, students are not well-motivated and encouraged to read,

thus they do not seem to develop their interest in developing reading skills (Souriyavongsa, et.al.,

2006). In social factor, the social agents (family and peers) in the learner’s environment may affect

his or her academic attitudes toward reading. Family and peers may not support or motivate them

in reading (Legault, et.al., 2006). Lastly, school-related factors could be one of the reasons behind

the amotivation of students in reading. That maybe in some respects, they become the primary

source of discouragement in reading (Ghadirzoden, Hashtrodi & Shokri, 2012).

In the context that the taxonomy of reasons of amotivation can vary given students’ culture

and subject specificity, this study seeks how social, personal and school-related resources

influences students’ amotivation in reading.

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Amotivation and Self-determination Theory

Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) states that human behavior in any context

can be effectuated through intrinsic motivation (pleasure and interest-related motives), extrinsic

motivation (instrumental motives) and amotivation (Legault, Green-Demers & Pelletier, 2006).

These three theoretical types of motivation is part of self-determination, along with amotivation

(Legault, et.al., 2006). Intrinsic motivation is based on the individuals who freely enjoy the

activities and find it interesting and enjoyable, and which offer the chance for accomplishing the

task (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, et.al., 1995). Extrinsic motivation is that a person acts in order

to receive a reward, such as public praise, monetary rewards, tokens or prizes and avoidance of

punishments (Deci & Ryan, 1985). The central focus on this theory is amotivation (the absence

of motivation) specifies a certain behavior that may either executed for reasons unknown or not

executed at all (Legault, 2006). According to Legault (2006), amotivation is a state in which

individual has a lack of purpose to act that results to the absence of actions.

Amotivated individuals cannot predict the consequences of their actions, nor they can tell

the purpose behind it (Legault, Green-Demers & Pelletier, 2006). They may feel separated or

detached from the actions that they do and will invest little efforts in its effectuation (Legault,

et.al., 2006). In the academic domain, amotivation is associated with boredom, nonattendance, low

involvement and poor concentration in class, higher possibility of stress, and most disconcertingly,

dropout (Legault, et.al., 2006). Academic amotivation has been classified into four: ability beliefs,

effort beliefs, value placed on the task, and characteristics of the task (Legault, et.al., 2006). Ability

beliefs refer to people’s expectations on their ability to apply appropriate strategies to perform a

task (Legault, et.al., 2006). Students who are detached from school have little belief in their own
 8

abilities and perceived low competence in facing academic difficulties. They believe that they do

not have the personal ability to do the required task (Legault, et.at.al., 2006). Accordingly, poor

belief in one’s ability is a component of academic amotivation (Legault, et.al., 2006). The second

factor, effort beliefs pertain to student’s belief that given their efforts, their performance will lead

to the completion of a task (Legault, et.al., 2006). Student becomes amotivated however, when

they do not trust or believe that they can maintain the efforts needed to perform academic tasks

(Legault, et.al., 2006), that whatever effort they exert, it will not lead to successful performance of

tasks. The third factor, value placed on the task refers to the consideration of values that predicts

the behavior of the learner. Moreover, it has also been noted that amotivated stems from not

valuing an activity (Legault, et.al., 2006). When there is no importance and inner acceptance of

the activity in the student’s life, amotivation may occur (Legault, et.al., 2006). The final factor,

characteristics of the task, emphasizes the specific features of a task (Legault, et.al., 2006). When

a task is boring, tedious, irrelevant and does not interest the knowledge of the students, amotivation

may likely result (Legault, et.al., 2006). While studying the value of Legault’s concept of

amotivation, this study posits that there might be other reasons for students to be amotivated. In

the context that the taxonomy of reasons of amotivation can vary given students’ culture and task

specificity, this study seeks how social, personal and school-related resources influences students’

amotivation in reading.

Learned Helplessness Theory

Martin Seligman is the man behind the theory “Learned Helplessness”, which became

prominent on its influence on psychological research in depression in the 1970’s (Maier, &

Seligman, 1976). The concept “learned helplessness” was first used to describe the failure

experiences of the dogs Seligman has experimented, in which after previous exposure to
 9

inescapable shock, they still tried to escape or avoid it every time they are given the opportunity

(Fogle, 1978). The learning from the shock termination is independent of behavior, thus it presents

two consequences (Learned Helplessness and Depression - Cognitive or Physiological

Explanation, 2006). First, prior exposure to inescapable shock intervenes with the ability to learn

in a circumstance wherein escaping and avoidance can be attained. Second, this learning

hindrances the motivation to attempt to escape. Consequently, the central idea of this theory

pertains that all animals including humans can possibly learn that reinforces cannot be controlled

(Learned Helplessness and Depression - Cognitive or Physiological Explanation, 2006). For

instance, dogs learned the fact that they could not do anything and the impossibility to escape or

to avoid; thus, they have learned to be helpless (Maeir, Peterson & Schwartz, 2000).

