TRADE

 ROUTES  
Introduc*on  
This  presenta*on  has  been  made  to  give  young  school  leavers  an  
idea  of  what  a  career    at  sea  encompasses.  

The  *tle  “Trade  Routes”  had  been  especially  chosen  to  allow  the  
neophyte  to  experience  a  sea  voyage  from  slide  to  slide.    

The  main  aspect  of  the  different  stages  that  may  be  encountered  
during  a  sea  voyage  have  been  briefly    dealt  with.  Hopefully  they  
will  be  an  incen*ve  for  young  people  to  embrace  a  career  at  sea.    
 TRADE  ROUTES  
•  Defini.on  
 A  trade  route  is  a  route  used  by  merchant  
ships  
•  Types  of  trade  routes  depends  on:  
 −  Types  of  goods  carried  
 −  Accessibility  of  harbours  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
The  following  figures  show  classic  trade  routes  
TRADE  ROUTES  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

No*ce  that  to  go  to  the  Indian  Ocean  two  

different  routes  can  be  taken  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

Take  note  that  the  traffic  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  
Western  Europe  shows  the  most  dense  trade  routes    
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Which  commodi*es  are  commonly  carried  by  sea  

Raw  materials  
Finished  products  
Fruit  
Passengers  
MIDAS  
House  to  house  deliveries  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Role  of  harbours  

•  Discharging  and/or  loading  of  transported  goods  

(port  to  port)  
•  Discharging  goods  for  door  to  door  delivery  
•  Transshipment  of  goods  (e.g.  in  smaller  vessels)  
•  Convey  goods  in  transit  to  another  harbour  
•  MIDAS  (Mari*me  Industrial  Development  Areas)  
•  Etc.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

Accessibility  between  con.nents  

•  High  seas  
•  Panama  canal  
•  Suez  canal  
•  Via  South  Africa  
•  Via  the  North  Pole  
•  Via  Cape  Horn  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Main  types  of  goods  transported  
Bulk  cargo:  Ore,  coal  and  grain  
Liquid  cargoes  
Gas  and  chemical  products  
General  cargo:  loose  packages  
Containers  
Pallets  
Slings  
Special  cargo  like  heavy  li\s  or  voluminous  goods  
Passengers  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Main  types  of  merchant  ships  

•  General  cargo  vessels  (freighters)  

•  Bulk  vessels  (to  carry  bulk  cargoes)  
•  Passenger  vessels  
Beside  these  main  three  types,  there  are  numerous  other  types  
of  vessels  which  can  be  encountered  such  as:  war  ships,  
dredgers,  tugs,  fishing  vessels,  yachts,  etc.        
 TRADE  ROUTES  
General  cargo  vessels  

Typical  freighter  (old)  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
General  cargo  vessels  

Modern  freighter  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
General  cargo  vessels  

Typical  container  ship  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
General  cargo  vessels  

Typical  frigo  ship  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Bulk  vessels  

Oil  tanker  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Bulk  vessels  

Gas  tanker  (LNG)  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Bulk  vessels  

Gas  tanker  (methane)  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Bulk  vessels  

Ore  carrier  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Passenger  ships  

Queen  Mary  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Passenger  ships  

Cruise  ship  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Other  types  of  vessels  

War  ship   Tug  

Dredger   Yacht  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Seaborne  Trade  

There  are  two  main  worldwide  seaborne  trades:  

