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Heat And Mass Transfer-ChEg-2084

NOTES
Chapter-1
Introduction to Heat and Mass Transfer
. Importance: Heat Transfer
. Practically all operations that are carried out by the Process Engineer involves the
Production or absorption of energy in the form of heat.
. In many situations a process engineer encounters problems of heating/cooling ,and
vaporization/condensation of fluids.
Examples: Heating of milk for Pasteurization
Concentration of sugar cane juice in evaporators.
. To do such a task one uses the heat energy of another fluid .It can be Steam,
Cooling water, Waste exhaust gases or another process fluid.
. Exchange of heat between the two fluids (one hot another cold) in a faster way and
in a compact equipment is the challenging job of a Chemical engineer.
. Since the fluids are flowing in the equipment at a sufficient velocity on both side of metal
wall (a tube or plate ) ,forced convection heat transfer place a major role.
. The heat exchange takes place in sequence as under
Hot fluid gives energy to metal wall by convection, then
Heat is transferred within metal wall by conduction, then
Heat is absorbed from metal wall by cold fluid again by convection.
. Nature of Heat Flow:
When two objects at different temperatures are brought into contact, heat flows
from the object at the higher temperature to that at the lower temperature.
i.e. Net heat flow is always in the direction of decreasing temperature.
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. Importance: Mass Transfer

A substantial number of the unit operations of chemical engineering are concerned with
the problem of changing the compositions of solutions and mixtures through methods
not necessarily involving chemical reactions
Usually these operations are directed toward separating a substance into its component
parts.
For mixtures, such separations may be entirely mechanical,e.g., the filtration of a solid
from a suspension in a liquid, the classification of a solid into fractions of different
particle size by screening, or the separation of particles of a ground solid according to
their density
On the other hand, if the operations involve changes in composition of solutions, they
are known as the mass-transfer operations.
The importance of these operations is profound. There is scarcely any chemical process
which does not require a preliminary purification of raw materials or final separation of
products from by-products, and for these the mass-transfer operations are usually used.
Frequently the major part of the cost of a process is that for the separations.These
separation or purification costs depend directly upon the ratio of final to initial
concentration of the separated substances, and if this ratio is large, the product costs
are large
Thus, sulfuric acid is a relatively low-priced product in part because sulfur is found
naturally in a relatively pure state, whereas pure uranium is expensive because of the
low concentration in which it is found in nature.
The mass-transfer operations are characterized by transfer of a substance through
another on a molecular scale
In the problems at hand, the mass transfer is a result of a concentration difference, or
gradient, the diffusing substance moving from a place of high to one of low
concentration
To illustrate the conceptualization of mass transfer processes and provide a few simple
applications, we will start by considering different "experiments" that will help us define
what mass transfer means.

Experiment 1 - Mass exchange between two tanks

Consider two containers connected by a pipe that has a valve, as shown in Figure 1. Both
tanks have the same volume, V, and they are at the same temperature and pressure
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(T, P). Tank A contains 1 mole of gaseous oxygen whereas tank B contains 1 mole of
gaseous nitrogen.

Figure 1. Two tanks of equal volume at the same pressure and temperature contain initially
different ideal gases. The tanks are connected by a pipe that has an initially closed valve. Note
that, since P, V and T are the same, the number of moles in both tanks must be the same
according to the ideal gas equation of state, PV=nRT.

We now open the valve connecting the tanks. What happens? Fluid Mechanics tells us
that, since the pressures at both ends of the pipe are the same, there will be no net flow
through the pipe. However, if we let time pass, we observe that N2 starts to appear in
tank A, and O2 in tank B. After a long time an equilibrium state will be reached, in
which there will be 0.5 moles of each gas in each tank (Figure 2).

P,V,T P,V,T

0.5 O2 , o.5 N2 in both the tanks-In equilibrium

tank A tank B
Figure 2. After a long time has passed, the system in Figure 1 reaches equilibrium. The
two gases are uniformly distributed between the two tanks.

