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Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical

observations for hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise,
India

Article  in  Geoscience Frontiers · January 2013

DOI: 10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003

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Research paper

Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical

observations for hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan
Syneclise, India
T. Satish Kumar a, *, A.M. Dayal b, V. Sudarshan c
a
Centre of Excellence for Energy Studies, Oil India Ltd, Guwahati 781022, India
b
National Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR), Hyderabad 500006, India
c
Applied Geochemistry Department, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500006, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Deccan Syneclise is considered to have significant hydrocarbon potential. However, significant
Received 28 December 2012 hydrocarbon discoveries, particularly for Mesozoic sequences, have not been established through
Received in revised form conventional exploration due to the thick basalt cover over Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. In this study,
27 July 2013
near-surface geochemical data are used to understand the petroleum system and also investigate type
Accepted 5 August 2013
Available online xxx
of source for hydrocarbons generation of the study area. Soil samples were collected from favorable
areas identified by integrated geophysical studies. The compositional and isotopic signatures of
adsorbed gaseous hydrocarbons (methane through butane) were used as surface indicators of pe-
Keywords:
Adsorbed gas
troleum micro-seepages. An analysis of 75 near-surface soil-gas samples was carried out for light
Microseepage hydrocarbons (C1eC4) and their carbon isotopes from the western part of Tapti graben, Deccan
Light hydrocarbon Syneclise, India. The geochemical results reveal sites or clusters of sites containing anomalously high
Stable isotope concentrations of light hydrocarbon gases. High concentrations of adsorbed thermogenic methane
Geophysical (C1 ¼ 518 ppb) and ethane plus higher hydrocarbons (SC2þ ¼ 977 ppb) were observed. Statistical
Deccan Syneclise analysis shows that samples from 13% of the samples contain anomalously high concentrations of
light hydrocarbons in the soil-gas constituents. This seepage suggests largest magnitude of soil gas
anomalies might be generated/source from Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, beneath Deccan Traps. The
carbon isotopic composition of methane, ethane and propane ranges are from 22.5& to 30.2&
PDB, 18.0& to 27.1& PDB and 16.9&e32.1& PDB respectively, which are in thermogenic source.
Surface soil sample represents the intersection of a migration conduit from the deep subsurface to the
surface connected to sub-trappean Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. Prominent hydrocarbon concentra-
tions were associated with dykes, lineaments and presented on thinner basaltic cover in the study
area, which probably acts as channel for the micro-seepage of hydrocarbons.
Ó 2013, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Visible seepage of oil or hydrocarbon gases in sedimentary ba-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: satishkumar.thadoju@gmail.com (T. Satish Kumar).
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing)
Production and hosting by Elsevier
sins has played a major role in the discovery of many oil fields
throughout the world (Link, 1952). In 1930s, the concept of a
prominent macro seep environment in association with commer-
cial subsurface hydrocarbons was extended to the micro seep level
by measuring minute surface gas concentrations or secondary soil
alteration effects induced by gas seepage. Microseepage of hydro-
carbon gases into near-surface environments is often interpreted as
a direct indication of the presence of deeper hydrocarbons. Jones
and Drozd (1983) and Severne et al. (1991) provided examples for
such successful applications of soil gas surveys in exploration. The

1674-9871/$ e see front matter Ó 2013, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003

Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
2 T. Satish Kumar et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2013) 1e10

Figure 1. Adsorbed soil sample locations are plotted on geology of the study area, Tapti Graben, Deccan Syneclise (modified after Geological Survey of India, 2001).

Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
 T. Satish Kumar et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2013) 1e10 3

Table 1 identification of seepage can add valuable information to the

Generalized stratigraphy of the Deccan Syneclise Basin (After Deshpande, 1998). exploration process when the diagnosis of gas micro seep envi-
Age Formation/ Anticipated ronments can be distinguished and separated from background
range Group thickness (km) Lithology Geographic distribution data. Under certain conditions, active seepage may be recognized
Recent– Alluvium Nagpur, Bhandara ,
through measurement of concentration and composition of hy-
Pleistocene Laterite, sand Candrapur, Wardha drocarbon gases in soils (Jones and Drozd, 1983; Klusman, 1993).
Jalgaon, This paper describes the application of surface geochemical
Kolhapur Satara Thane, etc.
Early Paleocene Deccan Traps 1–2 Basalts Most of the state from studies carried out in sub-trappean of Mesozoic age in Deccan Trap
–Cretaceous west of Nagpur to cover, western part of Tapti graben for the prospecting of hydro-
Arabian sea coast
--------------------------------------------Unconformity---------------------------------------- carbons. The region has received wide attention for its hydrocarbon
Late Lameta, bagh Arenaceous Nagpur, Candrapur prospects because of the thick GondwanaeMesozoic sedimenta-
Cretacoous beds limestone, Dhule, Gadchiroli tion of 1e2.75 km buried under the lava flow of Deccan Traps (Kaila
2–3.5 Sandstone Yavatmal
Middle Upper shale et al., 1989; DGH, 2006). Hence an attempt has been made to find
Triassic Gondwana the presence of hydrocarbons in the reported Mesozoic sediment
------------------------------------------ Unconformity --------------------------------------
Triassic– Nagpur, Chandrapur areas. In the present work, the adsorbed soil gases and their carbon
Carboniferous Lower Yavatmal isotope signatures have been analyzed to determine the concen-
Gondwana
Proterozoic Penganga beds Gadchiroli, Ratnagiri
tration of light hydrocarbons and to identify the seepage and source
Limetsones, shales of hydrocarbons.
Archean Sausar, Sakoli, Nagpur, Bhandara
Amagaon, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg
Unclassified gneisses 1.1. Geology of the study area

The Narmada-Tapti rift system, which constitutes the western

part of the NSL (Narmada-Son Lineament), is covered by a thick pile
of Deccan lava flows and is characterized by several hidden tectonic

Figure 2. (a) Trap thickness map in Deccan Syneclise with study area (modified after Harinarayana et al., 2007). (b) Map showing Mesozoic sediment thickness of the study area
(after DGH, 2006). (c) The Narmada-Tapti seaway of Deccan volcanic province with study area (modified after Keller et al., 2009).

Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
4 T. Satish Kumar et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2013) 1e10

