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Program’s outlines:
- Introduction to protection.
- Importance of protection.
- Main components of protection circuit.
- Instrument transformers.
- Classifications of Relays
- Principle of operation of common relays.
- Design criteria of protection system.
- Characteristics of protective devices.
- Protection coordination
- Line & feeder protection.
- Distance protection schemes.
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Importance
Principles of operation
It’s devices
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Introduction
• Electric energy is one of the fundamental resources of the modern
industrial society
• Electrical power is available to the user instantly, at the correct voltage
and frequency, at exactly the amount needed.
• Yet the power system is subject to constant disturbances:
– Random load changes
– Faults by natural causes
– Equipment or operator failure
• The power system maintains its steady state mainly because of the
correct and quick remedial action taken by the protective relaying
equipment.
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Introduction
• The response of the protection system must be automatic, quick, and
should cause a minimum amount of disruption to the power system.
• To accomplish this is necessary:
– Examine all possible types of faults
– Analyze the required response and design the protective
equipment necessary
– Provide for a back-up protective function to prevent failure of the
protection itself
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Protection Equipment:
a collection of protection devices (relays, fuses, etc.). Excluded are devices
such as CT’s, CB’s, Contactors, etc.
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Protection Scheme:
a collection of protection equipment providing a defined
function and including all equipment required to make the
scheme work (i.e. relays, CT’s, CB’s, batteries, etc.)
It is a grope of protection systems, cooperate together to protect an electrical machine or device.
(Tr. Port. Scheme, Gen. Prot. Scheme, …..)
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Importance of protection
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Protected circuit
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2.1
5
2 A D
2.2
2.4 μP
F.A. 2.3
3
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Classifications of Relays
1. Protective relays.
2. Monitoring relays.
3. Reclosing relays.
4. Regulating relays.
5. Auxiliary relays.
6. Synchronizing (or synchronism check) relays.
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Classifications of Relays
In addition to these functional categories, relays may be
classified by input, operating principle or structure, and
performance characteristic. The following are some of
the classifications and definitions described in
ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.90
• Inputs
• Operating Principle or Structures
• Performance Characteristics
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Classifications of Relays
• Inputs • Operating Principle or Structures
– Current, – Electromechanical
– Voltage, – Thermal
– Power – Solid state
– Pressure, – Static
– Frequency – Microprocessor
– Temperature
– Flow
– Vibration
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Classifications of Relays
• Performance Characteristics
– Differential
– Distance
– Directional overcurrent
• Inverse time
• Definite time
– Pilot
• Phase comparison
• Directional comparison
• Current differential
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Classifications of Relays
Also Relays can be classified:
• By design mode:
• By mode of Detection of faults :
– Electromechanical
– Level detection
• Plunger type
– Magnitude comparison
• Induction type
– Differential comparison
– Thermal
– Phase angle comparison
– Solid state
– Pilot relaying
– Computer type
– Harmonic content
• By parameter controlled:
– Frequency sensing
– Current
• By operating time:
– Voltage
– Instantaneous
– Power
– Time delay
– Impedance (distance)
• Independent delay
– Direction
• Dependent delay
– Frequency
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Classifications of Relays
• Relays are generally classified by their speed as follows:
• Instantaneous
– These relays operate as soon as a secure decision is made.
– No intentional time delay is introduced to slow down the relay response
• Time delay
– An intentional time delay is inserted between the relay decision time and the
initiation of the trip action
– This time delay can be dependent on some parameter (usually inverse time
dependent) or independent
• High speed
– A relay that operates in less than a specified time (usually 3 cycles)
• Ultra high speed
– This term is not included in the Relay Standards but is commonly
considered to be operation in 4 milliseconds or less
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Design Criteria
In all cases, the four design criteria (Sensitivity,
Selectivity, Speed & Economy) are common to any
well-designed and efficient protective system or system
segment.
Since it is impractical to satisfy fully all these design criteria
simultaneously, the necessary compromises must be
evaluated on the basis of comparative risks.
