CHAPTER NO 1

The chapter one of book 3 deal with an explanation of government and executive
powers. According to Rousseau the will of the body politics/state are composed in
the shape of laws, but these can be enforced through the strength of executive
powers. because it is the government function to apply and enforced the laws. The
government is separate from sovereign. Government deal with general matters.
Whenever matters while sovereign. Government deal with the matters while
sovereign deal with General matters. Whenever the two confused with each other
the danger may raise.
There is no social contract between the government and society like
go state and rest of the people(society). Therefore, the people committee
surrender their power forwards government and can modify if it disobeys the
general will.
The government has to follow the will of sovereign while sovereign
has to follow the will of own ..which is actually the will of all people.
As everyone is considered a small part of the sovereign. But in large
territorial state the inclination of each individual decrease. Therefore, executive is
require to bring them on track.so as much power a government possess, it would
enable as much to put the people online. But it is also a problem that power make
mind corrupt.
Therefore rossue suggest a general formula, that the power ratio between the
government and people must be in proportion to the power Ration between
government and sovereign.

CHAPTER 3
It is about the different form of government and division of government. A
government in which the sovereign powers belong to all the citizens of the
society/state is called Democracy, the types of government in which the sovereign
power exercised by small number of individual is called “Aristocracy” and the form
of government in which the power possessed by a single individual called
‘’Monardo”. The placement or providing power to the people(Democracy),the few
people (In Aristocracy) and to the single individual(monarchy)are done by
sovereign.
 The population of a state is also the most important factor. The size of
state increase, the willingness towards the states laws are decreases and thus the
preference to the private will over general will dominated. It is all because of poor
connect between people and government does enlargement of size.
Rossie suggest that small populated state would bitterly government
. Moreover we claimed that the democratic government is suited for the medium
size population and the monarchy in suited for the large population or large size
state. This is based on the inverse relationship between the size the government
and the size of state.
CHAPTER 4
In chapter 4 Rossouw discuss the democracy; According to him democracy causes
civil war ad internal conflicts, it is difficult for commoner to maintain it.only goods
could govern themselves democratically. He provide following conditionalities to
materialization of democractic form of government among the humans,
1. The size of state should be very small
2. The people must similar moral attitude and habits.
3. Every citizen would have equal economic assets.otherwise economic the
essence of democracy.
4. There would be no luxury because luxury also create rich and poor class.
These all are very hard,Therefore Rossuea is very skeptical aboutr the viability of
democracy.
CHAPTER 5
Chapter 5 is about Aristocratic form of government Aristocracy in that form
of government in which there is the rule of few.Rossuea preset and form of
Aristocracy;
a) natural Aristocracy
b) Heriditary Aristocracy
c) Elective Aristocracy
a.Natural aristocracy in which is frequently found in printive civilization
where elders and cheads of families govern a village or tribe.
b.Heriditory aristocracy ;which Rossuea consider the worst of all forms of
aristocracy where certain family hold on governing others.
c.Elective Aristoracy, According to Roussea, the best A.
 CHAPTER: 6
In chapter 6 Roussea present his view regarding monarchy. He has strong
observation regarding monarch govt form because it is the best suitable form of
govt to govern the large size of population (for which king monarch set the
subordinate rank within own supervision). But the problem is that concentration
of power moreover due such power a king can achieve absolute powerful position
by subjecting the rest of citizens through cooperative measures.
Rosseau also confused that monarchy should be elected on inherited based
because the election will prone towards corruption and inherited nature would
prone towards incorruptness of the successor. Therefore according to Roussea , it
is difficult to find out a good king.
CHAPTER: 7
In chapter 7, Rousseaa discuss mixed form of government because the above
discussed 3 form of government are hard to established therefore there should be
simple mix form of govt. In order to maintain balance of power.
