Penspen PlusOne Software

Overview

PlusOne is an integrated software environment for pipeline

design, offering a sophisticated and comprehensive range
of engineering modules. The modular design and common
data handling ensures that results calculated from one
module flow naturally into the others, assisting the
engineer in defining the pipeline configuration.

PlusOne incorporates many comprehensive developments of the

industry standard product including:

• Full implementation of the BS PD8010 and DNV design codes.

• Other codes include DNV, Veritec and ASME.
• Compatibility with all Windows 32 bit versions.
• Stand-alone or Network installation.
• Built-in on-line help.
• Results are output in Graph, Word, Excel and HTML formats.
• User configuration for various system settings.

PlusOne encapsulates the analysis sequence in the following capabilities:

• Hydraulic Analysis
• Material Selection
• Wall Thickness Calculations
• Stability Analysis (including On-Bottom Stability)
• Span Analysis
• Expansion Analysis
• Lay Stress Analysis
• Anode Design
• Lay Rate Estimation Reeling Analysis
• Upheaval Buckling Analysis
• Lateral Buckling Analysis
• Fatigue Screening
Cathodic Protection Design (DNV-RP-B401 1983)
The Cathodic Protection Design (ANOD) module is used to design a
bracelet anode system by helping the engineer to select an appropriate
anode size and spacing along the pipeline. Alternatively, the module
may be used to quickly check the validity of an existing or proposed
design.

The ANOD module calculation method, default values and help screen information, are
based primarily on Det Norske Veritas' recommended practice for cathodic protection
design (DNV RP B401, 1993).

Submarine pipelines are protected from external corrosion by a combination of coatings

and cathodic protection (CP). The CP system generally consists of sacrificial anode
bracelets attached to the pipeline at regular intervals.

The help menus also give additional advice to the engineer on the recommendations
from other codes/standards, technical literature, and Penspen in-house data.

For a given set of design criteria, there are generally many feasible designs which
satisfy the code requirements. The ANOD module provides graphical outputs to help the
engineer to see quickly the benefits of one design over another, and hence to optimise
the design by choosing a solution which minimises the total mass of anode material. A
further design optimisation feature is the option to calculate an effective utilisation
factor, which in certain cases can result in significant savings by increasing the required
spacing or reducing the required anode dimensions.

On-Bottom Stability (DNV-RP-F109 2010)

The lateral stability criteria for a pipeline lying on the seabed or in a
trench under hydrodynamic forces have to be satisfied. This is achieved
by calculating the steel wall thickness or concrete weight coating
required to keep the pipe lateral movement below a code-specified limit.
DNV-RP-F109 forms the basis for the development of module B109.

The B109 module is used to calculate the pipe wall thickness or concrete weight coating
required for lateral stability (i.e. to limit the extent of lateral movement to a specified
limit) in accordance with DNV-RP-F109 (2010). Alternatively it can be used to calculate
the Safety Factor for a specified pipe wall thickness with (or without) weight coating. If
pipe wall thickness is the calculated result, the nearest API 5L pipe size is selected.
The B109 module uses 3 analysis methods depending on the allowable lateral
movement; The Absolute (zero movement), L_stable (0.5D) and L_10 (10D) stability
methods. For a trenched pipeline, only the Absolute method may be used. The module
is capable of analysing the stability characteristics of a pipeline length with varying wall
thickness, water depth and environmental conditions (i.e. current and wave profiles).

Bending Buckling
The Bending Buckling module (BUCK) determines the hydrostatic
collapse pressure for a pipe having a defined eccentricity using
Timoshenko's elastic stability formula. The module also calculates the
critical buckling curvature and moment taking full account of the elastic-
plastic behaviour of the pipe material (the material model is defined
using a bi-linear description of the elastic and plastic regions).