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Design Criteria
Reliability
Speed Simplicity
Well Designed
Protection
System Should
have the
Stability Selectivity
following
criteria
Sensitivity Economic
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Design Criteria
Reliability:
System reliability consists of two elements: dependability and
security.
¾ Dependability is the degree of certainty of correct operation in
response to system trouble.
¾ Security is the degree of certainty that a relay will not operate
incorrectly.
Unfortunately, these two aspects of reliability tend to counter one
another; increasing security tends to decrease dependability
and vice versa. In general, however, modern relaying systems
are highly reliable and provide a practical compromise
between security and dependability.
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Design Criteria
Speed:
The function of protection systems is to isolate faults on the power
system as rapidly as possible. The main objective is to safe guard
continuity of supply by removing each disturbance before it leads to
widespread loss of synchronism and consequent collapse of the
power system.
Rapid operation of protection ensures that fault damage is minimized,
as energy liberated during a fault is proportional to the square of the
fault current times the duration of the fault (E= If2 x t). Protection
must thus operate as quickly as possible but speed of operation
must be weighed against economy. Distribution circuits, which do
not normally require a fast fault clearance, are usually protected by
time-graded systems. Generating plant and EHV systems require
protection gear of the highest attainable speed.
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Design Criteria
Speed:
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Design Criteria
Stability:
The term ‘stability’ is usually associated with unit protection schemes
and refers to the ability of the protection system to remain
unaffected by conditions external to the protected zone, for
example through load current and external fault conditions.
Selectivity:
When a fault occurs, the protection scheme is required to trip only
those circuit breakers whose operation is required to isolate the
fault. This property of selective tripping is also called
'discrimination' and is achieved by two general methods.
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Design Criteria
Selectivity:
1. Time Grading:
Protection systems in successive zones are arranged to
operate in times that are graded through the sequence of
equipments so that upon the occurrence of a fault,
although a number of protection equipments respond,
only those relevant to the faulty zone complete the
tripping function. The others make incomplete operations
and then reset. The speed of response will often depend
on the severity of the fault, and will generally be slower
than for a unit system.
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Design Criteria
Selectivity:
2. Unit System:
It is possible to design protection systems that respond
only to fault conditions occurring within a clearly defined
zone. This type of protection system is known as 'unit
protection'. Certain types of unit protection are known by
specific names, e.g. restricted earth fault and differential
protection. Unit protection can be applied throughout a
power system and, since it does not involve time
grading, is relatively fast in operation. The speed of
response is substantially independent of fault severity.
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Design Criteria
Economy:
Relays having a clearly defined zone of protection provide
better selectivity but generally cost more.
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Design Criteria
Simplicity:
As in any other engineering discipline, simplicity in a
protective relay system is always the hallmark of good
design. The simplest relay system, however, is not
always the most economical. As previously indicated,
major economies may be possible with a complex relay
system that uses a minimum number of circuit breakers.
Other factors being equal, simplicity of design improves
system reliability—if only because there are fewer
elements that can malfunction.
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Design Criteria
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the minimum
operating level (current, voltage, power etc.) of relays or
complete protection schemes. The relay or scheme is said to be
sensitive if the primary operating parameter(s) is low.
With older electromechanical relays, sensitivity was considered in
terms of the sensitivity of the measuring movement and was
measured in terms of its volt-ampere consumption to cause
operation. With modern digital and numerical relays the
achievable sensitivity is seldom limited by the device design but
by its application and CT/VT parameters.
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Design Criteria
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Design Criteria
Selectivity and zones of protection
• All power system elements must
be encompassed by at least one
zone.
– The more important
elements must be included in
at least two zones
• Zones must overlap to prevent
any element from being
unprotected.
– The overlap must be finite
but small to minimize the
likelihood of a fault inside
this region.
– Such a fault will cause both
protections to operate
removing a larger segment
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Zones of protection
87
50/51
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• Over Voltage
• Over loads
• Unbalanced Operation
• Power Swings
• Transformer Inrush Currents
• Faults
– Short Circuits
– Short Circuits with Ground
– Open Conductors
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4
em
st
sy
.