structures, magmatic crustal accretion, sedimentary basins and Deep seismic studies (DSS) along the Thuadara-Sendhwa-
complex geophysical signatures (Fig. 1). Major tectonic adjustments Sindad profile wherein the first arrival refraction data analyzed
in various crustal blocks, in Narmada-Tapti graben occurred in based on 2D tracing technique revealed a graben between Narmada
Precambrian/Gondwana times which must have been responsible and Tapti. This graben contains 1000e2800 m thick low velocity
for the formation of Vindhyan and Gondwana sedimentary basins. (3.2e3.6 km s1) sediments under a thick cover of Deccan traps.
Tapti Basin, an intracratonic half graben in western-central India And this study also revealed that the graben is bounded by two
(Guha, 1995) is considered to be Mesozoic marginal marine basin faults, one south of Narmada i.e., Barwani-Sukta and the other
(Biswas, 1987). The generalized stratigraphy of Deccan Traps is given north of Tapti river. The graben seems to be extending towards
in Table 1. Tapti Basin forms a linear tract spread over a length of south-east. The low velocity Mesozoic sedimentary rocks with a P-
350 km and an average width of 30 km covered by alluvium of Tertiary wave velocity of 3.5 km s1 and thickness ranging from about 0.70
to recent with isolated inliers of the Deccan Traps. The alluvium to 1.6 km and 0.55e1.1 km lies along the east-west and north-south
thickness from south to north, in general, extends to a depth of profiles, respectively (Murty et al., 2010).
w200 m to >400 m below mean sea level at places (Ravi Shanker, The first layer with a P-wave velocity of 5.15e5.25 km s1 and
1987). The Deccan Trap thickness varies considerably from 100 m in thickness varying from 0.7 to 1.5 km represents the Deccan Trap
the northeastern part to more than 1500 m towards the west coast of formation along the NarayanpureNandurbar profile. The Trap layer
India (Fig. 2a). In the Narmada-Tapti region, a hidden Mesozoic sedi- velocity ranges from 4.5 to 5.20 km s1 and the thickness varies
mentary basin underlying the Deccan Traps has been reported in the from 0.95 to 1.5 km along the KothareSakri profile. The second
form of two grabens separated by a small horst of Satpura hills. In the layer represents the low velocity Mesozoic sediments with a P-
southern part a larger Tapti graben with sediment thickness of about wave velocity of 3.5 km s1 and thickness ranging from about 0.70
2000 m is revealed, whereas in the northern part there is a smaller to 1.6 km and 0.55e1.1 km along the EeW and NeS profiles,
Narmada graben with sediment thickness of about 1000 m (Kaila, respectively. Presence of a low-velocity zone (LVZ) below the vol-
1988). Integrated geophysical studies identified the major sedimen- canic rocks in the study area is inferred from the travel-time ‘skip’
tary basin in and around Sendhwa, Shirpur, Dhule and Sakri having and amplitude decay of the first arrival refraction data together
very large thickness of sub-trappean Mesozoic sediments of the order with the prominent wide-angle reflection phase immediately after
of 750e2250 m (Fig. 2b) (DGH, 2006). The basement topography is
quite undulating in the region and it is deepest in Shirpur and Table 2
Sendhwa region. The sediments of this Mesozoic basin were depos- Gas chromatographic analysis of light gaseous hydrocarbons desorbed from soil
samples and summary of statistical values.
ited in a larger Mesozoic sea, which extended from Narmada-Tapti
region through Saurashtra, Kutch, up to Sind and Salt Range in the Sample Id C1 C2 C3 εC4 Sample Id C1 C2 C3 εC4
(ppb) (ppb) (ppb) (ppb) (ppb) (ppb) (ppb) (ppb)
shape of a horseshoe. The Moho configuration under the Deccan Trap
covered area reveals a depression in the central part extending in an DSS/01/06 15.6 0 0 0 DSS/41/06 5.6 0 0 0
