MODULE-1: INTRODUCTION TO WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

Learning objective

 This unit is mainly to mean the veterinary students on the wildlife management and the
concepts.
 The objectives of this module are
o To understand on wildlife management
o To know about the protected regions like wildlife sanctuary, national park etc
o To come across the terms like eco system, eco development etc.
o To reveal information on pheromone, animal indicator and biomes

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

 This is the art and science of changing the characteristics and interactions of habitats, wild animal
populations and homosapiens.
 Wildlife management is oriented to achieve the specific human goals by means of wildlife resource.

BASICS OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

 Observation
 Hypothesis
 Texts of hypothesis
 Interpretation of results
 Conclusion
 Reporting of results

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT TRAID

 This is the one that is associated with population of wild animals, interaction with human beings
and habitat.
 This triad often involves complex factors that need scientific type of intervention in a sustainable
manner.
 Human interests are safe guarded but without affecting the eco-systems and wildlife in reality.

ASSOCIATED FACTORS WITH WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

 Ecological perspectives.
 Execution of programmes to maintain previous successes.
 Ability to prevent repetition of past failures.
 Knowledge on scientific research and applications.
 Successful articulations with different research agencies.
 Scholarly application of scientific information and methods.

CONSERVATION

 This is the management of human use of biosphere with an ultimate aim of yielding the greatest
sustainable benefits to the present generation , while maintaining the potential to encounter the
requirements and expectations of the future generation.
 In nutshell, it can be said as the one that ensures continued survival by saving the wild animals
from extinction and thereby protecting the habitats.
 Conservation is different from preservation because it always aims the sustainable usage of the
available resources in the environment.

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 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

 United Nations Conference on the human environment in 1972

 World Heritage Convention in 1972
 Ramsar Convention in 1971
 Migratory species Convention in 1979
 World Conservation Strategy in 1980
 United Nations Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in the Transboundary Context in
1991.

ECO-SYSTEM

 This is a mosaic of habitat patches. There is a special relationship between the different ecosystems
existing in the wildlife regions. There are movements of organisms between different patches in the
revolving world.
 It is to be understood that the movements in general occur among the wildlife species or organisms
due to many reasons.
o Movements for establishment of territories
o Search for feed resources
o Movement due to water scarcity
o Movements due to the extreme climatic variations
o Search for proper shelter
o Dispersal from areas with high population concentrations to less densely populated regions
o Pressure from hunting or frequent predator attack
o Movements due to hazards (acoustic injuries to dolphins, whales and dugongs)
o Other reasons that are still to be clarified.

THREATS TO ECO-SYSTEMS

 These have to be identified and sorted out with a proper understanding of multiple factors involved
for this.
 Followings are the examples for the identified threats in a wildlife region:
o Alteration of major mineral or organic constituents of a system
o Removal of plantations or vegetations
o Prevention of naturally occurring events that disturb the cycles
o Introduction of pest species like goats
o Application of hazardous chemicals like pesticides or herbicides
o Changes in the major mineral or organic components of a system
o Elimination of key-wild animal species like top predator (tiger)

ECO DEVELOPMENT

 This may be defined as the set of conservation oriented development measures to make protected
areas and the human neighbours compatible with each other.
 This is a process of developing the conservation of natural resources that are sustainable by
associating local persons in the development and implementation of rural development
programmes.

AIMS OF ECO-DEVELOPMENT MEASURES

 To reduce the dependency of people (or neighbours of forests in particular) for the resources from
the forests .
 People use the resources of forests for the following purposes in general:
o Fuel.
o Grazing of livestock.
o Fodder.
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 o Building of houses.
o Agricultural practices and implements.
o Forest products.
o Food purposes.

NATURAL RESERVES

 Various natural reserves existing in the wildlife regions provide the complete protection for the wild
animals belonging to the different species.
 Many times, human interventions are made for positive purposes in order to give more protection to
the wild fauna and flora. It is to be understood that various natural reserves hardly comprise one
percent of the earth’s land areas.
 Most of the other areas are used for production of food, timber, pulpwood or other raw materials.
Hence, in all these areas, wildlife conservation related measures need to be strengthened and if
necessary, human intervention (Broader land use strategy) may be made in order to enrich the
protective measures for the welfare of wild fauna and flora.

BIOMES AND ECOLOGICAL EQUIVALENTS

 Major global units of flora and fauna are termed as biomes.

 With regard to the ecological equivalents, the wild animals in one region may differ from their
taxonomic classification but taps particular environmental resources within the ecosystem.

SANCTUARY

 An area can be declared as a sanctuary through notification under the section 18 of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act of 1972 and the process of determination of peoples rights and their acquisition
/ elimination under sections 19-25 follows such a declaration.
 Sanctuary can be defined in nut shell as a larger area meant for the protection of wild fauna and
flora. Sanctuaries have sound legal status with a strong but not exclusive wildlife oriented
management.
 The grazing activities are restricted and subordinated to the needs of wildlife conservation.
Moderate amounts of fund provision and staff facilities are given when compared to the
national park.
 Tourism may exist to some extent but is a restricted area. The status of a wildlife sanctuary can
always be elevated to that of a national park.

NATIONAL PARK

 National park is an area that has more legal status in general. A wildlife sanctuary may be elevated
to the status of national park in the course of time, depending on the extent of additional protection,
the value of the concerned wild animal species etc.
 National park has a sound legal status. They are developed exclusively for the purpose of
conservation of wildlife in their natural environment. Drastic manipulation of the wildlife habitat is
not favored in general.
 The approach towards the management related to the national park is basically of compensatory and
reamelioratory nature.

FACTORS CAUSING IMPACT ON PROTECTED REGIONS

 Wildlife regions get affected due to multiple factors that are made for various reasons.
 In this regard, it is to be noted that planning and management of various wildlife sanctuaries and
national parks together with other conservation units get affected by various developmental
activities like building of roads, dams, transportation of minerals or mining related works,

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 transportation of natural gas or oil and other exploitation related measures made for various
purposes.

PHEROMONES

 Pheromones are the scent materials by which the wild animals of different species in the forest
communicate with each other and are often used to attract the opposite sex. Pheromones are also
used to indicate the occupation of a territory to the conspecifics (animals of the same species).

Examples

 Hyaenas have scent glands in anal region

 Felids have scent glands and their markings leave a musky odor that can be perceived by human
nose for almost three weeks and the marking is done mainly along with the urination.
 Wild sheep or goat species may have such type of glands in between the two main toes of the feet.
 In cervids and antelopes in general, scent glands are present below the eye.

ANIMAL INDICATORS

 Animals are being used to indicate the health status of themselves, the environment etc. The
complexity of factors like nutritional, ethological, environmental, genetic etc. act in general upon a
population of wild animals.
 These factors are assessed by secondary indicators like habitat, feeding habits, population
characteristics. Assessment of primary indicators that are obtained directly from wild animals
representing a population may help in the minimizing of many sources of variations and provide
greater precision, in general.
 During the planning of wildlife management, more significance is generally given to the various
types of wildlife values.

ZOOLOGICAL MEDICINE

 In general, medicine is defined as any means to cure disease or improve health and health is broadly
defined as the general condition of body and mind. Zoological Medicine is a wide spectrum of
disciplines associated with the medical problems of all species of wild animals in a captive wild
animal place.
 Types of Medicine in wildlife fields
o Zoo medicine - It is associated with captive wild animals.
o Wildlife medicine - It is the one that is associated with free living wild animals.
o Population medicine - It is the one that is associated with large number of wild animals.

MODULE-2: TAXONOMY-I

 This chapter is mainly related to the various taxonomical classification of wild animals. So, you can
finally know the various species of different taxonomical divisions in this unit.

The objectives are

 To come across the baseline classification of wild animals

 To know on taxonomical units like pholidota, primates, proboscidea, lagomorpha, dermoptera,
chiroptera, insectivore, hyracoidean and tubelidentata

TAXONOMY

 The taxonomy in wild mammals consists of many orders and families. The binomial nomenclature
of the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus is followed in the animal kingdom. Genus name is
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 followed by species name in general. Ecological isolation is given significance when it becomes
necessary.

Example

 Panthera tigris altaica (it denotes the Siberian tiger which is much larger, heavier and with a
thicker.
 Panthera tigris corbetti (it indicates the tiger that is smaller in size than the Royal Bengal tiger.

BROADER CLASSIFICATION
Vertebrates and Non-Vertebrates

 In this vertebrates earlier had dorsal vertebral column that arises as a rigid rod called notochord and
was later replaced by a segmented and cartilaginous rod called as the vertebral column.

ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION

Protozoa and Metazoa

 Protozoa
o These animals are unicellular ones (body is not sub-divided into cells) . Example: Ameba and
Euglena.
 Metazoa
o This comprises the cellular animals.

VERTEBRATES AND NON-VERTEBRATES

 In this vertebrates earlier had dorsal vertebral column that arises as a rigid rod called notochord and
was later replaced by a segmented and cartilaginous rod called as the vertebral column.

ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION

Protozoa and Metazoa

 Protozoa
o These animals are unicellular ones (body is not sub-divided into cells) . Example: Ameba and
Euglena.
 Metazoa
o This comprises the cellular animals.

PHYLA IN MAMMALIAN TAXONOMY

 In general, there are many phyla available in the taxonomical classification of animals. Example:
Phylum Annelida contains the animals like leeches and tape worm that have a segmented body and
Phylum Arthropoda comprises the animals like crab, lobster, spider, scorpion and insects.
 These are the bilaterally symmetrical ones with segmented body that is coverd by a chtinous
exoskeleton .
 Among the different phyla, it is the phylum chordata that is considered as more significant one.

TYPICAL ATTRIBUTES OF CHORDATES

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Basic features of chordates

 Notochord (this is the elsastic skeletal rod below the nerve cord and above the alimentary canal and
may be replaced partially or completely by vertebral column.
 Dorsal tubular nerve cord (this is a hollow tubular nerve cord that is filled with fluid above the
notochord and is present in most of the vertebrates but in a few it degenerates before the maturity)
 Gill clefts (these are the paired openings communicating to the exterior from the pharynx. In higher
chordates, they usually form the endocrine glands.

Note

 In chordates, the notochord or vertebral column is present in all but the other two features may
completely disappear at eh maturity stage in most cases.

CHARECTERISTICS OF HIGHER CHORDATES

 Presence of a ventrally located heart

 Presence of a hepatic portal system
 RBCs are present in most of the chordates
 Post anal tail is present that may get modified or reduced in adult stages.

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CHORDATA

Phylum Chordata has two significant groups as follows

 Group: Acraniata (Protochordata): This contains the chordates that are lacking the brain box or
cranium , jaws and brain. Eg. Primitive fish like mammals
 Group: Craniata (Vertebrates) : This contains ten classes. Mammalia is one of the ten classes in
this group.

FEATURES IN CLASS MAMMALIA

The class mammalia has three basic features

 Skin has hair materials except cetacea

 These are warm blooded animals
 They suckle their young ones

Other features

 Females have mammary glands

o External ear lobes are present
o No. of teeth is fixed in mammals and is species specific
o Diphyodont dentition is present in mammals
o Muscular diaphragm separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities is present
o Mammals are viviparous except the monotremes
o Heart has four chambers
o Males have penis
o Locomotion has three types (Plantigrade locomotion, digitigrades locomotion
and unguligrade locomotion) due to variable limb structures
o Skull is provided with two occipital condyles ((dicondylic)

CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALIA

 There are two sub-classes under the class Mammalia

o Prototheria
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 o Theria

Prototheria

 This comprises the single order called Monotremata that has following features:
o Testes are abdominal and cloaca is present.
o Mammary glands are present without nipples.
o They lack external ear.
o Examples: Spiny anteater/Echidna and Duck billed platypus

Theria

 Marsupials and placental mammals fall in this category.

 Major 4 characteristics of this sub-class are:
o Presence of external pinna
o Absence of cloaca
o Presence of nipples in the mammary glands
o Females are viviparous in nature.

Intertheria

 Infraclass I
o Metatheria
 This group consists of a single order Marsupilia .
 Marsupials are the animals with a brood pouch or marsupium in the females in which
the new born ins taken care of well. Examples: Kangaroo, tiger cat, opossum and the
like.
 Infraclass II
o Eutheria
 These animals lack marsupium and cloaca. This group comprises all other mammals
that are again divided into many orders .(Edentata, Pholidota, Primates, Proboscidea,
Lagomorpha, Dermoptera, Chiroptera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Hyracoidea,
Tubelidentata, Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla, Carnivora, Cetacea and Sirenia).

PROTHERIA

This comprises the single order called Monotremata that has following features:

 Testes are abdominal and cloaca is present.

 Mammary glands are present without nipples.
 They lack external ear.

Examples

 Spiny anteater/Echidna and Duck billed platypus

THERIA

 Marsupials and placental mammals fall in this category.

 Major 4 characteristics of this sub-class are:
o Presence of external pinna
o Absence of cloaca
o Presence of nipples in the mammary glands
o Females are viviparous in nature.

INFRACLASSES OF THERIA - ASSOCIATED FACTORS

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Infraclass I

 Metatheria
o This group consists of a single order Marsupilia .
o Marsupials are the animals with a brood pouch or marsupium in the females in which the
new born ins taken care of well. Examples: Kangaroo, tiger cat, opossum and the like.

Infraclass II

 Eutheria
o These animals lack marsupium and cloaca. This group comprises all other mammals that are
again divided into many orders .(Edentata, Pholidota, Primates, Proboscidea, Lagomorpha,
Dermoptera, Chiroptera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Hyracoidea, Tubelidentata, Artiodactyla,
Perissodactyla, Carnivora,Cetacea and Sirenia)

EDENTATA

 This group comprises three families:

o Dasypodidae (eg. Armadillos)
o Bradypodidae (eg. Sloths)
o Myrmecophagidae (eg. Anteaters like Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla).

Common features

o Long snout is present

o Teeth may be lacking in some and if at all present, incisors and canines may be invariably
absent.
o Well developed claws are present in the feet.
o Testicles are abdominal in nature.
 Among these animals, it is the sloth is strictly arboreal and moves by a slow hand-over-hand-motion
as they hang upside down below the tree branches and can climb or descend a vertical pole with ease
but are unable to move with ease on the ground.
 Armadillos are the powerful diggers and live in the underground burrows when they are not active.
These animals also roll like balls when any attempts to kill or catch.
 Long teeth with long tongue that is sticky with saliva are the features in the anteater and there are
no teeth in this species.

PHOLIDOTA

This order comprises nocturnal animals and Pangolins or Scaly anteaters of the old world belong to this
order with only one genus, Manis.

Common features

 Body is covered with large overlapping plates (hence, the name Scaly anteater)
 Long snout
 Long tongue
 Absence of teeth

Examples

 Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)

 Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla)

PRIMATES

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  Primates are generally arboreal in nature with plantigrade movements. Both the hands and foot are
prehensile.
 There are approximately 191 species of primates.

Classification of primates

 There are two sub-orders:

o Prosimii (prosimians)
 Animals like lemurs, lorises, bush babies, tree shrews and tarsiers belong to this
suborder.
o Anthropoidea (monkeys and apes)

Families of primates

 Cebidae (new world monkeys)

 Callithricidae (marmosets and tamarins)
 Cercopithecidae (old world monkeys)
 Hylobatidae (gibbons)
 Family Pongidae (apes)
 Hominidae(man)

APES

 Both in apes and monkeys, the cerebral hemisphere is well developed. These animals are diurnal in
nature.
 Gorilla is the largest primate and grows to a height of up to 1.8 meters and has a body weight of
about 200 kg. In India, there are no greater apes.
 They differ from monkeys in following features:
o Absence of tail
o Usage of their arms to swing through the trees

GREAT APES

 This group comprises chimpanzee, gorilla and orang-utan.

Animal Location
Orang-utan Forests of Sumatra and Borneo
Chimpanzee This is a native to equatorial Africa
Gorilla Low land areas of West Africa and Cameroon and the mountain variety is
in Eastern Congo basin

LESSER APES

 The Gibbon present in India is the example for this animal group. The only gibbon present in India
is Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock). These are found in forests of Assam state and Chittagong.
 They stand erect like man and walks erect many times, with stretched hands as balancing organs.
These are also called as the white browed gibbons.

LORISES

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  There are two types of lorises in India
o Slender loris (Loris tardigradus)
 These animals are present in
south India.
o Slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang )
 These animals are present in
northeastern parts of India.

 These lorises in general have large sized eyes.

Hence, they are some times hunted and
products from them are associated with the
belief on improvement of eyesight.

MACAQUES

 Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiate) : Present in south India

 Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) : Present in north India
 Lion tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) : Present in Tamilnadu, Kerala and Karnataka.
 Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis)
 Pig tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina)
 Stump tailed macaque (Macaca speciosa)

LANGURS
Common langur (Semnopithecus entellus; old name Present in whole India except the
Presbytis entellus) western deserts
Nilgiri langur (Trachypithecus johni) Present in Western ghats regions
Golden langur (Trachipithecus geei; old name is Presbytis Present in Assam
geei)
Leaf monkey or capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus; old -
name is Presbytis pileatus )

PROBOSCIDEA

 There are two genera in the single family- Proboscidae and elephants come under the family
elephantidae:
o African elephant (Loxodonta Africana)
 There are two sub-species in the African elephants :
 Smaller forest elephant and the larger bush or savannah elephant
o Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus)
 There are four sub-species in the Asiatic elephants:
 Indian, Ceylon, Sumatran and Malaysian.

AFRICAN AND ASIATIC ELEPHANTS

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  In terms of weight, height, trunk-structures, nail-numbers, occurrence of musth related features
, differences are seen in general between the African and Asiatic elephants.
 In India, the elephants are seen in western ghat regions that includes Tamilnadu, Kerala and
Karnataka in addition to Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Assam. Makhnas are also seen in
elephant herds

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASIATIC AND AFRICAN ELEPHANTS

Details African elephants Asiatic elephants
Size Larger Smaller
Bull-weight in Kg 4100-5000 3700-4500
Cow-weight in Kg 2300-4000 2300-3700
Height at 2.7-3.2 2.4-2.9
shoulder in mt
(Bull)
Height at 2.3-2.7 2.1-2.4
shoulder in mt
(Cow)
Ears Larger Comparatively smaller
Highest point At the shoulder At the middle of the back
Trunk Small Large
Surface of trunk Transverse ridges and grooves More or less uniform
on the trunk
Tip of trunk Two finger like processes at the Only one finger like process
tip of the trunk
Tusks Present in both sexes and are Present in males only and are smaller
larger comparatively. Some times, smaller ones called
tushes may be present.
Dip Marked dip is present on the Back has unbroken convex curve
back between fore and hind
quarters
Face Elongated and narrow face with Face is with twin domed fore head
flat fore head
Nails in fore limb Four nails in each fore feet Five nails each on fore feet and some times, four
each.
Nails in hind limb Four nails in each hind feet Four nails each on hind feet; sometimes five each
Skin Coarser and lacks the Smooth with white or pinkish depigmented areas
depigmentation areas
Temporal gland Present in both males and Present in males only.
secretion females
Intelligence Less intelligent and is difficult More intelligent and is easy to domesticate
to domesticate

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 LAGOMORPHA

 This group comprises small to moderate sized animals like rabbit, hare and pikas.
 Long soft fur, long ears, short tails, fully furred feet, slit like nostrils are the characteristic features in
these species.
 Mongooses, jackals, foxes, wild dogs and wild cats are the enemies for this species.
 The lagomorphs have long hind limbs used for jumping.