5
El
in
ts
ul
Fa
2
3
1
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Primary protection
operation should be
as fast as possible,
preferably
instantaneous, for
stability and power
quality reasons.
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TELETRIP
86
87
TELETRIP
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21P
21B
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21
50/51
50/51
A B NEPCO
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21 21
SUBSTATION B SUBSTATION A
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t
t 50 (ANSI)
Curva trafo
t0
t0
V IV I ΦI V
Magnetic L.P.M (- α = 90º L.P.M
ΦV core ) (+)
L.P.M. : Línea Par
IV Máximo
Cylinder II ΦV L.P.N. : Línea Par
II Nulo
I ΦI L.P.N ΦI
L.P.M (+)
I
ϕ V
IV α
IV
ΦV
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Magnitude comparison
• This operating principle is based upon the comparison of one or more
operating quantities with each other.
• A current balance relay may compare the current in one circuit with the
current in another circuit, which should have equal or proportional
magnitudes under normal operating conditions.
– The relay will operate when the current division in the two circuits varies by
a given tolerance
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87
With internal fault Id > 0 ⇒ Trip
With external fault Id = 0 ⇒ No trip
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Differential comparison
Alternatively one could form an algebraic sum of the two currents
entering the protected element, which could be termed as differential
current (Id), and use a level detector relay to detect the presence of a
fault.
In general this principle is capable of detecting very small
magnitudes of fault.
Its only drawback is that it requires currents from the extremities
of a zone of protection
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IA IB
A B
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87B+FI
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Relay
Symbols
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Introduction
Alternating-current lines are commonly classified by function, which
is related to voltage level. Although there are no utility-wide
standards, typical classifications are as follows:
Distribution (0.4 to 34.5 kV). Circuits transmitting power to the final
users.
Sub transmission (13.8 to 138 kV). Circuits transmitting power to
distribution substations and to bulk loads.
Transmission (69 to 765 kV). Circuits transmitting power between major
substations or interconnecting systems, and to wholesale outlets.
Transmission lines are further divided into:
Low Voltage (LV): LV ≤ 1 kV
Medium Voltage (MV): 1kV < (MV) ≤ 66
High-voltage (HV): 66kV < (HV) ≤ 375 kV
Extra-high-voltage (EHV): 375kV < (EHV) ≤ 750 kV
Ultra-high-voltage (UHV): greater than 750 kV
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Introduction
Transmission lines Protection must be compatible with the Protection of all
the equipment they connect.
Requires co-ordination of settings, operation times, etc.
Directionality associated with the design of the power system
A radial system (only one source) can have fault current flowing only one
direction
A network can have fault current flowing in either direction
Length of the line has direct effect on the setting of the relays
Relays are applied to protect a given line segment and back up adjacent line
segments
Difficult to distinguish between a fault at the end of a line and the beginning of
the next
Voltage class must be also considered when applying a relay system
The higher voltage levels would have more complex relay systems
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Introduction
There are several protective techniques commonly used for line
Protection:
Instantaneous over current
Time over current
Step time over current
Inverse time distance
Directional instantaneous and / or time over current
Zone distance
Pilot relaying
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Lines Classifications
¾ Radial Lines or Feeders
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Lines Classifications
¾ Looped Lines
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Protection Types
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Protection Types
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Current Relays
Over Current Relays (OCR)
Deferential Relays
Unbalance Relays
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Current Relays
Primary relays
- No need any accessories (CT’s, VT’s or DC supplies)
- It is easy to set.
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Current Relays
Secondary relays
+ -
K k
L l
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I d
I b b
a f
c
a c φ1
a
φ2
b
d
d
φ1
b
I
e φ1
φ2
f
a a
f b
φ2
φ+ 1
c
φ2 e
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Principle of operation
Contacts
Spring =
Stopper
Coil
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Φ
Lagging
coil
Current Braking
taps
Φ1 Φ2
Induction
disk
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B
K k
N
L l
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L
4
1
Advantage:
Disadvantage : It has dependant char.