To operate this module, the user inputs the pipe dimensions and material properties and
the water depth/density. BUCK then calculates the following:

• the critical collapse pressure;

• the critical buckling curvature and associate bending moment;
• the hydrostatic pressure acting on the pipeline
 

Catenary Evaluation
The Catenary Evaluation (CLAY) is intended as a quick design aid,
based on catenary analysis, allowing the engineer to assess the
suitability of a particular laybarge/stinger configuration for the installation
of a pipe whose physical properties are known and to calculate the
tension required.

Submarine pipelines are usually laid in position by welding short sections of pipe
together on a laybarge to make a continuous pipe which passes over a stinger
connected to the barge. As the barge moves forward the pipe is lowered to the seabed.
A tensioning device on the laybarge applies a horizontal force to the pipe; its purpose is
to reduce the curvature of the pipe in the suspended span between the lift-off point at
which it loses contact with the stinger and the touchdown point at which it reaches the
seabed.

The horizontal tension is often large enough for the length of pipe in the suspended
span to be several times greater than the depth of water. The design of such a system
brings with it many mechanical problems. If the pipe is severely bent as it passes over
the stinger or in the suspended span, it is likely to kink or buckle plastically under the
combined action of bending moment, external water pressure, and axial tension.

Design of a system to avoid the possibility of this kind of buckling requires a means of
analysing the configuration taken up by such a suspended pipe. The catenary
configuration is determined by the submerged weight, the tension and the assumption
that the pipe makes contact with the stinger and the seabed.

To operate this module, the user defines the pipe dimensions and properties, the
environmental conditions, the lay barge stinger configuration and the amount of tension
to applied to the pipe. (If the tension is not specified the module will calculate the
minimum tension required).

Wall Thickness Calculation (DNV OS-F101 2010)

The Wall Thickness Calculation module (D2KM) calculates the minimum
wall thickness that meets the requirements of the latest design code
(DnV-OS-F101 2010), for a given design basis. The offshore standard
F101 adopts the Load and Resistance Design Format (LRDF), a limit
state method which uses partial safety factors, as opposed to the
Allowable Stress Design Format, used by other PlusOne modules such
as WALL.

The wall thickness calculated by the D2KM module satisfies the following design criteria
specified in the Limit States chapter (Section 5 Part D) of the offshore standard, DNV-
OS-F101 (2010), for submarine pipelines:

• Pressure Containment (Bursting)

• Local Buckling (General); which comprise of:
• Local Buckling External Overpressure only (System Collapse)
• Propagation Buckling
• Local Buckling (Combined Loading Criteria). This may be Load or
Displacement Controlled.

Single Phase Gas Flow

The Gas Flow (GASF) module predicts the pressure and temperature
profiles and the flow rate of a single phase gas along a pipeline under
steady flow conditions.
The pressure and temperature drop along the pipeline is solved using a numerical
integration procedure. The integration is a function of the fluid properties which are in
turn a function of the line temperature and pressure. Thus the integration is an iterative
procedure, continuing until a balance between fluid property, pressure and temperature
drop has been established.

The pipeline is defined as a series of segments. Each segment has its own orientation,
geometry, roughness and thermal properties independently defined. The integration
procedure divides each segment into elements and integrates down the line from the
known starting conditions at the inlet. At each node the properties of gas density and
gas viscosity are calculated as these are dependent on the pressure and temperature
conditions.

The GASF module provides full tabulated and graphical output of the pressure,
temperature and gas velocity profiles and elevation along the pipeline.

The accuracy of the profiles is dependent on the number of segments defined by the
user. The more segments defined, the higher the resolution of the profile.

Heat Transfer Calculation

The Heat Transfer (HEAT) module calculates the overall heat transfer
coefficient based on the internal diameter of either a fully exposed or
fully buried pipe section or the coating thickness required to achieve a
specified overall heat transfer coefficient.

To operate the HEAT module, the user defines the pipe dimensions, properties and
environmental data.

Below is a summary of the HEAT module operations:

• Calculate an overall heat transfer based on the internal area of a pipe if all
the coatings have a specified thickness.
• Calculate the required thickness of a coating to produce a given heat transfer
coefficient.