FAMILIES

 Leporidae consists of rabbit and hare

 Ochotonide consists of mouse-hare
 The significant species in this group are given below
o Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis) is present in most parts of India. The animals are :
o Blacknaped hare (sighted in areas from south India to the Godavari on the east and west as
well as MP)
o Rufoustailed hare (seen in Himalayas southwards to Godavari)
o Desert hare (seen in Rajasthan, Cutch, Kathiawar, Sind, south-west Punjab)
o Cape hare (sighted in Kashmir)
o Woolly hare (seen in Sikkim and Ladak)
o Himalayan mouse hare (Ochotona royle)

DERMOPTERA

 They are commonly called as the flying or gliding lemur which is also called as the Colugo. These
animals are restricted to south-east Asia and Philippines. This species is considered as a taxonomic
puzzle because it has the head that reveals the features of both the lemurs and insectivores.

CHIROPTERA

 Nearly a quarter of the living mammals belong to the group of bats. This order has about 951 species
of bats.
 They are mostly nocturnal in habits with very small eyes coupled with poor vision.
 These are the only mammals that are capable of maintain a sustained flight. Echolocation is the
technique being used by bats to locate the prey species.
 However, the fruit bats may have a well developed eyes and echolocation is poor in them.

Microchiroptera

 Small insectivorous bats are grouped in this category. These mammals are the gregarious in nature.
In day time, they are seen hanging in tree branches or crevices with their head down. They live on
night-flying insects.
 Example : Desmodus and Rhindophus

Macrochiroptera

 This order contains large sized bats like fruit bats or fruit eating bats that are commonly called as
the flying foxes.
 They don’t have any tail but have an elongated snout.
 They also live in groups and are seen hanging upside down in tall trees often.
 During the hanging, the wings are tucked up in the folded condition. They are also nocturnal
and gregarious in nature

CHIROPTERA - SUB ORDERS

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Microchiroptera

 Small insectivorous bats are grouped in this category. These mammals are the gregarious in nature.
In day time, they are seen hanging in tree branches or crevices with their head down. They live on
night-flying insects.
 Example : Desmodus and Rhindophus

Macrochiroptera

 This order contains large sized bats like fruit bats or fruit eating bats that are commonly called as
the flying foxes. They don’t have any tail but have an elongated snout. They also live in groups and
are seen hanging upside down in tall trees often. During the hanging, the wings are tucked up in the
folded condition. They are also nocturnal and gregarious in nature

INSECTIVORA

 This has 8 families, 70 genera and approximately 400 species of small mammals.
 The distribution of these insectivores including location and specialities is a wide one in general.

Family Species Location

Solenodons 2 Antilles
Tenrecs 20 Madagascar
African water shrews 3 Africa
Golden moles 20 Africa
Hedgehogs 15 Old world
Elephant shrews 18 Africa
True shrews 314 Worldwide
True moles 20 Northern hemisphere

 In the insectivores, the hedgehogs and tenrecs have more spines on skin and the spiny nature helps
them to roll like balls when the predators attempt to attack them. Such anatomical variants vary
from species to species.
 For example, elephant shrews have extremely long mobile noses and long legs. Armored shrews
have a unique spinal column with extensive ramification of long processes that have multiple
interlaces. Similarly, the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) has 22 radiating fleshy thin
appendages around the muzzle which are the tactile organs.
 Moles have paddle like forefeet with enhanced musculature for digging rapidly. Webbed feet with
laterally flattened tails are present in few aquatic forms of insectivores.

INSECTIVORA - CHARACTERISTICS

 In the insectivores, the hedgehogs and tenrecs have more spines on skin and the spiny nature helps
them to roll like balls when the predators attempt to attack them. Such anatomical variants vary
from species to species.
 For example, elephant shrews have extremely long mobile noses and long legs. Armored shrews
have a unique spinal column with extensive ramification of long processes that have multiple
interlaces. Similarly, the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) has 22 radiating fleshy thin
appendages around the muzzle which are the tactile organs.
 Moles have paddle like forefeet with enhanced musculature for digging rapidly. Webbed feet with
laterally flattened tails are present in few aquatic forms of insectivores.

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 RODENTIA

 This order is the largest order of mammals. Among the rodents, the largest living rodent is the
capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) and may have a body weight of even 50 kg. Rodents have no
second incisors, canines or front premolar teeth.
 There is a distinct gap, the diastema between the incisor and the cheek teeth. By the incisor teeth,
rodents are able to gnaw the feed or other materials efficiently. The incisor teeth grow continuously
during the lifetime of the animals.
 Special jaw movements are the characteristic features in the rodents(when chewing activity is
carried out, the lower jaw moves backwards, hence, the upper and lower cheek teeth gets opposed
but its incisors that are positioned one behind the other are not. Internal cheek pouches are present
in few rodents (eg. Golden hamster).
 Classification should be known for a better understanding on these creatures.

Classification

Sub-order No.of
species
Sciuromorpha (“Squirrellike”) Eg. Squirrels, marmots, 366
chipmunks, gophers, beavers, kangaroo rats,
springhaas etc.
Myomorpha (“ratlike”) Eg. Rat, mice, voles, hamsters, 1183
lemmings etc.
Hystricomorpha (“porcupinelike”) Eg. Porcupines, 180
cavies, capybaras, chinchillas, agoutis etc.

Other species

 Tuco-tucos, Nutria, Guinea pig, woodchuck, Pacas, Pacarana, Eastern fox squirrel, burrowing
rodents like woodchuck or groundhog (Marmota monax) etc.

HYRACOIDEA

 This order contains small rabbit like mammals but have short ears and the tail is reduced.
 The taxonomists have classified the hyraxes, proboscideans (elephants) and sirenians (sea cows) as
subungulates.
 The hyraxes were earlier found to be close to the elephants due to following reasons:
o Large bulge of the anterior maxillary skull
o Character and position of teeth
o Close junction of the four toes
o Posterior position of the malar bones

TUBELIDENTATA

o These animals have stout, pig like body with thick skin.
o Long snout with round nostrils at the tip.
o The tongue is protrusible.
o Long ears are present.
 Aardvark is the only representative of this order. The other common names include earth hog, ant
bear and many local African names. This is a nocturnal animal.

MODULE-3: TAXONOMY-II

14
  This unit is dealing with major wild animal groups classified under artiodactylids, perissodactylids
and carnivores like feilds

The objectives are

 To know about the animals classified under odd and even toed animal groups
 To know about different species of felids among the carnivores

ARTIODACTYLIDS

 Artiodactylids mean the even-toed large mammals.

 This order consists of different families like cervidae, bovidae, suidae, tayassuidae, camelidae
etc.
 Various wild animals that are present in this category are often encountering the livestock as the
competitors for feed in some vulnerable areas of this country.

SWINE GROUP

 The superfamily “suidoidae” comprises two families called as suidae and tayassuidae.
 Although the animals under these families are similar in shape, they differ in terms of anatomy as
well as in the disease-susceptibility.

Tayassuids

 The tayassuidae (Tayassuids) consists of two native New world suids given below:
o Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu)
o White lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari

Suids

 The suidae (suids) has two sub-genera in India. The Sus-the wild boar and Porcula-the Pigmy
hog. The old world wild swine includes the wild boar (Sus scrofa) which was native to Asia and
Europe.
 In India, wild pigs are seen through out the country in the forests.
 These are the prolific breeders. The body is stocky and barrel like with the motile snout that is
truncated terminally and has a disk like cartilage in the tips.
 For rooting and turning the soil of surface, the snout is useful and the animals are having a thick
layer of subcutaneous adipose tissues which is a characteristic feature of these animals.
o Wild swine of North America :
 Feral pigs
 European wild swine
 Native populations of collared peccaries .
o Wild swine of Africa:
o Giant forest pig ( Hylochoerus meinertzhageni)
o Bush pig (Potamochoerus porcus)
o Wart hog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus)

Note: In Java and Borneo, babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) are seen.

Pigmy hog

 These animals are seen in small herds of 5 to 20. It is the world’s smallest pig. These animals live in
forested tracts of Sikkim and Assam. They are also present in Nepal and Bhutan.
 These animals are thought to be extinct once. The habitat preference of this species is similar to wild
pigs and the two species are closely related to each other

15
 CAMELIDS

 The camelids belong to the sub-order called “Tylopoda” and family called “camelidae”. Camels have
a unique capacity to pass the desiccated fecal materials when water intake is restricted. In the
Arabian desert during the summer, freshly passed feces can be used for fuel. Camels are
pseudoruminants.
 In this family, followings are seen:
o Old world camelids and South American camelids.
 Old world camelids
 Dromedary camel that has a zoological name of “Camelus dromedarius” :
Found in hot and cold deserts of Asia, Africa and middle east.
 Bacterian camel that has a zoological name of “Camelus bactrianus”: Found in
cold and arid deserts of Asia, Kazahstan, Mangolia and China.
 South American camelids
 Llama (Llama glama)
 Guanaco(Lama guanicoe)
 Vicuna ( Llama vicugna)
 Alpaca (Llamapacos)

GIRAFFE

 Giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis) belongs to the family entitled “Giraffidae” which also comprises
the okapi (Okapia johnstoni). These animals are the ruminants.
 Both species have the elongated neck but the neck of the Giraffe is longer than that of Okapi. Like
other mammals, they have seven cervical vertebrae.

HIPPOPOTAMUSES

 Two types of hippos as quoted below and these are confined to Africa:
o Nile hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
 The Nile hippos live in matriarchial units living on a central mud bank or sandbar
called a “crèche” in the middle of the established herd territory.
 The territory marking is carried out by swishing of the soft fecal materials by tail
movements.
o Pigmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis)
 Pigmy hippos live in solitaries and these mini-hippos have large circular nostrils and
eyes set to the side of the head instead of raised up.
 These animals mark their territory by feces.
 They are unique in artiodactylids, in the way that they all walk on all four toes that are attached to
one another by a membrane. Among the artiodactls, uniquely, these animals walk on all four toes
that are attached to each by a membrane “web”.

WILD OXEN

 The followings are the significant species in this group:

o Gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus)
 In these wild animals, gaur are seen in Central India- MP and Chhatisgar, Western
Ghats southwards from south Maharashtra, Mudumalai Anaimalai, Dindigul region
and Palani regions.
o Wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
 Wild buffaloes are seen in the plains of Brahmaputra in Assam, and Orissa. Yak are
seen in Ladak. Banteng are seen in Manipur and areas near Burma.
o Yak (Bos grunniens)
 Yaks are seen in the cold mountainous regions. A fully mature gaur may be having a
body weight of about one tone.
o Banteng or Tsaine

16
 ANTELOPES

 Bovidae also comprises the antelopes and gazelles. The antelopes and gazelles are called as the
earliest ruminants.
 They possess characters common to oxen as well as sheep and goats.
 Antelopes have a gland below the eyes that is more prominent in antelopes like blackbucks.
 The horns have a considerable length with a bnony core.

BLACKBUCK (ANTILOPE CERVIPARA)

Blackbuck (Antilope cervipara)

 Blackbucks are seen in Point Calimere wildlife regions, Guindy national park and
Velavadar wildlife sanctuary in Gujarat state, particularly. However, they are present through out
India, in general. The horns are spiral in nature. The Indian races are attractive to look at.
 The horms may be about 20 to 25 cms long and the animal may have eth body weight of about 40 kg
in case of males in particular. The ‘Vishnoi’ people of northern India venerate and protect these
animals.

Four races of Blackbuck in India

 Cervicapra
 Rupicapra
 Rajputanae
 Centralis

INDIAN RACES OF BLACKBUCK

 Four races of Blackbuck in India

o Cervicapra
o Rupicapra
o Rajputanae
o Centralis

NILGAI

 In case of Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), the male animals are also called as Blue bull. They are
seen in Himalayas to Mysore (Not seen in Bengal, Assam, Malabar Coast and Tamilnadu).
 These are generally seen in dry deciduous and thorn forests of Indian peninsula and are large horse
like animals.

FOUR HORNED ANTELOPE

 Four horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) are also called as Chowsingha, seen in south of
Himalayas in both the wooded and hilly areas.
 These animals have two pairs of horns and are exclusively seen in India. The front pair of horns is
shorter and often, the first pair is no more than a horny covered stud or a mere knob as if a bony
projection covered with the skin.
 Another well developed feature is the presence of a pair of well developed glands between the false
hooves of the hind limbs.

CHIRU OR TIBETAN ANTELOPE

 Chiru are present in northern Ladak and also in Tibet.

 These animals are related to the Saiga antelopes of the Russian steppes.
17
 EXOTIC BOVIDS
American bison African buffalo
Addax Bongo
Buffon’s kob Bushbuck
Steinbok Greater kudu
Klipspringer Lesser kudu
Topi Blesbok
Nyala Hartebeest (Kongonil)
Eland Dik-dik
Anoa Roan antelope
East African Oryx Waterbuck
Kouprey Sable antelope

CHINKARA OR INDIAN GAZELLE

 These animals are present in the plains and low hills of north western and central India.
 These animals are seen commonly in desert zones and don’t frequent cultivated lands.
 These are the slender and gracious animals.
 The Horns of the males are ringed, while the females are smooth and at times, the females are
hornless too.

CERVIDS

 More deer are poached or hunted in many parts of the world than any other species. These animals
are kept as most popular exhibits and are often kept as mixed exhibits also in zoological garden or
zoo or zoological park or in deer parks.
 Various species of deer are also farmed in many countries and the antlers are harvested in a
systematic manner, for medicinal purposes. Antler is the anatomical specialty of these animals, in
general.

SPOTTED DEER

 Spotted deer ( Axis axis) are also called as chital. Seen through out India except in arid plains of
Punjab, Sind and in a large area of Rajputana. The antlers are much attractive in nature.
 These are the animals that are more prolific in breeding. These are the most sociable animal of all
the deer. They are frequently seen in association with many other animal species like langurs. They
are extremely gregarious in nature.

SAMBAR DEER

 Sambar deer ( Cervus unicolor) are seen in the wooded regions of whole India. This is the largest
deer in India and has the grandest antler. These animals are nocturnal or crepuscular in habit.
 In addition to the spotted deer, the tiger attacks the sambar deer also as their main prey.
 The tail is thick and small. The hair materials are coarse and wiry. Sambar and swamp deer have
large ears unlike the spotted deer and hence, able to hear sounds well.

18
 BARKING DEER

 Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) are also called as Muntjac or Rib faced deer.
 The name of barking deer is here because it makes a sound that resembles the barking sound of dog.
 Face has ‘V’ shaped ridges. They are seen through out India.
 The Muntjac of north India is Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis and the Muntjac of south India
is Muntiacus muntjak aureus.

SWAMP DEER

 Swamp deer (Cervus duvaceli) are also called as “Barasingha”.

 These deer have the body weight of about 225 to 320 Kg and the height may be around 150 cms.
This is rarely seen in large herds.
 Swamp deer are found in three states of India, as follows:
o Kanha Tiger Reserve (MP state) and is called as "Hard ground Swamp Deer"
o Dudhwa Tiger Reserve ( Uttaranjal state)
o Kaziranga Tiger Reserve (Assam state)

HOG DEER

 Hog deer (Axis porcinus) are small in size and are sighted in the low alluvial grass plains of north
India from Sind and Punjab to Assam.
 These anima

MUSK DEER

 Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) are sighted in the central and north eastern Asia and Nepal. In
India, they are seen in Uttaranchal Kedarnath hill , Sikkim and Kashmir. There is no antler in these
animals.
 This is considered as an undeveloped form of deer. The animal is extremely mobile and the extra
large lateral hooves allow this animal to have walk on snow.
 They live singly or in pairs. The musk gland is located below the abdomen skin in male.

MOUSE DEER

 Mouse deer (Tragulus meminna) are also called as the Indian chevrotain. They belong to the family
tragulidae. These resemble deer but are more closely related to the camelids and pigs.
 These are the smallest deer in India and have the measurement of about 25 to 30 cms as height.
 These animals are seen mostly in south India and are also found in Sri Lanka as well as in
Myammar.
 This is a timid animal with a narrow head and pointed muzzle.

KASHMIRI DEER

 These animals are also called as Hangul. These animals are related to the European deer.
 This deer inhabits the coniferous forests and the grassy meadows in Kashmir himalayas notably in
the Dachigam sanctuary between 1700 and 3000 metres-elevation.
 The females remain in slopes for fawning.

MANIPURI DEER

 Manipuri deer (Cervus eldi) are also called as “Thamin”. Locally it is called as “Sanghai”. This is
more in numbers in Keibul Lanjao sanctuary. These deer are present in Myammar and Thailand.
 These deer move around on vast areas of floating organic matter called as the Phum or Phumdi.

19
  The movement over the phumdi forces the deer to have a constant shuffling of its feet to maintain
the balance. Hence these deer are also called as the “dancing deer”.

WILD SHEEP

 Bharal or Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) : Seen in Ladak, Sikkim and Himalayas.
 Marco Polo’s sheep (Ovis ammon polii) : Seen in Hunza of India. (They are seen in large numbers in
Russian pamirs)
 Nayan or Great Tibetan sheep (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) :Seen in Sikkim.
 Shapu or Urial (Ovis orientalis): Seen in Ladak, Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan

WILD GOAT

 Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) :Seen in Nilgiris to Anaimalais and southwards along the
Western ghats from 4000-6000 feet.
 Wild goat (Capra hircus) : Sighted in Baluchistan and Western Sind.
 Ibex (Capra ibex): Seen in Himalayas & Pin valley of Himachal Pradesh state.
 Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus).

PERISSODACTYLIDS

 This group of wild animals consists of families- Equidae (equids) and Tapiridae (tapirs) and
Rhinocerotidae (rhinoceroses).
 The middle digit of the fore and hind limbs is present in a prominent manner, carrying much of the
body weight .

EQUIDS

 The following members belong to equidae:

o Wild horse (Przewalski’s wild horse)
o Wild asses (Number of Asian and African wild asses) : Seen in Gujarat state
o Zebras
 All members of equidae family are solipeds and like the domestic horse they are descendants of the
early ‘dawn horse’ (Eohippus) of some million years ago.

TAPIRS

 These animals fall in the family tapiridae. The tapirs resemble the short –tailed donkey in case of
general form and size. The nose and upper lip are extended to form a short but highly mobile trunk.
 These animals are represented by four species in a single genus, as quoted below:
o Brazilian tapirs (Tapirus terestrus)
o Mountain or woolly tapirs (Tapirus pinchaque)
o Saddleback or Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) : Restricted to south east Asia.
o Baird’s tapirs (Tapirus bairdii)

RHINOCEROSES

 These wild animals belong to the Rhinocerotidae family. The rhinoceroses have following common
features general:
o Massive body
o Short leg that end on broad, three-toed feet.
o Horny pads of the feet are delicate when compared to the size of the animal.
 Asiatic and African species of rhinoceroses are available, in general.

Asiatic species
20
  Three are four Asiatic species of rhinoceroses
o Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)
o Sumatran rhinoceros (Didermocerus sumatrensis) :These are called as Asiatic two horned
rhinoceroses.
o Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

Indian rhinoceroses

 Among rhinoceroses, the Indian rhinoceroses are the ones that are most primitive in appearance
with its armor like hide and small head and are one horned.
 The skin is having a rugged appearance with armor like plates on body.
 The animal is well distributed in the Gangetic plain. The animals are present in Assam and in parts
of West Bengal.
 These animals are highly suited to the swampy tarai habitat. This is territorial in nature.