Couldn't be reset before reducing the temperature.
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• 51 Elements
– Pickup setting
– Time delay setting
• definite time: time setting
• inverse time: curve selection
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V IV
Magnetic
ΦV core
Cylinder II
V
II Φi
I
ΦI
I Φv
φ ψ iv
IV
ψv
α
φi ∝ I φu ∝ V
M = k1 IV sin(ψv - ϕ)
M = k φiφvsinψ
M = k1 IV cos(ϕ + α)
ψv = 90 - α
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IV
Torque on the rotor depends upon el. Power.
V
Magnetic
ΦV core
II
Cylinder II Mr = KVr ir Cos(φ + α) - Mm
I
ΦI
Mr - Resultant moment.
ϕr - Angle between (I & V).
α - Internal angle for relay.
K - Constant depends upon relay Connection.
IV Mm – Contra moment (resistive moment).
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Reconnections can be made by connecting the current circuit on One phase wile
the voltage circuit on the other phase, also by mixing phase & line voltages &
currents together.
Vr
Ir Ir
30
ϕ ϕ
Vr
Ir
0
ϕ
0
90
0 Vr
β=0 β= - 90
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P = (V/2)2 + (VI cos(ϕ + α))/2 + (I/2)2 – (V/2)2 - (V/2 cos(ϕ + α))/2 + (I/2)2
|V + I|2 |V - I|2
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Tr2
ii Tr1
ii ii
V iv
iv
iv + ii iv - ii
ir
R
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ii
V
iv
i v + ii iv - ii
ir
R
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< i v + ii
| iv + ii | - | iv - ii | If the P. Direc. Be changed
The polarity of ir changed
iv ⇒ M will change its direction
Lagging iu by ϕ
iv - ii
ϕ ii
<
iv
Power Direction as
| iv + ii | - | iv - ii |
same as Bus Direction
i v + ii
- The internal angle (α) (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 80°, 90°, 180°)
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R X
C LR C LR L
Voltage on relay
SC
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Energy direction
Devices 1 2 3 4 are started up
x
x
t = 0ms
O/C
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Energy direction
x
x
1 2
O/C O/C
t = 300ms t = 300ms
Devices are started up
1 2 3 4 5
t = 0ms t = 0ms Devices 3 4 blocking (direction ‘reverse')
t = 0ms
O/C 5
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x x x x x x
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x x x x x x
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Directional Protection
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Distance Protection
Distance Relays
Why?
F1 : tIV < tIII & tVI < tV F2 : tIII < tIV & tV < tVI
I II
IV VI
F1
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Distance Relays
LTL >> No of TL Supplies >> Complex form Of TL >>
1.2 1 0.2 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.2 1 1.2
Distance Relays
Vf Vf
Vop Vop
F
1 2 3 4 5 6
G G
A B C D
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Distance Relays
Zline = Z1 * L & V = I * Z1 * L
Impedance of Distance
length unit Voltage where the R - F
Relay build in
jX Distance Relays
Rarc + Rf.point At ideal cases relay The distance
Should operate, if the Relay should
ZL between A & B Be sensitive
measured impedance
B Less than A-B & ϕ ≈ ϕs Not only on
B’ The impedance
value but also on
ϕs : S/C angle of faulty line. the impedance
angle.
But when S/C accurse there is
ZS an additional ohm resistance
Added to the line impedance.
Because of S/C arc.
