Propulsion - I Notes

www.Vidyarthiplus.
com
IIAEM, Propulsion‐I 13‐Aug‐15
Propulsion‐I
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Propulsion
The word propulsion is derived from two Latin
words:
pro meaning before or forward
pellere meaning to push or drive.
• Propulsion means to push or drive forward an
object.
Notes by Dr.Allamaprabhu C.Y. 1
Mechanics
• Motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration)
What causes motion or changes motion?
• Force (momentum)
Why do some objects accelerate more than
others?
Newton termed the momentum of a body as the
quantity of motion.
• Work
• Energy
• Power
Force
• Force is that which causes any change in the
velocity of an object.
• When several forces act simultaneously on an
object, the object accelerates only if the net force
acting on it is not equal to zero.
• The net force acting on an object is defined as
the vector sum of all forces acting on the object.
• If the net force acting on an object is zero, then
the acceleration of the object is zero and its
velocity remains constant.
• When the velocity of an object is constant
(including the case in which the body remains at
rest), the object is said to be in equilibrium.
Mechanics
Newton’s first law
• In the absence of external forces, an object at
rest remains at rest and an object in uniform
motion (constant velocity) maintains that
motion.
• The tendency of an object to resist any
attempt to change its velocity is called the
inertia of the object.
Force
• Gravitational force ( )
The weight of an object is the magnitude of
the force of gravity acting on the object.
• Centrifugal and centripetal force
• Drag force (friction)
• Lift force (buoyant)
SI unit: newton (N)
It is defined as the force that, when acting on a
1‐kg mass, produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
System versus Control Volume
• All the laws of mechanics and thermodynamics are
written for a system, which is defined as an arbitrary
quantity of matter upon which attention is fixed in the
analysis of a problem.
• Everything external to this system is called
surroundings, and the system is separated from its
surroundings by its boundaries.
• For fluid flow problems one wishes to study a region
through which fluid is flowing rather than fix one’s
attention upon a fixed quantity of mass.
• The region fixed in space is called an open system or a
control volume. A control volume is any prescribed
volume in space bounded by a control surface across
which matter may flow and energy interactions (heat
and work transfer) may occur.
System versus Control Volume
• In analyzing a control volume, we convert the
system laws to apply to a specific region which
the system may occupy for only an instant.
• There are two ways of describing a fluid motion:
In the Lagrangian description, one essentially
follows individual fluid particles.
In the Eulerian description, one concentrates on
what happens at a specific location.
• The conservation laws can be stated in the
differential form, applicable at a point. They can
also be stated in the integral form, applicable to a
region.
Mechanics
Newton’s second law
• The time rate of change of momentum of an object is
proportional to the net force acting on it.
Σ
where Σ is the vector sum of all forces.
The momentum of a system remains constant only when
the net force acting on it is zero.
• If the mass is constant, then
Σ
When no force acts on an object, the acceleration of the
object is zero. The effect of a given force (acceleration) varies
inversely as the mass.
Mechanics
• The previous equation is for a system. For a
control volume, the equation becomes
• The time rate of change of momentum of a
system at the instant it is within a control volume
is equal to the accumulation rate of momentum
within the control volume plus the net
momentum flux across the control volume.
Momentum equation
• For a unsteady flow system, the momentum
equation in x‐direction becomes
∑ ∭ ∬ .
• For a steady flow system, the momentum
equation in x‐direction becomes
∑ ∬ .
The product . represents the mass flow
rate through the area element into or out of the
control volume.
Work
• Work is done by a force acting on an object
when the point of application of that force
moves through some distance and the force
has a component along the line of motion.
Is force scalar or vector?
SI unit: newton.meter (N.m) ?
• What if force is not aligned with path?
. cos
A gas does a differential amount of
work as it forces the piston to
The area under the process curve on a
move by a differential amount ds.
P‐V diagram represents the work.
• Work is a path function and is an inexact differential.
Work and Energy
• Work done on an object by a constant force
acting on it equals the change in kinetic
energy of the object.
• What if the force varies along the path?

2
1 1
2 2
Energy
• Work is energy transferred by force; if energy is
transferred to the system (object), work is
positive; if energy is transferred from the system,
work is negative.
• Energy is ability to do work. The state of a system
can be changed by adding or extracting energy.
SI unit is joule.
• When an object is accelerated, work is done
against inertia, such that the work equals change
in kinetic energy of the object.
• Kinetic energy is a form of energy associated with
the motion of an object with mass .
Energy
• Mechanical energy is defined as the form of
energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely.
• It is the sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy.
• Thermal energy is not mechanical energy since it
cannot be converted to work completely (Second
law of thermodynamics).
• A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by
raising its pressure, and a turbine extracts
mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its
pressure. Therefore, the pressure of a flowing
fluid is also associated with its mechanical energy.
Energy
• The pressure unit Pa is
equivalent to energy per
unit volume.
Pa=N/m2=N.m/m3=J/m3
• has the unit J/kg, which is
energy per unit mass.
• A pressure force acting on
a fluid through a distance
produces work, called flow
work ( ).
• Flow work is the work
required to push the mass
into or out of the control
volume.
Energy
• It is convenient to see it as part of the energy of a
flowing fluid and call it flow energy.
• The mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be
expressed on a unit‐mass basis as
2
• Total energy of a flowing fluid per unit‐mass is
Energy equation
• The First law of thermodynamics
(Conservation of energy)
• For a steady‐flow system
0