African rhinos

 There are two species of African rhinos, as quoted below:

o White rhinoceros ( Didermocerus sinus)
o Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

Details African rhinos Asiatic rhino

Presence of horns Two horns Single horn
Length of horn Lengthy Short, comparatively
Incisors Absent in both African species Present
CARNIVORA

 The common characters of carnivores are given below:

o Meat eaters
o Presence of canine teeth
o Intestinal tract is short and is adapted to the rapid digestion as well as the assimilation of
meat.
o All species have anal glands. (The species like the striped skunk with a zoological name
of Mephitis mephitis may eject the contents of anal gland as a defensive maneuver)
o Os penis is present in case of males.
o Lack of clavicle (this helps in the freedom for the movement of forelimb)
o Ulna is well developed.
o Toes end in claws

Sub-order of carnivores

 Fissipedia is the sub-order that comprises most known terrestrial carnivorous wild animals like lion,
tiger, panther, wolf, hyaena, wild dog, jackals etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARNIVORES
Family Common names No. of species
Canidae Wild dogs, jackal, fox, wolf 37
Felidae Tiger, lion, panther, jungle cat etc. 36
Ursidae Bears 7
Mustelidae Skinks, otters, weasels 68

21
 Viverridae Mongooses, Civets 82
Procyonidae Raccoons, kinkajou, pandas 18
Hyaenidae Hyaenas 4
FELIDS

 Lion
o Lions ( Panther leo) are found only in Gir forests of Gujarat state, lying within the
Jumnagadh district covering about 1280 Kms. These are the majestic animals in Indian
forests living in prides.
 Tiger
o Tigers (Panthera tigris) are the endangered wild animals found all over India from
Himalayas to Cape Camorin except in the deserts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Cutch and Sind.
 Panther
o Panthers (Panthera pardus) are highly adaptable in nature to the environment and are seen
all over India. There are three races present in India (Panthers from Sind and Baluchistan
and Kashmir are regarded as separate races)

Other felids have also to be understood in terms of conservation of wild fauna.

OTHER FELIDS

 Clouded leopard(Neofelis nebulosa)

o These animals are seen in Assam and Sikkim.
 Cheetah or Hunting leopard (Acinonyx jubatus)
o Cheetah are extinct in India, at present.
 Caracal and Jaguars
o Caracals are seen in north and north-west hills of Cutch and Jaguars are considered to be the
sturdy animals.
 Lynx (Felis lynx)
o Lynx are seen in upper Indus valley , Ladak, Gilgit and Tibet. These animals are called as
“isabellina”.
 Indian desert cat
o Indian desert cats are seen in deserts of north –western India ex tending to the drier regions
of Central India.
 Marbled cat (Felis marmorata)
o Marbled cats are sighted in Sikkim and Assam . Single race occurs in India
 Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis)
o Leopard cats can be sighted in wider parts of India from Kashmir to Cape Camorin.
 Golden cat (Felis temmincki)
o In Assam and Sikkim, Golden cats are present.
 Pallas cat (Felis manul )
o Pallas cats are seen in Ladak

MODULE-4: TAXONOMY-III

 This module relates to various types of canids, wolves, hyaenas etc.

The objectives are

 To reveal different species of canids, viverrids, ursids and mustelids.

 To know about species of marine mammals
 To understand about various species of reptiles like crocodiles, serpentines, chelonians and lizards

CANIDS
22
  The canids are the commonly sighted wild animals in general. The offspring are born relatively
underdeveloped and are very dependent on their parents for their survival.
 Many times, some species of canids travel a long distance as the case with the wild dogs or jackals in
search of food resources.

COMMON FEATURES OF CANIDS

 Erect ears
 Strong and non-retractile claws
 Long muzzle
 Males have a baculum in the penis.
 Perfect digitigrade feet
 Multiparous in nature
 All the canids almost resemble the domestic canids in terms of anatomical features.

INDIAN WILD DOG

 Indian wild dogs (Cuon alpinus) are also called as Dholes. These animals are having a hunting habit
in packs only. They prey on a number of animals like deer, sheep, gaur, pigs etc.
 A large pack may attach bigger animals like buffalo and gaur. They help to improve the prey
population by eliminating the old and diseased individuals.
 These are found in Andhra Pradesh and in Mudumalai and Anaimalai regions.

EXOTIC WILD DOGS

 Exotic wild dogs are given below:

o Dingo or Wild dogs of Australia
o Cape hunting dogs of south of Sahara

JACKAL

 Jackal (Canis aureus) are present through out India in small number on any kind of habitat ranging
from humid dense forests to dry open plains. This animal comes out during the dusk and retires by
dawn.
 This can make a typical howl that is long drawn and high pitched one. Dead carcasses are eaten by
them and jackals also feed on weak livestock and poultry.

INDIAN FOX

 Indian foxes (Vulpes bengalensis) are the small slim animals with slender limbs.
 This are seen in agricultural fields and are solitary hunters but appears to tolerate the presence of
common mongoose near its den.

RED FOXES

 These animals are seen in Sikkim to western Himalayas including the arid zone of the north-west.
 In the cooler Himalayan region, the animals prefer to live amidst small cultivated lands and the
animal is mainly nocturnal in nature.
 These animals pair for life, occupying the same den year after year.

WOLF

 Wolf (Canis lupus) are seen in several parts of India.

23
  These animals assume a height of about 65-75 cm and the weight of these carnivores may be
about 18-28Kg.

HYAENA

 Hyaena belongs to the family “Hyaenidae”. These are the animals with powerful jaws. Striped
hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) is the species present in India. Hyaenas have large anal glands and are
scavengers.
 They are nocturnal in nature and are stocky dog like animals inhabiting the plains of southwest Asia
and Africa. Walks on toes, four on each foot.
 There species of hyaena are:
o Striped hyaena, Brown hyaena and Spotted hyaena.

Note

 Striped hyaena is the only species available in India

VIVERRIDS

 These are the diverse are the old world carnivores. Most viverrids have scent glands in the anal
region that can emit a strong smelling fluid and these scent materials secreted from the genera
Civettictis, Vicerra, and Viverricula are called “civet”.
 These materials are having pheromone like effects. Location of these species should be well known
in general for the attending veterinarian.

LOCATION OF VIVERRIDS

Viverrids Place
on palm civet (Toddy cat) (Paradoxurus Whole India except desert zones of Punjab and Sind
phroditus)
palm civet (Paradoxurus jardoni) North Kanara and hill ranges of South India
yan palm civet (Peguma larvata) Kashmir, Himalayas and Assam
d linsang or Tiger civet (Prionodon Assam and Sikkim
olor)
ang or Bear cat (Arctictis binturong) Assam and Sikkim
ndian civet (Viverricula indica) Through out India
ndian civet (Viverra zibetha) Sikkim, Assam and upper Bengal
on mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) Whole India
ndian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) Northern India (Kashmir to Bengal, Orissa and Assam)
necked mongoose Western ghats from north Kanara , southwards to some of he adjo
south India hill range
ating mongoose (Herpestes urva) Assam
OTHER VIVERRIDS

24
  African civets (Civettictis civetta)
 Blotched genet (Genetta tigrina)
 Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox)
 Malagasy fossa (Fossa fossa)
 Yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicilata)
 Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo)
 Slender-tailed meercat (Suricata suricatta)

URSIDS

 The bears have a compact body with a short neck and quadrupedal gait. However, they are capable
of standing like human and are prone for stereotypical behavior if left uncared or bored.
 These animals are exploited in circuses, wristle events etc. Bears are exceedingly dangerous in
nature. Bears are usually solitary in nature.

Important species of bears

 Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus)

 Asiatic bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)
 Spectacled bear (Tremarctos arnatus)
 Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus)
 Polar bear (Thalarctos maritimus)
 Alaskan brown bear (Ursus arctos)
 American black bear (Ursus americanus)

Beas in india

 Sloth bears are endemic to India. Found through out the country in the forested regions.
 The outcrops of rocks or tumbled boulders offer them shelter during the hot season.
 Sloth bears tolerates the presence of spotted deer in close proximity but the response may reveal
variations with other species.
 Various types of vocalizations are reported in these animals. Big head and rounded ear lobes are
present. The paws are short and broad.

 Brown bears are present in north-western and central Himalayas. Himalayan black bear are present
in Kashmir, Assam and Himalayas. ls place the head in low condition and moves without the usual
bouncing action that is characteristic to a deer and hence, it has been given the name of hog deer.
 These animals are hardly 60 cms at the shoulder.

MUSTELIDS

 This group comprises the following wild animals:

o Otters
o Martens
o Weasels
o Pole cats
o Badgers.

MUSTELIDS - OTTERS
Species Locations
Common otter (Lutra lutra) Seen in river beds of South India and then only in
Kashmir, Himalayas and Assam.

25
 Clawless otter (Aonyx cinerea) South India
Smooth Indian otter (Lutra From Himalayas and Sind to extreme South in India.
perspicillata)

MUSTELIDS - MARTENS
Species Locations
Himalayan marten (Martes flavigula) Seen in Himalaya and Assam
Nilgiri martens (Martes gwatkinsi) Seen in Nilgiris, south Coorg and Travancore

MUSTELIDS - WEASELS
Species Locations
Himalayan weasel (Mustela sibirica) Himalayas
Ermine or Stoat (Mustela ermine) Kashmir
Yellow bellied weasel (Mustela kathiah) Western Himalayas eastwards to Assam
Striped backed weasel (Mustela strigidorsa) Himalayas (it is a rare animal)

MUSTELIDS - MARBLED POLE CATS AND BADGERS

Marbled pole cats

 Marbled pole cats (Vormela peregusna) are seen in Baluchistan only.

Badgers

Species
Indian ferret badgers
Chinese ferret badger
Honey badgers or Ratels
(Mellivora capensis)
Hog badgers (Arctonyx
collaris)
Locations
Assam
Assam ranging eastwards to upper Burma, South-
China and Indo-Chinese regions
From Himalayas to Cape Camorin
Assam and eastern Himalayas

MARINE MAMMALS

Orders Marine mammals

Cetacea  Whales, dolphins and porpoises
 Note:These animals are spindle shaped and dolphins and whales use

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 echolocation like bats in locating the prey species.

Pinnipedia Seals, Walruses and Sea-lions (marine carnivores)

Sirenia Dugong or sea cows and manatees

OTHER MARINE MAMMALS

 Harbor seal
 California sea lion
 Northern elephant seal
 Northern fur seal
 Gray seal
 Bottle-nosed dolphin
 Killer whale
 Pilot whale
 Beluga whale

Marine mammals that spend large time in marine environment

 Polar bears which are the carnivores falling in Ursidae family

 Sea otters belonging to the family Mustelidae.

LOCATION OF MARINE MAMMALS

Species
Sperm whale (Physeter catodan), Pygmy sperm
whale (Kogia breviceps) and Blue whale
(Balaenoptera musculus)
Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis)
Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica)
Dugong or sea cow (Dugong dugon)
Locations
Tropical, temperate and arctic waters of het
oceans of the world
Tropical and temperate seas of the world
Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus; they are
also seen in the tidal limits but do not enter
sea
Shores of Indian ocean, Cast of Malabar, Gulf
of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar and around
Andaman islands

REPTILES

 The repilian class has about 6457 species and evolved from the primitive amphibians.
 Birds and mammals have evolved from reptiles. Reptiles are the ectothermic animals and air
breathing vertebrates.
 Turtles are the most ancient reptiles and the snakes the most recent. Since the reptiles share many
anatomical features with bird, both the reptile and birds are some times considered together in the
single group entitled as “Sauropsida”.
 It consists of chelonians, crocodiles, lizards, snakes etc. Reptiles are seen in all continents except
Antarctica and on most islands.

COMMON FEATURES OF REPTILES

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  Reptiles have no gills and lungs are present.
 Absence of no hair
 Absence of feather
 They either lay egg or give birth to young but in both instances the embryo, like that of a mammal is
enclosed in an amnion.
 Whether hatched from an egg or born alive, the reptiles don’t pass through a larval stage or undergo
metamorphosis as do amphibians.
 Reptiles are capable of growth through out the life
 Dry water-proof skin with horny scales are present
 Scales are not separated as seen in fish but they are folds of skin.
 Ecdysis is a common feature
 Majority of the reptiles are carnivorous especially the snakes (Marine Green turtle and Green Iguana
are herbivores).

ORDERS AND SUB-ORDERS OF REPTILES

Orders

There are three orders in reptilian group:

 Testudinata (Chelonia)
o This group comprises turtles, tortoises, terrapins and sea-turtles
 Crocodilia
o This group comprises crocodiles, caimans, alligators and gavials.
 Squamata
o This group comprises lizards and snakes

Sub-orders

 Amphisbaenia (Eg. Worm lizards)

 Sphenodontia (Eg. Tuatara in Newzealand)
 Serpentes (Ophidia) (Eg. Snakes)
 Lacertilia (Sauria) (Eg. Lizards)

REPTILES - DISTRIBUTION IN GENERAL

Reptiles World India
Crocodiles 22 3
Turtles 242 32
Lizards 2800 155
Snakes 2750 244

IMPORTANT SNAKES

 Cobra (Naja naja naja)

 King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
 Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
 Russell’s viper (Vipera russelli)
 Saw scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
 Indian Rock python (Python molurus)
 Reticulated python (Python reticulatus)
 Anaconda or South American Boa
 Sea snakes (Eg. Hook-nosed sea snake= Enhydrina schistosa) etc.
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 IMPORTANT LIZARDS

 Common Monitor (Varanus bengalensis)

 Water Monitor (Varanus salvator)
 Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens)
 Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis)
 Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum)
 Beaded Lizard (Heloderma horridum)
 Worm Lizards (Bipes and Rhineura)

IMPORTANT CROCODILE, GHAVIAL, CAIMAN AND ALLIGATOR

 Mugger or Marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris)

 Salt water crocodile or Estuarine crocodile or Indo-Pacific crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
 Gharial or Ghavial (Gavialis gangeticus)
 Cayman (Caiman crocodilus)
 American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)
 Chinese alligator (Alligator chinensis)

MODULE-5: HABITAT OF WILD ANIMALS

 This module is dealing with various habitats occupied by various wild fauna. Further, you are able to
know basic information on biogeographic zones, food, cover, space, wet lands, sanctuary and
national park.

The objectives are

 To enrich understanding on various habitats of wild animals.

 To know about specific habitats occupied by selected species of wild animals
 To understand about wet lands, sanctuary and national parks

HABITAT

 This is a place in which a particular organism or species lives.

 Factors influencing the habitat of the wild animals are variable in nature and act on different
intensities, in general.

HABITAT CLASSIFICATIONS

 It is to be noted that the habitats vary from each other. For example, the habitat comprising the
thick leaf canopy at the top of the tree is more different from the habitat that can be noticed at the
ground level.
 Classifications of different habitats are made on the basis of multiple factors like size, biosphere,
biogeographic zones and ecological sub-units etc.

SIZE BASED HABITAT TYPES

 There are two types of habitat based on the size of the concerned area :
o Macro types.
o Micro types.

Macro Habitat

 This comprises larger areas than the micro habitat. Control of the factors in macro habitats is more
difficult as the case with land-use patterns, velocity of wind, amount of rain in an area etc.
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Micro Habitat

 This is the one associating with a small area (few square centimeters as the case with the area under
a fallen tree trunk or a stone material found in the forest).
 Micro habitats may be easily managed by forest managers, unlike the macro habitats.

BIOSPHERE BASED MAJOR HABITATS

 Four types are seen as the major habitats in the biosphere in general
o Marin
o Estuarine
o Fresh water
o Terrestrial

Marin habitat

 This habitat is being used widely by marine mammals, fish, coral reeves etc. inhabit these areas.
This is the largest in the biosphere.
 There are two forms are there in the marine habitat:
o Benthic forms - These are the animals and plants that inhabit the bottom of the sea.
o Pelagic forms - These are the animals and plants that inhabit the open sea .
 Marine mammals like dugong, whales, dolphins, sea otters etc. are given more significance in
general in case of the marine habitat.

Estuarine habitat

 This habitat uniquely represents the confluence of fresh water with sea. Hence, as per the waves or
tides, the salinity in this habitat may reveal many variations. It is a commonly found observation
that in case of high tides, the salinity is maximum.
 But at the low tides and at periods of high rain fall, there is often an increase in the fresh water level.

Fresh water habitat

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  Fresh water habitats are small and are some what easily accessible and comprises plankton and
nekton inhabiting them.

Terrestrial habitat

 Terrestrial habitats are comparatively a larger type of habitat in general but at the same time lesser
than the marine habitat. This type of habitat is a complicated one in general. The biotic communities
reveal so many variations among themselves and finally they constitute the different biomes.

GLOBAL SOURCES BASED CLASSIFICATION OF HABITATS

 Deserts
 Grasslands
 Deciduous forests
 Coniferous forests
 Evergreen forests
 Tropical rain forests
 Mediterranean scrub
 Mountains
 Polar regions
 Oceans

BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES AS HABITATS

 Islands (0.3)
 Coasts (2.5)
 Western Ghats (4.0)
 North-east (5.2)
 Trans-Himalaya (5.6)
 Himalaya (6.4)
 Desert (6.6)
 Gangetic plain (10.8)
 Semi-Arid (16.6)
 Deccan peninsula (42.0)

Note: Figures in parenthesis indicate per cent of total geographical area of India: 3287263 sq.km.

HABITATS BASED ON ECOLOGICAL SUB-UNITS

 This type of classification helps to understand the wild fauna available in different eco systems
prevailing in our country.
 Wide variety of habitats are available in India and hence the biodiversity of this country is a unique
one. India is considered as one of the mega biodiversity nations in the world.

Desert Region

 This habitat comprise trans-Indus districts of Punjab, Western Sind and Baluchistan valley and
forms the eastern limits of a great desert region extending through Iran, Iraq and Arabia to the
desert parts of North Africa.
 Wild animals of desert are different from the ones that are seen in general at the other regions.
 Desert regions are found in many parts of the world like Sahara of North Africa etc.

Tropical rain forest region

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  Heavy rain fall areas are contained in this division.

Examples

 North-eastern regions.
 Himalayan slopes consisting of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.
 Western Ghats of the south India including the Malabar Coast (Dense forest gorges called as the
Sholas are seen in Nilgriis which is an off shoot of the Western Ghats).

Tropical evergreen forests or Indo-Malayan sub-region

 The fauna of this region has similarities between both Indian as well as Malayan and Indo-Chinese
fauna.

Himalayan mountain region

 Animals of this region are mostly the Palaearctic type. Variations are seen even within the
Himalayan mountain regions, as the case with eastern parts, higher altitudes in the western
Himalayas from Kashmir including Ladakh and Kumaon and Himalayan foothills covering the
eastern frontiers of Kashmir and Assam.

Peninsular Indian sub-region

 Animals of this region are mostly the Palaearctic type. Variations are seen even within the
Himalayan mountain regions, as the case with eastern parts, higher altitudes in the western
Himalayas from Kashmir including Ladakh and Kumaon and Himalayan foothills covering the
eastern frontiers of Kashmir and Assam.

SPECIFIC WILD ANIMALS AND HABITAIS


Specific wild animals Location
Slender loris Tamilnadu
Slow loris North-eastern India
Red Panda and Binturong Eastern regions
Hyalobates hoolock Arunachal Pradesh and
Assam
Pig tailed macaque and Assam macaque and Leaf monkey or capped Assam
langur

COMPONENTS OF WILDLIFE HABITAT

 The components of wildlife habitat may be multiple. However, for the purpose of understanding,
major ones are given below:
o Food
o Cover
o Water
o Space

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 FOOD

 Feed resources vary from habitat to habitat. Accordingly, the selection of feed items whether it is a
herbivore or a carnivore or omnivore also varies. Majority of he animals go for food items that have
an easy access.

FOOD SPECTRUM

 This is the range of food materials that are taken by the concerned wild animal species. Food
spectrum varies from species to species. The different components in this food spectrum are
available in large numbers in particular seasons or periods of the year. In a palatability gradient, the
relished food materials rank high always.
 Prey species needs to be abundant for the survival of the concerned wild animal species in a wildlife
area. Similarly, the biodiversity of the concerned prey animal species needs to be more and hence,
the predators may have the choice in selecting the type of wild animal species as the prey for it.
 Carnivores mostly go for the ‘economic prey’.