Zn
ϕS At normal cases ϕ ≈ 0
ϕ
R
A A’
Zo = Zop Cos(ϕs - α)
Zop
β = f(α)
D
Zo
α β
ϕs
R
jX Line
For α = 0
Rop ⇓
D Zo = Zop Cosϕs = Rop = const
ϕs
R0 R
D
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jX
Line
D
Xop Zop
ϕs R
D
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Vs/Is = Zs Impedance
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Components
& principle
Of operation
-
S M F
D
+
+
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Electromechanical
Distance
relay
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t4
t3
L (Km)
t2
t1
L’1 L’2 L’3
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Principle of operation
iv
iv = Cv * Vsc i = Ci * Isc Lv Li i
Mv = Fv * Lv Mi = Fi * Li
jX
Critical case when M v = Mi
Line
Kv V2sc = Ki I2sc Z=K Z=K
Z = R + jX
φsc R
Z = L z1 = L √R21 + X21 ( z1 [Ω/ km])
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Principle of operation jX
Line
Z=K
Rarc
Zop
Z>Zop
i φsc Zop R
V
ki
(v – ki)2 = i2
(v / i – k)2 = 1
z2 – 2 z k cos φ + k2 = 1
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Principle of operation
z2 – 2 z k cos φ + k2 = 1 jX
If Z = K z : (z secondary impedance while Z Primary one) Line
Z2 – 2 Z k K cos φ + (kK)2 = K2
z
jX φsc 1
φ R
Line
k<1 O(k,0)
z
φsc
φ K R
kK O(kK,K)
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jX
Principle of operation Line
Zop Rarc
Z2 – 2 Z k K cos φ + (kK)2 = K2 Z’op
As k >> the relay will be less affected with arc resistance z
Usually k selected depending on φsc ,as φsc> as k>. K R
kK O(0,k)
jX
Line
z
K R
If k = 1 the relay will be
Conductive type. K O(0,K)
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Principle of operation
i
V
ki
K=0 1
i
V-ki
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MHO Relays
The most practical characteristics shown
Below For digital distance relays.
jX
Zop jX
ϕS
R ZS
Zop
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Ra = 28700/(I1.4) Ω/m
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jX
jX
Ra
Ra
ZS
ZS
Zm
Zm
R
R
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Ra
ZS
Zm
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Distance Protection
For the radial system, disregarding the influence of load, the fault
current in each phase is balanced and is equal to the phase current
measured by the relays at the substation.
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Distance Protection
This relay is called impedance or “under-impedance” relay because the
relay design is such that the relay operates for an impedance
condition. The relay measures or “sees” a given impedance, equal
to the ratio of the applied sinusoidal voltage and the applied
sinusoidal current.
Distance Protection
Impedance Representation:
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Distance Protection
Impedance Representation:
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Distance Protection
Need for Directionality
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Distance Protection
Need for Directionality
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Distance Protection
Need for Directionality
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Distance Protection
Need for Directionality
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Distance Protection
MHO Relay (Directional Impedance relay)
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Distance Protection
• This example shows the calculations involved in the determination of a
simple impedance relay setting.
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Distance Protection
• This example shows the calculations involved in the determination of a
simple impedance relay setting referred to the secondary circuit.
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Distance Protection
• Distance Relay Timing and Coordination
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Distance Protection
• Problem?
1. What happens for a fault on the protected line that is beyond the reach of
the relay?
2. If the relay operates instantaneously, it cannot be used as a remote back-up
for a relay protecting a line adjacent to the remote substation.
• Solution:
These two problems are overcome by adding time-delay distance relays. This
is accomplished by using the distance relay to start a definite time timer.
The output of the timer can then be used as a tripping signal.
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Distance Protection
• Solution:
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Distance Protection
• Three Zone Distance Protection
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Distance Protection
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Distance Protection
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Distance Protection
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Distance Protection
This form of polygonal impedance characteristic is provided with forward reach
and resistive reach settings that are independently adjustable. It therefore
provides better resistive coverage than any mho-type characteristic for short
lines.
This is especially true for earth fault impedance measurement, where the arc
resistances and fault resistance to earth contribute to the highest values of
fault resistance. To avoid excessive errors in the zone reach accuracy, it is
common to impose a maximum resistive reach in terms of the zone
impedance reach.