The overall heat transfer coefficient is based on the pipe wall thickness and thermal
conductivity. No account is made of the internal boundary layer between pipe wall and
the transported fluid.
All exterior coatings are included in the calculation by specifying thickness and thermal
property of each coating. For the unburied line, account is taken of either free or forced
convection, and the temperature is assumed to be uniform about the external
circumference.

The thermal resistance of the surrounding soil is only effective for the fully buried
pipeline. Again the temperature is assumed to be constant around the buried pipe
circumference.

Hydrate Formation Prediction

The Hydrate Formation (HYDR) module determines hydrate formation
temperatures in natural gas lines using the molar percentages and
tabulated data of vapour-solid equilibrium constants for the seven
hydrate forming hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons are known to produce hydrate deposits, in natural gas lines, below the
hydrate formation temperature. Since 1969, gas engineers have been using published
hydrocarbon equilibrium constant data to calculate the temperature at which these
hydrates begin to form. In conjunction with the equilibrium constant data, the
composition and working pressure of the gas is required to calculate this unique
temperature.

The water dew point temperature, in a gas line, may also be calculated using a standard
gas equation. This equation uses the pressure, temperature and water content of the
gas.

The amount of water condensate that forms in gas lines, at the dew point pressure and
temperature, can also be calculated by manipulating the standard gas equation.

The HYDR module calculates the following three pipeline conditions:

• Hydrate formation temperatures for a defined pressure range;

• Water dew point formation temperatures for a defined pressure range;
• Water content for a given dew point temperature and pressure.
 

 
Lateral Buckling Calculation
The Lateral Buckling (LATB) module predicts the susceptibility of
pipeline to lateral buckling and checks whether the generated stresses in
the pipeline are within the acceptance limit of the commonly used design
codes.

Submarine pipelines often carry products which are hotter than surrounding water. The
resulting thermal expansion is resisted by the friction between the pipeline and seabed
causing large compressive forces in the line. The magnitude of these forces depend on
many factor such as initial tension at the seabed, pressure difference across the pipe
wall and temperature variations due to hot fluid passing through the line. This can result
in lateral buckling or upheaval buckling.

For normal coefficients of friction, studies have concluded that for pipeline on seabed
the propensity to buckle laterally is more than upheaval. This is because lateral buckling
occurs at a lower axial load than the vertical mode and is dominant in pipelines unless
the line is trenched or buried. Most of the work in this field has been done by R. E.
Hobbs who did in-depth study and presented several modes of lateral buckling.

The design codes used for stress check in LATB module are as follow:

• DNV-OS-F101 (2001) Submarine Pipeline Systems;

• ASME B31.4 (2001) American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Gas
Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems;
• ASME B31.8 (2007) American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Liquid
Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous
Ammonia, and Alcohols;
• BS PD 8010 (2004) British Standard Practice Document 8010, Code of
practice for pipelines; Part 2; Subsea Pipelines.
 

Lay Rate Estimation

In the laybarge method of installation, the pipeline profile from stinger to
seabed is determined by a delicate interaction between applied
tensioned force, pipe weight and flexural rigidity. Unless carefully
investigated, the combined action of bending moment, external water
pressure and axial tension can lead to severely stressed sections of
pipe, resulting in buckling, kinking and plastic deformation.
Using a relaxation method for the finite difference technique [1], the Lay Rate
Estimation (LAYS) module permits the pipeline engineer to quickly assess the suitability
of a particular laybarge-stinger configuration for installation. Once the user has specified
the stinger configuration for a pipeline and other case specific parameters the LAYS
module calculates:

• Pipeline profile as a function of distance from the laybarge

• Bending stress, tensile forces and shear forces at each position of the nodal
geometry
• Reaction loads at the stinger rollers
• Seabed touchdown point
• Hoop and equivalent stress

The LAYS module provides full tabulated outputs. The LAYS module is supplied with
comprehensive theoretical and validation documentation.

[1] Palmer, A.C, Hutchinson, G. and Ells, J.W. "Configuration of submarine pipelines
during laying operations". ASME, paper no. 73-WA/OCT-4 (1973).