CHAPTER:8
According to rousseau freedom is essential but it can not be acquired in all possible
environment. As the govt didn’t produced any good, it depends on the surplus
extracted from the people by loving taxes this depends on the relationship between
individual and state, therefore in democracy the surplus is very least than in
monarchy. Rousseau further added that climate also suggest/determinant upto
greater extend the form of govt. they cold northern areas have democratic govt
with least surplus generation but on other hand in the southern hot areas there is
monarchy with greater surplus. The people of hot area eat very little.
CHAPTER: 9
In chapter is about good form of govt according to which it is impossible to find out
and determine which form of govt is ideal without knowing the condition of a
country. However the one measure of good governance, according to rousseau is
increasing population. Increase in population would ensure that good is promoting
prosperity of its member. Rousseau asserts that the govt under which the citizens
become popular and multiple is the best govt.
CHAPTER:11
It is about the friction between govt and sovereignty- this would result in
degeneration of govt either govt will contact from democracy to aristocracy or
aristocracy to monarch or the state would dissolve itself when the govt usurp the
sovereign power. Such usurpation would destroy the social conflict and thus the
citizen would become free from all social obligations of the contract.
CHAPTER: 12,13,14
The chapter 12,13,14 are about how sovereign authority is maintaining legislature
or law formulation is the best way the present and express the general will. It is
important that all citizen need in assemblies, but this is very difficult. This was
happened in the large city of Rome and Greek even today is also possible, but the
problem is that they become very lazy. It is not difficult to unite various cities and
assembled their citizen. The assembly should not be fixed in one city but oriented
in various cities.
CHAPTER: 15
Chapter 15 is about deputies and representatives according to rosseau, population
often doesn’t want to assemble to exercise legislative power, rather they elect
representative or deputies. They pay representatives or mercenaries rather then
serve the state themselves. Rousseau notes that the ancient Greek were able to
assemble regularly because slaves must do their works. In the modern world
people have enslaved themselves by electing representative to exercise power and
freedom on their behalf.
CHAPTER:16,17
The chapter tell about that they contract was not between the govt and people but
in between sovereign leader. The sovereign is the suppress power of state and it is
not obligated to the govt the contract between a leader and people would be a act
not a law.
The sovereign would appoint certain people to the govt to implement the laws. And
in the situation according Rousseau the sovereign delivers temporary base
executive power to the govt.
CHAPTER:14
The last chapter of book three is about how-to restraint the govt from usurping
according to Rousseau the problem can be solved through the assembled of people
to access the govt activities. The gathering of people would rise the questions.
  They approve the present form of govt?
 Do they approve the current officials of govt?

BOOK:4
CHAPTER :1 discuss that general will is indestructible i.e. general will cannot be
destroyed. According to Rousseau if the individual citizen considers themselves to
be a part of the collective body-the state. When the laws, need to be implemented
are according to the will of the public then there would be peace and stability. The
adverse situation emerged when the state will, or law contradict the public will.
Because in such case the private will would challenge the state will or law. And
thus, the private will would subordinate the general will, but the general will cannot
be destroyed even if it subordinate to the private will, and the general will would
be existed.
CHAPTER:2
This discusses the ‘suffrage’ means voting.
According to Rousseau voting show the general unanimousness. The social contract
itself an unanimous agreement among the people. And all those who are disagree
with this contract are excluded from the state. The other hand who agree with the
agreement all would decide unanimously all the actions of sovereign in common
matters vote should need something close to unanimity to pass it. While in
unimportant matters only a majority by one should require the losing side of the
war couldn’t be determined until it repair.
CHAPTER: 3
Chapter 3 is regarding election, according to Rousseau there are two different
types of election I.e. by lot or random election and election by choice.
According to Rousseau the later one (election by choice) is appropriate form of
election for aristocracy. since the government should be free to select or elect its
own members by own choice. The formal one type of election i.e. election by lot
and random election suits the democratic form of government or democracy where
only those who bear and able to take responsibilities are randomly elected.
Generally, election by lot and random election is held for filling the office. such as
political offices that require only common sense, justice and integrity of all citizen,
while election by choice is held for the offices e.g. bureaucratic offices that require
certain high degree of expertise.