Example

 Tigers prefer gaur or sambar mostly rather than going for the prey species like mouse deer.
 Herbivores generally select materials of lower energy when compared to the carnivores. Hence,
these species are prone to suffer from either qualitative food stress due to the lesser nutritional
values of the feeds under consumption or from quantitative food stress that occurs due to shortage.

COVER

 Cover gives protection of the wild animals species from the followings:
o Weather
o Severe summer
o Winter
o Predators
o Enemies
 Provides a better vantage point for the wild animal in a wide area Covers may be a natural one or an
artificial one.

TYPES OF COVER

 There are many types of cover. Similarly, it may be a vegetal or non vegetal in nature. It is better to
have simulation of natural one or if possible a natural one.
 However, it is to be remembered that escape-cover may not be an essential one for wild animal
species like the black buck.
 Good grass growth by itself may have a better cover for them. Different types of vegetations make up
these covers.
 Usually caves and overhands act as non-vegetal covres. Other structures that also bears the cover
value are:
o Burrows
o Old buildings
o Holes
o Abandoned buildings
o Drystream beds etc.

Ambush cover

 This is defined as the cover that is utilized by a predatory animal for ambushing its prey. This can be
a vegetal or non-vegetal. Covers are interchangeable.
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  The ambush cover of one species may serve as escape cover for another species.

Breeding cover

 This is important to have a successful breeding potential of the concerned wild animal species.
o Tigers use caves nad overhands a cubbing places.
o Hard ground barasinha (deer) population of MP state needs tall grass as the breeding cover.
o Squirrels build nests to suit their arboreal life.

Roosting cover fro birds

 Birds need a safe area for the purpose of resting and the cover that provides facility for this purpose
is called as the roosting cover.
o Acacia nilotica trees planted in the marshy regions of Bharatpur helps to provide a better
roosting cover for birds.
o Large birds like vultures need tree cover that is well convenient for them to spread their
wings and have a take-off in the air. It is to be understood that the raising directly to soaring
height in one stroke is not possible from the ground level.

Loafing cover

 Loafing cover is the one in which some wild animal species try to spend their time aimlessly and this
may be a secluded place in a habitat.
 The place offering shade in summer and providing adequate protection from the wind in winter can
serve as a loafing cover.

Refuge cover

 This essentially means vegetation from which the wild animals can not be sent out during hunting.
This is a sports related terminology.
 For example, the jungle fowl can be hunted only in the open space.

WATER

 Water is highly a required item in a habitat of the wild animal species. When the water resources are
poor in a habitat, then the quality of the concerned habitat is considered as a poor one from the
conservation point of view.
 Riparian vegetation along the stream banks may be considered linking places or corridors for the
animal movement. Animals in desert regions generally depend on the succulent vegetation or
metabolic water of the body.
 Water bodies play a greater role in the disease transmission esp. in cases of contamination by
grazing livestock that utilizes the water resources.

SPACE

 Space is a must for any wild animal species. The availability of space is influenced by followings:
o Edges.
o Ecotones.
o Territory.
o Home ranges.
o Interspersion.
o Availability of mates.

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  Mongamous species suffer a lot in breeding as the case with rhinos or Sarus cranes. The mates may
not be adequate for these species in a given space some times.
 The problem has happened with rhinos of Jaldapara in West Bengal. This problem is not an acute
one in nature in case of polygamous species like spotted deer because one male can mate with three
to four females.
 The space should provide suitable niches for various wild animal species.

FACTORS PERTAINING TO WILDLIFE HABITAT

 Welfare factors
o These are the factors that are related to the specific components of habitat like food, shelter
and water. These factors help to enhance the population structure.
 Decimating factors
o These are the factors like starvation, fire, epidemics and unhealthy competition.

WETLAND HABITATS AND THE AVIARY SPECIES

 Wetlands have the concerned wetland aviary species that have specialized legs and the legs are
equipped with webs that help or facilitating for the better movement on mud or water logged
surfaces.
 The beaks vary in size and shape, so as to catch the prey species (mostly the fish) from water.

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA

Wildlife Sanctuaries and National parks existing in this country

 Wildlife Sanctuaries and National parks existing in this country (Andaman & Nicobar Islands,
Andhra pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu&Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal) should be known with regard to the understanding in a thorough manner about the
various wild animal species belonging to multiple species.

KARNATAKA • Anshi National park • Bandipur National park • Bannerghatta National park • Kudremukh National
park • Nagarahole National park • Adichunchanagiri sanctuary • Arabithittu sanctuary • Bhadra sanctuary • Billigiri
Rangaswamy Temple sanctuary • Brahmagiri sanctuary • Cauvery sanctuary • Dandeli sanctuary • Ghataprabha
sanctuary • Melkoote Temple sanctuary • Mookambika sanctuary • Nugu sanctuary • Pushpagiri sanctuary •
Ranebennur sanctuary • Ranganathittu sanctuary • Sharavathi Valley sanctuary • Shettihalli sanctuary •
Someshwara sanctuary • Talakaveri sanctuary • Tungabadra sanctuary

MODULE-10: HOUSING OF WILD ANIMALS

 In this unit, different types of the housing related infrastructures have been discussed. The browsing
students should understand that there is a link between improper housing arrangements and health
status.

The objectives are

 To know much about various components of housing like common barriers, standoff barriers,
fences, floor, door etc.
 To reveal information on housing and time budget activity, holding yards and biological needs,
feeding and watering facilities, lighting facilities, including the cubicle size etc.

BASICS OF ANIMAL HOUSING

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  The housing of wild animals is one of the important criteria to be observed in case of wild animals in
orderto have a successful breeding potential and to have a comfortable livingconditions under
captive conditions maintained in zoos, zoological parks,zoological gardens etc.
 Any wild animal reared undercaptive condition needs to be provided the housing arrangement that
can ensurea quality of life and longevity to enable the zoo population reared in captivestatus.
 The fundamental concept is that the wild animals need to get adequatespace for the free type of
movements that are generally carried out in the wildconditions to the possible extent.

COMPONENTS OF HOUSING ARRANGEMENTS IN WILD ANIMALS

 Each wild animal enclosure needs to be provided with appropriate shelter, perches, withdrawal
regions, drinking water facilities, pools or water holes of suitable areas, and other facilities that may
facilitate the concerned wild animal species.
 Such facilitiesfinally should help the targeted wild animal species to display they wide rangeof their
natural behavioral patterns and the housing facilities should alsoprovide adequate protection from
the predators to a great extent.
 Construction of the moat gains more significance in the housing arrangements.

COMMON BARRIERS

Common six types of barriers thatare generally used in case of captive wild animal places are given below:

 Glass panels
 Plastic panels
 Wire-mesh fencing or chain link fences
 Wet and dry moats of adequate dimension
 High tensile vertical wires
 Electrically charged wires
 Concrete barriers in selected sides

STAND-OFF BARRIERS

 The enclosure barriers are themust and more cautions need to be exercised in order to design these
types ofbarriers especially for the hazardous type of wild animal species like tiger,panther, lion,
jaguar etc.

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 SPREAD-OUT RAILING BEYOND THE BARRIER

 If there is a direct contact between the wild animal species and the visitor, then there are chances for
the visitors to get injured by the highly capable animals like lions, tiger etc.
 Hence, there is an immediate requirement to construct the stand-off barrier like the construction of
Spaced-Out railing beyond the barriers which help top revent any accidental contact with the
concerned wild animal species.

SECURITY OF FENCES

 More care has to be paid in the construction of the fences that has security related features.
 If not, the visitors as well as the wild animal species may get injured. Particular attention is to be
given to protect the children also during the visit to the captive wild animal places.
 The barriers should not injure the children or anybody.

NATURAL APPEARANCE

 The housing arrangements need to merge with the natural surroundings and this avoids the
distraction when visitors see the enclosure. Hence, the objectives of visiting of zoos may be achieved.
 For many wild animal species, housing arrangements should include naturally simulating
infrastructures and for example, trees may be placed / grown inside the arboreal species like nilgiri
langur.
 The visible structural elements of the barriers that are in direct line of the vision of visitors
andexhibit species should be painted suitably , so as to render those structuralelements to appear
like those of local soil.

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATION

 It is equally true that consideration needs to be given to the cost factor while the housing designs or
facilities are made for the welfare of wild animals kept as exhibits for the public.
 Timely constructions with facilities that are scientifically required for up keeping the health of the
concerned wild animal species are to be made and further, space has to be given to make
37
 expenditures related to the annual repairs for the concerned structures used by the visitors, wild
animal and zoo personnel.
 Size of the cubicle for the different species has to be meticulously worked out according to the actual
size of the concerned wild animal species.

INSIDE-OVERHANGS AS HOUSING FACILITY

 Overhangs are required particularly in case of animals thatare capable of jumping to a great height.
This helps to give protection to bothvisitors and wild animal species.
 Following wild animal species need the inside-overhangs in general:
o Cheetah
o Zebra
o Wild ass
o Spotted deer
o Hog deer
o Sambar deer
o Mouse deer
o Musk deer
o Brow antlered deer
o Four horned antelope
o Impala
o Chinkara
o Nilgiri tahr

FLOOR OF MAMMALIAN ENCLOSURES

 In case of elephants, the floor arrangements should not be made only by concrete.
 Natural substrate has to be provided to avoid the foot rot. Similarly, for cervids and antelopes,
natural floor is a must.
 Avoid the presence of any pointed materials during the construction of the housing arrangements.
 Drainage facilities need to be provided while designing the floor arrangements inside the
mammalian or other enclosures.
 Flooring arrangement needs to be made in order to facilitate an easy cleaning of the premises.
Crevices need to be taken care of during theroutine management.

FLOOR OF AVIARIES

 Care has to be taken to protect the aviary species from the predators that use the floor or sides,
often. Hence, the aviary enclosure or housing arrangement needs to be intelletually established,
considering many features required by avi fauna of multiple species, in general.
 Rodent control is an important measure for the wild birds that are kept in the confined state.
 Floors of aviaries should have cement concrete floors in order to prevent the entry of rodents and
have to be topped by the layer of about 15 cms earth.

FLOOR OF REPTILIAN HOUSES

 The reptilian houses should have land as well as the water-designs that should allow the sufficient
space for both bathing and basking.
 The substrate for the reptile cages should be of pea-sized gravel or sand materialdepending upon the
species of the reptiles.

DOORS

The doors of any wild animal species should be constructed considering the following factors in mind:

38
  Safety (Secured locking systems must be provided in order to prevent the theft or vandalism and to
prevent the unauthorized opening of the cages in which the wild animals have been kept in confined
status)
 Durability
 Easy handling nature
 Gilletin type of vertical doors are to be avoided and horizontally, sliding doors may be used with
proper lock-positions.

BREEDING DESIGN

 The housing arrangement should have facilities to facilitate the breeding related activities whenever
required for the concerned wild animal species. For example:
 You may be required to lower the water in hippo pools to thirty to forty cms when birth of the hippo
calf is expected.
 Hence, the housing arrangements have to be made with all such facilities that can enhance the
breeding potential of the wild animal species.
 Escape route is a must for the male felids during mating with female animal.

HOUSING FOR DIFFERENT SEXES

 Many times, if both sexes are kept in same place, fight may occur and in the process, animal may
often gets injured and this will create unwanted problems in the health related management of
various wild animal species.
 Hence,separate housing arrangements have to be constructed for the proper housing of different
sexes.
 Species like tigers, lions etc need separate housing arrangements.
 Even giraffes may fight with each other many timeswhen the same housing facility is used by both
sexes of this exotic-wild animal species.

ANATOMY AND HOUSING ARRANGEMENTS

 The entry door of the enclosure has to be constructed in a careful manner in order to avoid the
injuries to the wild animal.
 The opening has to be an adequate one, so that the concerned wild animal species can make entry
freely into the enclosure.
 The entry door of the wild animal species like Giraffe has to be built so high enough to accommodate
the long neck of this animal.
 Elephant should enter into the enclosure freely without any struggles and the housing arrangement
has to be done in such a manner that entry related difficulties have to be avoided in general.

NATURE OF THE SPECIES AND HOUSING

The nature of the concerned wild animal species has to be given more significance when ever a proper
housing arrangement is made.

 Chimpanzees generally are reluctant to approach the water resources except for the drinking
purposes. Hence, wet moats are generally preferred ones whenever housing arrangements are made
for them.
 Giraffe do not swim and hence will not have inclination to cross the water moat. Further, the Giraffe
are generally reluctant to step over the barriers and also have been very rarely observed to step over
the shallow ditch. Similarly, Giraffe can extend the neck to a great extent during the attempting of
trying to receive food material if any given by visitor. Hence, during the construction of housing
facilities for species like this, all considerations have to be given to such nature of this species.
 Wet moats with resting platforms appear to be the must in case of housing arrangements for felids
like tigers.

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 TIME-BUDGET ACTIVITY AND HOUSING

 Consideration needs to be given to the time budget activity of the wild animal species kept as exhibit
in the zoo.
 Nocturnal wild animal species like wolves may prefer to retire during the day time. Hence, the dens
may be provided for these species in their housing arrangements.
 Similarly,separate arrangements have to be made while building housing facilities for thenocturnal
wild animal species like owl, palm-civet etc.

VENTILATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

 Ventilation arrangements have to be made as fool-proof ones and this helps to avoid the occurrence
of respiratory infections like pneumonia to the new born wild animal species as in case with bear
cubs etc.
 Arrangements have to be made for the provision of rooms or places, so that the concerned wild
animal species that is kept in confined status may get opportunity to escape from the extremes of
climate etc. This is one of the important feature especially for the new born wild animals or young
ones or sick animals.
 Arrangements for heating or cooling in the indoor enclosure may be made to avoid the problems in
health of the wild animal species due to the extreme environmental temperature-variations.

HOLDING YARDS AND BIOLOGICAL NEEDS

 For wild animal species like Spotted deer, Sambar deer etc., small holding yards are often used to
keep the released cervids (from quarantine places) for some days. This facility in captive wild animal
places often helps to keep the wild animals acclimatized with the environment.
 Snakes need mud-pots for laying of eggs. Similarly,arboreal non-human species like Common
langurs need hanging types of wooden rods for climbing activities.
 Wallowing tankor water source to move freely is to be provided for Elephant, Rhino, Sambar deer
etc.
 Among the felids, emphasis maybe given to provide water filled tank for submerging or sitting in
summer periods for tigers, in particular.

LIGHTING FACILITIES AND HOUSING

 There should be proper lighting facilities in all wild animal enclosures and this helps to inspect the
wild animal even in the night hours also.
 However, the nocturnal and diurnal activity pattern of the wild animal has to be taken care of while
lighting facilities are used in the enclosures.
 Reptiles like diamond pythons,lizards etc. may require Ultra Violet-B type that has non-visible
wavelengthand the UV-bulb may be fixed in such a manner that the concerned reptile mayget
maximum light and it appears better to have the bulb at about 12 inchesaway from the basking spot.

FEEDING PLACE AND HOUSING

 The place for feeding should be constructed in such a manner that the cleaning of the premises
becomes an easy one and the crevices in the feeding trough needs to be attended properly during the
maintenance of the feeding trough or place. This helps toavoid the deposition of feed particles in the
structures and thereby thechances for contamination of food particles get minimized.
 Multiple feedingplaces are the better ones especially for the animals that are exhibited inherds like
Spotted deer, Manipuri deer, black bucks etc.

WATERING AND FOOT BATH ARRANGEMENTS

40
  The watering facility should be thought of whenever a housing facility is constructed for the
concerned wild animal species.
 The capacity of wild animal species with regard to the watering habits needs to be paid more
emphasis.
 For example, an elephant may require about two hundred and twenty litres of water in a day.
 Hence, the watering trough should be of adequate size and should have an easy access for the wild
animal species to have water whenever it desires.
 These need to be constructed outsidethe enclosure and by placing appropriate agents, it becomes
possible to preventor minimize the entry of microbes through the visiting personnel.
 Place of foot bath should beinspected frequently to avoid the slippery nature of the floor.

SIZE OF THE CUBICLE

Name of the Species Size of the cubicle in meters
Length Breadth Height
Tiger and lions 2.75 1.80 3.00
Panther 2.00 1.50 2.00
Clouded leopard & snow leopard 2.00 1.50 2.00
Small cats 1.80 1.50 1.50
Elephant 8.00 6.00 5.50
One-horned Indian Rhinoceros 5.00 3.00 2.50
Brow antlered deer 3.00 2.00 2.50
Hangul 3.00 2.00 2.50
Swamp deer 3.00 2.00 2.50
Musk deer 2.50 1.50 2.00
Mouse deer 1.50 1.00 1.50
Nilgiri tahr 2.50 1.50 2.00
Chinkara 2.50 1.50 2.00
Four horned antelope 2.50 1.50 2.00
Wild Buffalo 3.00 1.50 2.00
Gaur 3.00 2.00 2.50
Name of the Species Size of the cubicle in meters
Length Breadth Height
Yak 4.00 2.00 2.50
Bharal, goral, Wild sheep and markhor 2.50 1.50 2.00
Wild Ass 4.00 2.00 2.00
All type of Indian bears 2.50 1.80 2.00
Jackal, wolf and Wild dog 2.00 1.50 1.50
Palm civet 2.00 1.00 1.00

41
 Large Indian civet & binturong 2.00 1.50 1.00
Otters all types 2.50 1.50 1.00
Hogbadger 2.50 1.50 1.00
Martens 2.00 1.50 1.00
Red Panda 3.00 1.50 1.00
Slow loris and slender loris 1.00 1.00 1.50
Macaques and langurs 2.00 1.00 1.50

MODULE-8: POPULATION, BREEDING FOR CONSERVATION AND

ASSISTED REPRODUCTION

 This module is meant to develop awareness on various breeding related strategies and captive
breeding as well as assisted breeding aspects in wild animals.

The objectives are

 To reveal information on captive breeding

 To reveal about assisted reproduction
 To detail on population control measures

POPULATION, BREEDING FOR CONSERVATION AND ASSISTED

REPRODUCTION

Effective population size of Wild Animals in captivity/zoo/natural habitats

 The effective population size may be easily estimated in captivity or in zoo due to the provision of
resources in a controlled manner. Economy, availability in the concerned season or period or
locality etc will assist a lot in deciding about the effective population size of the targeted wild animal
species.
 However in natural habitats the effective population size is to be associated with the carrying
capacity of the habitat.
 Carrying capacity of a habitat for a particular species may be defined as the number of individuals of
that population (species) which the concerned area/habitat can carry or support during the pinch
period.
 Population size may be adjusted in nature by several decimating factors that are existing in the
environment. Whenever species abundance is present (species exceeding the optimum numbers and
density) through breeding-potential and productivity of the species, wildlife disease becomes one of
the significant decimating factor in nature. Example are the occurrence of FMD, anthrax, botulism,
brucellosis, rabies, distemper, haemorrhagic septicemia, black quarter etc. Similarly, predation as
well as the adverse climate may lead to casualty of the species, in addition to human interference as
the case with strayed wild animals, stress, starvation, movement related activities etc.

PLANNED BREEDING OF WILD ANIMALS

 This is an important feature to be taken care of during the mating of wild animals. To have a
planned breeding of wild animals, one should understand the reproductive biology of the concerned
wild animal species.

Animal Age of puberty Estrus related feature Gestation period

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 Elephant 16 weeks estrus cycle 22 months
Tiger 3.5 – 5 years Polyestrus 98 – 114 days
Leopard Polyestrus 98 – 105 days
Lion 3-6 years Polyestrus 98 – 114 days
Cheetah 14-16 months Seasonally Polyestrus 90 – 95 days
Jungle cat Probably Polyestrus 66 days
Spotted deer 16-18 months 210 – 225 days
Sambar deer 16 months 240 days

BREEDING FOR CONSERVATION OF WILD FAUNA

The wild animals that are found decreased in population need to be first identified and the breeding related
activities are to be strengthened accordingly.