The learned helplessness hypothesis has been established long before helplessness

experiments were executed with human as subjects. However, the experimentation from animals

to humans was not for the formulation of the theory but rather the attempt to reproduce only, the

animal findings in humans. Nevertheless, curiousness for human helplessness have become

progressively disenchanted with the adequacy of theoretical concepts that begins in animal

helplessness (Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale, 1978). Continually, numerous examples

emphasize a conceptual problem confronting the existing learned helplessness hypothesis applied

to human helplessness. For instance, in Hiroto's experiment in 1974: College student volunteers

were assigned to one of three groups. In the controllable noise group, students received loud noise

that they could stop through pushing a button for four times. Students that are assigned to the

uncontrollable noise group received noise that terminated independently of students' responding.

Finally, a third group received no noise. The second phase of the experiment were the testing of

all groups on a hand shuttle box. In the shuttle box, noise termination was controllable for all
 10

students; to stop the noise, students merely had to move a lever from one side of the box to the

other. The results of the test phase were extraordinarily similar to those obtained with animals. The

group who received controllable noise as well as the group who received no noise have eagerly

learned to shuttle, but the group who received uncontrollable noise failed to escape and listened

inactively to the noise though, the experimenter told the subject there is something he can do to

stop the noise. But then, the noise was actually uncontrollable, the subject is unable to find a way

to turn off the noise. After constant unsuccessful attempts, the subject came to believe the problem

is impossible to solve. Then again, the subject may believe that the problem can be able to solve

but he lacks the ability to solve it. In this hypothesis, learning outcomes that are uncontrollable

results in three deficits: motivational, cognitive and emotional. Cognitive when it assumes that

simple exposure to uncontrollability is not sufficient to label an organism helpless; but rather, the

organism must assume that outcomes are uncontrollable in order to exhibit helplessness. Second,

if an outcome is assumed to be uncontrollable, most likely, learning makes it difficult to later learn

that responses produce that certain outcome. Lastly, the learned helplessness hypothesis results to

depressed affect learning that outcomes seemed to be uncontrollable (Abramson, Seligman &

Teasdale, 1978).

In the context of education in which students’ difficulties and challenges are palpable and

seemingly undefeatable, different cognitive functioning and affective responses from them are due

to their different motivational patterns in which they learned to become helpless, as students who

expect future failure to yonder outside the boundary of their power or ability are regarded as

helpless (Qian & Alvermann, 1995). Helplessness is a condition in which a person comes to be

certain that success is beyond his or her ability. As a result of experiencing repeated failure, a

person comes to believe failure will occur regardless of the amount of effort he or she will exert
 11

towards the task. However, condition without repeated exposure to failure cannot be termed as

helplessness. Moreover, failure and mistakes are accepted as usual component of the learning

process and was understood by most students as essential for achievement and success (McDowell,

2009). However, there are helpless students who are classified by their tendency to attribute failure

to external factors rather than effort, tend to gradually decrease their motivation in certain tasks

that will indeed result to failure (Fincham, Hokoda & Sanders Jr., 1986). For number of students

with their attempts of learning consist of continuous repeated failures, the decrease of their self-

confidence is palpable and developed a feeling of pure hopelessness. Hopelessness then manifests

lack of motivation where their self-esteem weakens their effort and motivation is therefore

withdrawn and ceases. Perceiving that outcome is independent to the exertion of effort, the

beginning of interference in their eagerness to engage in new challenges will then results to static

learning of the students and that therefore results to learned helplessness or helplessness

(McDowell, 2009).

Statement of the Problem

The objective of this study was to examine social, school-related and personal resources

determinants of reading amotivation. Specifically, this study will sought to answer the following

questions:

1. Are there significant intercorrelation among the components of social, school-related,

and personal resources and amotivation?

2. Is reading self-concept a significant determinant of amotivation?

3. Are family and peers significant predictors of amotivation?

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4. Are teachers, learning materials, and classroom environment significant predictors of

amotivation?

Statement of Hypothesis

This study tested for confirmation or disconfirmation the following null hypotheses:

Ho1: There is no significant intercorrelation among the components of social, school-related, and

personal resources and amotivation.

Ho2: Reading self-concept is not significant determinant of amotivation.

Ho3: Family and peers are not significant predictors of amotivation.

Ho4: Teachers, learning materials, and classroom environment are not significant predictors of

amotivation.

Limitations of the Study

This study is limited to selected schools in Iligan City of the school year 2017-2018 in

grades seven to ten, allowing five hundred male and female students as respondents. The

parameters are from obtaining significant and complete data, analyzing, synthesizing and

interpreting them. This study is limited to fifteen sections from ten public schools in Iligan City.

Moreover, each of the respondents was given a questionnaire to answer that is limited only with a

rating scale.
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Conceptual Framework

The model examines the relationship between social, school-related, and personal

resources and how it affects reading amotivation. The model classifies social resources as

measured through the learner’s family and peer support. The school-related resources include

teachers’ support, class materials and class environment. Finally, personal resources as reading

self-concept. These three types of resources are likely to influence reading amotivation.