CHAPTER: 4
Chapter 4 consists of discussion over the roman assemblies(comitia) and present
the fact that how the large city with large population maintain the sovereignty of
the people. According to Rousseau there were 3 different types of roman comatia
( roman assemblies)
(1) Comitia curiata
(2) Comatia tribunate
(3) Comatia centuriata
Comatia curiata is the assembly of only the inhabitant of the city and not including
the weather personal of outward country side.
The comatia tribunate was an assembly of the people that excluded senators and
wealthy personals.
The comatia centuriata was an assembly of all citizens but the vote was in favour .
CHAPTER:5
In this chapter of book 4 Rousseau discuss ‘the tribunate’ body to regulate and
maintain balance with in the civil society through its impartial judgment. Rousseau
recommend the tribunate to maintain balance between a sovereignty and
government and people. the tribunate will have non-executive nor legislative
involvement power. The basis and only purpose of this is to defend and only ensure
the safety of the laws.
CHAPTER:6
Chapter 6 discuss short term and immediate advantages of dictatorship is
necessary to save state from collapse. Laws in dictatorship is rigid but may
be suspended under some circumstances for the safety of all (citizens). As
dictatorship does not represent the public. therefore, he does not represent the
general will but will. Yeah it concerns with general will in cage when it is its interest
to safe the all citizens.
CHAPTER: 7
This chapter is about (THE SOCIAL CONTRACT) is regarding the censorship.
According to` Roussea censorship would create integrity and harmony between the
laws and public opinion.
Censorship office act as spokesman for public opinion is closely related to the laws.
Thus through censorship integrity would be created in public opinion by sustaining
public laws and public morality.
CHAPTER: 8
The final topic and chapter book 4 is ‘the civil religion’ it is very controversial issue.
In early societies the head of state were also the god and the citizen were
worshiped him. Each state believe that their respective is responsible for their
protection of property. But christainity swept out the above tradition.
Christanityintroduce divine kingdom which was different from earthly kingdom. In
christanity worship of god is not all with god with in the respective state. All citizens
of all state worship to a single common god. This put the church and state in
tension with each other because of no clear identification or demarcation between
two.
Roussea describe the following kinds of religion. First there is a ‘religion of man’
which is personal i.e. between god and individual. Roussea admire and professed
this kind of religion. But he further argued that it will hurt the state because in
divine devotion and worship one must focus and interested in spiritual and other
worldly happiness and ready 9to bear any kind of hardship for attainment heavenly
life. But a healthy state demands of citizens who will struggle and fight for to make
the state strong and safe.
Secondly is the religion of citizens which is also called officials religion of the state.
The religion is the combined interest of state and church deal with patriotism and
respect for laws. But also breed violent intolerance for other nations.

BOOK #1 CHAP= 9
Chapter#1:
The chap one start with the discussion "all men are born free
but everywhere they are in chain”. So what are the causes that restrict the
liberty of man and why man become subordinate to the sovereign.
Chap#2:
The main causes that restrict human liberty is its interaction in
community .Family is first and natural society for man .where he is bound to
follow his father .Father is the chief in the family and other
family members are like population .Every individual has to follow the
direction of father ,because they are dependent on father .In this way a
man subordinate to the authority and restrict his liberty.
Aristotle called this kind of relation as master-salve relation that are good
for subordinate (acquire experience and promotes its utility)
Chap#3:
According to Rosseau people obey the stronger not by choice but
because of necessity .The stronger can legitimate everything by using
power .People obey it up to certain extent because as the subordinate gain
as much as power that he can face the stronger ,it will nullify all the
previous restriction by the stronger .
Chap#4:
Chapter four consist of diverse ideas of Grotius and Rousseau
regarding right and slavery.
according to Rousseau naturally all men are equal ,none is superior to
other and all litigate authority are based on conventions. Therefore right
cannot be established by force.
According to Grotius" the state would be legitimate if the people are slave
and government is their master”. But this concept of Grotius rejected by the
Rousseau who argue that before the king the citizen compromise their
liberty in return they gain something and this remain up to the process of
give and take .But if the king compel the citizen for do more, they will not
ready to do so.