Experimental observation tells us that, at equilibrium, the concentration of each chemical

species will be uniform throughout the system. In fact, knowing this and applying the
principle of mass conservation allows us to know exactly how many moles of each
species are in each tank after the equilibrium state is reached.t has happened in this
experiment? We know that, in a gas, individual molecules are in continuous motion at all
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times. This molecular motion implies that the gas will tend to distribute itself uniformly
(from a statistical point of view) over all the space available to it. At the final equilibrium
stage, both O2 and N2 are uniformly distributed throughout the two tanks. Notice that,
if we perform the experiment with two liquids, the final outcome would be the same
since the liquid will also try to occupy all the space available, but, since the molecular
motion in the liquid phase is much slower than in the gas phase, it would take longer to
reach the final equilibrium state.

In experiments like this, the use of the principle of conservation of mass allows us to
predict the final outcome of the experiment. However, if we are interested in determining
how fast the material exchange between the two tank is, we would need to use other
physical principles, which relate to what we call mass transfer.

Experiment 2 - Dissolution of sugar in water

If we put a certain amount of sugar crystals in water at ambient conditions, we will observe
that it will slowly dissolve until all the crystals disappear (provided that we do not saturate
the solution). After a long time there will be no solid left and, furthermore, the
concentration of sugar in the solution will be uniform, i.e., if we take a sample of the
solution from any point within the reservoir, we would observe the same sugar
concentration (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Solid sugar eventually dissolves in water to form a solution with uniform
concentration.

In this experiment, there is a phase change: the sugar goes from the solid phase into the
liquid phase, and then the continuous motion of the dissolved sugar molecules eventually
leads to their uniform distribution in the liquid. Once again, if we know the amount of
sugar that we added, we can calculate the concentration of sugar in water at the end of the
experiment. But if we want to know how fast the system reaches the final equilibrium
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state, we need to use other physical principles, which fall under what we will call mass
transfer.
It is interesting to mention that we know how to make the process faster: everyday
experience tells us that if we stir the solution, we will achieve the final state faster.
Therefore, we already know some mass transfer!

The experiments described above have two things in common:

(A) In all of them, a chemical species moves or is transported through a

different chemical species.
(B) This transport of mass tends to make the concentration of the transferred
species spatially uniform.
. Heat Transfer mechanisms:
Three types: conduction, convection and radiation .
. Conduction:
If a temperature gradient exists in a continuous substance heat can flow unaccompanied
By any observable motion of matter. Heat flow of this kind is called ‘conduction’.
Example : Heat flow in opaque solids, as in the brick wall of a furnace or the metal
wall of a tube .
. Convection:
When a current or macroscopic particle of fluid crosses a specific surface, it carries with
it a definite quantity of enthalpy. Such a flow of enthalpy is called ‘convection’ .

Since convection is a macroscopic phenomena it occur only when forces act on fluid
and maintain its motion. Forces used to create convection currents are two types.

Natural convection :
If the currents are the result of buoyancy forces generated by difference
In density caused by temperature gradient the this type of heat flow called ‘natural
Convection’.
Example: The flow of air across a heated radiator.
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Forced convection:
If the currents are set in motion by the action of a mechanical device such as a pump
Or agitator ,the flow is independent of of density gradients and is called
‘forced convection’ .
Example: Heat flow to a fluid pumped through a heated pipe.
. Radiation:
Radiation is a term given to the transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic
Waves.
If radiation is passing through an empty space, it is not transformed into heat or any
form of energy nor is it diverted from its path. If however, if matter appears in its path,
the radiation will be transmitted ,reflected or absorbed. It is only the absorbed energy
that appears as heat.
Examples: Fused quartz transmits practically all radiation that strikes it.
A polished opaque surface or Mirror will reflect will reflect most
of the radiation.
A Black surface will absorb most of the radiation and transforms it into heat.
Radiation becomes important at high temperature

. Combined conduction and convection Heat transfer.