Lay Stress Analysis

In the laybarge method of installation, the pipeline profile from stinger to
seabed is determined by a delicate interaction between applied
tensioned force, pipe weight and flexural rigidity. Unless carefully
investigated, the combined action of bending moment, external water
pressure and axial tension can lead to severely stressed sections of
pipe, resulting in buckling, kinking and plastic deformation.

Using a relaxation method for the finite difference technique [1], the Pipeline Analysis
(LAYS) module permits the pipeline engineer to quickly assess the suitability of a
particular laybarge-stinger configuration for installation. Once the user has specified the
stinger configuration for a pipeline and other case specific parameters the LAYS module
calculates:

• Pipeline profile as a function of distance from the laybarge

• Bending stress, tensile forces and shear forces at each position of the nodal
geometry
• Reaction loads at the stinger rollers
• Seabed touchdown point
• Hoop and equivalent stress
The LAYS module provides full tabulated outputs. The LAYS module is supplied with
comprehensive theoretical and validation documentation.

[1] Palmer, A.C, Hutchinson, G. and Ells, J.W. "Configuration of submarine pipelines
during laying operations". ASME, paper no. 73-WA/OCT-4 (1973).

Single Phase Oil & Liquid Flow

The Oil & Liquid Flow (LIQF) module predicts the pressure and
temperature profiles along a pipeline under steady flow conditions. This
includes the calculation of the inlet or outlet conditions, or the flow rate.

The pressure and temperature drop along the pipeline is solved using a numerical
integration procedure. The integration is a function of the fluid properties which are in
turn a function of the line temperature and pressure. Thus, the integration is an iterative
procedure, continuing until a balance between fluid property, pressure, and temperature
drop has been established.

The pipeline is defined as a series of segments. Each segment having its own
orientation, geometry, roughness and thermal properties independently defined. The
integration procedure divides each segment into elements and integrates down the line
from the known starting conditions at the inlet. At each node, the liquid viscosity and
consequently the Reynolds number are calculated as these are dependent on the
pressure and temperature conditions.

The LIQF module provides full tabulated and graphical outputs of the pressure and
temperature profiles and elevation along the pipeline.

The accuracy of the profiles is dependent on the number of segments defined by the
user. The more segments defined, the higher the resolution of the profile.

Material Selection & Corrosion Allowance

The Material Selection & Corrosion Allowance (MATS) module provides
an aid to linepipe material selection, given a set of pipeline operating
conditions and fluid compositional data. The decision is based on an
internal corrosion estimation. The object is to design to mitigate the
effects of corrosion by selection of either a corrosion allowance, the
injection of inhibitors or the use of high alloy steels.
The corrosion module first estimates a corrosion rate for carbon steel from the data
provided. It then uses this information to recommend a suitable linepipe material to
enable the design life specification to be achieved. Criteria used in assessing the
corrosive environment include:-

• Oil / gas / water ratio;

• Quantities of CO2, H2S and O2 present;
• Pressure and temperature;
• Salinity;
• Acidity;
• Flow velocity;
• Bacteria;
• Dissolved solids;
• Undissolved solids.

As well as providing a linepipe material recommendation the module provides a list of

warnings and prompts which indicate other factors which may affect corrosion, together
with a method of preventing these factors from reducing the life of the pipeline.

Quick Lay Stress Analysis

The Quick Lay Stress (QLAY) module is intended as a quick design aid,
allowing the engineer to assess the suitability of a particular laybarge
and stinger configuration for the installation of a pipeline whose physical
properties are known under static conditions.

The QLAY module can analyse a comprehensive range of configurations and

incorporates the theory necessary to calculate stresses and shear forces on the
overbend region due to the effect of stinger geometry and in the sagbend region along
the span. If requested, the QLAY module will also calculate the necessary force at the
tensioner to produce an acceptable pipeline configuration. The QLAY module also
incorporates the facility to model a sloping seabed. An option exists in the module to
either calculate hoop and equivalent stresses according to the latest pipeline design
codes.