DSS/02/06 141.4 28.9 13.7 0 DSS/42/06 44.8 8.1 4.7 0
ENEeWSW direction, which almost coincides with the region of
DSS/03/06 35.5 6.9 5.3 5.4 DSS/43/06 181.5 33.7 14.9 5.8
hidden Mesozoic basin (Kaila, 1988). Both the Narmada-Tapti and the DSS/04/06 15.8 1 0 0 DSS/44/06 13.6 0 0 0
west coast tectonic belts are characterized by positive gravity anom- DSS/05/06 53.6 8 3.6 0 DSS/45/06 27.2 3.3 2.1 0
alies, high gravity gradients, high heat flow 70e100 mW/M2 and DSS/06/06 4 0 0 0 DSS/46/06 14.3 2.2 1.8 0
seismic activity (Arora and Reddy,1991) and the tectonic history of the DSS/07/06 35.9 7.3 4.8 2.8 DSS/47/06 14.7 0 0 0
DSS/08/06 26.3 6.3 6.1 7.8 DSS/48/06 4.3 0 0 0
basin indicate the thermal subsidence and burial (Schutter, 2003; DSS/09/06 24.7 3.3 2.6 0 DSS/49/06 18.7 3.5 3.4 2
Rohrman, 2007) to be significant enough to cause the maturation of DSS/10/06 24.5 3.7 3.1 0 DSS/50/06 10.6 1.3 0 0
organic rich sediments, which might be favorable conditions for hy- DSS/11/06 4.5 0 0 0 DSS/51/06 212.3 48.8 23.7 10.4
drocarbon generation. Keller et al. (2009) has been reported that, the DSS/12/06 17.1 2.5 1.5 0 DSS/52/06 8.2 0 0 0
DSS/13/06 6.2 0 0 0 DSS/53/06 20.8 0 0 0
marine incursion accompanied by planktic foraminifera and brackish-
DSS/14/06 69.8 12.7 7.4 0 DSS/54/06 17.2 2.5 0 0
marine ostracods indicates a seaway existed into central India during DSS/15/06 61.9 12.1 7.9 0 DSS/55/06 8.5 0 0 0
the Maastrichtian to early Paleocene (Fig. 2c). This seaway may have DSS/16/06 9.1 0.8 0.7 0 DSS/56/06 35.3 6 2.8 0
followed the Narmada and Tapti rift zones where a seaway is known to DSS/16(II)/06 4.3 0 0 0 DSS/57/06 53.3 6.1 0 0
have existed during the late Cenomanian to Turonian. Therefore, the DSS/17/06 4.3 0 0 0 DSS/58/06 8 0 0 0
DSS/18/06 72.7 14.1 6.6 0 DSS/59/06 7.7 0 0 0
marine transgression and regression that occurred in western and DSS/19/06 75.8 12.9 8.6 0 DSS/60/06 6.4 0 0 0
central India before the Deccan volcanism, might have favored the DSS/20/06 25.8 3 1.2 0 DSS/61/06 12.6 0 0 0
deposition of organic-rich source rocks. Further, the Deccan Trap DSS/21/06 42.7 5.9 4.1 0 DSS/62/06 19.5 0 0 0
volcanism during late Cretaceous might have generated the requisite DSS/22/06 39.3 5.9 2.2 0 DSS/63/06 41.5 4.9 3.9 0
DSS/23/06 11.9 1.7 1.3 0 DSS/64/06 18.3 2.5 2.5 0
thermal conditions and acted as a catalyst in a Mesozoic hydrocarbon
DSS/24/06 42.7 7.3 5 0 DSS/65/06 8.9 0 0 0
generation process (Biswas and Deshpande, 1983). DSS/25/06 4.9 0 0 0 DSS/66/06 4.7 0 0 0
DSS/26/06 9.8 1 0 0 DSS/67/06 2.6 0.3 0 0
1.2. Geophysical evidences DSS/27/06 24.6 2.9 0 0 DSS/68/06 34.3 6.7 4.2 0
DSS/28/06 19.7 0 0 0 DSS/69/06 12.2 0 0 0
DSS/29/06 21.3 3 2.5 2.5 DSS/70/06 16.6 0 0 0
The area has been the subject of extensive geological and DSS/30/06 18.4 2.8 2 0 DSS/71/06 16.6 1.3 0 0
geophysical investigations for many years (West, 1962; Qureshy, DSS/31/06 7.6 0.6 0 0 DSS/72/06 7.4 0.6 0 0
1964; Choubey, 1971; Mishra, 1977; Crawford, 1978; Biswas, 1982, DSS/32/06 7 0 0 0 DSS/73/06 2.6 0 0 0
1987; Ravi Shanker, 1987a,b; Kaila and Krishna, 1992; Verma and DSS/33/06 14.2 1.9 1 0 DSS/74/06 2.8 0 0 0
DSS/34/06 4.9 0 0 0
Banerjee, 1992; Powar, 1993; Ravi Shanker, 1991; Singh and
DSS/35/06 3.7 0 0 0 Mean 26.1 3.9 2.1 0.5
Meissner, 1995; Bhattacharji et al., 1996). Integrated geophysical DSS/36/06 20.3 1.8 1.1 0 Std. 36.3 7.8 3.9 1.8
exploration studies were carried out using seismic refraction, deviation
magnetotelluric, deep resistivity sounding and gravity methods by DSS/37/06 4.7 0 0 0 Range 209.6 48.8 23.7 10.4
the CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) and suc- DSS/38/06 11 0 0 0 Minimum 2.6 0 0 0
DSS/39/06 4.1 0 0 0 Maximum 212.3 48.8 23.7 10.4
cessfully delineated subtrapean Mesozoic sediments in Saurashtra DSS/40/06 4 0 0 0
and Kutch basins (NGRI, 2004).

Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
 T. Satish Kumar et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2013) 1e10 5

Table 3 acid in vacuum. The desorbed light gaseous hydrocarbons were

Pearson correlation coefficients between light hydrocarbon (C1eC4) gases.
C1 C2 C3
C1 1 of the gas was injected into a Varian CP-3380 Gas Chromatograph
C2 0.99 1 (GC) equipped with a 1.8 m  1/800  2.00 mm Porapak Q Column
C3 0.95 0.98 1 and Flame Ionization Detector. The GC was calibrated using an
εC4 0.61 0.66 0.69
the first arrivals from the Deccan Traps formation. The basement
with a P-wave velocity of 5.8e6.05 km s1 lies at a depth ranging
from 1.5 to 2.45 km along the profiles. The velocity models of the
profiles are similar to each other at the intersection point. The re-
sults indicate the existence of a Mesozoic basin in the Narmada-
Tapti region of the Deccan Syneclise.
2. Soil sampling and analytical methods
2.1. Soil sampling
Study area is located in the western part of Tapti Basin (Fig. 1),
Deccan Syneclise, India, between 74140 e74 590 E and 20 530 e
21330 N. An adsorbed soil gas survey was carried out and a total of
75 soil samples were collected from a depth of w2.5 m at an in-
terval of 2e3 km along existing roads. Cores were collected using a
hollow metal pipe by manual hammering to the required depth.
The cores collected were wrapped in aluminum foil and sealed in
poly-metal packs.
2.2. Analysis of soil gases for light hydrocarbons
The light gaseous hydrocarbons were extracted from the soil
samples using a ‘Gas extraction system’ (Horvitz, 1981). The light
gaseous hydrocarbons were desorbed from soil samples by treating
w1 g of wet sieved 63 mm fraction of sample with orthophosphoric
collected by water displacement in a graduated tube fitted with
εC4 rubber septa. The volume of desorbed gas was recorded and 500 mL
1
external standard with known concentrations of methane (C1),
ethane (C2), propane (C3), i-butane (iC4) and n-butane (nC4). The
moisture content of samples was determined and the gas concen-
trations are reported in ppb on dry weight basis. The accuracy of
measurement of C1 to C4 component is 1 ppb of gas weight.
2.3. Analysis for carbon isotopes of light hydrocarbons
Carbon isotopic composition of light hydrocarbons (d13C1, d13C2,
and d13C3) in soil samples is determined using a GC-C-IRMS, which
comprises an Agilent 6890 GC coupled to a Finnigan-Delta Plus XP
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer via a GC combustion III interface at
CSIR-NGRI. One mL of desorbed gas is injected into the GC in splitless
mode with helium as carrier gas at fixed over temperature of 28  C.
The light hydrocarbon gases eluting from the GC column enter the
combustion reactor maintained at 960  C where it gets converted to
CO2 and water. A Nafion membrane tube is used to remove water, prior
to passing the CO2 into the mass spectrometer. Reference standards
are intermixed with samples to monitor instrumental performance.
The carbon isotope ratio in the sample was determined by comparing
isotope ratios with that of a standard, NIST RM 8560 (IAEA NGS2) using
ISODAT software. The d13C is calculated using the following equation:
d13C ¼ {[(13C/12C)/(13C/12C)]  1}  1000.
The carbon isotopic composition is reported in permil (&)
relative to the Pee Dee Belemnite (PDB). The precision of the iso-
topic analysis is 0.5&.

Figure 3. (a) Histogram for methane, ethane, propane and butane concentrations. (b) Pixler plot for discriminating oil, oil and gas and gas zones using C1/C2 and C1/C3 ratios.

Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
6 T. Satish Kumar et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2013) 1e10