The above whole argument clarify that right and legitimate authority could
not be establish by force.
Rousseau also reject the Grotius views regarding slavery according to
whom, “slavery is the compromise or contract between master and
servant”. But Rousseau argue that their is no possible compromise for a
person who already give up its liberty .
Chap#5 and 6:
Chap 5 and 6 is about the contract between the people leave in the
state of nature. According to Rousseau the people in the state of nature
Faced various problems and it become difficult for everyone to overcome.
Therefore they start to form society. In which every person sacrifice its
liberty (liberty means to do anything whatever u wish).All the member gave
their all rights to the community as a whole. And thus any association of
individuals with the same interest established, which was organized called
the state.
Rousseau discuss the whole scene in the following words;
“To find a form of association which shall defend and protect with the
public force the person and property of each associate, and by means of
which each uniting, with all, shall obey however only himself remained as
free as before”.
Chap#7:
chap seven is about the sovereign authority. According to Roseau
sovereign is unified distinct against or whole. Since no miticidal is bound to
the contract made with himself no obligatory regulation on an individual.
However the sovereign cannot do anything that endanger the social
contract. He will do his best to serve the people. As the sovereign is
established and formed by the individuals body. Therefore the sovereign
must have the same interest as that of the public but public interest may
not be similar with the sovereign. .
Rousseau further added that as individual is self -interest and to pursuit
own interest it will violate the general interest. So it is the duty of sovereign
to impose rules and law to force the unwilling individuals to obey the
general will.
Chap#8:
 The chap is about civil-state that emerged after the social contrasts.
The state of nature convert into civil -state. In the state of nature people
with follow their physical implies .There was the concept of natural right.
But after the transition of the state of nature into civilized state ,the
individual provide all their possessions to the community ,because the
people were morally and mentally developed and the sovereign provide
better protection to their properties than another else. The social in equality
in the state of nature abolished by the civil-state and introduce the concept
of justice and equally of all before the sovereign .
Chap#9
chap 9 is the concluding chapter of book 1 .Roseau conclude his book
one with the discussion of property. According to him the legitimize land is
that if the owner have the land according to its needs, the land will
legitimize if no one other claims over it .In the social contract all individuals
surrender their all possessions including their property and own self to the
community. But by doing so they remain as free as before because the
rules and regulation of the community are based on general will. And
general will is not the particular will but the will of all individuals.

Book#2
Chap#1
The chap one of the book two discuss the point that the sovereign is
inalienable means untransferable.
AS only the general will can direct the forces of community towards
common good. And as general will can not be alienated and transferred to
other because it is the will of all not a particular one. Similarly sovereign is
also a collective being it can be represented just be the sovereign itself, not
by other. The sovereign might be delegate power but not sovereignty. The
general will and particular will might interact temporarily but not
permanently because particular will tend towards favoritism while general
will tend towards equality.
This shows that private individual might have general interest but it cannot
represent the interest of the3 whole or general interest and it might not
share the general interest in all circumstances .Therefore it is the only one,
sovereign who represent the general will by itself, not by someone other.
Chap#2
Sovereign is in divisible
IN this chap Rossie claimed that sovereignty is indivisible. It cannot divided
General will is the will of all citizens ,not a particular one. Similarly the
sovereign express the will of all the people as whole -the expression of
general will would take the form of law while the expression of particular
will would take the from of law while the expression of particular will would
take the application of law. This means that the decision (such as war
decision administrator act etc.)taken by the sovereign would not be take
into consecrations the will of the general people. From this it is clear out
that sovereign authority is used just single man and cannot be shared with
others. Roseau criticize the concept that sovereign power is divided in
between the example ,judiciary, legislative while telling .These all institution
workout are subordinated of general will.
chap#9
Can the general will be wrong:
The general will is always right and permute the utility of all public. Because
it is the will of all and represent the interest of all individual of the society.
Rosseau make distinguishing between the general will and will of all.