1.  Liner  shipping  (regular  lines)  

2.  Tramping  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Characteris.cs  of  Liner  shipping  

•  Well  structured  companies  

•  Freights  are  based  on  Conference  Terms  
•  Ships  are  adapted  to  goods  to  be  carried  
(small  parcels  under  2  –  3000  tons):  
o    loose  cargo  
o    containers  
o    pallets,  pre-­‐slung,  refrigerated,  wheeled  cargo,  etc.  
•  They  keep  regular  schedules  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Characteris.cs  of  Tramping  
•  Usually  shipping  companies  with  fewer  departments  
•  Freights  are  based  on  stock  markets  (e.g.  the  Bal*c  
Exchange  in  London)    
•  Bulk  cargoes  that  fill  the  whole  ship  
 Ore,  oil,  gas,  chemicals,  or  a  combina*on  thereof.  
•  Cargoes  may  be  owed  by  the  shipping  company  (e.g.  
oil,  gas,  chemicals)  or  cargoes  may  be  supplied  via  
cargo  brokers  or  ship  brokers  
•  Usually  vessels  go  where  cargo  is  offered.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Shipping  Companies  

•  Owned  liner  vessels  

•  Owned  bulk    vessels  
•  Hired  vessels  (common  in  tramping)  
o  Voyage  charter  
o  Time  charter  
o  Bareboat  charter  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Ship  Registra.on  
•  All  ships  must  be  registered  

•  Normally  in  their  own  country  and  carry  the  

flag  of  their  own  na*on  

•  O\en  in  an  other  country;  they  than  carry  the  

flag  of  that  na*on  called  “flag  of  
convenience”.  
Mainly  to  escape:  
o  Interna*onal  regula*ons  
o  Taxes  
o  Qualified  crews  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Types  of  Trade  Routes  

•  Open  seas  
•  Coastel  naviga*on  
•  Inland  waterways  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Main  dangers  in  open  seas  

•  Weather  (weather  routeing)  

•  Orienta*on  
•  Posi*oning  
•  Collisions  (other  ships,  floa*ng  objects)  
•  Hazards  to  naviga*on  (e.g.  small  islands)  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Main  dangers  in  coastal  waters  
− Sandbanks  (shallows)  
− Bank  suc*on  
− Rocks  
− Currents  
− Collisions  
− Different  ac*vi*es  like:  
•  Fishing  
•  Yach*ng  
•  Dredging  
•  Different  sorts  of  maintenance  work  ,  offshore,  windmills,  etc.)  
− Etc.  
TRADE  ROUTES  

Collision  at  sea  

 TRADE  ROUTES  

Beam  trawler   Dredger  

Offshore  plahorm   Sailing  yacht  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Ship’s  Naviga.on  Bridge  
The  ship’s  naviga*on  bridge  
may  be  considered  as  the  
brain  of  the  ship.  The  engines  
as  the  heart  of  the  ship.  All  
decisions  for  a  safe  naviga*on  
are  taken  on  the  bridge  by  
the  Master  (Captain)  and/or  
the  officer  of  the  watch  
(OOW).  
On  the  bridge,  one  finds  all  
the  necessary  equipment  to  
sail  the  ship  safely  to  her  
des*na*on.  