Submarine pipelines are usually laid in position by welding short sections of pipe
together on a laybarge to make a continuous pipe which passes over a stinger
connected to the barge. As the barge moves forward the pipe is lowered to the seabed.
A tensioning device on the laybarge applies a horizontal force to the pipe; its purpose is
to reduce the curvature of the pipe in the suspended span between the lift-off point at
which it loses contact with the stinger and the touchdown point at which it reaches the
seabed. The horizontal tension is often large enough for the length of pipe in the
suspended span to be several times greater than the depth of water.

The design of such systems has many associated mechanical problems. If the pipe is
severely bent as it passes over the stinger or in the suspended span, it is likely to kink
or buckle plastically under the combined action of bending moment, external water
pressure, and axial tension. The design of such a system to avoid the possibility of this
kind of buckling requires a means of analysing the configuration taken up by such a
suspended pipe. The configuration profile is determined by the interaction between the
flexural stiffness of the pipe, the pipe weight, the forces applied to the pipeline by the
stinger, tensioner, seabed and by the sea itself.

Laybarge configurations are stored in files and can be accessed individually for
evaluation as required. From a given set of data supplied by the input screen for the
QLAY module, the pipeline configuration and associated stresses are calculated.

The output from the QLAY module includes both graphics and text. The graphical output
displays the pipeline configuration together with associated bending stresses and shear
forces.

The theory is based on small deflection theory for a submarine pipeline and therefore is
ideally suited to large stiff pipes which are laid in shallow to medium water depths. A
semi-analytical approach, based on invariant embedding techniques, has been used to
solve the resulting equations.

To operate the QLAY module, the user defines the pipe dimensions and properties, the
environmental conditions, the laybarge stinger configuration and the amount of tension
to be applied to the pipe. (If the tension is not specified the module will calculate the
minimum tension required).

Below is a summary of the QLAY module operations:

• determination of the configuration of the pipe from the freeboard to the

seabed;
• calculation of the forces and moments at each of the nodal points along the
pipe;
• calculation of the bending, longitudinal and equivalent stresses induced at the
nodal points and highlighting where the maximum stresses occur;
• calculation of the minimum tension required to lay the pipeline.
Currently only single fixed ramps or circular arcs can be used to describe the stinger
geometry.

The QLAY module is limited by the mathematical model, which is theoretically limited to
small deflections. Therefore the QLAY module is generally limited to shallow or medium
depth water. However the QLAY module will produce results for other (deep water)
configurations and in such cases the results should be treated with caution.

The QLAY module is intended as a quick design tool for use in shallow to medium depth
water only.

Pipeline Reeling
The Pipeline Reeling (REEL) barge method of subsea pipeline
installation is a fast and economical technique but poses specific
problems to the design engineer. The plastic deformation of the pipeline
when spooling-on and spooling-off the reel ship precludes the use of
relatively large wall thickness to avoid ovalisation.

The REEL module addresses these difficulties through a consideration of the wall
thickness ratio D/t and critical buckling curvature. Bending-buckling behaviour has been
widely investigated through model experiments and full scale tests, leading to
correlations of critical strain resulting from high bending curvatures. For the purposes of
the REEL module, the correlation which is most conservative for the specified D/t ratio
is selected, indicating that the pipeline curvature must not exceed this critical strain
criteria.

Bending Moment-Curvature Relationships

The dependence of the bending moment with curvature has to be calculated taking the
elasto-plastic material behaviour into account. The moment distribution is found by
integrating the stress field across the linepipe cross-section for a given radius of
curvature. Ovality effects are taken into consideration by using Brazier's Formula.

Critical Buckling Curvature

At very high curvatures, a local buckle may develop on the compression side of the
pipe. Kink formation of a short inward dent extending over a length of about two
diameters is accompanied by a marked reduction in the bending moment the pipe can
withstand.
The REEL module assesses bending-buckling behaviour with either the Shell, Exxon or
Palmer empirical results published independently in the academic literature. Maximum
curvature and the associated percentage of critical buckling curvature are calculated
and the results reported.