3. Results and discussion Table 4

Approximate empirical range of micro seep compositional ratio for gas, gas
condensate, and oil (Jones and Drozd, 1983).
3.1. Concentrations of light hydrocarbon gases
Hydrocarbon composition C1/C2 C2/C3  10 C3/C1  1000
The concentrations of each of the five organic constituents (C1, Dry gas 100e20 25e50 2e20
C2, C3, iC4, and nC4 alkanes) are expressed in parts per billion (ppb) Gas condensate 20e10 16.5e25 20e60
Oil 10e4 10e16.5 60e500
in all the 75 soil samples. The overall hydrocarbon gas composition
presence in the total samples is: C1 80.2%, C2 11.8%, C3 6.4%, iC4 0.2%
and nC4 1.2%. The detail statistics of each soil gas constituent are distribution histogram for all the individual hydrocarbons. The
summarized in Table 2. Pearson correlation coefficients are used for histograms of C1 to C3 (Fig. 3a) clearly show normal distribution
comparing the linear relationships between geochemical variables, with a positive skewness which is commonly associated with sur-
two at a time (Table 3). Correlation coefficients obtained for C1 vs. face geochemical data in petroleum exploration (Tedesco, 1995).
C2, C1 vs. C3 and C2 vs. C3, show very high correlation (r 0.9) The geochemical signature (gas/condensate/oil) is determined
with each other. This indicates that these hydrocarbons were using ratios of hydrocarbon constituents detected in the soil gas
generated from a thermogenic source (genetically related), and samples. The compositional signature displayed by C1/C2, C1/C3
belong to a migration fairway system associated with one sub- ratios, as defined by Pixler (1969) is shown in Fig. 3b, which has
surface source (Gevirtz et al., 1983). The geochemical data popu- been used to quantify and qualify compositional signatures in mud
lation and distribution pattern were analyzed using frequency logging applications and has proved to be useful for the

Figure 4. Cross plots between methane and ethane, and ethane and propane indicating the zones for soil gas.

Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
 T. Satish Kumar et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2013) 1e10 7

Figure 5. Yield ratio between C1/C2 vs. C1/(C2 þ C3), to observed possible source for light hydrocarbons (modified after Bernard et al., 1977).

interpretation of soil gas source. It can be seen that almost all the
samples fall in the oil zone. Out of 75 samples analyzed for light
hydrocarbons desorbed from soil, C1 and C2 were observed in 42
samples constituting 55% of the population. Within these 42 sam-
ples, 86% of the samples plot in oil zone and 14% in oil and gas zone
(Fig. 4a). Similarly, 32 samples show the presence of C2 and C3
components out of which only 75% of the samples plot in the oil
zone and 25% of the samples fall in the oil and gas zone (Fig. 4b).
Approximate Empirical Range of micro seep compositional ratio for
gas, gas condensate, and oil (Jones and Drozd, 1983) may be used to
constrain further wet vs. dry gas indications in soil gases (Table 4).
The hydrocarbon gases with higher carbon number, i.e., C2 þ gases,
including ethane, propane, iso- and n- butanes, are detected in 56%
of the samples, which has been found as an effective indicator of
petroleum deposits (Saunders et al., 1991). Using the yield ratio
equation C1/C2 vs. C1/(C2 þ C3), it is observed that 54% of the
samples are of thermogenic gases (Fig. 5) (Bernard et al., 1977). The
compositional signatures associated with these high (C1 and C2þ)
concentration regions are in the N and S-E parts (Fig. 6a and b) of
the study area. Accurate determination of background hydrocarbon
concentrations is paramount. Background hydrocarbon concen-
trations are considered to be normal data from sources other than
vertical migration. Therefore, hydrocarbon data above the back-
ground level can include some vertical migration data. The mean as
exact background value, assume that values above the mean plus
one standard deviation are anomalous. Background concentrations
for methane, ethane and propane are 26.1 ppb, 3.9 ppb and 2.1 ppb
respectively, which are moderately close to the median values. The
C1 and C2þ anomalous maps were prepared based on meanþ1st
standard deviation. Fig. 7a and b shows that large magnitude
anomalies found in sub-trappean Mesozoic sediments i.e., northern
region of ShirpureNardane-Sindkheda-Shendvade and southern
region of Dhule e Khede, where traps are thinner. In addition,
significant high concentrations of light hydrocarbons are found

Figure 6. (a) Isoconcentration distribution map of methane. (b) Isoconcentration distribution map of ethane plus (C2þ).

Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
8 T. Satish Kumar et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2013) 1e10

Figure 7. (a) Anomaly distribution map of methane. (b) Anomaly distribution map of ethane plus (C2þ).