CAPTIVE BREEDING

 Captive populations of animals can play a significant conservation role as demographic and genetic
reservoirs from which infusions of ‘new blood’ may be obtained for wild populations, as source from
which new population can be found and at last redoubts for species which have no immediate
chance of survival in the wild.
 If the captive breeding community is to succeed in its stated education and conservation aims, it
becomes important that efforts should be directed on both geographic and taxonomic basis towards
area of needs.
 Captive breeding institutions can play an important role in mobilizing public awareness of
conservation issues and the fact that so few are located in the developing world where major species
losses are expected is therefore of concern. Give adequate funding, local institutions may be better
placed than overseas ones to breed and maintain native species with particular ecological
requirements and to provide environmentally adapted specimens for eventual reintroduction
projects.
 The maintenance of viable captive population of most, if not all, threatened species should therefore
be an important component of the strategy to preserve the worlds biodiversity.
 Ex-situ / In-situ conservation is just one of many options open to zoo managers / wildlife managers,
but often represents the only hope for species nearing extinction in the wild. However, zoos and
aquaria undoubtedly have considerable capacity to preserve threatened species.
 Zoo hold ex situ population assigned to highest risk categories like the endangered and the
vulnerable categories. IUCN has categorized 34% of threatened mammalian taxa as Endangered and
25 % as Vulnerable. In situ conservation efforts must be increasingly focused on localities of high
species diversity and endemism, while captive breeding resources must be re-allocated to the ex
situ conservation of threatened taxa. Captive breeding is widely regarded as less cost effective
than in situ conservation.
 For captive breeding, genetic diversity is essential to know the number of animals that are necessary
tot start the breeding. The population must be sufficiently large, so that the chances of complete
extinction due to untimely death may be kept at the minimum. It should also be large as enough to
maintain the maximum possible genetic diversity. Genetic diversity cannot be achieved by
increasing the numbers alone, because many species vary in terms of sex ratio, breeding pattern,
population fluctuations etc. These characteristics affect the gene pool of a population.

PROJECTS RELATED TO BREEDING OF WILD ANIMALS

Various projects were established towards better breeding aspects of the selected wild animal species.
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Crocodile Breeding Project

 Due to the large scale hunting for their skin, the 3 species of crocodiles – the Mugger or Fresh water
or Swamp crocodile, the Gharial and the Salt water or Estuarine crocodile got reduced in their
numbers.
 From 1st April, 1975, the actual project was started with the following objectivities:
o To continue the task of locating best crocodile areas within the country.
o To collect eggs as soon as possible after laying and transport them to central protection area
for hatchery incubation and to rear the young one until it assumes size for release back into
the wild.

Elephant Project

The project was started officially in 1991-92 but launched in 1993 by the central Government to afford
protection to elephants and it had following objectives:-

 To identify the limiting factors of the habitat and to remove it by the management.
 To adapt systematic management plans.
 To eliminate human exploitation and disturbances.
 To build up the elephant habitat to reduce limiting factors.
 To develop the elephant by planning and propagating the favourite food plants of the elephant.

Project Lion

Lion is the top carnivore in the food chain of the ecosystem. In 1972, this project was initiated in India.
Accordingly, to facilitate successful breeding of lions, following were implemented in this project:-

 Shifting of all maldharis from sanctuary and their resettlement outside it.
 Construction of barricades along the water resources to prevent entry of cattle.
 Fencing of periphery of the Gir sanctuary by dry rubble wall of 1 meter height as the protective
measure.
 Minimizing of human interferences within the ecosystem.
 Securing of full co-operation of legistlators, public and maldharis.
 Improving the habitat of lions in Gir region.

Project Tiger

 On recommendations from the task force set up by the Indian board for wildlife, Project Tiger was
initiated as a Central Sector scheme in 1973. The breeding of tigers was facilitated by improvement
of tiger habitat by identifying and limiting of the limiting factors of the habitat for tiger population.
Thorough emphasis was given on protection of tigers, fire-protection, disease control, shifting of
villages inside the tiger reserve areas, grazing control, development of water resources,
enhancement of research and population estimation etc. Many tiger reserves were started and tiger
conservation was aimed in these.

CONTROLLED BREEDING AND ASSISTED REPRODUCTION

 This is gaining more significance now a days and is being considered as one of the significant factor
linked to effective conservation of different wild animal species belonging to various taxonomical
classes.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

 This technique is used in multiple species of the animals ranging from the honey bee to elephant.
This significant reproductive technology is useful in captive breeding of wild animal species like the
highly valued and endangered wild animals . example : Tigers , Lions , Elephants , Chimpanzees ,
etc. Frozen semen banks are highly required with history of the concerned wild animal species used
44
 for further advancement of breeding. Electro-ejaculators are being used to collect semen from male
genital organs , involving the application of varied and measured electric current over the selected
sites of the body. Female genitalia based diseases like pyometra , metritis , etc. may be fully avoided
by using this assisted reproductive technology.

EMBRYO TRANSFER

 Many genetically superior wild animals germplasm may be used for breeding purpose and the
associated factors with embryo-transfer are:-
o Timely recovery of embryos.
o Timely deposition of embryos
o Superior germplasm of the bulls used for production of embryos.
 Embryo-transfer techniques in wild animal species may help in minimizing the risk of disease-
transmission associated with the long-distance movement of breeding wild animals.
 Embryo-tansfers were frequently carried out in deer and camelid species , in general. Studies have
to be undertaken with regard to super-ovulatory responses in multiple-species of wild animals
reared under captive conditions.

CLONING TECHNOLOGY

 Though much progress has not been made in wild animal species with regard to cloning technology ,
it is to be understood that the cloning of a targeted wild animal species from an adult somatic cell
may be considered as one of the technological advances with regard to assisted reproduction in wild
animals.
 It is significant that in many animals the great majority of cloned embryos may perish before
reaching full term. If the cloned embryos have more epigenetic errors , then there is likelihood of
death among such cloned embryos. It is a known fact that cloned embryos contain fewer cells than
the case with normal embryos.

IN-VITRO EMBRYO PRODUCTION

 The embryos may be preserved even after the death of the concerned wild animal. However
availability of experiment-based informations are scarce in nature.

MODULE-15: FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS - I

 This module mainly deals with feeding-significances and components of general nutrients and
merits of balanced nutrition.

The objectives are

 To study on the general components of nutrients

 To study on the feeding strategies used by various wild animals like felids

SIGNIFICANCE OF FEEDING

 Feeding in wild animals is different under captive conditions and in free ranging conditions.
 Feeding is a controlled activity in case of captive wild animal species unlike in case of free ranging
wild animal species in which cases, the animal by itself attempt to have some control measures.
 Differing feed habits are there in case of captive wild animal places that are rich in multiple species
of wild animals.
 Hence, one should have a preliminary knowledge of the feeding related activities in the concerned
wild animal species and a basic knowledge of nutrition, proper diets etc. is an essential one.
 Scientific mode of feeding-strategies forms the basis for the scientific management of wild animal
places.

45
 CLASSIFICATION OF WILD ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING BEHAVIOR

Herbivores

 They constitutethe wide spectrum of different species of wild animals with anatomical adaptations
comprising of symbiotic microbial population of bacteria, protozoa etc.
 The feed resources to these animals have in general low nutritional values but are bulky in nature.
 Among herbivores, the ones with complex stomach (ruminants) are the most efficient ones and the
roughages and forages are most efficiently utilized by the species. Microbial fermentation is the
mode of digestion in these species.
 Example: Gaur,deer, giraffe, antelopes like blackbuck, buffaloe etc.
 Pregastric fermenters are also available as wild fauna like kangaroo, wild pig,hippopotamus etc.
Similarly, hind gut fermenters like rabbits, guinea pigs,capybara (cecal fermentation) and zebra and
wild asses (colon fermentation) arealso existing under captive conditions.
 Cecotrophs arethe ones that are produced in the morning and are the soft materials that areoften
consumed directly from the anal region. Animals like rabbit and haresproduce these soft fecal
pellets that have high protein, fiber and watercontents with increased amounts of vitamin B
complex.
 It is noteworthy to note that the bulk eaters like elephants or rhinos have poor digestive efficiency
but meet their nutritional requirements by consumption of high levels of feed intake and fast rate of
food transit without digesting fiber.(as the case with giant panda)

CARNIVORES

 Carnivores are the meat eating animals and require a highly digestible and high quality food
resources with nearly all the types of nutrients.
 The various species of this group require most of the times unique type of nutrition . For example,
felids need a dietary requirement for amino acid ‘taurine’ and preformed vitamin A and essential
fatty acid ‘arachidonic acid’.

OMNIVORES

 Large group of wild animals belong to this in general. Most of the rodents, flying fox, sloth , bears,
non-human primates, pigs many species of birds etc. belong to this group.
 Carbohydrates become the major nutrient received from the plants, while moderate amount of
protein and fat are received from meat sources.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BALANCED NUTRITION

 Longer life span of the animal

 Maximal reproduction
 Maximal infant survival rate
 Appreciable health status
 Acquiring of good immune mechanisms

GENERAL NUTRIENTS AND FEED STUFF

Carbohydrates

 This is the chief source of energy in case of wild animals.

 Ruminants like deer or giraffe or antelope make use of the complex carbohydrates subsequent to
thebacterial actions in the rumen and the rumen microflora help the properdigestion of nutrients.
 Cereals, grains, roots, tubers and fruits have high carbohydrates.
 Fruits are rich in pentoses and hexoses, whereas the tubers andseeds are rich in glucose.

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 PROTEINS

 More significance needs to be provided towards the provision of adequate amounts of protein to
wild animals especially the carnivores.
 The proteins comprise the ingredients of internal frame work of cells esp. the interstitial cells like
dentine, osteoidtissue, connective tissue etc.
 Essential amino acids like arginine, methionine, threonine, leucine, lysine etc. are to be given
importance during the provision of protein rich diets.
 It is to be noted that protein deficiency may result in retardation of the growth rate, cessation of
lactation in case of nursing animals, impairment of reproduction, decreased body resistance level
etc.

FATS

 Fats are the important nutrients in case of wild fauna like the domestic animals. They provide the fat
soluble vitamins like A,D,E and K.
 In addition, the fat materials provide some satiety value to the concerned wild animal species in
addition to the provisions of the palatability to the feed.
 Provision of optimal amounts of fat is a must for the wild animal species. Fat provides the most
concentrated forms of stored energy and fat reserves in fact help a lot for the provision of energy
during the adverse climatic extremes.
 For example phocids like elephant seal may spend a considerable time in land without any access to
food while suckling the pups. In such occasions, fat is the major nutrient factor that helps the
survival of the concerned species.
 Similarly, in case of hibernating animals like bears in cool regions it is the fat that gets accumulated
often and is useful as an energy resource in winter months.

ROUGHAGES

 Tree and shrub leaves, grass and legume silages, straw, fodder, hulls, shells, maize, hay etc. form the
roughages.
 They are bulky in nature but are poor in energy content and are rich in fiber.

CONCENTRATES

 These are low in fibre but are rich in protein or energy content.
 Cereal grains, non-cereal seeds like amaranthus green, grain milling by-products like wheat and rice
bran, beet pulp, citrus pulp, molasses etc. fall under this category.
 Fish meal, dried milk products like skin milk powder, sunflower meal, cotton seed meal etc. provide
more than twenty per cent crude protein.

MINERAL MIXTURES

 Mineral supplements need to be added along with the routine food materials to be offered to the
dietary items of captive wild animals. It to be borne in mind that minerals also are supplied by a
balanced diets.
 However, these can be supplied as mixtures including lime stone, dicalcium sulphate, salt, trace
mineral mixtures etc.
 Among minerals, it is the zinc that has effect on the hair growth and calcium with phosphorous are
also to be given maximum significance in case of wild animals.
 Deficiency of minerals like calcium and phosphorus may lead to development of bone disorders like
rickets, osteodystrophy etc. Nursing animals need an additional allowance of calcium in their dietary
items.

VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS
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  Vitamins like fat soluble ones and water soluble ones are of much helpful in various metabolic
functions occurring in the body.
 Care has to be paid in the provision of adequate amounts of vitamins to the diet of captive wild
animals.
 The vitamins can be supplied along with the main diet as a special mixture to rectify feather loss like
conditions.

 Species like red vented bulbul, frugivours bats, guinea pigs, non-human primates etc. are in need of
direct supply of vitamin C because they lack the enzyme L-gluconolactone oxidase required for the
synthesis of vitamin C.

WATER

 Watering in case of wild animals has to be given more significance. Generally wild animals prefer
water content and even in the wild, wild animals move to the water holes frequently in every day.
 However, it is to be understood that certain species may not take water much like blackbucks. The
water requirement may be met by water content of food itself or through the oxidation of organic
constituents that produces metabolic water.
 High moisture diets are generally preferred by the wild animals like non-human primates. It is also
equally true that high moisture food items are often subjected to the fungal as well as the microbial
proliferation.
 Wild ruminants mostly drink water either in the late evening or early morning. Camels have
capacity to take more water at a time. Wild animals like felids require the provision of water ad
libitum.

FEEDING STRATEGIES IN CASE OF WILD ANIMALS

 Otters, badgers, pelicans, penguins, gharials, dolphins, ferrets, pole cats, mink etc. are often fed with
fishes.
 Hence, more care needs to be taken while feeding the fish to the wild animals.
 Rotten fish or fish with more pungent smell are to be avoided. Gill regions in the fishes need to be
examined for the freshness.
 Avoid the feeding of fishes like carps and herring that contain the enzyme termed thiamenase since
this may destroy the thiamine in the diet.

48
  Cooked fish or fishes like butter fish and mackerel may be used. Usage of oily fish like herring in fish
meal may lead to the oxidation of vitamin A and E in the diet.
 Wide trays may be used for feeding of species like star tortoises

MODULE-16: FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS - II

 This course overall may lead to understanding the feed components of various wild fauna reared
under captive conditions.

The objectives are

 To understand about the components of feeds routinely offered to wild animals belonging to
multiple species
 To study on the different types of feeding habitats existing among the wild animals and sick diets.

FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS

Bonnet macaque

 Rice 50 gms
 Banana 3 nos
 Orange/Mango ¼ no.(100-150gm size)
 Guava ¾ no
 Groundnut (WOS) 15 gms
 Bengal gram 15 gms

Jungle cat

 Chopped beef 250 gms

 Bread slice 2 no
 Milk 100 ml

Jackal

 Beef without bone 500 gms

49
  Liver 100 gms
 Chicken 250 gms weekly once.

Hyena

 Beef 3 kg/day
 Liver 100 gms
 Chicken 500 gms weekly once.

Sloth bear

 Ragi (cooked) 250 gms

 Rice gruel + black gram 150 + 50gms
 Orange / Mango 2 nos
 Guava 4 nos
 Tapioca 100 gms
 Jaggery 200 gms
 Groundnut (WOS) 100 gms
 Honey bi-weekly
 Milk ½ litre
 Radish 100 gms
 Bread slices 2 nos
 Carrot 200 gms

Otter

 Fish 1.5 kg
 Crab (weekly twice) 300 gms
 Sardine 1.5 kg

Indian Elephant

 Ragi 7 kg
 Horse gram 2 kg
 Salt 200 gms
 Jaggery 250 gms
 Grass 200 kgs
 Sugarcane 4 nos
 Green tree leaves –
 Bamboo / stylo 250 kg
 Coconut 500 gms (1 no)

Porcupine

 Rice 100 gms

 Carrot 100 gms
 Cabbage 100 gms
 Tapioca or sweet potato 100 gms
 Soya bean 20 gms
 Groundnut (WOS) 150 gms

Lion and Tiger

 Beef (with bone) 10 kg

 Liver 500 gms
 Chicken 1 kg (weekly once)

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Zebra (adult)

 Wheat bran 2 kgs

 White Bengal gram 100 gms
 Grass and leaves 30 kgs
 Mineral mixture 10 days in a month at regular intervals.
 Lucerne 5 kgs

Panther

 Beef (with bone) 3 kg

 Liver 250 gms
 Chicken 1 kg (weekly once)

Camel

 Wheat bran 2 kg
 White Bengal gram 500gm
 Grass 30 kg
 Leaves (neem, bamboo,
 Subabul, bauhina) 20 kg
 Salt 50 gm
 Cabbage 2 kg
 Banana 6 no
 Leaves of acacia 5 kg

Indian bison (Gaur)

 Wheat bran 3 kg
 Bengal gram 0.5 kg
 Green leaves/ grass L.S

Barking deer/ Spotted deer/Sambar deer

 Wheat bran 1 kg
 White Bengal gram 25 gm
 Grass 7 kg
 Green leaves 3 kg
 Salt 10 gm
 Stylo/Lucerne 2 kg

Peach faced love bird, Fisher’s love bird, Sky blue mask love bird, Love bird (Split)

 Apple (to all) 1 no

 Banana (to all) 1 no
 Thinai 10 gm
 Paddy 5 gm
 Mixed grain 10 gm
 White Bengal gram 5 gm
 Onion 10 gm
 Greens 10 gm
 Shell grit Q.S

Parakeet

 Bread slice 1 no
 Apple (L.S) 3 no

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  Sathukudi/Mango/Orange ¼ no
 Guava 1 no
 Groundnut (WOS) 20 gm
 Chilly fruit 10 gm
 Garlic 2 gm
 Paddy 10 gm
 Mixed grains 20 gm
 Bengal gram 10 gm
 Sunflower seed 10 gm
 Green gram 10 gm

Indian Peafowl

 Cabbage 25 gm
 Mixed grains 25 gm
 Paddy 25 gm
 White Bengal gram 50 gm
 Greens 100gm
 Garlic 10 gm
 Groundnut (WOS) 50 gm
 Shell grit 25 gm
 Green gram 25 gm

Owl

 Chopped beef or rat 150 gm/2no/day

 (each 100-150 gm size)
 Chicks 10 gm (once in a week)

Budgerigar

 Thinai 10 gm
 Greens 10 gm
 Shell grit 20 gm
 Bengal gram 5 gm
 Green gram 5 gm

Emu

 Green gram 250 gm

 Wheat 250 gm (soaked)
 Broiler finisher grumble diet 250 gm
 Rice 250 gm (cooked)
 Milk 100 ml (boiled)
 Tomato 100 gm
 Green banana 2 no

Marsh crocodile (adult)

 Fish (twice a week) 250 gm

 Bone (vertebral column) 100 gm
 Beef 250 gm

Gharial (adult)

 Fish (twice a week) 1 kg

 Bone (vertebral) 100 gm

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Python

 Chicken 1 kg (twice a month)

 Rat 8 no (twice a month) each 150 gm size.

Viper

 Chicken 3 no
 Rat 4 no (weekly once) 100-150 gm size.

Cobra

 Chicken 3 no
 Rat 4 no (weekly once) 100-150 gm size.

Iguana

 Carrot 50 gm (daily)
 Cabbage 50 gm (daily)
 Tomato 50 gm (daily)
 Greens 100 gm (daily)

Star tortoise

 Carrot 30 gm (daily)
 Cabbage 30 gm (daily)
 Tomato 30 gm (daily)
 Greens (L.S) 500 gm (daily)

Feeding habits

 The feeding habit varies from species to species.