2 2
• Energy can be transferred by heat, work and mass.
Power
• From a practical viewpoint, it is interesting to know not
only the work done but also the rate at which it is
done.
• The time rate of doing work is called power.
• If an external force is applied to an object, and if the
work done by this force in the time interval Δ is ,
then the average power expended during this interval
is defined as
≡
Δ
• Since the work done on the object contributes to the
increase in the energy of the object, a more general
definition of power is the time rate of energy transfer.
Power
• Since the work done on the object contributes to
the increase in the energy of the object, a more
general definition of power is the time rate of
energy transfer.
• Instantaneous power is the limiting value of
the average power as ∆ approaches zero:
lim
∆ → ∆
.
.
SI unit: joules per second (J/s), also called watt (W).
Efficiency
• Thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
rate of net work output of the engine to the rate
of heat input to the working fluid
,
• The conversion of thermal energy to mechanical
energy is subject to the laws of thermodynamics.
• These laws determine an upper limit on the
thermal efficiency that depends only on the
temperatures at which heat is added to and
rejected from the working fluid of the engine.
Efficiency
• Most engines use the atmosphere as a heat sink, so
usually the minimum available heat‐rejection
temperature is the atmosphere temperature denoted
by .
• The maximum available heat‐addition temperature is
in principle limited only by the characteristics of the
combustion process. In practice it is usually limited by
the temperature capabilities of materials.
• If this maximum heat‐addition temperature is denoted
by , the maximum possible thermal efficiency is
that of a Carnot cycle operating between these
temperature extremes.
1
Thrust Equation
• The fundamental operating principle of any jet‐
propulsion device is the action‐equals‐reaction
principle.
Examples: Rowing a boat or swimming in water.
Thrust Equation
• Air entering the engine is accelerated through the exit
by adding energy to it through heat addition from fuel
burning.
• The reaction due to its acceleration produces a force or
thrust in the direction of motion.
Thrust Equation
• The magnitude of the propulsion force is
determined by the application of the
momentum principle.
Thrust Equation
• Assumption: One‐dimensional, steady flow
• Control surfaces are chosen such that the one‐
dimensional assumption is valid at the surfaces.
Thrust Equation
• For a steady flow process, the continuity equation
. 0
• Mass flow rate through the engine:
0 … (1)
… (2)
• The continuity eqn. for the entire CV is
0 … (3)
• Substituting eq (1) for in eq (3) we get