Over  the  last  50  years,  the  ship’s  bridge  has  been  subject  to  numerous  changes;  
from  simple  instruments  to  highly  sophis*cated  electronic  devices.  The  ships  and  
hence  also  the  bridge  have  considerably  grown  in  size.    
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Ship’s  Naviga.on  Bridge  in  older  ships  
In  older  ships  the  naviga*on  bridge  (also  
called  wheelhouse)  was  equipped  with  only  
a  few    pre-­‐electronic  instruments  like:  
− The  magne*c  compass  
− The  chadburn  (or  ship’s  telegraph)  
− The  wheel  (to  steer  the  ship)  
− The  echo  sounder  (usually  an  op*cal  one)  
− A  telephone  or  voice  tube  to  the  master  
and  the  engine  room  
A  chartroom  was  annexed  to  the  bridge  to  
perform  all  naviga*on  work  on  the  chart  
and  to  enter  the  logbook.  
Most  ships  had  no  radar  and  no  gyro-­‐
compass  and  the  radio  was  located  in  a  
special  “radio  room”.    
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Ship’s  Naviga.on  Bridge  in  modern  ships  
Nowadays,  the  bridge  of  modern  ships  is  fully  
equipped  with  electronic  instruments  like:  
− A  gyrocompass  
− Several  repeaters  to  take  bearings  
− Several  radars  
− Ecdis  (Electronic  Chart  Display  Informa*on  
System)  
− GPS    
− AIS  (Automa*c  Iden*fica*on  System)  
− A  Loran-­‐E  (hyperbolic  posi*oning  system)  
− A  voyage  Data  recorder  
− A  digital  echo  sounder  
− The  means  to  control  the  engine  from  the  
bridge  
− The  radio  installa*on  (the  officer  of  the  
watch  is  responsible  for  handling  the  radio)  
− All  sorts  of  safety  equipment  
− Etc    
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Staying  on  track  
At  sea  and  in  coastal  waters  
Some  means  to  keep  the  ship  on  track  are  common  in  coastal  
waters  and  in  the  open  seas:  
− Nau*cal  charts  
− ECDIS  
− Nau*cal  instruments  
•  Compass  (magne*c,  gyro,  electronic,  …)  
•  Radar  
•  GPS  
•  AIS  
•  Etc.  
− Aids  to  Naviga*on  (buoyage  –  see  further))  
− Nau*cal  publica*ons  and  No*ces  to  Mariners  (NtM)  –  (wrilen  
or  by  radio)  
TRADE  ROUTES  

Marine  chart  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

Ecdis  
Ecdis  means  “Electronic  Chart  Display  Informa*on  System”.  It  is  in  fact  an  
electronic  marine  chart  and  not  a  classic  paper  chart.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

Magne*c  compass   Azimuth  ring  

The  magne*c  compass  consists  of  a  magne*zed  needle  

or  pointer  (usually  marked  on  the  North  end)  free  to  
Binnacle   align  itself  with  the  earth’s  magne*c  field  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

Gyrocompass  repeater  

Gyrocompass  
A  gyrocompass  is  a  type  of  non-­‐
magne*c  compass  which  is  based  
on  a  fast-­‐spinning  disc  and  rota*on  
of  the  Earth  to  automa*cally  find  
the  geographical  direc*on.  
Gyrocompass  steering  console  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

Electronic  compass   Smartphone  

A  GPS  can  be  used  as  a  compass  provided  the  instrument  is  moving.  A  smart-­‐
phone  can  also  be  used  as  a  compass  because  of  the  magnetometer  inside  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

Radar   Radar  antenna  

The  “Radar”  is  an  object-­‐detec*on  system  which  uses  radio  waves  to  determine  the  range,  
al*tude,  direc*on,  or  speed  of  objects.  At  sea,  it  can  be  used  to  detect,  ships,  weather  
forma*ons,  coastlines  and  any  floa*ng  object.  The  radar  dish  or  antenna  transmits  pulses  
of  radio  waves  or  microwaves  which  bounce  off  any  object  in  their  path.  The  object  returns  
a  *ny  part  of  the  wave's  energy  to  a  dish  or  antenna  which  is  usually  located  at  the  same  
site  as  the  transmiler.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

GPS  Satellites   GPS  

The  GPS  (Global  Posi*oning  System)  is  a  space-­‐based  satellite  naviga*on  system  
that  provides  loca*on  and  *me  informa*on  in  all  weather,  anywhere  on  or  near  
the  Earth,  where  there  is  an  unobstructed  line  of  sight  to  four  or  more  GPS  
satellites.  It  is  freely  accessible  to  anyone  with  a  GPS  receiver.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

