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12,13
Importance:
• Experimental evidence of the existence of the electron spin
• Powerful tool for the identification of levels (ie the assignment
of quantum numbers)
• Control motion of the atoms, eg atom trapping (will come back
to this at the end of the course)
Ordinary Zeeman effect
r
Magnetic energy is given by
B0 // z
r r
Vmag = − µ j ⋅ B0
r
B0 = homogenous external field
r r r
µ j = total magnetic moment of the atom = µl + µ s
r
Let’s consider first the case of spin 0 states: µs = 0
we are left with purely orbital magnetism
Vmag = ml µ B Bo
Before we move on to the anomalous Zeeman effect, let’s analyse
the ordinary Zeeman effect by means of the vector model.
Vector model = classical description of the behaviour of angular
momentum vectors 0
r r
torque τ = µ l × B0 l sin θ
r r
dl l
τ= Newton’s law
dt
r
r l
µl = − µ B
h
r r
µl
dl µB r r
=− l × B0
dt h
This is the equation of the motion for l. The resulting motion is a
precession about the direction of the B-field.
µB
The precession frequency is known as Larmor frequency ω L= B0
h
and it coincides with the distance between the Zeeman components
(see also tutorial problem.)
r2
From the vector model we see that l and projection lZ are constant.
This corresponds to the (already known) fact that they commute with
e
H
the total Hamiltonian of the system atom + lZ B0 .
2m0
Also, we note that the projection lZ , which determines
r the energy
shift in the Zeeman effect, is the time-average of l during the
precession.
These ideas will be useful for the next topic, the anomalous Zeeman
effect.
r
So far we have considered the case of spin 0 states: µ s =0
r
Now let’s consider the case µ s ≠ 0 . The atomic magnetic moment
is then due to a superposition of spin and orbital magnetism:
r r r
µ j = µl + µ s
Moreover, now we have to include also the spin-orbit coupling in the
total Hamiltonian: r
p 2
a r r r
H= + V (r ) + 2 l ⋅ s − µ j ⋅ B0
2m0 h 23 1
1 424 3
14243 fine structure Vmag
gross structure
3 s1/ 2 g j = 2
ANOMALOUS ZEEMAN
EFFECT OF SODIUM D-LINES
Selection rule:
∆m j = 0, ± 1
LARGE NUMBER
OF SPECTRAL LINES
Paschen Back Effect
We have so far only been dealing with WEAK magnetic fields.
If B-field applied is strong enough things become simplified
because we can neglect the spin-orbit coupling and we are left with:
r r r r r r e e
Vmag = − µ j ⋅ B0 = − µl ⋅ B0 − µ s ⋅ B0 = l z B0 + s z B0 =
2m0 m0
= µ B ml B0 + 2 µ B ms B0 ⇒ Vmag = µ B (ml + 2ms ) B0
SUBSTITUTE
EIGENVALUES
Vector model:
both l and s precess independently
around the direction of the B-field.
(a) D1 and D2 in sodium
(b) Zeeman splitting
(c) Paschen Back effect
Selection rules:
∆ml = 0, ± 1
∆m s = 0
Electric dipole cannot effect
a spin flip because
r it only
acts on ψ (r ) and not on spin.
S
uniformly accelerated motion
L MAGNET parabolic trajectory
POLES
Given the force and the atom velocity, it is possible to calculate the
deflection of the beam after the magnet.
Of course the force depends on the projection of µ along B, i.e. it
depends on the angle α between µ and B: r r
dB
B µ
F=µ cosα α
dz
We expect no preferred direction for the magnetic moment, i.e.
different atoms have different values of α. (This is often referred to as
unpolarised atomic beam.) Hence different atoms will experience a
different force.
Classically, any orientation α is permitted. Atoms with magnetic
moments perpendicular to B are not deflected, those parallel deflected
most, all intermediate values can occur. This results in a broad
distribution after the magnet:
N
v
S PHOTOGRAPHIC
PLATE
S
Conclusions:
• Evidence of directional quantisation
• From exp. data on deflection we can obtain values for magnetic
moment µs,z
• Observe effects due to spin magnetism (l=0 for valence electron in Ag)
• Inner shells do not contribute to the total magnetic moment