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Distance Protection
Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed
• A distance relay is said to under-reach when the impedance presented to it
is apparently greater than the impedance to the fault.
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Distance Protection
Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed
The main cause of underreaching is the effect of fault current infeed at remote
busbars. This is best illustrated by an example.
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Distance Protection
Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed
The main cause of underreaching is the effect of fault current infeed at remote
busbars. This is best illustrated by an example.
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Distance Protection
Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed
It is relatively easy to compensate for this by increasing the reach setting of the
relay, but care has to be taken. Should there be a possibility of the remote
infeed being reduced or zero, the relay will then reach further than intended.
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Distance Protection
Over-Reach
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Distance Protection
Over-Reach (Effect of Out Feed Problem)
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Pilot Protection
Directional Comparison ( V, I )
Phase Comparison (I)
Differential (I)
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Pilot Protection
Pilot Protection (or teleProtection) is a generic name for the design of different
transmission line Protection alternatives that use a communications
channel.
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Pilot Protection
It is an adaptation of the principles of differential relaying that prevents
the use of control cable between terminals.
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Pilot Protection
directional comparison
For comparison purposes, pilot Protection can be divided into two
groups, directional comparison systems and current-only systems.
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Pilot Protection
directional comparison
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Pilot Protection
directional comparison
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Pilot Protection
directional comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
In a directional comparison blocking scheme, each line terminal has
reverse looking elements (Zone 3) and forward overreaching
elements (Zone 2). The relay will send a block signal to the remote
end if it sees the fault in the reverse direction.
Relay detection of a fault in the reverse direction indicates that the fault
is outside of the protected zone. The logic allows the relay to trip if it
sees the fault in the forward direction and does not receive a
blocking signal from the remote end.
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Pilot Protection
directional comparison
• Directional Comparison Un Blocking (DCUB)
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Pilot Protection
Current Based comparison
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Pilot Protection
Current Based comparison
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Pilot Protection
directional comparison
Has the same principle as diff. Protec. It compares the current direction
on both ends. (+) direction from BB to the feeder, (-) direction from feeder
to BB. Every half wave. In normal cases the angle between two currents
is (180o), in fault case (0o)
A B IA
+IA -IB
~ ~ IB
+ +
- -
A B IA
IB
+IA +IB
~ ~
+ +
- -
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If
Uph
α = % of coil length
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0 0.5 1
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Deferential Relays
K L L
I1 Protected
I2 K
Device
1 k l k l 2
i1 i2
i1 i2 +
id=i1- i2 3
Sig.
Principle of operation:
Upon comparing the interring & outgoing currents.
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Deferential Relays K
I1 K L Protected I2 L
Device
1 2
k l k l
i1 i2
i1 i2 +
3
id=i1- i2
Sig.
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Deferential Relays
K
Relay (3) isn't instantaneous relay
I1 K L I2 L
Protected
Device
1 2
Actually i1 ≠ i2 :
k l k l
i1 i2
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K L K L
1
k l k l
i1 i2
+
3 i2
id = i1- i2=0
is=1/2 (i1+ i2)
Differential Coil
i1
5
Stabilizing Coil
4
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iop
Operating Characteristics
∝ Unbalance current
A
iop min
α
is
iS = 0
Ks = tg α Restrain factor Ks
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3 i2
2i = i1- i2
0= (i1+ i2)
i1
5
4
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I1 1 I2
TS
2 Td
3 5 is=1/2(i1+i2)
Opening 4
+
Closing
id= i1 - i2 Principal of electrical Balance Relay
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Moment ∝ I
iop = iop min + Ks is
iop
Ks = tg α KS & α = f(N2 of TS or R)
a b
Not applicable
characteristics Non linear resistance or EMF
In stabilizing circuit
idl
α
B
iop min Unbalance current
In xIn is
Operating Characteristics
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• Most of the fault that occur in overhead lines automatically disappear after the
circuit breaker clearing operation. Flashovers, animal accidents, etc., produce
most of the faults in overhead lines. These faults are not permanent in most
cases.