AIS   AIS  
The  Automa*c  Iden*fica*on  System  (AIS)  is  an  automa*c  tracking  system  used  on  
ships  and  by  vessel  traffic  services  (VTS)  for  iden*fying  and  loca*ng  vessels  by  
electronically  exchanging  data  with  other  nearby  ships  and  AIS  Base  sta*ons.  AIS  
informa*on  supplements  marine  radar,  which  con*nues  to  be  the  primary  method  of  
collision  avoidance  for  water  transport.  Informa*on  provided  by  AIS  equipment,  such  
as  unique  iden*fica*on,  posi*on,  course,  and  speed,  can  be  displayed  on  a  screen  or  
an  ECDIS.  AIS  is  intended  to  assist  a  vessel's  officers  of  the  watch  (OOW)  and  allow  
mari*me  authori*es  to  track  and  monitor  vessel’s  movements.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Nau.cal  Publica.ons  
In  most  waters,  details  of  aids  to  naviga*on  and  local  regula*ons  
may  be  found  in  various  publica*ons  such  as:    

–  Sailing  direc*ons  
–  Pilot  books  
–  List  of  lights  
–  Guide  to  Port  Entry  
–  Etc.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
No.ces  to  Mariners  (NtM)  
Charts  and  Publica*ons  should  be  maintained  
so  that  they  are  fully  up-­‐to-­‐date  for  the  
latest  safety-­‐cri*cal  naviga*onal  informa*on.  
The  Admiralty  No*ces  to  Mariners  service  
provides  all  of  the  data  needed  to  maintain  
theirr  products.  Admiralty  NtM  contain  all  the  
correc*ons,  altera*ons  and  amendments  for  
the  UKHO's  worldwide  series  of  Admiralty  
Charts  and  Publica*ons.  They  are  published  
weekly  in  several  formats  but  best  known  as  the  
weekly  booklets,  which  are  despatched  directly  
from  the  UKHO.  

Although  the  Admiralty  No*ces  to  Mariners  cover  the  whole  world,  most  
mari*me  countries  also    publish  their  own  No*ces    to  Mariners,  especially  to  
cover  their  local  waters.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Staying  on  track  
In  the  Open  sea  
In  the  open  sea  different  means  for  staying  on  track  are  used  than  
those  used  in  coastal  waters.  Here,  emphasis  is  put  on  classic  and  
astronomical  naviga*on  systems  such  as:  
− Dead  reckoning  (based  on  course  steered  and  distance  ran)  
− Astronomical  posi*oning  with  sextant,  chronometer  and  
astronomical  tables  
− GPS  
− Hyperbolic  posi*oning  systems  (loran-­‐A,  Loran-­‐C  and  Loran-­‐E)  
Special  alen*on  must  be  given  to  weather  condi*ons  (direc*on  
and  force  of  wind)  and  to  the  prevailing  currents,  especially  when  
relying  on  dead  reckoning  posi*ons.    
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Astronomical  posi.on  
There  are  different  methods  to  determine  the  
ship’s  posi*on  by  astro  naviga*on.  
Some  of  the  current  methods  are:  
− To  calculate  the  longitude  
− The  culmina*on  of  the  sun  at  noon  (e.g.  to  
determine  the  la*tude)  
− The  posi*on  line.  
We  will  only  consider  the  posi*on  line  in  this  
presenta*on.      
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Celestial body Circle  of  Posi.on  
Any   celes*al   body   (sun,   star,   planet)   or   satellite  
projects   on   the   surface   of   the   earth   a   circle   of  
posi*on,  which  is  the  base  of  a  cone.  Depending  
on   the   observer’s   posi*on,   the   cone   and   this  
Line joining the
circle  will  be  smaller  or  larger.  
celestial body and
the earth’s center Cone An  observer  situated  on  the  circle  of  posi*on  will  
see   the   celes*al   body   at   a   certain   height   in  
respect   to   his   horizon.   This   height   can   be  
measured  with  a  sextant  and  computed.  