… (4)
Thrust Equation
• The momentum equation in x‐direction becomes
∑ ∬ . … (5)
• Neglecting body forces,
∑ ∬
…(6)
and
∬ .
… (7)
Thrust Equation
• Substituting Eq.(4) for , we get
∬ . … (8)
• Substituting Eqs. (6) and (8) in Eq. (5)
… (9)
momentum thrust pressure thrust
• Substituting Eq.(2) for , we get
1
where /
Performance parameter
• Specific thrust is the thrust per unit mass flow rate of
air (N.s/kg). It indicates the relative size of engines
producing the same thrust because the dimensions of
the engine are primarily determined by the airflow.
Size is important because it not only means weight
but also the frontal area and the consequent drag
(ram drag, ).
• Thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) is the fuel
consumption rate per unit thrust (kg/N.hr).
One method of comparing engines is on the basis
of their TSFC at various thrust settings and flight
conditions.
TSFC and specific thrust are related by
/
Working principle
When the balloon is inflated,
the inside air pressure, which
is stretching the skin, is
greater than the outside
pressure.
When the neck is tied, the
inside air pushes equally in all
directions, and the balloon
will not move.
When the pressure is
released at the neck, the
portion of the skin against
which air has been pushing
from the inside is removed.
Working principle
On the side directly
opposite the neck,
however, the air continues
to push on an equal area
of the skin.
It is the push on this
opposite area of skin that
causes the balloon to
move in the direction
away from the neck.
The balloons flight is short
because the pressure is
lost quickly.
Working principle
This could be overcome by
pumping air into the balloon
with a bicycle pump so that
the pressure and air flow air
maintained.
To make it self‐contained, the
hand pump must be replaced
with a series of fans, called a
compressor.
If the compressor is turned at
high speed, huge quantity of
air will pass through the
balloon at high pressure.
Working principle
For energy, place a burner in
the air stream. The burning of
fuel raises the air
temperature and greatly
increases the volume.
Since the pressure within the
compressor blocks the
forward flow, the air can only
move rearward.
If a turbine is placed in the
path of hot air, some of the
energy can be used to spin
the turbine which, in turn,
spins the compressor.
Cycle analysis
Cycle analysis is the study of the thermodynamic
changes of the working fluid (air and products of
combustion) as it flows through the engine,
without regard for the mechanical means used
to effect its motion.
• Rather than deal with the components (inlet,
compressor, turbine) themselves, we
characterize them by the change in properties
they produce.
For example, the compressor is described
by a stagnation pressure ratio and efficiency.
Cycle analysis
The main purpose of cycle analysis is to
determine the values of design choice (e.g.,
compressor pressure ratio) and design limit (e.g.
combustor exit temperature) parameters.
A jet engine operates with an open cycle, which
means fresh air is drawn into the compressor
and the products are exhausted from the
turbine and not reused.
Ideal gas turbine cycle
The assumption of ideal is taken to imply the following:
1. The working fluid has the same composition
throughout the cycle and is a perfect gas with
constant specific heats.
2. Compression and expansion processes are reversible
and adiabatic i.e., isentropic.
3. The change of kinetic energy of the working fluid
between inlet and outlet of each component is
negligible.
4. There are no (total) pressure losses in the inlet and
combustion chamber.
5. The mass flow of gas is constant throughout the cycle.
Schematic diagram of a turbojet engine
Cycle analysis
Brayton cycle is the ideal
cycle for the gas turbine
engine.
It consists of two
reversible isobars and
two reversible adiabatics.
• The compressor is described by an isentropic compression process and the
turbine is described by an isentropic expansion processes.
The combustion process is described by a constant‐pressure heat addition process
from an external source.
• Heat supplied,
Heat rejected,
• Cycle efficiency,
1 1
1 1
/
/
where / is the pressure ratio.
Gas cycle analysis
• The more the pressure ratio, the more will be
the efficiency.
• The highest temperature in the cycle occurs at
the end of the combustion process.
• At present, limitations due to materials used
in the turbine restrict the turbine entry
temperature (TET) i.e., to values well below
those corresponding to a stoichiometric
mixture of fuel and air in the combustor.
• This also limits the pressure ratio that can be
used.
Gas cycle analysis
• For a fixed TET, the net work output per cycle increases
with the pressure ratio, reaches a maximum at
⁄ ⁄
and then starts to decrease.
Therefore, there should
3
be a compromise
6 between the pressure
ratio (thus the thermal
efficiency) and the net
a work output.
Actual cycle analysis
7’
3’ 7
3
Turbines & Compressors
• Pumps and compressors are used to increase the
pressure of a fluid and they require work input.
Whereas, turbines give work output.
• : ∆pe 0
• The SFEE becomes
2 2
• If ∆ is negligible,
Allamaprabhu C.Y., IIAEM, Jain University
Work in a flow device
• The SFEE per unit mass, after neglecting changes in ke
and pe
• For an adiabatic compression process, work done per
unit mass is
IIAEM, Jain University
www.Vidyarthiplus.com 9/1/2015
Efficiency
• Relative to the engine, the air enters the intake
with a velocity equal and opposite to the
forward speed of the aircraft, and the engine
accelerates the air so that it leaves with the jet
velocity .
• The net thrust due to the rate of change of
momentum is
• Then thrust power is the product of thrust and
flight velocity,
• One measure of performance of a propulsive
system is the propulsive efficiency.
Efficiency
• Propulsive efficiency is a measure of how effectively the mechanical
power is used to propel the aircraft.
Thrust power delivered to vehicle

Net mechanical power delivered to engine mass flow
2 2
2
• Thrust is maximum when 0, i.e. under static conditions, but
is then zero.
• is maximum when 1 but then the thrust is zero.
Lecture Notes by Dr. Allamaprabhu C.Y. 1
Efficiency
• For a given mass flow and a flight velocity, the
thrust increases with / . Thus a definite
tradeoff must be made between propulsive
efficiency and thrust per unit mass flow.
• So we may conclude that although should
be greater than the difference should not
be too great. This is the reason for the
development of the family of propulsion
systems.
The resultant reaction
or thrust exerted on
the engine is
proportional to the
mass of air expelled by
the engine and to the
velocity change
imparted to it.
The same thrust can be
provided by giving a
large mass of air a little
extra velocity or a
small mass of air a
large extra velocity.
Efficiency
• Increased mass flow in general implies
increased engine size and weight and it may
also increase drag, so that there is a
compromise to be struck between low overall
engine size and high propulsive efficiency.
• The choice depends on the application, with
relatively small values of propulsive efficiency
appropriate to military fighter engines and
comparatively high values for commercial
transport engines.

Propulsion - I Notes

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Propulsion - I Notes

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

www.Vidyarthiplus.

• Work is a path function and is an inexact differential.

• Substituting eq (1) for in eq (3) we get

Thrust power delivered to vehicle

Potrebbero piacerti anche