• To avoid additional work of the company’s crew, the circuit breakers are
equipped with additional relays (or elements) called reclosing relays. These
relays send a closing order to the circuit breaker a certain time after the circuit
breaker has been tripped by the protective relay. If the fault is not permanent
(80% of the cases) the service is automatically reestablished without the need of
crew work.
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• Successful Reclosing
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• Multiple Reclosing
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• Synchronization
Synchronism-check relays verify that the voltages on the two sides of a breaker
are approximately the same in magnitude and phase in order to ensure that
a minimum impact occurs to the power system when a circuit breaker is
closed.
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This results in the possibility that a transient fault will cause permanent
lockout of the circuit breakers at each end of the line section Even where
instability does not occur, the increased duration of the disturbance may
give rise to power quality problems, and may result in increased plant
damage.
Unit schemes of protection that compare the conditions at the two ends of the
feeder simultaneously positively identify whether the fault is internal or
external to the protected section and provide high-speed protection for the
whole feeder length.
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The Zone 1 reach of the distance relay is also reset to the basic value of 80%,
prior to the auto-reclose closing pulse being applied to the breaker.
If the fault is transient, the tripped circuit breakers will reclose successfully,
but otherwise further tripping during the reclaim time is subject to the
discrimination obtained with normal Zone 1 and Zone 2 settings.
The disadvantage of the Zone 1 extension scheme is that external faults within
the Z1X reach of the relay result in tripping of circuit breakers external to the
faulted section, increasing the amount of breaker maintenance needed and
needless transient loss of supply to some consumers.
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Trip signal
CB
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Requesting Trip
Requesting Trip
CB
Time delayed resetting
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Echo signal
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In these relays, the reach of the measuring elements is extended from Zone 1 to
Zone 2 by means of a range change signal immediately, instead of after Zone 2
time.
acceleration
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Request accepted
refused
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The instantaneous contacts of the Zone 2 unit are arranged to send the
signal, and the received signal, supervised by Zone 2 operation, is used to
energize the trip circuit.
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ΔV>0, so Vmeas.< V
Zmes. <Z.
1 3
2 4
ΔV>0, so Vmeas.< V F
Zmes. <Z. ΔV<0, so Vmeas.> V
Zmes.>Z.
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The timer will have operated and blocked the ‘permissive trip’ and ‘signal
send’ circuits by the time the current reversal takes place.
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The above scheme using Zone 2 relay elements is often referred to as a POP Z2
scheme. An alternative exists that uses Zone 1 elements instead of Zone 2, and
this is referred to as the POP Z1 scheme.
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The Weak Infeed Echo feature available in some protection relays allows the
remote relay to echo the trip signal back to the sending relay even if the
appropriate remote relay element has not operated.
This caters for conditions of the remote end having a weak infeed or circuit
breaker open condition, so that the relevant remote relay element does not
operate.
Fast clearance for these faults is now obtained at both ends of the line.
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but has the signal logic illustrated in Figure below. It is also known as a
‘directional comparison blocking scheme’ or a ‘blocking over-reach distance
protection scheme’.
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Pilot Protection
Differential
Load current
O: Operating units
Fault current
SUBSTATION 1 SUBSTATION 2
O
O
Pilot wires
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F
Trip 1 Trip 2
IPCT IPCT
S 1 D D 2 S
Tr. ratio long wires causes
5 or 1 /0.1 R R very big losses.
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A 1 2 B
Trip 1 + Trip 2
+ I>
I>
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1 2 B
F1
F2
Dead Zone
Trip 1 + Trip 2
+ I>
I>
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A 1 F1 3 B
2 F2 4
In order to offer this selectivity the protection should be able to detect both
value & direction of differential current.
To offer the above condition the directional relay should be added in addition to
The differential relay .
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i1
Δi S i2 S Δi
i1
Δi S i2 S Δi
Disadvantage : when it operate due to fault on one of the feeders, the other feeder
Will stayNepco
without protection. So it is rarely
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