Circle of In   fact,   any   observer   situated   on   the   circle   of  

GP position posi*on   will   see   the   celes*al   body   under   the  
same  sextant  angle.  Hence,  this  height,  together  
Geographical
Position
with   the   bearing   of   the   body   is   an   indica*on   of  
Centre of Earth the  observer’s  posi*on.  
If   a   second   or   third   celes*al   body   can   be  
observed,   the   point   where   these   circles   cross  
each  other  is  the  actual  posi*on  of  the  observer.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
N
Circle of Position AZIMUTH  
N Azimuth This  figure  shows  the  circle  of  posi*on  with  
Observer 3 the  Geographical  Posi*on  (the  projec*on  of  
the  centreline  of  the  cone)  and  three  
observers.  
Each  observer  will  see  the  GP  in  a  different  
Azimuth direc*on.  This  is  in  fact  the  direc*on  of  the  
N celes*al  body  with  reference  to  the  North  
GP
This  direc*on  is  called  “Azimuth”  and  can  be  
Observer 2
determined  with  a  bearing  instrument  or  
computed  with  astronomical  and  nau*cal  
Azimuth tables.  

Observer 1
In  our  figure,  observer  1  sees  the  celes*al  
body  in  a  NW-­‐ly  direc*on;  Observer  2  in  a  E-­‐
ly  direc*on  and  observer  3  in  a  SE-­‐ly  
direc*on  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Celestian Body
Observed  Al.tude  
The  al*tude  of  the  celes*al  
body  (also  called  the  height)  
can  be  measured  with  a  sextant  
Horizon and  is  than  referred  to  as  the  
“observed  al.tude”  (hv)  or  (Ho)  
or(  ho).  
Observer hv In  the  assumed  posi*on  (AP);  
the  al*tude  of  this  body  can    be  
GP
computed  from  a  astronomical  
triangle  and  nau*cal  tables  and  
is  than  referred  to  as  the  
Circle of Position
“computed  al.tude”  (hc)  or  
(Hc).  
The  al.tude  of  a  celes.al  body  is  the  angle  made  by  this  body  and  the  horizon.  It  is  
consequently  the  al*tude  (or  height)  of  the  celes*al  body  as  seen  by  a  observer  situated  
on  a  horizontal  plane.  Because  the  earth  constantly  rotates  on  its  axis,  causing  apparent  
rota*on  of  the  celes*al  sphere,  the  GP  is  con*nually  moving  to  the  westward  at  15°  per  
hour.  Hence,  the  al*tude  of  a  celes*al  body  is  also  con*nually  changing.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Celestial Body
Intercept  Δh  
This  figure  shows  the  computed  
al*tude  hc  of  a  celes*al  body  as  
calculated  from  an  observer  situated  
in  an  “Assumed  Posi.on”  (AP).  
The    assumed  posi*on  of  an  observer  
is  its  posi*on  obtained  by  applying  the  
course  and  distance  ran,  taking  into  
account  the  influence  of  the  wind  and  
hv2 hc hv1
GP current.  It  is  also  called  “dead  
h h
reckoning”.  
Observed AP Observed
altitude Assumed altitude The  observed  al*tude  hv1  (or  hv2)  is  
Position taken  with  a  sextant.  
The  actual  posi*on  of  the  observer  can  be  determined  by  checking  whether    the  
observed  al*tude  (ho)  of  the  celes*al  body  is  closer  or  further  away  from  the  GP,  
compared  to  the  AP.  The  difference  between  hv  and  and  hc  is  called  the  “Intercept”  and  
will  consequently  determine  if  the  observer  is  closer  or  further  away  from  his  assumed  
posi*on.  The  intercept  Δh  =  hv  –  hc.  
Is  hv  >  hc,  than  Δh  is  posi*ve.  Is  hv    <  hc,  than  Δh  is  nega*ve.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
N This  figure  shows  a  classic  graphic  of  a  line  
of  posi*on,  as  o\en  draw  on  a  marine  chart.  
The  sextant  al*tude            hv  =  36°27’,6  
Azimuth Circle of Position The  computed  al*tude  ho  =  36°20’,3  
AP                      
                                                                                     Δh  =          +  7’;3  
The  sextant  al*tude  in  the  assumed  posi*on  
Line of Position AP  is  greater  than  the  computed  al*tude  so  
Actual Position that  the  line  of  posi*on  is  further  away  from  
of the  AP  and  closer  to  the  GP.  
Observer
Since  the  circle  of  posi*on  is  very  large,  it  
may  be  regarded  as  a  straight  line,  the  “Line  
of  Posi.on”.  
It  is  not  necessary  to  draw  a  line  of  posi*on  
Towards GP
in  the  assumed  posi*on  AP.  
If  two  or  three  lines  of  posi*on  can  be  computed  e.g.  by  observing  two  or  three  stars,  
the  actual  posi*on  of  the  observer  (the  ship)  can  be  determined  with  a  great  degree  of  
precision.  For  more  info,  see  “Naviga.on”.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
GPS   The  Global  Posi*oning  System  (GPS)  is  a  space-­‐
based  satellite  naviga*on  system  that  provides  
loca*on  and  *me  informa*on  in  all  weather,  
anywhere  on  or  near  the  Earth,  where  there  is  
an  unobstructed  line  of  sight  to  four  or  more  
GPS  satellites.  It  is  maintained  by  the  United  
States  government  and  is  freely  accessible  to  
anyone  with  a  GPS  receiver.  