General will is a discussed above the common will of the public. But will of
all means the individual will of all the people in the society. Now if all the
individual will are same and they have objective and common interest then
it would become a general will .Similarly one case is other, if there are3
various groups each with particular interest or will. This will also differ from
general will. Similarly if one group will a particular will become large enough
to dominate other-it would also not become the general will because again
thawed general will is the common will of all the individuals of the society
not a particular one.
Chap#4
The limits of sovereign power;
In this chap Rousseau highlight the limits of sovereign power. According to
him, all individuals would provide their services and duties on account of
state preservation and the interest of commons as soon as the sovereign
demands. But sovereign cannot impose obligation on certain individual that
is not concern with the good , Similarly ,a sovereign call for services to any
individual more than other because here the matter more from general to
perticular.Further more the sovereign can deal only with those affairs and
matters of individuals there effects that effects the common goods, if some
action of any individual nothing to do with the common goal, the sovereign
has nothing to do with such act of individual. This shows overall that
sovereign can take all those services from any individual that are common
to all and interfere in all those matters of any individual only that effect the
interest of all population
Chap#5
The right of life and death;
IN this chap Roseau discuss the sovereign can demands from the citizens
for their own protection after protecting the state. He also playing that
although a man do not have the right to commit suicide ,yet he can
sacrifices his life for the sake of state and society i.e. for the common
interest of all. Because the purpose of social contract that everyone would
ready to sacrifice their lives for the interest of community for the protection
of state.
Further more Roseau discuss that sovereign has the power to determine
that whether and individual should be live or die. In case when the
respective individual violate the law which would be ultimately the violation
of law. And enemy of the state must be exiled or put to death. The pardon
of the violator and punishment of the violator both shows the states
weakness.
Chap#6
The law:
The above all discussion can be concluded on thee point that finally a body
politics or state came into being after the social contract among the
individual.
But after the question that hoe the order or the body politic structure would
be maintained. And this question paved way for the discussion of law. Law
is basically an abstract expression of the general will that is applied
universalizable laws are made by the people as a whole and be applied on
the as a whole. The law can never deal with a particular individual or
particular group of individual.
If a law have certain servilities of certain individual or certain group of
individual then again the certain individual and certain group of individual
not particularized The law is formulated by the people as a whole because
without the public approval a law cannot become a law.
Chap#7
Now the next question arose is that who will formulate the law and how.
According to Roseau “Legislator “would formulated the law .Legislature
,according to Roseau is a man of high intellect and more intelligential other
people. He will protect the law from the manipulation of particular will or
private will. The legislator would be the man of extraordinary qualities -he
wanted be able to formulate the laws while taking into account in its further
and present days efficiency. So the laws formulated by the legislator must
be followed by the people because it represent and protect the interest and
will of all not a particular individual or group.
Chap#8,9,10
The people:
The chapter 8,9,10 all discuss the people or public of the state.
The 8th chap is about the public and law. According to ROSEAU the
societies are different in different time. Therefore some laws that might be
good but the public are so ill equipped that enable to follow even the good
law. There is a revolutionary movement that can spark a new age in the
society but this happen once in the life. Therefore according to Roseau a
legislature should to wait for the maturity of the society-then to formulate
laws. Chap9 discuss the territorial
limit of a state. The territory of a should not be large enough because it
cause administrative issues, the govt would un able to implement Law and
order in full deal .Moreover vast territory require complex administrative
setup that would cause expensiveness. The territory should not be too
small, so it maybe difficult for them to protect against foreign invasions. The
chap 10 deals with the that what should be amount of people and extent of
territory .Therefore there is no specific constant amount .But there should
be appropriate number of people and extent territory.
Chap#11 and 12
According to Roseau laws should be based on promotion of liberty
and equality. Equality does not in a sense that everyone have equal
amount of wealth and power. But law should be sure no power misuse and
violation. And there should be enough wealth that can buy the freedom and
liberty of someone, or the wealth that one can buy the freedom and liberty
of someone, or the wealth should not be so minimum that one had to sell
itself. This kind of equality may not achieved in practical world but it should
be the goal of legislature.