Pipe Configuration on the Reel

The problem of determining pipe configurations as they are spooled onto the reel is
evaluated using analytical geometry. Reel capacity can be determined either by weight
or volume.

Free Spanning Analysis (DNV-RP-F105)

The Free Spanning Analysis (S105) module provides preliminary fatigue
screening of observed submarine pipeline span and calculates the
allowable spans due to Vortex Induced Vibration (VIV), Fatigue and
Ultimate Limit State (ULS), in accordance with DNV-RP-F105 (2006).
Following installation or during annual survey of pipeline, spans may be
detected between high points on the seabed. The high spots may be
natural seabed irregularities, as a result of hard soils encountered during
trenching or as a result of scour or sand waves. Pipeline spans are
prone to overstress due to self-weight and hydrodynamic loading, and
vibrations induced by vortex shedding from the span.

Static loading on the span is produced by a combination of the self weight of the pipe
and horizontal hydrodynamic loads. Although hydrodynamic loads with an oscillatory
wave component are strictly dynamic loads, they are usually treated as static loads
because the natural frequency of typical pipeline spans is often greater than the
frequency of the wave.

Vibrations of the span are caused by periodic vortex shedding. Each vortex shed
induces a reaction impulse and consequently a deflection in the pipeline. Where
vortices are shed coincidentally, the impulse components perpendicular to the direction
of the current cancel and the resultant oscillations are in line with the current. Where the
vortices alternate, perpendicular components do not cancel and the resultant
oscillations are predominantly perpendicular to the flow direction ('cross flow') but still
have some in line component. If the frequency of oscillation matches the natural
frequency of the pipeline span, resonance or "lock-on" occurs, resulting in high
amplitude oscillations and possible damage to the pipeline or its coating.
The S105 module assesses spans for VIV fatigue onset (VIV fatigue screening criteria),
direct wave loading (simplified direct wave fatigue) and ultimate limit states (ULS).

The module S105 is intended for preliminary allowable span evaluation of submarine
pipeline span. The module performs the analysis by two distinct calculations as follows:

• Provide data for screening of observed span length

• Evaluate allowable span length

The loading on the span includes the self weight, buoyancy and maximum steady state
hydrodynamic loading.

Analysis with S105 allows for variation in water depth, current and wave velocity profile
data along the pipeline length.

Dynamic Span Evaluation (DNV 1976 & 1981)

The Span Assessment Evaluation (SPAN) module assesses spans for
overstress and the risk of vortex-induced vibrations according to DNV
1976 & 1981. Following installation or during annual survey of pipeline,
spans may be detected between high points on the seabed. The high
spots may be natural seabed irregularities, as a result of hard soils
encountered during trenching or as a result of scour or sand waves.
Pipeline spans are prone to overstress due to self-weight and
hydrodynamic loading, and vibrations induced by vortex shedding from
the span.

Static loading on the span is produced by a combination of the self weight of the pipe
and horizontal hydrodynamic loads. Although hydrodynamic loads with an oscillatory
wave component are strictly dynamic loads, they are usually treated as static loads
because the natural frequency of typical pipeline spans is often greater than the
frequency of the wave.

Vibrations of the span are caused by periodic vortex shedding. Each vortex shed
induces a reaction impulse and consequently a deflection in the pipeline. Where
vortices are shed coincidentally, the impulse components perpendicular to the direction
of the current cancel and the resultant oscillations are in line with the current. Where the
vortices alternate, perpendicular components do not cancel and the resultant
oscillations are predominantly perpendicular to the flow direction ('cross flow') but still
have some in-line component. If the frequency of oscillation matches the natural
frequency of the pipeline span, resonance or "lock-on" occurs, resulting in high
amplitude oscillations and possible damage to the pipeline or its coating.