GPS  Satellites  

GPS  Receiver  
GPS  Receiver  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Hyperbolic  Posi.on  Systems  
Hyperbolic  naviga*on  refers  to  a  class  of  radio  naviga*on  systems  based  on  the  
difference  in  *ming  between  the  recep*on  of  two  signals,  without  reference  to  
a  common  clock.  This  *ming  reveals  the  difference  in  distance  from  the  receiver  
to  the  two  sta*ons.  Plowng  all  of  the  poten*al  loca*ons  of  the  receiver  for  the  
measured  delay  produces  a  series  of  hyperbolic  lines  on  a  chart.  Taking  two  
such  measurements  and  looking  for  the  intersec*ons  of  the  hyperbolic  lines  
reveals  the  receiver's  loca*on  to  be  in  one  of  two  loca*ons.  Any  form  of  other  
naviga*on  informa*on  can  be  used  to  eliminate  this  ambiguity  and  determine  a  
fix.  The  first  such  system  to  be  used  was  the  World  War  II-­‐era  Gee  system  
introduced  by  the  Royal  Air  Force  for  use  by  Bomber  Command.  This  was  
followed  by  the  more  accurate  Decca  Navigator  System  in  1944  by  the  Royal  
Navy,  along  with  LORAN  by  the  US  Navy  for  long-­‐range  naviga*on  at  sea.  Post  
war  examples  including  the  well-­‐known  US  Coast  Guard  LORAN-­‐C,  the  
interna*onal  Omega  system,  and  the  Soviet  Alpha  and  CHAYKA.  All  of  these  
systems  saw  use  un*l  their  wholesale  replacement  by  satellite  naviga*on  
systems  like  the  Global  Posi*oning  System  (GPS).  (Text  from  free  Wikipedia)  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Decca  

Decca  receiver   Decca  chart  

Nowadays,  the  Decca  Naviga*on  System  is  not  used  anymore.  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Loran  

Loran  receiver   Loran  Chart  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Loran  

Loran  -­‐C   E-­‐Loran  

The  E-­‐Loran  is  an  enhanced  Loran  naviga*on  system.  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
In  Coastal  waters  
In  coastal  waters,  some  of  the  means  used  in  the  open  seas  can  also  be  used,  
such  as:  
Charts,  Gps,  Hyperbolic  Posi*oning  Systems,  radar,  Etc.  
In  coastal  waters,  the  following  means  for  a  safe  naviga*on  will  be  used:  
− Buoyage  
− Objects  ashore  (light  houses,  buildings,  etc.)  
− Bearings  
− GPS  (slide  43)  and  Differen*al  GPS  
− Radar  (slide  42)  
− Charts  (paper  and  Ecdis)  –  (slides  37  and  38)  
− Echo  sounder  
− AIS  (slide  44)  
− Knowledge  and  experience  
− Pilot  
− Etc.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Buoyage  
Buoys  are  floa*ng  objects  that  indicate  dangers  or  a  point  of  interest  at  sea.  They  are  
mainly  used  at  sea  and  they  can  have  different  appearances.  (See  IALA  Mari*me  
Buoyage  Systems).  There  are  also  fixed  object  at  sea  and  rarely  light  vessels.  
For  full  details  see  “Aids  to  Naviga*on”  in  this  site.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Buoyage  