Table 5 along the northern, southern faults and lineaments indicating that
Compound-specific carbon isotopic compositions of methane, ethane and propane the structural features viz., faults and lineaments acting as conduits
with light hydrocarbon concentration of the study area.
for these light hydrocarbons.
Sample no. d13C1 (&) d13C2 (&) d13C3 (&) Wetness ratio%
[C1/(C2 þ C3)]
3.2. Carbon isotope enrichment in gases desorbed from soil samples
DSS/02/06 30.2 20.3 20.3 3.32
DSS/18/06 23.9 19.8 16.9 3.51
DSS/19/06 23.3 18.1 29.1 3.52 The carbon isotope composition for the hydrocarbon gases des-
DSS/21/06 27.1 25.7 e 4.3 orbed from the soil samples are given in Table 5. The enrichment
DSS/22/06 26.9 20.6 25.5 4.8 patterns for methane, ethane and propane in different samples are
DSS/24/06 25.9 18.9 32.1 3.46 shown in Fig. 8. Theoretical considerations and empirical observa-
DSS/43/06 29.2 26.4 27.1 3.73
DSS/57/06 22.6 18 26.5 8.73
tions suggest that individual gaseous hydrocarbons generated from
DSS/63/06 26.4 27.1 e 4.71 cracking processes at the same temperature and maturity should
show characteristic carbon isotopic compositions (Chung et al., 1988;

Figure 8. Compound-specific carbon isotopic compositions of the seven gas samples from the study area. The DSS/2, DSS/18 and DSS/43 samples are displaying evidence for
unaltered samples.

Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
 T. Satish Kumar et al. / Geoscience Frontiers xxx (2013) 1e10
Figure 9. Methane carbon isotope ratio compared to wetness [(C1/C2 þ C3)] (Bernard et al., 1978) and indicating possible source for the light hydrocarbons.
Berner et al., 1990; James, 1990). Generally, carbon isotopes of
methane, ethane and propane show d13C1 < d13C2 < d13C3 trend in
natural gas. The present study reveals a deviation from this trend and
the presence of propane, which is isotopically lighter than methane,
suggests that the soil gases have suffered partial oxidation leading to
isotopically heavier methane (Fig. 8). Therefore samples might be
results from heterogeneity in the source organic matter, mixing of
gases from different sources, oxidation of thermogenic gas, or partial
diffusive leakage of the gas reservoir (Laughrey and Baldassare,
1998). The Bernard diagram (Bernard et al., 1978) is commonly
used to classify natural gas origins. A modified Bernard diagram
characterizing soil gases from the western part of Tapti Basin based
on the wetness [C1/(C2 þ C3)] vs. methane d13C is shown in Fig. 9,
which falls in thermogenic source.
4. Conclusion
Integrated interpretation of soil gases and carbon isotopes of
methane, ethane and propane has led to reliable assessment of
micro-seepage and anomalous zones, which are related to sub-
trappean Mesozoic sediments in the Deccan Traps. Light hydro-
carbons generated in the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, migrated
through the Deccan Traps and become adsorbed in the near sub-
surface soils. From the correlation, these hydrocarbons are geneti-
cally related, and might have been generated from a thermogenic
source because of the presence of C2 and C3 components. This
suggests that all the hydrocarbon constituents in the micro-seeps
are from the same source, without any prominent secondary
alteration during the path of migration to the surface and their
subsequent adsorption on the soil. The compositional ratios and
Pixler plot indicate that most of the samples fall within the oil zone.
Carbon isotope signatures suggest that these gases are derived from
oxidation of thermogenic gas of the gas reservoir. The present study
provides clear evidences of significant concentrations of hydro-
carbon, which is economically viable for exploration in the Meso-
zoic sedimentary rocks of the western part of Tapti Graben.
Acknowledgments
This paper forms part of the Ph.D research work of Satish Kumar.
He is thankful to the Director, NGRI for permitting him to carry out
Please cite this article in press as: Satish Kumar, T., et al., Surface geochemical data evaluation and integration with geophysical observations for
hydrocarbon prospecting, Tapti graben, Deccan Syneclise, India, Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.003
9
Ph.D in the Department of Applied Geochemistry, Osmania University,
Hyderabad. Satish acknowledge CSIR for the Senior Research
Fellowship.
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