. In practice heat is transferred between the fluids by both conduction and convection
mechanisms
. Conduction and convection heat transfer requires presence of a medium solid or fluid.
. Convective heat transfer requires a fluid in motion, but not as stagnant fluid layer.
. Heat transfer through a stagnant fluid layer is by molecular conduction like in solids.
. Since the thermal conductivities values of liquids are less compared to that of metals, heat
flow is less through stagnant fluids.
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. But when the fluid is moving ,the currents of fluid absorb heat fast by convective
mechanism.
. Heat flow in fluids by convection is much faster than that by conduction.
Consider the following example:

Hot plate at T2 C
_______________________________________ _____
--------------------------------------------Q---------------- l
------------‘Fluid’-----------------Heat flow through- L
------------------------------------------fluid----------
------------------------------------------------------------
______________________________________ l___

Cold plate at T1 C
Fig: Heat flow through a fluid sandwiched between two parallel plates.
When fluid is stagnant heat flow ‘Q’ is slow.
When fluid is agitated heat flow ‘Q’ is fast.
More the agitation more faster is ‘Q’( more convective heat transfer)
. Boundary layers:
Momentum transfer –Hydrodynamic boundary layer
Consider a fluid is flowing over a flat plate with velocity uα as shown below.

Fig: External flow over a flat surface & development of hydrodynamic boundary
layer.
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. After certain distance from entrance the δh remain constant.

. Within this boundary layer immediate to solid wall there is a laminar sublayer
then buffer layer then above δh main turbulent zone where velocity remain unchanged.
Heat transfer-Thermal boundary layer:
. If the plate is hot and cold fluid is flowing over it, then we find formation of thermal
boundary layer δt as shown below.

. The temperature of fluid element that is touching the wall will be T s.

. This temperature of fluid elements drops from Ts to Tα in this thin thermal boundary layer
where heat transfer is mainly by molecular conduction.
. Above this thermal boundary layer fluid is in motion and heat transfer takes by convection.

. Combination of heat flow by Radiation, conduction-convection:

Monatomic and diatomic gases are transparent to thermal radiation, it is quite
common that heat is flowing through such gases both by radiation and conduction-
convection mechanism.
Example: Loss of heat from radiator or uninsulated steam pipe to the air.
Heat transfer in furnaces and other high temperature gas heating equipment.
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The two mechanisms radiation, conduction-convection are mutually independent and

occur parallel .
. Heat Transfer by Conduction

. A common mode of heat transfer in solids.

. Two situations: 1. A steady state heat conduction, where the temperature distribution
within solid does not change with time.
2. Unsteady state heat conduction, where the temperature distribution
does change with time.
. General law: ‘Fourier’s Law’ definition
“ Heat flow across an isothermal surface is proportional to the temperature
gradient at the surface.”

Where,
q = Rate of heat flow across surface in the direction normal to surface.
A = area of the isothermal surface
n = distance measured normally to surface.
T = temperature
k = proportionality constant.
. The partial derivative calls attention to the fact that the temperature may vary with both
location and time.
. The negative sign reflects the physical fact that heat flow occur from hot to cold.
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Example: A water cooled furnace wall.

. Temperature at point ‘c’ is gradually increasing ,here ‘T’ depends on both time and
Location ( unsteady state )
. After sufficient long time ,temperature distribution-III is constant with respect to time.
( steady state conduction ) and varies only with location. Fourier’s equation can be written as
q/A = -k dT/dn .
Heat flux α Temperature gradient
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. Analogy (similarities) between Heat, Mass and Momentum transfer:

Transport Phenomena Mechanism Gradient
Momentum Transfer : Laminar flow Turbulent flow Velocity
Heat Transfer : Molecular Molecular conduction- Temperature
Conduction convection.
Mass Transfer : Molecular Molecular and Concentration
Diffusion. Eddy diffusion
. The process engineer is often encounter to deal combination these transport process
in many of the chemical engineering unit operations calculations.
. There are similarities between different transport processes that makes the job easier.

Course Outline in Brief.

. Chapter 2 and 3 deals with Conduction heat transfer under study/unsteady state
with problems / applications
. Chapter 4 deals with Convective heat and Mass transfer situations with
with problems / applications
. Chapter 5 deals with Fundamentals of Radiation heat transfer.
. Chapter 6 deals with Diffusionional operations with problems
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