Starboard  hand  buoy   Port  hand  buoy   Cardinal  buoy  

(IALA  “A”)   (IALA  “A”)  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Beacons  ashore  
Beacons  ashore  like  lighthouses,  buildings,  etc  help  the  sailor  to  orientate  himself.  
Taking  bearings  of  fixed  beacons  ashore  provide  a  perfect  fix  of  the  ship.  

Dungeness  lighthouse   Conspicuous  building  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Buoyage  on  a  chart  
Channels  and/or  
fairways  are  
generally  
indicated  by  means  of    
buoys  or  other  
conspicuous  objects.  

The  Colregs  prescribe  

how  narrow  channels    
must  be  used  (e.g.  
crossed)  

Extract  from  te  marine  chart  “Vlaamse  Banken”  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Traffic  Separa*on  Schemes  
Because  in  heavy  traffic  zones,  ships  
may  navigate  in  all  direc*ons,  it  was  
necessary,  to  improve  the  safety  of  
naviga*on,  to  install  some  two-­‐way  
traffic  systems  known  as  “Traffic  
Separa*on  Schemes”  (TSS).  
This  was  implemented  by  the  IMO  in  
1971.  
Rule  10  of  the  Colregs  prescribes  in  
detail  how  a  TSS  must  be  used.    

Traffic  Separa*on  Schemes  may  not  be  regarded  as  highways  at  sea,  which  means  that  
ships  into  the  scheme  do  not  have  a  privilege  on  ships  outside  the  scheme.  (See  Rule  10    
for  details  and  excep*ons.)  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Bearings  
Bearings  are  usually  taken  with  a  pelorus.  They  give  the  direc*on  in  which  an  
object  is  seen  and  the  give  a  good  fix  on  the  marine  chart.  

Pelorus  or  bearing  instrument   An  officer  taking  a  bearing  with  a  

compass  repeater  in  the  wing  of  the  
bridge  
 TRADE  ROUTES  

Differen.al  GPS  
Differen*al  Global  Posi*oning  System  (DGPS)  is  an  enhancement  to  Global  
Posi*oning  System  that  provides  improved  loca*on  accuracy,  from  the  15-­‐
meter  nominal  GPS  accuracy  to  about  10  cm  in  case  of  the  best  
implementa*ons.  DGPS  uses  a  network  of  fixed,  ground-­‐based  reference  
sta*ons  to  broadcast  the  difference  between  the  posi*ons  indicated  by  the  
satellite  systems  and  the  known  fixed  posi*ons.  These  sta*ons  broadcast  the  
difference  between  the  measured  satellite  pseudoranges  and  actual  
(internally  computed)  pseudoranges,  and  receiver  sta*ons  may  correct  their  
pseudoranges  by  the  same  amount.  The  digital  correc*on  signal  is  typically  
broadcast  locally  over  ground-­‐based  transmilers  of  shorter  range.  
(Text  from  Wikipedia)  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Echo  sounding  
Echo  sounding  is  the  technique  of  using  sound  
pulses  to  find  the  depth  of  water.  The  interval  
from  the  emission  of  a  pulse  to  recep*on  of  its  
echo  is  recorded,  and  the  depth  calculated  
from  the  known  speed  of  propaga*on  of  sound  
through  water.  This  informa*on  is  then  
typically  used  for  naviga*on  purposes  or  in  
order  to  obtain  depths  for  char*ng  purposes.  
Echo  sounding  can  also  refer  to  hydroacous*c  
"echo  sounders"  defined  as  ac*ve  sound  in  
water  (sonar)  used  to  study  fish.  Hydroacous*c  
assessments  have  tradi*onally  employed  
mobile  surveys  from  boats  to  evaluate  fish  
biomass  and  spa*al  distribu*ons.  Conversely,  
fixed-­‐loca*on  techniques  use  sta*onary  
transducers  to  monitor  passing  fish.   Echo  sounding  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Echo  sounders  