The SPAN module performs the analysis of the static behaviour of submarine pipeline
spans by two distinct calculations as follow:

• Static stresses due to bending under lateral loads in the extreme storm
conditions. The loading on the span includes self weight, buoyancy and
maximum steady state hydrodynamic loading
• Assessment of the risk of vortex-induced vibrations by the use of simple
"reduced velocity" method.

The analysis is based on an idealised representation of a pipeline span, consisting of a

fixed-fixed beam under lateral and axial loading. The span is assumed to have an
effective length which is 1.1 times the observed length of the span. The span is
assumed to be symmetrical, and rests on a rigid seabed foundation.

On-Bottom Stability (Classical Theory)

A pipeline resting on the seabed is acted upon by environmental loads
comprising wave and current forces. In order to maintain integrity, the
pipeline must resist lateral excursion. This can be achieved by designing
the pipeline so that it has a sufficiently high submerged weight to resist
these forces, or by shielding the pipe from the environment by trenching
or burying. Additional weight is normally achieved by adding material in
the form of a concrete coating or by increasing the wall thickness of the
pipe.

The Pipeline Stability (1) (STAB) module is used to evaluate the stability of a pipeline
using the hydrodynamic coefficients specified in DNV codes or by the user.

This is effected by:

• Determining concrete thickness for a pipe specification;

• Determining wall thickness to achieve a specified safety factor;
• Determining a safety factor for a specific pipe input
• Batch processing several analyses for different water-depths, currents and
wave profiles.

If a pipe wall thickness is the result of the calculation, then it is compared with the
nearest API 5L pipe size. The user may also analyse the stability characteristics of a
pipeline along a specified route. The user can vary water depth, and change both the
current and wave profiles.

The STAB module carries out a simplified analysis which calculates the worst
combination of hydrodynamic loads and then assess pipeline stability. A set of 2
dimensional the forces acting on the pipe.

The accuracy of the results are dependent upon the suitability of the current and wave
models chosen. Wave induced velocities can be derived from either Airy, Stokes,
Cnoidal or Solitary wave theories and the current velocities from either an explicit value,
the 1/7th power law or a logarithmic relationship. The STAB module also recommends
the applicable wave theory for the conditions being analysed.

The method used by the STAB module to calculate the pipe's lateral friction resistance
is based upon Coulomb theory. The accuracy in this method is dependent upon the
estimation of the lateral frictional coefficient, guidance for which is given in the manual.

On-Bottom Stability (DNV-RP-E305)

Environmental loads from waves and currents act upon a pipeline resting
on the seabed. In order to maintain integrity, the pipeline must resist
lateral excursion. This can be achieved by designing the pipeline so that
it has a sufficiently high submerged weight to resist these forces, or by
shielding the pipe from the environment by trenching or burying.
Additional weight is normally achieved by adding material in the form of
a concrete coating or by increasing the wall thickness of the pipe.

The Pipeline Stability (STB2) module evaluates the stability of a pipeline using the
veritec recommended code of practice RP E305 (1988). This was intended to
supersede earlier stability guidelines by using a modified 3D Morrison equation
including wake effects downstream of the pipe. By using an interpolation methodology
for the data presented in RP E305, the STB2 module has the ability to:

• Determine concrete thickness for a pipe specification;

• Determine a required wall thickness to ensure stability;
• Calculate the safety factor between submerged weight as specified and that
required for stability.

The accuracy of the results is dependent upon the suitability of the current and wave
loads applied to the pipeline. Wave induced velocities are calculated in accordance with
RP E305 which can be made physically realistic by use of a calibration factor. Wave
states are characterised by energy density functions specified by wave height, spectral
wave period and the Jonswap peakedness parameter. Current velocities may be
specified as an explicit value from the 1/7th power law or a logarithmic relationship.

The method used by the STB2 module to calculate the pipe-seabed interaction is as
specified in RP E305 for sand soil and for clay. This involves determining the
generalised weight parameter by interpolating between data-figures presented in the
code.

The STB2 module is supplied with comprehensive theory, user and validation manuals
describing worked examples in detail.