 Chewing bones is a preferred activity among lions, tigers and jaguars and the activity is less in
panthers.
 These carnivores prefer larger pieces of meat to alleviate hunger more readily than the smaller meat
pieces. Lions and tigers carry the beef pieces to one side of the cage before it sits for feeding.
 In lion, tiger and jaguar the posture of consumption was of extending the fore legs and holding the
meat while the hind legs are tucked up within the body, where as in panthers all the four legs tucked
up within the body.
 Wild dogs eat while they were in standing position in a hurried gulping manner.
 Among the large felines like tiger, lion, panther and jaguar the time taken to consume the meat was
from 16.5 minutes to 39 minutes in a very slow manner.
 Tigers soon after feeding they lick the cage wall few times and then drink water, where as in lions
they drink water soon after feeding.
 After the weekly starvation in lions and tigers a characteristic restlessness was evinced by the sound
and arrival of the food delivery vehicle.
 During the act of drinking the large cats curl tongue backward and then flick it forward, rolling it up
slightly into a spoon shape, as they do so and they swallow after every 4 or 5 laps.
 Tigers, Jaguars and Panthers show a preference for chicken meat when offered than beef.
 Almost all species of the carnivores like panther, lion, wild dog and tiger eat quickly in winter than
in summer.
 In panther, lion and tiger, smelling and licking of the meat were noticed. Tigers and lions show a
greater degree of smelling the licking than the other species.
 Elephants use trunk as prehensile organ and may even pick up grass by using strikes with legs on
ground and later, the grass materials may be striked on its own legs to wither away the dirt or sand
and then by using the trunk, they may place the feed materials into the mouth. The trunk will not be
protruded during eating activities of the elephant.

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  Bears have the habit of climbing the trees or rocks in order to remove the bee hives and by using
forelimbs, the hives are destroyed and use to suck honey in addition to lapping using tongue.
 Crocodile have the habit of gulping the feed materials.

Sick diets

Most seriously ill-wild animals refuse to eat or just pick at the food. Force feeding often may not be
practicable especially in carnivores or herbivores.

 Soft diet like chicken preferably in cooked form may be attempted as one of the significant diets in
wild animal species.
 Intra-venous fluids like dextrose saline, Ringers lactate etc, may be chosen in wild animals that have
totally ceased eating activities.
 Attempts may be done to provide the most palatable food for the targeted wild animal species.
 In wild animals especially carnivores with severe gastritis whatever food is offered or ingested, it
may be vomited often. In such cases, blend diet may be offered. Egg white may be offered to
carnivores with severe vomiting, in addition to administration of 5% dextrose saline solution, in
these gastritis affected wild animals.
 Provide drinking water ad-libitum to all the sick wild animals in general.
 Provision of bland diet in small quantities spaced in several daily doses may help to minimize the
incidences of vomiting or rejection by the concerned wild animal species.

Geriatric animal feeding

 Avoid feeding with less-digestible feeds.

 Avoid full-stomach feeding.
 Provide adequate quantities of vitamins and minerals.
 Provide water ad-libitum.

MODULE-12: RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS - I

Learning objective

This module has got specific goals that are oriented to impart information pertaining to the restraint and
physical restraint of wild animals belonging to various species. In nut shell, it provides answers to the
following questions in a simplified manner:

 What is Restraint?
 What are the gadgets that are more useful for an efffective restraint procedure in case of wild
animals?
 Are there any factors that are to be taken care of before you start to exercise the restraint
procedures?

ABOUT THE RESTRAINT

 Restraint means the control of wild animal which may be in trapped or freely moving status.
 It is to be significant to note that any the proposed physical restraint of the wild animal should not
cost risk to either handler or the wild animal.

TYPES AND PURPOSES OF RESTRAINT

Types

 Physical Restraint
 Chemical Restraint

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Purposes

 The wild animals need to be restrained for various purposes and one has to understand the multiple
reasons for the effective restraining of wild animals in a systematic manner.

GADGETS USED FOR THE PROPER PHYSICAL RESTRAINT

 There are many types of physical restraint related gadgets for application in case of wild animals like
drop nets, net gun, squeeze cages , trap cages etc.

STRAW, BLANKETS AND BAFFLE BOARDS

 The bales of straw materials are more easy to use due to it’s availability and cost. However, it can be
used mainly in case of deer related restraint strategies especially to restraint the deer inside the
fenced area
 Blanket materials are particularly useful in controlling the semi-conscious cervids and more useful
during the control of primates falling from top.
 These are the large pieces of plywood with handles fixed in one side, so as to have a better grip of the
board whenever the captive wild animal is approached for various purposes.

TYPES AND PURPOSES OF RESTRAINT

 The net guns are always used for the physical restraint with capture of free ranging aviary species.
However, the cost factor of this has to be taken care of.
 Krall is used mainly to restrain the elephants in free ranging regions.

55
  Bamboos are mainly used for the construction of this restraint gadget.

GLOVES, GUNNY BAGS AND BASKETS

 Gloves with various thickness measurements are used for an efficient control of wild animals
especially the small sized mammals and the multiple aviary species.
 However, when restraining the different sized birds by using gloves, one has to take more care in
avoiding exertion of maximum pressure in the name of control of the birds. This may cause problem
like suffocation in the concerned tiny sized aviary species.
 Longer gloves may be used to give more protection to the arm and wrist. However, one has to be
cautious that if the gloves used are more thicker, then this may interfere with the touch-reflex.
 Gunny bags are useful to control the non-human primates of smaller size like bonnet macaques and
the loris. The ropes need to be ready always whenever the attempts are made to control the non-
human primates or any other smaller sized animal.
 The baskets are of more useful to control the chelonians and the wire baskets are better ones to have
restraining activities for selected aviary species.

SQUEEZE CAGES AND CHAIN LINK FENCES

 The squeeze cages need to be adequate size for the concerned wild animal under target. The squeeze
cages are in-built ones in case of felid enclosures. These cages are mainly used for an efficient
control of captive felids like lion, tiger, panther, bears, hyena, jackals, wild dogs, fox etc.
 Hydraulic squeeze cages are available for an efficient control of even the large sized mega herbivores
like elephants.
 Well padded squeeze cages are available for the control of cervid species like spotted deer, sambar
deer etc.
 Chain link fences are used to restrain many species of wild animals including non-human primates
like Bonnet macaques in an efficient manner.

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 
 CHAIN LINK FENCE


KETCH-ALL-POLE, SNARES AND ELECTRIC RODS

 The ketch-all-Pole gadgets may be used for control the highly aggressive wild carnivores of smaller
size. Snares are used to control the species like wild boars, camels etc.
 Electric rods are currently used as a means of defensive action. In case of highly aggressive animal,
this may be used for an effective control whenever required.

GADGETS BASED ON SIGHT AND SOUND

 The puppets are mainly used to capture the freely swimming birds in a lake etc.
 Mist nets are of fine ones and can be spotted out only out of serious observations. These are used
mainly for the restraint of cervids like spotted deer, antelopes like blackbuck. However, they need to
be placed with suitable height.
 The visual barriers directing the wild animals in one direction with facilities for the placement of
obstacles may be used for the proper restraint of cervids.
 The spot lights are used with adequate illuminative power, in the night periods. The eyes of the wild
animals will glow often in this targeted spot light. The animals may be restrained subsequently.
 The carbondioxide fire extinguisher based gadgets are simply used to have control over the wild
animal by means of developing some foam or noise in front of the concerned wild animal especially
in case of some emergency conditions.
 The hoods made of clothes are used for the control of the big sized birds like ostriches, emus,
cassowary etc.

FOOT HOLD TRAPS AND DROP NETS

 These foot hold traps are mainly useful to restrain the carnivores in the free ranging regions like the
wolf, hyena, jackals etc.

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  Drop nets are used to capture the non-human primates, cervids, antelopes etc. but more caution is
needed to use these gadgets for the restraint purpose.
 Nets made of nylon or cotton with sufficient durability may be used for an efficient restraint of the
wild animal.

PRESSURE FORCE, CUSHION AND MATTRESSES

 The pressure force to be exerted by fingers help to exercise more control in the birds captured.
However, some experience is required for it’s efficient usage.
 Mattresses can be used safely but with cautions in cervids, antelopes etc. and these gadgets are of
useful as barriers mainly.
 Cushion may be used to give specific support in selected spots during the restraining operations of
cervids in trucks or fenced chambers.

MISCELLANEOUS GADGETS

 Mouth gags may be useful for small sized wild mammals like jungle cats, foxes, jackals etc.
However, needs a clear assessment. Snares also may be used to restrian the wild animals at a
distance.

 Adjustable partitions are used in between the animals like carnivores. The enclosures for lions or
panthers often have the partitions that can be operated from outside in a more safe manner.
 The drop gates with pulley system can be used to capture and restraint of non-human primates, wild
pigs etc.

 Snake hooks for snakes and elephant hooks for elephants may be of more useful in physical restraint
procedures.
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 Snake hook Elephant hook

 Please note that the snake hook needs to have an adequately lengthy handle to provide safety to the
operator or restraining personnel associated. Transparent plastic tubes may be used for the proper
restaint of serpentinbes.

 Nets are being used for various species of wild fauna esp. birds.

TECHNIQUES USING SPECIFIC SENSE PERCEPTION

Cooling

 The cooling related reflex can be used to control the wild animals like serpentines.

Vision

 Vision related reflex can be used to control the wild animals and such types of restraints are often
used to control the vision based stress reactions also in case of wild animals.
 It is to be remembered that the blind folded wild animals may not show much excitement unlike the
wild animal which has not been blind folded.
 Complete coverage but with the proper ventilation using thick cloth like tarpaulin may be of useful
in quitening the concerned wild animal. This feature is to be taken care of during the calming down
of the free ranging wild animal like leopard etc.
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  It is to be remembered that the nocturnal wild animals may be less active in broad day light and
similarly, the diurnal wild animals may be less active in night time.

Psychological tool

 Voice may be helpful to some extent for the proper restraint of the wild animal.
 However, it may not be taken as a more reliable tool for the restraint of the wild animal.

Smell

 Sometimes, the presence of excreta from same animal or the same species may have some degree of
calming effects.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE THE RESTRAINT

 One has to consider multiple factors before making an effective restraint procedures in case of
various species of wild animals.
 One may encounter failure if due considerations are not given in the different factors that are
required for a successful restraint in the field conditions .

MODULE-13: RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS - II AND SURGICAL

INTERVENTIONS

 This branch reveals the purposes of chemical restraint, different gadgets associated, characteristic of
various drugs used for various restraint procedures and common surgical conditions in various wild
animals.

The objectives are

 To study the infra-structures used for chemical immobilization

 To know about activities of various restraining drugs and anesthetics
 To know about the commonly occurring surgical conditions in wild animals

PURPOSES OF CHEMICAL RESTRAINT

 Disease diagnostic purpose

 Therapeutic purpose
 Vaccination purpose
 Examination of highly excitable species
 Biological research purposes
 Veterinary research purposes
 Translocation
 Transfer
 Transport
 Wild animal conflicts related events (herbivore and carnivore and omnivore may get associated
with these conflicts)
 Random health assessment in free ranging areas
 Rescue purposes
 Management purposes

DRUG CHARACTERS

 The drug characteristics that are expected with use of any type of chemical agent needs to be well
understood before one resorts into chemical immobilization in any wild animal species.

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  This helps many times to avoid the untoward incidences that are likely to arise due to the chemical
immobilization in case of wild fauna.

GADGETS USED FOR CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION

 There are different kinds of gadgets that are being used to immobilize the wild animal species and
these infrastructures are varying in terms of cost, procedure of usage, durability etc.

DIFFERENT GADGETS USEFUL FOR CHEMICAL RESTRAINT

 There are various gadgets available for chemically immobilizing of various species of wild animals.
 They need to be understood by any veterinarian who carries out the immobilization operation.
 Different sites in variuos wild animal species like elephants, cervids, felids etc. need to be known
before applying various gadgets for chemical restraint of wild animals

STICK SYRINGES

 Various stick syringes are available commercially. Silently, approach the animal cage where the non-
human primate or the carnivore has been contained.
 The quickly carry out the injection after the exposure of the correct site like a suitable muscular area
in the abdomen.
 The thrust needs to be made in proper manner and in a fast manner. Such actions may help for a
successful delivery of the immobilizing agent or any other medicament.

DART SYRINGE OR DART

 These are the specialized syringes used for loading of the immobilizing drug like xylazine or
ketamine or both or etorphine.
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  Darts are operated by mechanical pressure or by using the gas and proper loading of dart into the
blow pipe is a must for a successful immobilization event.
 These projectile syringes are generally propelled by blowing of air, pistol, long distance rifle.
Cartridges may be used for the pressure if the distant delivery systems like rifles are used in case of
wild animals.

 Radio darts are available currently to locate the wild animal precisely in the forest environment and
a small powerful impact resistant transmitter is attached behind the drug barrel with a projectile
antenna.
 Dart needles (collared or barbed or ordinary dart needles) are of more useful in delivery of drug
materials

Collared needle Barbed needle

BLOW PIPE

 The rigid blow pipe has a tube and a mouth cuff. The mouth cuff needs to be compact and in size to
facilitate the adequate blowing of air.

 The blowgun is becoming more popular among zoo veterinarians and the major merit is the silent
projection. At the same time, this may cause lesser impact or trauma or injury to the targeted wild
animal.
 The average length of blow pipe is about 1 to 2 meters and the maximum range actually depends on
the stamina of the user. In general, the average range is about fifteen meters.
 Wondering on how to practice darting? Yeah. Think about design of animal model like tiger
model !!!!

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 BLOW PIPE APPLICATION

 Bonnet macaque being darted using blow pipe

AIR PRESSURE GUN

 These equipments mainly are similar to the blow pipe in structure but is bigger in size and has an
added advantage of silent projections and low maintenance cost.
 The gun stock may have inbuilt pressure gauge. Some times, the pressure gauge may be present at
the foot pump.
 It is to be remembered that the pressure requirement may have variations and this often depends on
the size of the dart as well as the distance between the wild animal and the gun.
 Air pressure of about four to eight bars is adequate to propel the dart upto a distance of about
twenty to thirty meters.
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 CROSS BOW

 The cross bow is not much used now a day. Further, it is to be taken note of that the cross bow is not
suitable for species under hundred Kg.
 This may be due to the high impact capacity that may be developed by the projected one.

TYPES AND PURPOSES OF RESTRAINT

o Palmer Cap-Chur equipments or Dist-inject equipments and Teleinject equipments are

commonly used to effect the immobilization of multiple species of wild animals, in general.
o The types of Palmer Cap-Chur equipment
o Pistol or short-range projector (Range is about fifteen meters)
o In this projector or the gun, the compressed carbon-di-oxide is used for the development of
the pressure.
o Rifle or long-range projector (Range is about 35 meters)
o This is also using the power provided by compressed carbon-di-oxide
o Exra-long range projector (Range is about 80 meters)
o These equipments are powered by percussion caps.
 A veterinarian associating with wild animal immobilization is supposed to understand well about
the various effects of the multiple kinds of chemical agents that are routinely used for knocking
down of wild animals of various species.

CHARACTERS OF DRUGS FOR RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS

 The drug characteristics that are expected with use of any type of chemical agent needs to be well
understood before one resorts into chemical immobilization in any wild animal species.
 Ideal features if an immobilizing drug are given below:
o Low cost
o No side effects
o Rapid absorption and rapid action
o Need of concentrated form (small quantity for injection via dart syringe is convenient for
field usage)
o Permitted for use in animals for human consumption
o Effective immobilization - effects
o Reversible by the injection of an antidote
o Safe for the handler as well as to the targeted wild animal species
o Wide safety margin
o Should not irritate the muscle
o Capable of remaining stable in solution for long periods of time at room temperature
o Short induction period
 This helps many times to avoid the untoward incidences that are likely to arise due to the chemical
immobilization in case of wild fauna.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
Class Group Agents
Opioids Morphine derivatives Etorphine
Opiate substitutes Carfentanil
Fentanyl
Neuromuscular blockers Competitive antagonists Gallamine
Non-competitive antagonists Suxamethonium
Ganglion blockers Hexamethonium

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 Tranquilizers Phenothiazine derivatives Acepromazine
Chlorpromazine
(Neuroleptics) Propionylpromazine
Hypnotics and sedatives Diazepinones Diazepam
Midazolam
Climazolam
Zolazepam
Butyrophenones Azaperone
Haloperidol
Anaesthetic drugs Barbiturates Thiopentone
Pentobarbitone
Inhalation anaesthetics Halothane
Dissociative anaesthetics Ketamine
Tiletamine

XYLAZINE

This is one of the alpha two adrenoceptor agonist and is available both in powder and solution forms.

Effects of xylazine based immobilization

 Animals appear sleeping

 Snoring sounds will be heard at a distance in species like elephants
 Dullness
 Reduced movements

Analgesia lasts for fifteen to thirty minutes and after this period, painful techniques should not be
undertaken, in general. However, it is to be noted that a sleep like state is maintained for almost about an
hour to two hours.

Caution

 It is significant to note that the seemingly sedated animal may get up explosively causing concern to
the safety of the persons nearby.
 If the dose rate is exceeded, death may occur and hence, correct judgment of the dose rate
depending on the species needs to be made if one wants to have a success in it’s usage in various
species of wild animals. Atropine may be of useful to reduce the drug effects of xylazine.

Antidote for xylazine

 Yohimbine at the dose rate of 0.125 mg per Kg body weight and Doxapram hydrochloride may be
used as a respiratory stimulant.

KETAMINE

 Ketamine is the derivative of phencyclidine derivative and is a dissociative anaesthetic. Animal

administered with ketamine generally retains the reflexes which is considered as advantageous one
with regard to the minimizing of hazards of inhalation of food or ingesta. Eyelids remain open and
eyes have a fixed expression. However, it may not produce skeletal muscle relaxation.

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  Ketamine crosses the placenta in case of pregnant wild animals and however, it is known to cause no
abortion in case of wild animals.

Use in wild animals

 Wide dose rate is noticed (2 to 50 mg per kg body weight). Effects of parenteral injection occur
within three to five minutes. Convulsions may occur in case of felids. This drug is not much suitable
one in case of herbivores in general. However this is much useful in case of carnivores, reptiles and
avifauna.
 Cautions during the usage of ketamine
o This drug should not be mixed with barbiturates in the same range.
o Hyperthermia is a side effect of this drug.

TILETAMINE

 Tiletamine is one of the cyclohexanone dissociative agent related to ketamine.

 This is often combined with zolazepam hydrochloride which is a nonphenothiazine
pyrazolodiazepinone tranquilizer.
 This combination helps to reduce the occurrence of seizures which are likely to occur more if
tiletamine alone is used in the wild animals.

ETORPHINE

 Etorphine is a narcotic drug to be used with more clinical cautions. This is the synthetic derivative
of opium alkaloid and has about ten thousand times the analgesic properties of morphine sulphate.
 This drug has 10,000 times the analgesic properties of morphine. Anaesthesia occurs in ten to
twenty minutes.
 Recovery is slow without antidote and in such occasions, the recovery may take as much as seven
hours. However, when antidote is used, the wild animal may become mobile or ambulatory within a
period of about four to ten minutes.
 Legal formalities are to be taken care of while using etorphine like drugs.
 The animal may have tachycardia and may either get stimulated or depressed depending on the
dose-response and the species of the wild animal.

Use of etorphine in wild animal

 This drug is used in large sized herbivores like elephant, hippopotamus, giraffe, sambar deer etc.
Large animal formulation of Immobilon contains 2.45 mg/ml Etorphine mixed with 10mg/ml
Acepromazine maleate which is a phenothiazine derivative.

Antidote

 Diprenorphine is the antidote to be used for etorphine. The standard dose is double the amount of
etorphine injected.
 Cautions to be undertaken while using etorphine
o Should not be used with atropine, since the atropine may reduce the solubility of the drug.
o Animal may develop hyperthermia
o Passive regurgitation may occur in cases of prolonged immobilization with etorphine
o Injured wild animals may require slightly high dose rate of etorphine
o Human-health hazard related factors need to be taken care of like avoidance of accidental
falling on skin or eyes of the handling wildlife veterinarian and person who knows how to
give I/V in human being may accompany the operation and such action may be of useful in
cases of accidental emergencies. Equipment for artificial respiration should be available in
the spot. Always wear gloves and glasses during usage of etorphine. When morphine drugs
are handled, a stock of Narcan (human antidote) and diprenorphine (animal antidote) must
always be available.