Significance of the Study

The findings of the study may prove to be a significant contribution to develop the reading

interest among students to the end of improving their academic performance and be motivated to

read. So, the significance of this study is finding ways and means on how to deal with students
 14

who are amotivated to read. A lot of individual should profit from the fresh information generated

by the inquiry.

School Administrators. After knowing the possible resources that mitigate, the school

administrators will provide programs and policies that will help the students lessen their

amotivation in reading. The findings of this study serve as a basis for drawing up the importance

of reading and challenge them to provide supportive learning environment, starting with small

book clubs or reading programs in school to develop students’ interest in reading. Administrators

must also be familiar with available resources to support the diverse needs of students and must

know how to access additional support in order to ensure appropriate education for all students.

They can make education more relevant when it comes to planning for professional development,

distribution of materials, books, classroom space and equipment. (CEC, 2000). In this way, the

school administrators can help administer teachers and students into reading. They first determine

the learning needs of the students regarding reading and what materials do the students need to

boost their reading interest.

Students. The findings of this study can stimulate the students’ true passion and

determination in reading. Students might improve by practicing in attending trainings that teaches

students how to read in a right way. These activities may nurture their self-esteem. They can

address the materials they needed and somehow be given attention by the school administrators.

In this way, their interest in reading might improve. The most important part of this is that they

can supplement their perception of their own reading abilities that can help them in assessing their

own progress in school particularly in reading.

Teachers. Teachers are the main facilitator in the classroom that identify the individual

learning needs of the students. They must know the problem why students do not want to read, in
 15

order for them to provide a serious effort need to be done. In this case, if the teachers will know

the resources that will motivate the students to read, it will help them to change the pedagogy and

the classroom environment. They will also encourage and motivate the students to read books and

develop the other important components of reading. This study will give insights to the teachers

on what is the best method to use in reading inside the classroom. By doing such, teachers will

develop and improve their teaching strategies.

Parents. Parents can be a motivation in their children’s interest in reading. If the parents

will know the resources that motivate their children to read, they will make their homes full of

encouragement for reading development. By this, they will be more aware about the importance

of reading in uplifting the knowledge of their children and how it may help them reach their goals

someday. With the information of the study, parents will also address the school to create programs

for the awareness of the teachers to bring resources and provide social support to build up self-

esteem for their children.

Future Researchers. The findings of this study may serve as a source of information for

future researchers who wants to know the Social, School-related, and Personal Influences of

reading that amotivate the students. They will acquire information from this study and share it later

on. In this way, this study will also serve as a reference in conducting their studies similar as this.
 16

Definition of Terms

For better understanding of the terms used in this study, the following terms are defined.

Ability beliefs. It is defined when an individual’s perceived self-efficacy is high, more ambitious

challenges and expectations are pursued, and a bigger goal commitment is applied (Bandura,

1991).

Amotivation. Can be defined as a state in which individuals cannot perceive a relationship

between their behavior and that behavior’s subsequent outcome (Deci& Ryan, 2000). This is the

state where a student may feel separated or detached from the actions that he or she will do and

will invest little efforts in its effectuation (Legault, et.al., 2006).

Autonomy Support. It refers to the events and environments that gives opportunity and challenges

for self-direction with a minimal amount of excessive evaluations, imposed goals, and demands

(Reeve, 2002).

Effort beliefs. It depicts the student’s ability and capacity to show or invest the energy or effort

needed by a given situation or behavior. It is also an ability believed that they did cannot sustain

the effort required to complete the academic tasks. (Pelletier et al., 1999).

Extrinsic motivation. It refers to the performance of an activity or the external forces that

motivates an individual’s motivation or for an instrumental motive to acquire praise or rewards.

Helplessness beliefs. It is manifested when individuals expect the outcome of their behavior to be

fully independent of the possible responses yet do not have the control over a particular outcome,

or personal such as perception of uncontrollability do not extend beyond the self (Abramson,

Seligman, and Teasdale, 1978).

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Intrinsic motivation. It is defined as the pleasure and interest-related motives of an individual’s

behavior. Intrinsically motivated behaviors present the height of self-determination because they

are undertaken freely with pleasure.

Motivation. It refers to reasons that underlie behavior characterized by willingness, initiative, and

volition (Lai, 2011).

Self-determination theory. This theory postulates that human behavior at any situations can be

intrinsically motivates, extrinsically motivated, or amotivated. (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Reading. It is the most convenient and cheapest way of obtaining information. It is also the process

of acquiring and enriching knowledge and views about the world (Salikin, Bin-Tahir,

Kusumaningputri & Yuliandari, 2017).

Relatedness support. It refers to the social environment in which students develop and encourage

good relationships with others. It also refers to establish close, stable, secure, and nurturing

relationship with the environment, such as teachers and fellow students. (Shahar, Henrich, Blatt,

Ryan, and Little, 2003).

Task. It is a piece of work done in a step-by-step manner, especially if it is done regularly,

unwillingly or with difficulty (Littlewood, 2004).