Upheaval Buckling Analysis

Pipelines in service are often subject to high compressive axial forces.
These forces are due to temperature and pressure induced axial
expansion, which is resisted by the friction force generated between the
pipe and the seabed. For upheaval buckling to occur, the pipeline must
first have an initial imperfection. Imperfections are typically due to the
pipeline being laid over a boulder or due to irregularities in the seabed
profile.

The object of the Upheaval Buckling (UPBK) module is to carry out a simplified
upheaval buckling analysis based on idealised pipeline imperfections. The UPBK
module is suited to the conceptual design stage in order to determine whether upheaval
buckling problems exist for a given pipeline.

The UPBK module is used to:

• Determine whether the pipeline is susceptible to upheaval buckling;

• Evaluate the required height of backfill to prevent upheaval buckling.

Pipeline buckling is very sensitive to the size and shape of the initial imperfection. Small
diameter pipelines are particularly susceptible to upheaval buckling problems for the
following reasons:

• The Pipeline is trenched for protection, therefore preventing lateral

movement;
• Submerged weights are low since concrete is often necessary for stability;
• The contents temperatures are high and Pipeline flexibility is high.
The UPBK module enables the engineer to quickly and easily carry out upheaval
buckling calculation. This in turn allows flexibility in conceptual design and assessment
of the pipeline for a range of operational and environmental conditions.

Wall Thickness Calculation - ASME, BS, DNV & API

As part of the initial design of a pipeline the wall thickness has to be
selected. The wall thickness selected must achieve all the requirements
set out and specified by the design code being used.

The Wall Thickness (WALL) module calculates the minimum wall thickness that will
meet the requirements of the selected design code.
The design codes implemented by the WALL module are:

• API 1111 (2009, Errata 2011) – American Petroleum Institute (Design of

Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipelines);
• ASME (B31.4: Liquid, B31.8: Gas) - American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons & Gas
Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems;
• DNV 1981 - Det Norske Veritas (Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems);
• BS PD8010 (2004) – Code of Practice for Pipelines (Part 2: Subsea
Pipelines);
• BS8010 (1993) - British Standard, Code of Practice for Pipelines Part 3
(Pipelines Subsea).

The WALL module follows the following procedure:

• Calculate the minimum wall thickness for each of the selected design code
requirements (hoop stress, hydrostatic collapse, buckle propagation, diameter
to thickness ratio);
• Select the minimum wall thickness that will comply with all the selected
design code requirements;
• Recommend the nearest API pipe size that will comply with all the selected
design code requirements.

The WALL module enables the engineer to quickly and easily calculate the required wall
thickness of a pipeline for any of the codes selected. The module can also be used to
optimise the pipeline steel grade.

Pipeline Expansion Analysis

The Pipeline Expansion (XPAN) module enables the engineer to quickly
calculate the expansion of a pipeline and the pipeline conditions along its
length. This information is typically required for sizing spoolpiece offsets.

When a subsea pipeline is installed its ambient temperature is the same as its
surrounding environment. The product that the pipeline is designed to transport is
usually much hotter than the installation temperature of the pipeline. For the product to
flow an internal pressure difference will also be applied. Once operational the
temperature and pressure of the pipeline will rise and consequently the pipeline
expands. The amount of pipeline expansion will be dependent upon the seabed
frictional resistance.

The objective of the XPAN module is to calculate the amount of expansion that will
occur at either end of the pipeline after it becomes operational for a specified
temperature and pressure profile.

The Calculations can be carried out for both thick and thin wall theories. The XPAN
module is used to:

• Calculate the thermal, pressure, frictional and total strain at each node along
the pipeline;
• Calculate the displacement of both the hot and cold ends of the pipeline (this
takes into account the variation of temperature and pressure profile along the
length);
• Calculate the maximum and minimum stresses at the nodal points.

The output from this package is in tabular and graphical form. The tabular output
summarises the expansion, stresses and strains at each nodal point. The graphical
output shows the temperature profile, displacement and stress along the length of the
pipeline.

The XPAN module is supplied with comprehensive theory, user and validation
documentation describing worked examples in detail.