Graphic  echo  sounder   Digital  echo  sounder  

 TRADE  ROUTES  
Echo  sounders  

Echo  soundings  on  recording  paper   Digital  and  recording  

echo  sounder  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Pilots  
A  pilot  is  an  experienced  marine  officer  well  acquainted  with  shallows  and  
dangers  in  channels,  rivers  and  harbours  and  who  is  entrusted  with  the  safe  
conduct  of  the  vessel.  He  is  also  well  acquainted  with  the  local  regula*ons  
which  are  men*oned  in  Rule  1  (b)  of  the  Interna'onal  Regula'ons  for  
Preven'ng  Collisions  at  Sea.  Nearly  all  large  vessels  which  have  to  navigate  in  
narrow  channels  or  enter  or  leave  a  harbour  require  the  assistance  of  a  pilot.  
Pilotage  in  most  countries  is  compulsory.  

Pilot  boarding  a  ship  (stormylifejackets.com.au)   Pilot  giving  advise  

professionalmariner.com  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Pilot  boats  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Knowledge,  Experience  and  Common  Sense  
These  are  the  three  pillars  to  ascertain  that  the  voyage  of  the  ship  will  be  
completed  safely  for  all  par*es  involved.  
Knowledge  can  be  acquired  in  a  college  and  in  books.  
Experience  will  usually  only  come  with  *me.  We  must  con*nuously  learn  
from  our  senior  officers  and  never  be  embarrassed  to  ask  a  ques*on  when  in  
doubt.  
Never,  never  take  any  risk  or  any  chance.  Murphy  is  always  looking  around  
the  corner  to  put  a  spoke  in  someone’s  wheels  
IN  CASE  OF  DOUBT  ALWAYS  CALL  THE  MASTER  
Common  sense,  to  me,  you  either  have  or  you  don’t  have  it.  
The  site  “mari*meknowhow.com”  aims  at  giving  the  mari*me  world  the  
necessary  knowledge,  *ps  and  tricks  that  may  make  your  life  at  sea  not  only  
safer  but  also  more  enjoyable.  
.  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
Other  aspects  to  guarantee  a  safe  voyage  
Shipping  is  a  complex  enterprise  and  over  the  years  a  lot  of  regula*ons  and  
merchant  shipping  no*ces  have  been  promulgated,  and  Na*onal  and  
Interna*onal  bodies  have  been  created  to  guarantee  the  safety  of  life  and  
property  at  sea.  
The  most  important  elements  to  be  taken  into  account  are:  
Regula.ons  such  as:  
 Interna*onal  Regula*ons  for  Preven*ng  Collisions  ar  Sea  
 IMO’s  Safety  of  Life  at  Sea  (SOLAS)  
 Numerous  IMO  Regula*ons  
 Merchant  Shipping  Acts  
 Etc.  
Bodies  
 IMO  
 Nau*cal  Inspec*ons  
 TRADE  ROUTES  
 Classifica*on  socie*es  
P  §  I  Clubs  
Insurance  companies    
Etc.  

Safety  of  Naviga.on  

Dangers  at  Sea  
Accidents  
Traffic  Separa.on  Schemes  
Voyage  Planning  
Etc,  etc.  

This  list  is  nearly  infinite  so  that  most  of  these  subjects  will  not  be  discussed  
in  this  presenta*on  but  will  be  dealt  with  at  length  in:    
hlp://mari*meknowhow.com