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 ACEPROMAZINE

 Acepromazine is generally not used alone and often, a combination is used with ketamine or
etorphine.
 The muscle relaxant effects are unique ones when used in combination with ketamine.

FENTANYL AND CARFENTANYL

 Fentanyl is a morphine derivative and is about one hundred and eighty times more potent than the
morphine as an analgesic. This drug is often combined with droperidol which is a tranquilizer.
 Though the effects start in about ten minutes, the effects may persist for about forty minutes.

Use in wild animals

 The combination of droperidol with Fentanyl may be used in various species of wild animals
especially carnivores, nonhuman primates and various small mammals among the wild animal
species.

Antidote

 Naloxone hydrochloride is an antidote to be used at the dose rate of 0.006 mg per Kg body weight.
 Carfentanyl may be used in wild animals but is one of the costly drugs and is a narcotic one.

ANAESTHETICS

Characteristics of Anaesthetics

 Should be cheap
 Should be easily available
 Needs to be fast in induction of Anaesthesia.
 There should be minimal side effects
 Complications should not be there in general
 Should have more merits technically

ANAESTHETICS COMMONLY USED

Gaseous anesthetics

 Halothane
o It is a halogenated hydrocarbon
o It’s usage is on decrease due to increased popularity of isoflurane and sevoflurane.
 Side effects
o Development of arrhythmia.
 Demerits
o Limited availability.

Nitrous oxide

 This is not used as a solo anaesthetic due to its low potency. It is commonly used as 50% mixture
with balance of the mix being oxygen.
 Contraindications
o This is contraindicated in animals with pneumothorax, gastric dilatation, gas embolism, etc.

Isoflurane

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  This is the most widely used veterinary inhalant anaesthetic.
 This is stable and potent.
 This has a high saturated vapour pressure.
 Merits
o Metabolism of isoflurane is minimal and fluoride induced nephrotoxicity is uncommon.

Desflurane

 Limited use in veterinary medicine.

 Injectable anaesthetics
o Barbiturates
 This causes anasethesia through depression of CNS activity. Eg. Thiopental,
pentobarbital etc.
o Demerits
 Perivascular injection can lead to tissue necrosis.
 Their use in non domestic species due to practical “inability” to obtain reliable
intravenous access prior to anaesthetic induction.

Surgical remedies in wild life

ATTENDING WOUNDS

Wound Treatment

 This is more common among wild mammals, in particular. Followings are basically required in
wound therapy.
o Provision of suitable drainage if abscess is encountered.
o Irrigation of wound cavity with suitable antibiotic solution.
o Debridging of wound.
o Suturing of wound due to injury if it is a fresh one.
o Usage of BIPP, triple sulphide ointment etc. in case of long standing abscesses.

Note

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  Foreign bodies have to be given emphasis in case of long standing abscess or wounds especially in
animals like elephants.

PROLAPSE OF GENITAL TRACT

 The prolapsed mass is to be reduced by using sterile saline and antiseptic solution and suture may
be placed accordingly. Prolapse of cloaca and related organs is commonly seen in crocodiles, snakes
etc.

CAESARIAN

 In prolonged parturition or dystokia, caesarian may be required in any wild animal species but
care is to be taken to full extent during administration of any anaesthetic or any immobilizing
agent in such clinical cases.

FRACTURES

 Appropriate surgical intervention are required in case of fracture related incidences.

 However, limitations are three due to excitability of wild animal species in general when compared
to domestic animals.

DEFORMED HOOVES

 These are common among antelopes, bovids and deers. To facilitate gait, surgical methods of
trimming of the excessively grown hoof structures are highly required.
 However, by using immobilizing agents, wild animals need to be sedated first prior to surgical
intervention.

ABSCESS

 This may occur in any region including velvet region of species like deer.
 This may be commonly seen among deers with velvet. Drainage with irrigation of abscess cavities
with antiseptic solutions is a must along with protection of treated regions from any other
contamination.
 Cutaneous abscesses / lumps are commonly noticed especially in pythons. Depending on the
symptoms, surgical intervention may be undertaken.

MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS

 Tumorous growths in body regions

 Amputation of horns
 Trimming of tusk
 Rasping of tooth
 Birth related operations like vasectomy or removal of ovaries or uterus or any part of genital organs
 Amputation of any gangrenous extremities
 Removal of eyeball due to irreparable injuries or tissues that are highly damaged.

MODULE-14: CAPTURE STRESS, TRANSPORT AND HANDLING OF

WILD ANIMALS

 Stress effects and stressors need to be understood by you in case of wild animals. This module
associates with capture stress and handling of different species of wild animals

The objectives are

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  To understand more on the capture stress, stressors and capture myopathy
 To reveal various procedures of handling of wild animals like elephant, bear, non-human primates,
birds and reptiles

CAPTURE STRESS

 Capture stress is defined as the “cumulative response” and may be considered as the end result of
the wild animal’s interaction with it’s environment through receptors.
 The quantum of reactions in thewild animal depends on the degree of stress perceived by the
concerned wildanimal species.

CLASSIFICATION OF STRESSORS

The Stressors may be classified into following types

 Somatic Stressors
o Changes in theposition of body, unexpected touch reflexes, unusual sightings, extremes
ofclimate like severe hotness or severe coldness, pressure applications on thebody regions
and running impacts onwhole body as happens during the chasing activities in the concerned
wildanimal species can be had as examples.
 Psychological stressors
o Strangesituations, changes in the routine activities happening in or near theenclosures, fear
senses, placement of the wild animal in the unaccustomed placeor habitat can be had as
examples.
 Behavioural stressors
o Over crowding,social deprivation, hierarchical upsets, lack of imprinting personnel oranimal,
lack of parents, lack of habitual food materials, unfamiliarenvironmental conditions etc.
form the associated factors of behaviouralstressors.
 Other types of stressors
o Poor bodyconditions like obesity, emaciation, hypoglycemia, pulmonary problems leadingto
the derangement in the respiratory functions, imbalanced nutrition,parasitic diseases, burns,
types of immobilizations adapted for the concernedwild animal species etc. form the factors
in this group.

RESPONSES OF WILD ANIMALS TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRESSORS

 The responses of various species of wild animals reared in captive condition or in free ranging
conditions may vary depending on many factors like place of capture, type of medical agents used in
the concerned wild animal species, type of stress factors, the degree of stress factors etc.
 Symptoms of capture stress need to be thoroughly understood by the attending veterinarian in
zoological park or zoo or zoological garden. This may help to attend the concerned wild animal
species in a successful manner without causing problem to the life of the targeted wild animal
species.
 In short, it canbe said that there is an involvement of sympathetic nervous system-adrenal
medullapathway and hypothalamic, adenohypophyseal and adrenocortical pathway, in allthese
stress related responses of wild animals.

CAPURE MYOPATHY

 Capture Myopathy is one of the important pathological changes that occur in case of wild animals
due to the stress factors during the restraint operation.
 This condition may affect different species of wild animals that may endanger the life of the wild
fauna and hence, the attending veterinarian needs to understand base line information about the
various features pertaining to the capture myopathy.

CLINICAL SYMPTOMS
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  Stiffness
 Torticollis
 Tremor
 Lameness
 Emaciation
 Hemoglobinuria
 Myoglobinuria etc.
 Cramping of muscles in strange or unnatural positions may be seen in the affected wild animals.
 Death may occur finally if not attended in a proper manner.

TREATMENT OF CAPTURE MYOPATHY

 Depending on the clinical status, corticosteroids may be given to combat the inflammatory
responses.
 The animals have to be attended with vitamin E injection and Selenium-vitamin E combinations.
 Sodium bicarbonate may be given by means of intra-venous route at rate of four to six mEq per kg
body weight.
 Parenteral B complex vitamins may be provided along with balanced nutrition.
 Corrective measures against the hyperkalemia and the thermo-regulatory derangements.
 Respiratory problems need to be corrected if any.
 The affected wild animal needs to be kept in a place with cool environment.

PROPHYLAXIS OF CAPTURE MYOPATHY

 Keep the calm status in the environment prior tothe immobilization

 Don’t chase the animal to the possible extentprior to the chemical immobilization.
 Never excite the wild animal to be immobilized with medicaments
 Avoid making unnecessary sounds near the animal enclosure
 Avoid taking strangers nearer to the wild animal to be sedated
 Try to immobilize the wild animal after the confinement in a smaller space. This helps to avoid the
unnecessary stress by chasing during the targeting activities.
 Avoid placement of ruminants like blackbuck in lateral recumbency for prolonged periods, during
therapy.

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 TRANSPORT OF WILD ANIMALS

The transport of wild animals is to be undertaken with great care and cautions. The following informations
may be of useful with regard to the transport of wild animals:

Reasons for transport of wild animals

 Animal exchange programmes

 Gift by government
 Research purposes
 To facilitate out breeding
 For therapeutic applications
 Confiscated wild animals may need transport

HANDLING AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF WILD ANIMALS

 The wild animalsmay be handled mainly subsequent to the chemical immobilization, to thepossible
extent.
 Handling thelive wild animal or the bird may per haps leads to stress conditions for theconcerned
wild animal.
 During thehandling of wild animals, one has bear it in mind that the wild animals shouldnot be
stressed too much because of the chances of stress based unfavorableresponses in most of the
multiple wild animal species.

HANDLING OF VERY YOUNG WILD ANIMALS

 Infant wild animals are highly prone for the development of hypoglycemia. Further, once sedated
among the adult animals, the infant animal may be crushed or even bitten by the other cage mates.
The excitement caused during the capture operations might cause such type of unwanted reactions.
 Thermoregulatory derangements are to be taken care of immediately in any wild animal species and
more particularly in case of infant wild animals.
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  If infections occur as found by severe dullness and sign of concerned disease, the animal has to be
attended immediately. If not immediate collapse occurs in case of wild animals in the neonatal state.

HANDLING OF ELEPHANTS

 Sternal recumbency has to be avoided in case of elephants because this may cause more
interferences during the respiratory activities of these mega herbivores which lack pleura in general.
 Elephant hooks are used for the control of the elephants and however, its usage is banned in few
places and the legal issues related to it’s usage are to be taken care of, promptly.
 Chaining of elephants with adequate pads to avoid the injuries may be carried out in one of the legs
especially the hindlimb and the other end of the chain is often tied to the peg or iron bar.
 If mild is the painful operation, the animal maybe sedated by xylazine. However, major operations
causing severe pain are difficult to be carried out despite the usage of xylazine in the elephants, fora
field related immobilization purpose.
 Elephants should not be handled to the possible extent without the assistance of mahout or the care
taker of the elephant.

HANDLING OF URSIDS

 Only the immature ursids may be handled by usage of nets. Taking adventurous activities during
handling of ursids hast o be avoided since it may cost the life of the handler.
 Always it is to be borne in mind that the bears have good stamina and power. More care is to be
taken during the routine handling of these species.

HANDLING OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES

 For rough individuals or for the adult non-human primates, the animals may be handled only after
the chemical immobilization procedures.
 For infant ones, with care a towel may be wrapped around it and the arms may be held back. More
care is to be taken to avoid the biting from the non-human primates.
 Rhesus macaques or langurs may cause severe injuries if one is careless in handling of these species.
 Gloves may be used in case of smaller non-humanprimates during the handling procedures. But, the
gloves reduce the sensationsof feelings over the animal and further, it is true that the gloves used
duringthe handling procedures may not be able to prevent the biting activities of thenon-human
primate.

HANDLING OF PREGNANT WILD ANIMALS

 The pregnant wild animals should not be handled at all in order to avoid the excitement based
unfavourable events.
 Avoid transport of pregnant wild animal.
 Timely feeding and watering is a must while dealing with the pregnant wild animal whether it is a
carnivore or herbivore or omnivore.

WATERING AND FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS DURING TRANSPORT

 The wild animals should not be watered too much during the transport. However, some quantity of
water has to be provided and this is in order to avoid the development of dehydration status among
the wild animals being transported.
 Similarly, the wild animals under transport should not be given stomach full of feed materials. If
given fully, the feeds may cause some inconvenience to the animals during the transport of wild
animal because of the possibilities of frequent movements of the vehicle or the container.
 Avoid any excitement causing activity to the wild animals during transport.
 Avoid the unnecessary handling of the wild animal during transport.
 Maintain calmness during the transport of the wild animals.

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 HANDLING OF REPTILES

 Poisonous snakes need to behandled with great care to avoid being bitten. More care is taken to
utilizethe suitable gadget for the handling of snakes.For example, the hooks withlong handles are
much used throughout the world to control and handle thesnakes.
 During handling, adequate pressure is to be exerted to control thesnakes’ head and however the
pressure should not be given too much causingcrushing of jaws.
 Hence, more care and experience are highly required in orderto handle the snakes especially the
poisonous snakes.
 Similarly, minimum three personsare required to handle the pythons. The python should never be
handled alone.
 Transparent tubes with adequate holesfacilitating the ventilation aspects are good to have a better
control duringthe handling of snakes.
 Similarly, crocodiles may be handled with many persons. During the handling activities, the tail of
thecrocodile has to be restrained, in addition to the head. Further, the hindlimbs may be tied
together, in addition to the tying of fore limbs together.
 Lizard’s head needs to becontrolled in addition to the control of limbs and body support may be
givenespecially with the lengthy reptiles.

HANDLING OF BIRDS

 Support the body of the anseriformes like geese,duck under the arm and the head and neck of the
bird should be supported by another hand.
 Avoid the carrying of birds like water fowl by wings alone since brachial paralysis may occur in such
cases.
 If the bird is allowed to flap the wing during handling, then stress reactions may be severe in such
birds. Hence, the wings and the legs have to be restrained first.
 During the handling of small birds, the sternum should not be covered because such activities may
cause interference with the respiratory activities of the tiny aviary species.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

Eyes

 The eyes have to be examined forthe presence of excessive dryness or bleeding. The eyes have to be
blind foldedif sedated in order to avoid the excessive drying out of the ocular regions andstress.

External abnormality of body regions

 Skin status may provide some clues for the diagnosis of the clinical problem in case of wild animals.
 Check up for presence of any wound or bruises or injuries on the body.
 Rule out any foreign body in case of paw region if it is a carnivore or foot pad if it is an animal like
elephant.
 Rule out any visible abnormal growths or swelling on the body regions.
 Any dragging of leg during the gait needs to betaken care of during the physical examination of the
concerned wild animal species.
 Check up for signs of diarrhea by observing the fecal remnants adhering the cutaneous regions.
 Observe the bleeding related appearance either from the mouth region or other body regions. Rule
out the heat related problems in case of herbivores like gaurs etc.

ACTIVITIES

Observation of gait

 The gait is to be observed to rule out signs of pain, sprain, fracture, dislocation, foreign body,
dullness etc.
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Movements of body regions, in general

 The movements of body regions maybe noticed during the resting activities of the wild animals.
 The movements may indicate some clues to the attending veterinarians in the zoo or zoological
parks or zoological gardens.

Observation of feeding activity

 Any change in the feeding activity may be noticed and may be linked with the possible clinical
problem.

Observation of defecation and urination activities

 This may help to rule out abnormalities pertaining to the gastro intestinal as well as the urinary
systems.

MISCELLANEOUS ONES

 Any abnormal activities ifnoticed should be brought to notice. If the wild animal is having an
intensedegree of itching activities, one has to rule out the fungal or allergy causingfactor.

Temperature

 Non contact thermometer may be used to measurethe body temperature of the wild animal during
handling.
 If the wild animal has extreme high temperature,first take the concerned wild animal with
hyperthermia to a place with shadesand start application of other therapeutic procedures.

Respiratory rate

 The respiratory rate may beestimated by mere observation without any excitement to the concerned
wildanimal species and observe the pattern of respiration also.

Heart rate

 If the wild animal is well controlled,heart rate may be estimated by using stethoscope.

ZOO

 Zoo is the collection of number of wild animals in captivity and is an organized non-profit and
stationary institution set by state governments in majority, local administrations, trustee bodies and
registered scientific societies that own and maintain captive wild animals under the direction of
professional staff and provide appropriate care for the purpose of conservation and breeding of
different wild animal species especially in endangered wild animals.

HISTORY OF ZOOS

 The earliest recorded zoological collections associate with cheetah that are currently extinct in India.
Emperor Ashoka in third century B.C. respected the ashrams of saints that always had deer and
birds. Manageries were the places meant for the collection of animals in earlier periods.
 Documentations are available about the fight between the lions or tiger and man in a captive state.
Even mythical five headed cobra was mentioned in earlier records. Hunting of lions and cheetah and
tigers was carried out in large numbers once upon a time.

Place Year of starting of Zoo

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 Vienna zoo 1752
Paris zoo 1793
London zoo 1826
Philadelphia zoo 1874
Calcutta zoo 1854
Trivandrum zoo 1857

CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY OF INDIA

 Seeing the mushroom growth of many unplanned zoos in India, in order to have a better control and
assessment of the conditions suitable for the living of the confined wild animals, all the zoos were
brought accordingly under the purview of the WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972, the Central Zoo
Authority of India was set up, later and it helps in the overseeing the management of zoos in India.
Central Zoo Authority of India came into existence in February, 1992.
 This organization grants recognition to various zoos maintained in this country, keeping due regards
to the norms and standards codified time to time and it often associated with the setting up o0f
minimum standard for the upkeep and the management of zoos.

ZOO AND IT'S FUNCTION

 Zoo is a place wherein the collection and breeding of wild animals including birds are carried out in
a systematic manner under captivity with the permission of appropriate authorities with the
functions that are associated with education, captive breeding, basic and applied research,
conservation, protection, health care and management and displaying in addition to the recreation.

OBJECTIVES OF MODERN ZOOS

 Zoo has got multiple functions that basically associate with the health care and management of the
captive wild animals. Significant ones are given below:
o Education.
o Captive breeding.
o Research.
o Recreation.

EDUCATION

 The purposes of education are linked to the followings

o Interpretation of wild animals and conservation to persons visiting the zoos or zoological
parks or zoological gardens.
o Acting as a central area for the purpose of dissemination of the biological information
and evolving of educational programme for visitors, school/biology teachers and
students in order to create awareness for the wildlife conservation. The common persons
who visit the zoos start asking many questions subsequent to the sighting of the
concerned wild animal species.

INTERPRETATION

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  More emphasis is being provided for “interpretation” which is defined as the educational activity
that aims to reveal meaning and relationships through the use of the original objects, by first hand
experience and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate the factual information.
 Flat work or double dimensional exhibits, objects or three dimensional exhibits, dioramas media,
signages, models, publications etc. are being used for the interpretation activities.

CAPTIVE BREEDING

 Imbalance in eco-system occurs due to the following reasons:

o Poaching and hunting.
o Death due to diseases.
o Death due to poisoning.
o Death due to natural hazards like earth quakes.
o Habitat destruction due to multiple reasons (natural and man-made)
 Hence, the wild animal species may become extinct in the course of time and it is a fact that many
species of wild animals are in the stage of extinction if the management does not have a scientific
type of management features. Hence, captive breeding becomes one of the important objectives in
case of zoos.
 It is often becoming a mandatory one for the captive wild animal places like zoos to have both male
and female wild animals of the particular wild animal species under threat.
 Such a type of management under ex-situ conditions helps for the prevention of number of wild
animals of particular species in an area.
 Conservation efforts are directed mostly in that direction to protect the wild animals that belong to
various species. Hence, zoos, zoological parks and zoological gardens become the better places for
the captive breeding of the selected species of wild animals for which the available infrastructures
are being utilized.

RESEARCH

 Both the basic and applied research features are required for an effective conservation of wild
animals. Research areas comprise microbiology, pathology, physiology, clinical sectors, nutrition,
ethology, genetics, biotechnology, reproduction, meat hygiene, anatomy etc.
 Such research features may be of more helpful in the health and disease management of wild
animals in both captive and free ranging regions. Awareness is being created among the common
public about the conservation and the value of wildlife protection and value of individual wild
animal species.

RECREATION

 Aged persons, children, common man, disabled persons and others visiting the zoos get attracted to
the sighting of various species of wild fauna in one place.
 Wild animals in the zoos often comprise both the exotic and natural wild animal species.
Particularly visiting the zoo is a full day recreational activity to the younger group of people and
children in particular.

CLASSIFICATION OF ZOOS IN GENERAL

 Zoos are classified according to different factors associating the area, no.of species etc.

Category Large zoo Medium zoo Small zoo Mini zoo

Area in Hectares >75 50-75 20-50 <20
No.of animals exhibited >750 500-750 200-499 200
No. of species exhibited >75 50-75 20-49 20

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 No.of endangered species exhibited >15 10-15 5-9 >5

IMPORTANT CAPTIVE WILD ANIMAL PLACES IN INDIA

Location Name
Vandalur, Tamilnadu state Arignar Anna Zoological Park
Trvandrum, Kerala state Trivandrum zoo
Hyderabad , Andhra Pradesh state Nehru Zoological Park,
Mysore , Karnataka state Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Garden
New Delhi National Zoological Park

COMMON WILD ANIMALS IN INDIAN ZOOS

 Commonly held carnivores

o Lion, tiger, panther, jungle cat, hyena, jackals, wild dog, otter, fox, wolf, jaguar etc.
 Other wild animals
o Gaur, wild pig, nilgai, spotted deer, sambar deer, porcupine, sloth bear, giant squirrels,
zebra, Indian pangolin, hog badger, kangaroo, rhinoceros, giraffe etc.
 Reptiles
o Cobra, king cobra, Russels wiper, rat snake, green snake, krait, reticulated python, rock
python, monitor lizard, Indian soft shelled turtle, mugger, gharial etc.
 Aviary species
o Peacocks, cockatoo, cockatiel, African grey parrot, grey horn bills, rosy pelicans, painted
storks, budgerigars, love birds, swan, sarus crane, egrets, born owls, vultures, kites, shikara
etc.

DISPLAY OF WILD ANIMALS IN ZOOS

 Wild animals are displayed in an informative manner to the visiting persons or public and
followings are undertaken in general for the display of wild animals in zoo set up:
o Taxonomic arrangement (Non-human primates as first unit).
o Zoo geographical arrangement (wild animals of India and Australia or other country).
o Ethological arrangement (Common langurs and Chital in a group).
o Mixed species-exhibits (eg. Spotted deer and black bucks).
o Ecological arrangement (Common animals of desert system).
o Miscellaneous arrangement.

STAFF PATTERN IN A ZOO-SETUP

 Large zoos have in general more departments and more employees in addition to more number of
wild animals and wild animal species, unlike the small or min zoos.

DIRECTOR

 Director of the zoo is the executive and a chief person in any zoo. Min job is to expose the activity to
every one, the public, the zoo society and to the government level.
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  Management plan is prepared actively by the zoo director about various issues prevailing in the
zoos. Master plan is also prepared in a detailed manner.
 Various group of personnel like range officer, forester, animal keepers, veterinarians ,
administrative staff etc. are closely associated with the provision of required inputs for the up
keeping of zoo and it becomes a team work with a director as a chief person.

DEPUTY DIRECTOR AND ASSISTANT DIRECTOR

 Deputy director helps directly the Director of the zoo in the routine management of zoo and
Assistant Director assists the Deputy director in this regard.
 Generally both the Deputy Director and Assistant Director are responsible for the public affair and
maintenance of the zoo in particular. They assume much of the burden for the day –to-day function
of the Director.

RANGE OFFICER

 Range officer looks after the wild animals in their range under control. They actively associate with
any activities pertaining to the care of wild animals falling in their range.
 They apprise to the higher officials about the welfare measures required for the up keeping of the
health status in the wild animals. Administrative activities are being assisted in a systematic
manner.

ANIMAL KEEPER

 The animal keepers are entrusted with the cleanliness of cages, enclosures, animal houses, moats,
their surroundings including removal of excreta, removing of weeds and bushes. They are involved
with discouraging of teasing activities by the visiting persons or public. Tigers, lion tailed macaques,
hippos, crocodiles, chimpanzees etc. are the frequently teased wild animal species.
 Reports on any damage to the structure of enclosure or cage are immediately made by these persons
to the concerned range officers or other officials when they are visiting the enclosures, cages etc.
 Reports about anorectic wild animals or finding of wound on the wild animal’s body or any kind of
visible sickness condition is immediately reported to the veterinarian in particular.
 They generally ensure that no materials remain in the animals vicinity that are likely to hurt the wild
animal maintained under captive conditions like wire bits, mesh, ropes, plastic materials, sharp
pieces, nails etc.
 Security of the cages or enclosures are given more priority by these group of personnel and they
need to offer assistance during the treatment of wild animals by the zoo veterinarian and it is an
accepted one that animal keepers are familiar with the habits and vices of the wild animals that are
under direct care in the cages or enclosures.
 They offer information associated with birth, death, abnormality if any like intensive vomiting,
diarrhoea etc.

ROLE OF VETERINARIAN IN THE ZOO SET UP

 Health and Disease management are given utmost priorities by the zoo veterinarian in general.
Technical suggestions need to be offered with regard to the management of health and diseases in
case of the captive wild animals belonging to various species.
 Veterinarians in the zoos have multitasks in general. Director will be assisted in the fields of health
and disease management effectively.

HEALTHCARE OF NEWLY ARRIVED WILD ANIMALS

 The newly arrived wild animals whether it is a herbivore or carnivore or omnivore has to be properly
taken care of by taking the wild animal in a safe manner to the quarantine unit and the related
health care measures may be carried out in a planned manner.

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  Clinical observation, sampling etc. may be carried out depending on the wild animal species under
investigation.

PROPHYLAXIS AND THERAPY

 Prevention is given much emphasis in addition to the treatment of the sick wild animals. Due
vaccination has to be carried out in order to prevent the occurrence of diseases in case of wild
animals.
 Periodical examination of wild animals has to be carried out in a systematic manner in order to find
out any disease in the beginning stage itself. Surgeries have to be performed whenever required as
the case with infighting incidences or breeding programmes.
 Whenever wild animal becomes sick, he needs to give the right kind of therapy subsequent to the
diagnosis of the case. Parasitic conditions need a special monitoring and therapy in all species of
wild animals.

POSTMORTEM

 When animals die due to diseases or other reasons, post-mortem has to be carried out in a
systematic manner. Post mortem is one of the important components that is to be taken with more
care and cautions.
 Veterinarians involving post mortem of wild animals should take care of the features related to the
Zoonotic diseases in particular like anthrax or salmonellosis.
 Hence, wearing coveralls and gloves in addition to the spectacles to protect the ocular regions are
most significant features to be taken care of.

FEED AND MEAT INSPECTION

 Spoiled feeds if found may be discarded. The meat received needs to be inspected in a systematic
manner and the diseased ones if any have to be discarded.
 Any nodular growths or worms affected regions may be discarded. Fish also needs to be inspected
for the healthy status. Rotten fish if any has to be immediately discarded.

TRANSLOCATION AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO THE ZOO

PERSONNEL

 If any animal is to be translocated, immobilization is to be carried out and safety of the wild animal
under immobilization has to be ensured always to the possible extent.
 Whenever any technical assistance is required, it has to be offered in a systematic manner with
regard to the translocation.
 Care has to be taken to avoid any type of wound or injury to the wild animal under transport during
the translocation and similarly safety measures have to be carried out with regard to the
immobilization.

MODULE-6: WILDLIFE RULES, ACT AND ORGANIZATION

 This module is designed for students to now about various important acts and rules including
different types of organizations pertaining to wildlife conservation and zoo set up.

The objectives are

 To reveal about wildlife protection act and different organizations both at national and at
international level.
 To know about Zoo – set up
 To understand about various roles played by various units in zoo

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 WILDLIFE

Wildlife (according to Wildlife Protection Act)

 According to this act, “Wildlife” is defined as ‘any animal, bee, butterflies, crustaceae, fish and moths
and aquatic or land vegetation’. Thus it is to be understood that Wildlife is the term that embraces
all life forms that are wild or care themselves.
 Important sections are to be understood accordingly by the attending veterinarian also.

ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

 This was amended in the year 1991.

 According to this act, “Wildlife” is defined as ‘any animal, bee, butterflies, crustaceae, fish and moths
and aquatic or land vegetation’. Thus it is to be understood that Wildlife is the term that embraces
all life forms that are wild or care themselves. There are many important sections of this act which
are to be understood.

ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS

SECTION-18

Declaration of Sanctuary

 The State Government may by notification declare its intention to constitute any area or area
comprised with any reserve forest or territorial waters as Sanctuary if it considers that such area is
of adequate ecological faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance for the
purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.

ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS

SECTION -27

Restriction of entry in Sanctuary

 No person other than

1. a public servant on duty
2. a person who has been permitted by the Chief Warden or the authorized officer to reside
within limits of the sanctuary.
3. a person who has any right over immovable property within limits of the sanctuary.
4. a person passing through the sanctuary along a public highway and
5. the dependents of the person classified in class (1), (2), (3)
 shall enter and reside in the sanctuary, except under and in accordance with the conditions of a
permit granted under section 28.

ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS

SECTION-28

Grant of permit

 The Chief Wildlife Warden may on application grant to any person a permit to enter or reside in a
sanctuary for all (or) any of the following purpose:
o Investigation or study of Wildlife and purposes of ancillary or incidental threats.
o Photography
o Scientific research

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 o Tourism
o Transaction of any lawful business with any person residing in the sanctuary.
 A permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary shall be issued subject to such conditions and on payment
of such fee as may be prescribed.

ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS

SECTION:33-A

Immunization of Livestock

 The Chief Wildlife Warden shall take such measures in such manner as may be prescribed, for
immunization against communicable diseases of livestock kept in or within 5 kms of the sanctuary.
 No person shall take or cause to be taken or grazed any livestock in a sanctuary without getting it
immunized.

ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS

SCHEDULES

Schedule I to VI are dealt by Wildlife Protection Act 1972 with amendments during 1986 and 1991.
Important animals in each schedule are given below:

Schedule I

 Part I – Mammals
o Indian chinkara, Indian lion, Indian wild ass, Indian wolf, leopard, leopard cat, Lion-tailed
macaque, Loris, Gaur or Indian Bison, Cheetah, Indian gazelle, Dugong, Nilgiri Tahr, Niligiri
langur, Musk deer, Sloth bear, Tiger, Wild Buffalo, Mouse deer, Hog badger, Hispid Hare,
Chinese pangoling, Crab-eating macaque, Desert fox, Fishing cat, Four-horned antelope,
Indian one-horned Rhinoceros, Rusty spotted cat, Serow, Swamp deer etc.
 Part II – Amphibians and Reptiles
o Pythons, Water lizard, Gharial, Estuarine (or) Salt water crocodile, Golden Gecko, Green sea
turtle, Leathery turtle, Logger head turtle, Hawksbill turtle, Indian egg-eating snake.
 Part II A – Fishes
o Whale shark, Shark, Ray, Sea horse, Giant grouper.
 Part III – Birds
o Hornbills, Mountain quail, Peafowl, Andaman teal, Nicobar megapods, Nicobar pigeon,
Bengal florican, Black-necked crane etc.
 Part IV – Insects
o Butterflies and Moths.
 Part IV A – Coelentrates
o Fire coral, Sea fan, Roof building coral.
 Part IV B – Mollusca
 Part IV C – Echinodermata

Sea cucumber (all Holothurians)

Schedule II

 Part I – Bonnet macaque, Common langur, Wild dog, Chameleon, Spiny tailed lizard or Sanda.
 Part II – Beetles.

Schedule III

 Chital, Barking deer or Muntjac, Gorals, Hog deer, Wild pig, Nilgai, Sponges.
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Schedule IV

 Indian Hedgehogs, Indian porcupine, Mongooses, Polecats.

Schedule V

 Common crow, Fruit bats, Mice, Rats, Five striped palm squirrel, Black napped hare, Common
Indian hare, Desert hare, Himalayan mouse hare.

Schedule VI

 Birds like Coots, Cranes, Cormorants, Flamingos, Ibises.

 Ladies slipper orchids, Red Vanda, Blue Vanda.

Indian Biological diversity Act, 2002

 This is act to provide for constitution of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components and
fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources, knowledge
and for matters connected there with or incidental threats.

Following are the important definitions in this:

 ‘Chairperson’ means the chairperson of the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) or as to case may
be of the State Biodiversity Board.
 ‘Member’ means a member of the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) or a State Biodiversity
Board and includes the Chairperson.
 Bio-survey and Bio-utilization means survey or collection of species, sub species, genus, components
and extracts of biological resource for any purpose and includes characterization, inventorisation
and bioassay.
 “Value added products” means products containing potions or extracts of animals as well as the
plants in unrecognizable and physically inseparable form

OTHER ACTS RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS

Other acts

 The Forest (conservation) Act, 1982.

 The Indian Forest Act, 1927.
 The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.
 Elephant preservation Act, 1879.
 Bengal Rhinoceros Act, 1932.
 Bombay Wild animal and wild birds Protection Act, 1951.
 The Cruelty against animals Act, 1960.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND

INSTITUTIONS LINKED TO WILD AND ZOO ANIMALS – ROLE AND
FUNCTIONS

 National
o Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
o Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
o Indian Board For Wildlife (IBWL)
o Botanical Survey of India(BSI)
o Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)
o Indian Institute of Sciences(IIS)
o Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI)
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 o Central Zoo Authority(CZA)
o National Board for Wildlife(NBWL)
o Wildlife Trust of India(WTI)
 International
o International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (ICUN)
o Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
o United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
o Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
o Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC)
o United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO)
o World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
 Others
o International Commision on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
o International Commision on Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
o Global Tiger Forum (GTF)

NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)

 It is the largest Non-government organization engaged in nature conservation research. The role
and functions were mainly related to the fact that conservation must be based on scientific view.
Dr.Salim Ali was the first Indian Honorary Secretary in this organization.

Wildlife Institute of India (WII)

This institution was established in Dehradun in 1982 with an objective of becoming a significant centre for
wildlife training, research, publication and extension in India. The functions and roles are related to the
followings:

 Training of personnel for protected area management and wildlife research

 Training of education and extension specialists for protected area management and wildlife research
 Offering of orientation courses for those who are involved in land use management
 Provision of advisory and consultant service to central and state governmental agencies ,
universities, colleges, institutions and other official and non-official agencies.
 Creation of databases by employing modern computerized analytical techniques.
 To conduct and co-ordinate applied wildlife research.

Indian Board For Wildlife (IBWL)

 Prevents cruelty against birds and beasts caught alive.

 Promotes public involvement in wildlife and its preservation in harmony with natural and human
environment.
 1st phase of IBWL was confined to protection of wildlife from poachers and unscrupulous hunters.
 2nd phase was associated with development and creation of National Parks and Sanctuaries where
threatened species are protected.
 3rd phase was associated to the detailed study and improvement in the existing food and water
reserves, offering of effective protection to threatened species and fast development of wildlife
sanctuaries

Botanical Survey of India(BSI)

 Carries out surveys on faunal resources of India.

Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)

 Carries out surveys on the faunal resources of India.

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  ZSI has published the Red Data Book on Indian animals.

Indian Institute of Sciences(IIS)

 This is located at Bangalore and is involved in studies on ecology and wildlife of Western Ghats.

Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI)

 It is a NGO founded in 1958 at Dehradun. Promotes interest and knowledge among people in the
field of preservation and conservation of all kinds of fauna and flora and management.
 Supports in enforcement of wildlife protection act.
 Promotes wildlife tourism.
 Co-operates with state Government of India as well as other societies and institutions for the
interest of wildlife protection.
 Protects, propagates and conserves the wildlife.

Central Zoo Authority(CZA)

 This is the highly empowered statutory body established in 1992.

Main functions are:

 To specify the minimum standards for housing and veterinary care of the zoo animals.
 To provide technical and other assistance to zoos for their proper management.
 To identify endangered species of wild animals for the purpose of captive breeding.
 To recognize or derecognize zoos
 To evaluate the functioning of a zoo.
 To co-ordinate research in captive breeding and educational programmes
 To ensure maintenance of stud book of endangered species of wild animals bred in captivity.
 To restrict the power of a zoo regarding acquisition or transfer of any wild animal specified in
schedule I and II.

National Board for Wildlife(NBWL)

 Started in 1952. This is the highest advisory body of the Government of India regarding wildlife.
 It is instrumental for legislation of wildlife protection act and guides central and state government
on matters pertaining to wildlife through legislative and practical measures.
 Helps to solve the policy matters.

Wildlife Trust of India(WTI)

 It is a non-profit conservation organization located in Delhi.

 It works on conservation related programmes in India through a team of professionals comprising
of biologists, veterinarians, communication specialists , lawyers , etc.
 This organization has special programmes pertaining to sloth bear. Elephant, tiger, rhinoceros , etc.

Department of Wildlife Science, Tamilnadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai and Centre
for Wildlife Forensic and Health, M.P. Veterinary University, Jabalpur and Indian Veterinary Research
Insitute, Bareilly, UP state and Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Karnataka
state :

These insitutions are currenlty involving in teaching, research and extension activities pertaining to wildlife
science.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

International Union For Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

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  Now called as World Conservation Union. It is the world’s largest and most important conservation
network. It is a multi-lingual, multi-cultural organization.

Role and Functions

 It links both research and results to local, national, regional and global policy by convening
dialogues between Governments, civil society and private sector.
 It supports and develops cutting-edge conservation science and implements this research in field
projects around the world.
 It facilitates paths for peace between countries in areas of conflict and works with the corporate
sector on energy and bio-diversity.
 Species Survival Commission (SSC) is one of the Commissions of IUCN which has aim of
conservation of bio-diversity.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species(CITES)

 This organization helps to prevent the over-exploitation of wild fauna and flora. Government of
India signed this convention in July 1974 and became a party to it from 18th oct, 1976.

Role and Functions

 People and states are linked for best protection of their own wild fauna and flora.
 Stresses on need of International collaboration.
 Stresses on need of undergoing the ever-growing value of wild fauna and flora from aesthetic,
scientific, cultural , recreational and economic point of view.
 Emphasizes that the wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful varied forms are on irreplaceable
part of the natural systems of the earth.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO):

 These organizations are associated with all features of conservation, in general.

Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC)

 It is a wildlife trade watch group of IUCN and WWF for nature.

 Started in 1975 with the aim of monitoring wildlife trade worldwide.
 It collects and analyses the data on wildlife trade.
 TRAFFIC – India was established on 1/01/1992 as a division of WWF – India and a part of global
TRAFFIC network.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

 It launched man and bio-diversity programme

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)

 It was set up in 1961 and giant panda is the official symbol of WWF .
 It was earlier called as world wildlife fund but in 1990 it was renamed as world wide fund for nature.

Role and Functions

 It helps to raise funds for urgent conservation requirements and promoting conservation through
the world wide education campaign and public consciousness. Grants are raised by donations from
public, heritable foundations, regular members, etc.

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 OTHER INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)

International Commission on Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

Global Tiger Forum (GTF)

 It is an International platform to discuss features pertaining to the protection of tiger population in

the world.

Role and Functions

 Establishment of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks

 Establishment of special squad to discover poaching etc.
 Focuses on welfare of tiger-populations.

Tiger Conservation Society (TCS)

 Voluntary participation and raising of funds for conservation of tigers.

 Obtaining of international co-operation from countries known for existence of tigers.
 Improvement of tiger habitat and to promote conservation of tigers, ultimately.

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